Factors Influencing Consumer Perception and Acceptability Of

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ScienceDirect

Factors inﬂuencing consumer perception and

acceptability of insect-based foods

1,2 1

Karin ME Wendin and Maria E Nyberg

The interest in eating insects as food is increasing, not least for countries [4 ]. However, consumer acceptance in many

sustainability reasons. However, the acceptance among western countries is a challenge and insects are often

consumers remains low. The aim of this review was to identify regarded as disgusting, even though the taste of insects

the key factors inﬂuencing consumer perception and has been found to be mild and easy to accept. Social and

acceptability of insect-based foods described in recent cultural aspects have been shown to be among the most

literature. Even though sustainability factors are important, they predominant explanations for consumers’ feelings of dis-

are seldom the main reasons inﬂuencing insect consumption. gust [4 ]. Product development to produce delicious and

Instead, a complexity of emotional factors, such as disgust and healthy foods containing insects and the adoption of

neophobia, as well as familiar tastes, textures and contexts, strategies to increase acceptance are therefore required.

were found to have a major inﬂuence. In addition, exposure and

positive tasting experiences have been identiﬁed as important The use of insects as food provides a major future

factors for increasing acceptance. It could be concluded that opportunity for the provision of a sustainable protein

there is a great complexity of different factors inﬂuencing source that meets the quality demands of nutrition and

consumers’ perceptions and acceptability of insects as food. climate sustainability and environmental sustainability,

which are all important goals in Agenda 2030 [5]. Addresses

Dept. of Food and Meal Science, Kristianstad University, Sweden

2 The main objective of this review was to identify the key

Dept. of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

factors inﬂuencing consumer perception and acceptabil-

ity of insect-based foods described in the literature pub-

Corresponding author: Wendin, Karin ME ([email protected])

lished in the recent years.

Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 39:67–71

The review is divided into themes, describing the factors

This review comes from a themed issue on Sensory science and inﬂuencing the consumer perception and acceptability.

consumer perception

The text aims to take a global perspective into account.

Edited by Han-Seok Seo

Sustainability

Insects contain high-quality nutrients and are considered

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.01.007

to be a balanced source of nutrition comparable to both

2214-7993/ 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an ﬁsh and meat. Further, they are environmentally friendly

open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.

and the cost of rearing insects is considered low [3,4 ].

org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Their high nutritional value can be considered the main

factor justifying the use of insects as food [4 ] followed

by their low impact on the environment [6,7 ]. However,

Introduction susceptibility to nutritional messages among consumer

Eating insects, or entomophagy, has gained considerable groups varies depending on people’s educational back-

attention in recent years and interest in this area is grounds [8]. Studies suggest that health considerations are

growing [1]. The global population is increasing, the relevant in increasing the consumption of insects. The

pressure on land and natural resources is becoming exten- nutritional value of food products, especially the protein

sive, climate change is accelerating, and global health content in foods such as pasta, may be increased by the

issues are of importance for both individuals and society addition of cricket powder, while the products still remain

[2]. Global food systems seem to provide many key factors attractive to consumers [9]. However, safety concerns

that may help in solving these challenges. In comparison may have a negative effect on consumption [10,11].

to traditional protein sources, such as meat, insects are

considered to be sustainable because they exert less Despite a strong sustainability awareness, sustainability

pressure on natural resources and contribute lower emis- consciousness has not been shown to be a signiﬁcant

sions of greenhouse gases [3]. Insects contain large predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Similarly,

amounts of high quality and highly digestible proteins some studies have shown that the recognised environmen-

and unsaturated fats, as well as vitamins, minerals and tal and nutritional beneﬁts did not seem to inﬂuence

other bioactive compounds [3]. The production of insects consumers to consider insects as food [12 ,13 ,14]. In

as food for humans is therefore developing in many contrast, Legdendre et al. [15] and Palmieri et al. [16]

www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 40:67–71

68 Sensory science and consumer perception

showed that sustainability may be a motivating factor in attitudes to insects among Italian consumers in different

the purchase of insect-based food. Information, not only age groups. However, when exploring disgust as a factor

about sustainability but also about origin, production and for rejecting insects as food it is necessary to consider

safety, is important to increase the willingness of consu- attitudes towards different insect species [19 ,25]. Impor-

mers to buy and consume insects [17 ,18]. In addition, the tantly, disgust as a response to eating insects is also

particular species of insect has been shown to be of apparent in cultures with a long tradition of insect con-

signiﬁcance [19 ]. Another study showed that, as young sumption [32]. In the study by Chang et al. [14] investi-

people become more aware of sustainability, the environ- gating attitudes to edible insects among Taiwanese con-

ment and climate change, the acceptance of insects as food sumers and the study by Bae and Choi [33] who conducted

may increase [13 ,20]. Further, consumer interest in and their study among people in Korea, food neophobia and

acceptance of insect-based food will grow with the help of disgust for certain insect forms were also identiﬁed as the

effective marketing strategies highlighting the nutritional main factors for not purchasing and eating insects.

beneﬁts of the consumption of insect-based food [21].

