CHAPTER III

A COMPARISON ON LAN XANG AND EARLY RATTANAKOSIN BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS

As a Buddhist kingdom, both Lan Xang and Rattanakosin cherished their temples by put every effort to build one and decorate it with the most beautiful artwork they could create at that moment. Those architectures and artworks not just express how luxury each kingdom was, but also represent the thought and circumstance in the meantime. Even though Lan Xang and Rattanakosin had a same religion and were neighbor, their arts and architectural designs are different as follow:

3.1 Lan Xang Buddhist Art and Architectural Design Lan Xang was a kingdom with diversity; even in the Lao race itself. Since the end of the reign of King Suryawongsa Thammikkarat, Lan Xang was divided into three separated kingdom; Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak. Even though they were split up, they still shared their art and architectural designs. Each kingdom had been influenced by the neighbor surround and outsider as described below: 3.1.1 Lan Xang Architecture Developed through centuries, Lan Xang architectures may contain a lot of outsider influence, but at some point, they have their own unique style of architecture. Lan Xang temples can be divided into two part; Buddhawat and Sangkhawat. This chapter will discusses only on the Buddhawat area which cantains of That (ธาตุ), sim (สิม), Ho Wai (หอไหว), Oob Mung (อูบมุง), Hotrai or a library (หอไตร) and Ho Klong or a drum tower (หอกลอง), 3.1.1.1 That (Pagoda or Stupa) That (ธาตุ) in Lan Xang architecture is a Buddhist monument which can refer as a Chedi or pagoda (in Thai Architecture). The component of a That can be divided into three parts (Figure 3.1); base part, middle part or ‘Ruen That’ (เรือนธาตุ) and top part. That in Lan Xang architecture can be categorized into three types; Lan Na influenced That, Original Lan Xang That and Mon-Burmese influenced That.

24 25

Top Part

Middle part/ Ong Rakang

Base Part

Figure 3.1 A Figure illustrate the componant of a Chedi 1) Lan Na Influenced That Lan Na Kingdom and Luang Prabang had a very firm connection. The location of the two kingdoms is geographically closed. Furthermore, the Great king of Lan Xang, King Saisethathirath once ruled Lan Na Kingdom before he came back to Lan Xang with Lan Na artists. The culture between the two kingdoms was not only transmitted by a closed distance but also by royal families. 1.1) Lan Na Bell-Shaped That The bottom of the base part was built in a double lotus square-base (Than Bua Yok Kej-ฐานบัวยกเก็จ in Thai architecture)1. The next layer is a triple lotus base support the ‘Ong Rakang’ (องคระฆัง). The middle part or Ruen That is in bell-shaped, in circle plan. The top part, above the Ruen That has a Rattana Banlang (รัตนบัลลังก), Plong 2 Chanai (ปลองไฉน) and Pli (ปลี)1 . The example of Lan Na bell-shaped That is a That in Wat Apai, Luang Prabang (Figure 3.2).

1Than Bua Yok Kej is composed of superimposed pedestals. The first is called the ‘Chopping Block’, the second part is the ‘Lotus’, the third part is the ‘Chopping Block’ and the fourth part is the ‘Lion’ base. (K.I. Matics, Introduction to the Thai Temple, p.67) 2Sakchai Saisingh, Chedi Buddha Image, Huptam, Sim in Lao and Esan Arts, (Bangkok: Museum Press, 2012), 53. 26

Figure 3.2 a That at Wat Apai 1.2) Lan Na Prasada-shaped That A Ruen That part of the That is in a square plan. It has a ‘Sum Choranum’3 (ซุมจระนํา) contains four Buddha images in four directions. Above the Ruen That usually built a Lan Na bell-shaped That, contains arch-structure. At the top and bottom part of the Ruen That contain a ceramic ornament made in form of Chinese flowers called ‘Kab-Bon and Kan Lang’4 (กาบบนกาบลาง). The example of Lan Na prasada-shaped That is That Noi at Wat Mahathat (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3 That Noi (ธาตุนอย) at Wat Maha That

2) Traditional Lan Xang That 2.1) Vese-Shaped That (เจดียทรงบัวเหลี่ยม) Basically, a vase-shaped That (Figure 3.4) has an Ong Rakang in square shape and so as other features in the top part. It may have a short two or three Than Kieng (ฐานเขียง). A big Luk Kaeo (ลูกแกว)

3 A small, roofed space attached to the main body in four directions of the pagoda. (The Office of the National Culture Commission, 1993, p.83) 4Ibid, 59-60. 27

supports Than Bua Kwam Bua Ngai (ฐานบัวคว่ําบัวหงาย). The Than Bua (ฐาน บัว) of the That is usually decorated by Lan Xang style Luk Kaeo Ok Kai (ลูกแกวอกไก). At the four corners of the pagoda are decorated with ‘Karb’ (กาบ) which similar to the Lan Na prasada-shaped That and the ‘Karb Bhrama Sorn’ (กาบพรหมศร)in Rattanakosin arts. The base part of the That has a ‘Bua Ngon’5 (บัวงอน), a lotus petal-liked flick upward to the sky. From a Than Kieng (ฐานเขียง) to a Pak Rakang (ปากระฆัง) are in a pattern of an increased corner That (ธาตุ แบบเพิ่มมุม). The body or Ong Rakang of the That is in a square- shaped. The throne (บัลลังก also built in square plan) is made in form of the Than Bua Kwam Bua Ngai (ฐานบัวคว่ําบัวหงาย) which has a Luk Kaeo Ok Kai (ลูกแกวอกไก) decorated.6

Figure 3.4 That Luang, Vientiane 2.2) The Prasada-Shaped That The most important feature of this That is that the Ruen That (เรือนธาตุ) has four Sum Choranums (ซุมจระนํา) which enshrined Buddha images at every direction. Above the Ruen That (เรือนธาตุ) is a bell square-shaped That with a point top.7 The pasada-shaped That was influenced by Lan Na arts and soon developed to a new style as below: A That influenced by Lan Na and Ayutthaya Arts: it contains two main parts which are 1)the Ruen That (เรือนธาตุ) in square plan with increased corners. 2) The top part built in the bell-shaped That. This part has three styles; a vassel-shaped That (Figure 3.5), an increased

5Bua Ngon is called ‘Bua Pak Pling’ in Thai arts. 6Ibid, 63-64. 7Ibid, 79. 28

corner That (Figure 3.6) and the type that has a double Ruen That (เรือน ธาตุ) and a vassel-shaped That at the top (Figure 3.7).8

Figure 3.5 Pra That Bang Puen, Nong Kai, Thailand

Figure 3.6 a That at Wat Naga Yai, Vientiane

Figure 3.7 Pra That Nong Sam Muen, Chaiyabhum, Thailand

8Ibid, 80-86. 29

A That influenced by Khmer-Cham-Ayutthaya and mixed with a vassel-shaped That: this type has a body like a Khmer prasada, with Sum Choranum (ซุมจระนํา) that enshrined Buddha images. Vassel-shaped That was built at the top of the Ruen That(เรือนธาตุ). The Ruen That of this type of That is built in a square plan almost like Khmer or Cham prasada on a small base. The Ruen That of this type can be divided into two groups; a Cham influenced (Figure 3.8) and a Khmer influenced (Figure 3.9).9

Figure 3.8 Pra That Cheng Chum (พระธาตุเชิงชุม), Sakon Nakorn, Thailand

Figure 3.9 Pra That In Hang, Savannaket, Lao PDR. 3) Mon-Burmese influenced That A Mon-Burmese influenced That most likely to be found in Xieng Kwang; for example That Phun (Figure 3.10). This type of That has a base of Than Bua Thala Yok Kej (ฐานบัวถลายกเก็จ-lotus base increased corners). The part that support a That’s body was built in a ‘Bua Song Klum’ (บัวทรงคลุม) shaped, influenced by Ayutthaya arts. It has a

9Ibid, 88-94. 30

decoration at the body in Mon and Burmese style. The top part built a simulation of a That in circle plan with no throne (บัลลังก).10

Figure 3.10 That Phun, Xieng Kwang, Lao PDR. 3.1.1.2 Sim11 (Ordination Hall) Sim refers to an ubosot or an ordination hall in Lan Xang architecture. The word ‘sim’ is form ‘sima’ or ‘sema’ which means a boundary stone of the Ubosot. Sim has a component and element as below (Figure 3.11, 3.12);

Na Ban Pan Lom (ป้านลม หรือ รวย (หน้าบัน) ระกา)

Hang Pung or Gable (ฮังผึ้ง)

Kantuay in Elephant ear shaped (คันทวยทรงหูช้าง)

Figure 3.11 A front side picture of Sim of Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang.