Jones [22] focused on young people and concluded that Familiarity and the importance of exposure

schools are important in increasing sustainability aware- Since insects are an unknown food for most people in the

ness and the acceptance of insects as food, not only in the Western world, increasing familiarity has been recurrently

classroom, but also in areas such as school canteens. highlighted as a key to increasing acceptance and decreas-

ing neophobia. Several studies have pointed to the impor-

Emotional responses to insects as food tance of this familiarisation process as well as trying to increase

There are several psychological barriers to the acceptance exposure as a way of diminishing and overcoming feelings of

of eating insects and the idea of entomophagy can give rise disgust and fear [7 ,14,17 ,34]. Food exposure and testing

to a variety of emotions. Neophobia and disgust are often insects as food might reduce neophobic reactions, which

referred to as the two main psychological factors for the can in turn increase acceptability. This was, for example,

rejection of insects as food [3]. Our relationship to food is shown in the study by Mancini et al. [30] where the disgust

both characterised by an insecurity or even fear of new and factor decreased among the participants after performing

unknown foods, including insects, which are considered as sensory evaluation and testing of insects in food products. A

harmful [17 ] and curiosity for and interest in trying new similar result was presented by both Barton et al. [17 ] and

food items. Interest has been identiﬁed as one of the main Woolf et al. [35] where people showed an increased will-

factors in overcoming the barrier of disgust [23]. The ingness to try eating insects after becoming familiar with

importance of interest and curiosity was also raised in them as food and their possible beneﬁts, stating that

the study by Nyberg et al. [24] focusing on young chil- exposure was a key factor for acceptance. For example,

dren’s perceptions of insects as food. Moreover, interest in in the study by Barton, the participants were more willing to

new food experiences [16] and the emotions of being buy cricket protein powder after testing it.

adventurous, wild and sensation seeking [12 ,25] have

also been identiﬁed as important for acceptance. In order to increase familiarity, several studies have

shown the importance of integrating insects in already

The crucial role of neophobia and disgust in understand- well-known products [36,37] and combining favourite

ing the acceptance of insect-based food has been explored dishes with insects [7 ]. However, it might also be impor-

in several recent studies covering different national con- tant to consider the level of familiarity in relation to the

texts and age groups. Lammers et al. [12 ] found that kinds of insects that are accepted and the preferred

disgust was considered to be the most important factor serving methods. Those who were already familiar with

inﬂuencing the willingness among German consumers to insects as food more often preferred whole insects and

eat insect burgers and buffalo worms. A similar result was thought it was safe to eat them [38]. In addition, the

found by Orsi et al. [26] where both disgust and neophobia impact of context has been acknowledged. A study by

were identiﬁed as the psychological and personal barriers Nyberg et al. [24] stated the importance of not only

with the highest prevalence. Food neophobia also nega- integrating insects into well-known products but also

tively inﬂuenced the willingness to eat insect burgers the inﬂuence of a familiar physical and social context.

among children and adolescents in Germany [27]. In a This was also found in the study by Motoki et al. [39]

study among young Australians [13 ], there was a low where the participants were more willing to eat insect-

willingness to accept insects as a meat substitute, mainly based foods in contexts characterised by fun-arousing

due to psychological barriers such as neophobia and dis- emotions, such as in pubs and at food festivals, and in

gust. Modlinska et al. [28] and Orkusz et al. [29], who both the company of friends. Familiar contexts and situations

investigated attitudes among students in Poland, showed a are important for trying and accepting insect-based food;

low willingness to eat insects as a substitute for meat, however, external inﬂuences are also of importance,

primarily based on feelings of disgust and neophobia. including those of experts and various policy initiatives

Similar results have been found in studies by Mancini [7 ,40] as well as media information perceived as credible

et al. [30] and Grasso et al. [31], both of which explored [15].

Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 40:67–71 www.sciencedirect.com

Perception and acceptability of insect-based food Wendin and Nyberg 69

Sensory aspects Social and cultural norms and peer inﬂuence

Sensory appeal may be the key to insects being What is perceived to be edible not only changes over time

valued as pleasurable components of food products but is also deﬁned and negotiated within social and

[4 ,12 ,13 ,41,42]. However, it can be noted that, even cultural settings. The importance of social and cultural

if many studies concern the acceptability of insect-based norms in the acceptance of insects as food has been

foods, only a few studies have studied the sensory character- acknowledged in several recent studies [19 ,20,21,32,54]

istics of insects. Product type and processing has a large This is also closely related to food taboos, where certain

impactonsensorycharacteristics[18]asdochangesoccurring items are excluded from what is considered to be food in a

during packaging and storage [4 ]. The particular insect particular cultural setting. The study by Batat and Peter

species is also relevant to the sensory attributes and accept- [7 ] reported how food taboos are often shaped and inﬂu-

ability [18,43,44]. enced by different social groups, such as friends, family

members and co-workers, and also by social media inﬂu-

An important sensory aspect of insects is their visibility in encers. The crucial role of peers has also been discussed in

food products. A large number of publications have other studies. Berger et al. [40] highlighted the role of both

recommended that insect-based products should not con- peer and expert inﬂuence for the acceptance of insect-

tain visible insect pieces, since this may trigger negative based food and, in particular, mealworm nutrition bars and

associations [25,26,29,34,38,45–48]. The concerns for burgers. They also pointed out how insects as food could

many consumers are quite evidently taste, texture and be promoted by using social inﬂuences of different kinds.