10Ibid, 105-107. 11 Refers to a ‘Chapel’ or an Ubosot in Lan Xang architecture. The word ‘Sim’ is from ‘Sima’ or ‘Sema,’ which means the boundary stone installed around an Ubosot. 31

Cho Fa or Sattaburipan (ช่อฟ้า หรือ สัตตะบูริพัน) Ngo (โหง่)

Multi-tiered Roof หลังคาซ้อนชั้น

Figure 3.12 A side plan of Wat Xieng Thong's sim Sim in Lan Xang architecture can be categorized into 5 types; Luang Prabang, Tai Lue, Vientiane, Xieng Kwang and Mixed Sim. 1) Luang Prabang Sim Luang Prabang sim has a features much similar to Lan Na vihara as it is believed to be influenced by Lan Na arts in about 15th -16th centuries. Luang Prabang has elements as below (Figure 3.13): ‘Turb’ (เทิบ) or the roof of Luang Prabang sim has a ‘bird wings’ shaped. It has a multi-tiered roof cascading down in layers, the front side has three layers and the backside has two layers, the lowest flaring out, almost touch the ground.12 In the middle of the roof has a ‘Sattaburipan’ or chofa. The roof of Luanf Prabang sim contains no Bai Raka and Hang Hong. It has a ‘Ngo’ (cho faa in Thai arts) in forms of Naga’s head. The sim is decorated with Kantuay in elephant ear shaped. Na Ban of sim contains the gable or ‘Hung Pung’ in Lan Xang arts. The tympanum of the triangular gable is especially carved with details picked out in gold or colour. Mostly the Na Ban carved the story of the Ramayana or Pa Rak Pa Ram in Lao or sometime a simply flower pattern.13 The construction of sim is half wood half cement. Most of the sims has no window but a light hole instead. The wall both inside and

12Denise Heywood, Ancient Luang Prabang, (Bangkok: River Books, 2005), p.42. 13Ibid, 46. 32

outside most likely be decorated with ‘Lai Fok Kham’, Lao traditional painting, depicting a story of Lord Buddha, Former Buddha, the god assembly, an abundant pot or flower patterns. Most of the Luang Prabang sim has no mural painting.14

Figure 3.13 Sim of Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. 2) Tai Lue Sim Tai Lue sim can be found in Tai Lue community, from Sib Song Pan Na to Northern Thailand. In Laos, they can be found in Xieng Kwang and Luang Prabang (Figure 3.14). The roof has two separated layers. The lower roof spreads over the building. Above of it, between the lower and upper roof has a wooden plate represent the symbol of Burmese prasada. The Kan Tuay that decorated this type of sim is called ‘Kaen Nang shaped’.15 The building is in rectangular square, with no ‘muk’. It has a high wall with doors at four directions. Mostly, doors and windows have no decoration, but if it has, it will be a simple design.16

Figure 3.14 Sim of Wat Pak Kan, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

14 Sakchai Saisingha, Chedi Buddha Image Huptam Sim Lao and Esan Arts, p.122. 15Ibid, 129. 16Ibid, 127. 33

3) Vientiane Sim Vientiane sim can be divided into two types, from the period they were built and their architectural style. The first type is a sim that built in Luang Prabang style but has some influence from Ayutthaya. Fortunately, most of the sims in this type was destroyed in 18th century, when Vientiane was destroyed by the Siamese. The second type is called ‘Bangkok sim’ because it contains an Early Rattanakosin influence.17 Bangkok sim has a feature as below (Figure 3.15): The roof of Bangkok sim contains ‘Krueng Lam Yong’ in traditional Rattanakosin style; the Cho fa, Bai Raka, Hang Hong and Naga Lamyong. At the Na Ban decorated with flower patterns and beneath it will be decorated with curving wooden depicted Indra riding ‘Erevan’ elephant or Lai Cho hang To, Rattanakosin traditional pattern. The building has a tall wall decorated with Chinese ceramics. Inside the building decorated with Rattanakosin mural painting. Doors and windows decorated with flower patterns that were influenced by Chinese and Western culture (this decoration was popular in the reign of King Rama III). The wooden gates curved the gate keepers in forms of traditional Rattanakosin soldiers or Chinese god called ‘Xieo Kang’ or Western soldiers.18 However, there are some ornaments in Lao style in Bangkok sim for example; octagon shaped pillars, Kantuay in a shape of Naga with elephant trunk and wings.19

Figure 3.15 Sim of Wat Sisaket, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

17Prapas Chuvichien, Lao Arts (Bangkok:Matichon, 2013), 59-60. 18Sakchai Saisingh, Chedi Buddha Image Huptam Sim in Lao and Esan Arts, p.130. 19Ibid, 132. 34

4) Xieng Kwang Sim Xieng Kwang sim was builtby the ‘Puen’ from Xieng Kwang, but unfortunately, Xieng Kwang sims in Xieng Kwang were destroyed. Thus, this type of sim can be found in the areas that the Puen migrated to, for example; in Luang Prabang, Northern, Northeastren and Central Thailand. Xieng Kwang sim has most of the features similar to Luang Prabang sim, but contain no Sattaburipan. It has a Ngo in Luang Prabang style, no Bai Raka and Hang Hong. The roof of Xieng Kwang sim has a very unique feature; it has only one roof pile at the middle of the roof (Figure 3.16).

Figure 3.16 Sim of Wat Kiri, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. 5) Mixed Style Sim The Mixed sim was created by mixing features of more than two different types of sim. Most of hybrid sims may contain Rattanakosin roof ornaments, has a roof in Luang Prabang style or has a single roof pile in Xieng Kwang style. The example of Hybrid sims are Wat Mai’s sim20 (Figure 3.17) and Wat Long Koon’s sim (Figure 3.18).

Figure 3.17 Sim of Wat Mai, Luang Prabang, Lao PRD.

20Ibid, 136. 35

Figure 3.18 Sim of Wat Long Koon, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. 3.1.1.3 Ho Wai Ho wai is a small building for enshrine a sacred object such as Buddha image (Figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19 Ho Wai of Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. 3.1.1.4 Oob Mung (อูบมุง) Oob Mung (Figure 3.20) has the same function as Ho Wai but with a smaller scale. It was believed that Oob Mung was developed from animism building call ‘Ho Sue’, a spirit enshrined in the building area.

Figure 3.20 Oob Mung of Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

36

3.1.1.5 Ho Trai or Library Ho Trai has a function as a temple’s library, Pratrai Pidok and other Buddhist documents were kept here. Ho Trai has a small building, built by wood or cement (Figure 3.21).

Figure 3.21 Ho Trai (Library) of Wat Sri Saket, Vientiane, Lao PDr. 3.1.1.6 Ho Klong or Drum Tower This building has a function for telling times. The monk with telling time duty will ring the drum, in order to tell other monks the time for their daily pray (Figure 3.22).

Figure 3.22 Ho Klong (Drum Tower) of Wat Maha That, Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.

3.1.2 Lan Xang Buddhist Sculpture (Buddha Image) 3.1.2.1 Early Lan Xang Buddha Image A beginning of Buddha image in Lan Xang can be traced bace in the reign of King Fa Ngum, when he first brought Buddhism to his kingdom along with a sacred Buddha image called “Prabang” (Figure 3.23). Prabang is a Khmer Buddha image, given to Fa Ngum by his father- 37

in-law, the king of Khmer Empire. Later on, Prabang became a ‘prototype’ of early Lan Xang Buddha images.21