other sensory characteristics [16,20,34,45,49]. In line with this, Sidali et al. [37] also found that peer

recommendations about the safety and palatability of

In a model study on meal worms, Wendin et al. [50] edible insects increased people’s willingness to eat them.

concluded that the particle size of the added mealworms

had a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on sensory aspects concerning The question of eating animals has frequently been con-

texture, taste and appearance. In the same study, shelf nected to moral and ethical issues. The study by Ruby and

life was studied and it was shown that the addition of an Rozin [55] comparing the acceptance of insects as food

antioxidant decreased the changes in colour, rancidity among Americans and Indians found a much higher

and separation. Roncolini et al. [51] showed that the acceptance among Americans. This was discussed as being

addition of 5–10% mealworms to bread resulted in an due to moral values where eating insects was perceived as

improved texture, probably due to the lipids in the violating protected and sacred values. Moreover, men also

mealworms. showed a higher level of acceptance than women, which

has also been raised in other studies [12 ,25].

Quite a few studies of consumer acceptance of differ-

ent products containing added insects have been per- Knowledge and education

formed. For example, the consumer acceptance of Most consumers are well-informed about the use of

pasta with added cricket powder was compared to that insects and larvae in the diet; however, many also regard

of conventional pasta. The colour was described as consumption of these as undesirable [17 ,20,47]. A major

healthy and resembling that of wholemeal pasta and barrier to edible insect consumption is the paucity of

the ratings of taste and overall perception were high information available, both about the importance of alter-

[9]. Cabuk and Yilmas [43] compared protein-enriched native protein sources in the human diet and recom-

pastas and concluded that pasta with added meal- mended cooking methods and preparation of dishes using

worms or grasshoppers resulted in lower liking scores insects [47].

for ﬂavour than when lentils or beans were added. Two

varieties of cricket powder were added to cereal and Increased awareness and knowledge of the beneﬁts of

fruit bars; the bars containing defatted cricket powder entomophagy have been shown to have a positive impact

were preferred to the bars with added whole-ground on the acceptance of insect-based food [7 ,35,56]. Both

crickets, especially concerning liking scores for odour Mancini et al. [57] and Barton et al. [17 ] suggest that

and ﬂavour attributes [52]. The addition of protein education paired with informative tasting sessions could

hydrolysate obtained from crickets to tortillas was be one strategy to reduce rejection of, and disgust for, the

found to produce products with sensory acceptable use of insects as food. It has also been suggested that

characteristics Luna et al. [53]. A study where meal- contextual cultural and ethnic information about the

worm powder was added to bread revealed high liking consumption of insects may increase the interest in

scores [51]. Mancini et al. [30] reported similarly high insect-based food [37].

liking scores for bread with added insects; however,

many consumers indicated that they would not buy Jones [22] suggests that teaching about sustainable food

insect-labelled bread. Awbosyi et al. [41] found that the choices should be performed in several subjects in the

addition of insect ﬂour to sorghum biscuits could classroom, but also in all areas of school, for example in

increase acceptability. the school canteen.

www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Food Science 2021, 40:67–71

70 Sensory science and consumer perception

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Conclusion and future perspectives

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nutrition, cooking and storage of insects.

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insects as food, taking into account sociocultural, symbolic and con-

that sustainability is seldom the main factor inﬂuencing textual perspectives. By doing so, the authors are providing a conceptual

framework for understanding and promoting enthomophagy in Western

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This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods among

German consumers, and has a special focus on factors inﬂuencing

Conﬂict of interest statement

the willingness to consume insect burgers and buffalo worms.

Nothing declared. Importantly, even though sustainability awareness is of importance,

factors such as food disgust and the impact of sensation seeking are

crucial.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

13. Sogari G, Bogueva D, Marinova D: Australian consumers’

Karin ME Wendin: Conceptualization, Funding acquisi-

response to insects as food. Agriculture (Basel) 2019, 9:108

tion, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, This study on Australian consumers clearly points out that neither envir-

onmental, nor nutritional beneﬁts seem to inﬂuence consumers’ will-

Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Maria

ingness to consider insects as a food. This even when the mentioned

E Nyberg: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodol- sustainability factors were recognized as important.

ogy, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.

14. Chang HP, Ma CC, Chen HS: Climate change and consumer’s

attitude toward insect food. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019,

Acknowledgement 16:1606.

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