Figure 3.23 Prabang 3.1.2.2 Buddha Image of the ‘Golden Era’ Apart from Khmer influence, Lan Xang Buddha images were also affected by Sukhothai and Lan Na arts as well. A relationship between Sukhothai, Lan Na and Lan Xang in Fa Ngum’s reign was very close as the three kingdoms were neighbours and were related by kinship. During sixteenth to late eighteen centuries, before Lan Xang became under Rattanakosin control, it was the “Golden Era” of Lan Xang Buddha images, as it was believed to be the time that revealed Lan Xang’s concept of ideal beauty and manifested a distinctive and original Lan Xang artist identity.22 The Golden Era’s Buddha images often have features as below (Figure 3.24): The head of the image is proportionate and harmonizes with thick and broad shouder. The face is oval with pointed chin (as in Sukhothai style). The hairline is thin and curves down in the middle to follow the eyebrows. The forehead is flat and wide. The nose has a wide, triangular shape that was reputedly the shape of Lan Xang historical heroes. The mouth smiles fully, but those were cast under the reign of King Suriyavongsa Thammikkaraj has a half smile and more solemn expression. The radiance, born by four open lotuses, is a straight-up frame and its top is encased in gems with a cone or a shadow cup holding them.23

21Somkiart Lopetcharat, Lao Buddha: the Image and Its History (Bangkok: Siam International, 2000), 105. 22Ibid, 161. 23Ibid, 162-163. 38

The body of the Buddha has a thick and solid chest, as in Sukhothai style. The arms’ length is in portion and not elongated. The hand of the statue during 1520-1777 has a variety of shapes; for example, some have humanlike hands and nails, some have even tip fingers, etc.24

Figure 3.24 Phra Sai (พระใส)This Buddha image was transported to Thonburi in the reign of King Taksin. Now enshrined at Wai Bohchai, Nongkhai, Thailand. 3.1.2.3 Lan Xang Buddha Image under Early Rattanakosin Culture After the Golden Era was the time that three Lan Xang Kingdoms; Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak, became Rattanakosin dominions (1778-1893). During this time, Lan Xang arts were influenced by Rattanakosin culture. As for the Buddha images, they have features as below: During 1778-1827, Buddha images have an elliptical face and have a young look, as influenced by Early Rattanakosin arts. The eyebrows are slightly enlarged. The eyes are downcast but wide open, humanizingly. The mouth is half-smiling. The nose is not as high as those were casted in the Golden Era. The ears have an influence from Early Rattanakosin arts; the opening is “curved down” and “circle” into a conch shell.25 The image has broad shoulders with a thick and strong chest with prominent nipples. For seated images, they are “half-seated”, as influenced by Early Rattanakosin arts. The lap is narrow and the images often casted in the Maravijaya posture, which the right hand is on the calf and the left

24Ibid, 164. 25Ibid, 212. 39

hand rests flat on the lap. The pedestal for seated Buddhas is on a half- petaled open lotus, supported by two layer pedestials.26

Figure 3.25 Buddha image at Wat Sob 3.1.3 Lan Xang Painting Lan Xang Buddhist architectures often decorated with many types of arts; Mural Painting, Lai Fok Kham and Mosaic arts. Among the three of them, the most unique and popular art is Lai Fok Kham. Researcher noticed that Lai Fok Kham was often used in many type of sim, accept Vientiane Sim. The reason maybe, bacauce Vientiane sim normally decorated with mural painting. 3.1.3.1 Lai Fok Kham Lai Fok Kham (Figure 3.26) is golden images decorated outside and inside sim or other buildings in Lan Xang Buddhist Architecture. Temples in Luang Prabang often covered with Lai Fak Kham. The process of the art started with prepared the surface, covering it with lacquer (ลง รัก). Engraved the paper and lay over the prepared surface. A final process is to cover the engraved paper with gold leaves. Similar to Mural Painting, Lai Fok Kham often depicted a Jataka Tales, Lord Buddha’s Life and local folktales.

Figure 3.26 Lai Fok Kham at a sim of Wat Xieng Thong

26Ibid, 213. 40

3.1.3.2 Mosaic Arts Stain Glass This type of arts can be found at Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang (Figure 3.27). The reason of creating mosaic arts in Lan Xang is not clear, Sakchai Saisingh suggest that maybe, this type of art was inspired by Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin art; งานลงรักปดทองประกับกระจก. Lao Mosaic arts used the small pieces of stain glass and put them together in a picture.

Figure 3.27 A mosaic stain glass at the black wall (outside) of a sim of Wat Xieng Thong 3.1.3.3 Hoop Tam (ฮูปแตม)or Lao Mural Painting Lao mural painting is called “Hoop Tam” (ฮูปแตม) (Figure 3.28); “Hoop” means “pictures” and “Tam” means “painting”. Same as Rattanakosin mural painting, Lao murals will be depicted in walls inside a sim, vihara and other small building; Ho Trai, Ho Wai etc. However, the Lao mural that still exists nowadays was influenced by Early Rattanakosin culture and was repainted for several times. The important characteristics of Lao mural are; It was painted by tempera technique, painting on the ‘slow dry’ cement.27 The main characters of the story were painted in a highly stylized manner, frozen in graceful attitudes and a body of “S” shaped curved. They also show no face expression, their emotion can be read by hand gestures.28 Lao murals often painted “Jataka Tales” especially, Vassantara, and a life of Lord Buddha.

27The cement has a composition of shell, molasses and glue made from leather. 28Sakchai Saisingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, (Bangkok: Muangboran, 2013), 90. 41

Figure 3.28 Mural painting at Wat Long Koon 3.2 Early Rattanakosin Art and Architecture Designs As a successor of Ayutthaya Kingdom, Chakri Dynasty often linked themselves with the old kingdom by arts and royal ceremonies. However, since the context of Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin were much different, the old style of arts may have been changed by the outsider influenced; for example, the Chinese influence during the Third reign and the Modernization in the Fourth reign. 3.2.1 Early Rattanakosin Architecture Early Rattanakosin architectures also have several characteristic, depended on the time they were built. Architecture in the First and Second reign still contain much of Ayutthaya style, as it was believed to be the golden era of the Siamese. Later on, in the Third reign, Rattanakosin often traded with the Chinese, such circumstance was also represented in the new arts and architectural style called the ‘Royal Architectural Style of King Rama the Third’ or the ‘Non-Traditional Style’. Different from the former king, in the reign of King Rama IV, the royal temples had an influence from the most powerful race in the world at that time, the Western. As the belief of Siamese was destroyed by the fallen of China in the Opium War, Siamese started to believe that Western countries are indeed a new threat and as well a new definition of “Modern”. Rattanakosin royal court then tried to learn and adapt Western civilization; such ambition was expressed in the new style of arts, called ‘Foreign Style’ or ‘Western Style’. 3.2.1.1 Pagoda Pagoda in Early Rattanakosin arts can be categorizes into three groups; Phra Prang, Crowned Pagoda and bell-shaped pagoda. 1) Phra Prang (พระปรางค) Consider its function; Phra Prang (Figure 3.29) can be classified as a pagoda. Originally, Phra Prang developed from Khmer prasada and the corner tower and then gradually evolved into a stand-alone building. Professor Silpa Bhirasri described the construction and ornament of Phra 42

Prang as a building with square plan and domical roof. It rises elegantly from a large base to an elliptical shape mass, designing a very fine looking outline. It has three niches with enshrined statue and one entrance door reached by the means of a very steep staircase. Inside of Phra Prang enshrined sacred Buddha image.29 Above the Ruen That carved figures of the giants and on top of a ‘corn-shaped’ top is the trident.30

Figure 3.29 Phra Prang of Wat Arun (Temple of the Dawn), Bangkok, Thatland. 2) Crowned Pagoda (เจดียทรงเครื่อง) This type of pagoda is the original and unique Early Rattnakosin architecture and only popular in the reign of King Rama 1st- 3rd. It has features as below (Figure 3.30): First, the plan of the pagoda is in square plan with split up corners called ‘Yo Mai’ (ยอไม). There are ‘Yo Mai Pat(8)’ (ยอมุมไมแปด) with double profiles on the corners, ‘Yo Mai Sib Song (12)’ (ยอมุมไมสิบสอง) with a three-fold profile, ‘Yo Mai Sib Hok (16)’ (ยอมุมไมสิบหก), ‘Yo Mai Yi Sib (20)’ (ยอมุมไมยี่สิบ), ‘Yo Mai Yi Sib Si (24)’ (ยอมุมไมยี่สิบสี่), ‘Yo Mai Yi Sib Pat (28)’ (ยอมุมไมยี่สิบแปด), ‘Yo Mai Sam Sib song (32)’ (ยอมุมไมสามสิบสอง) and ‘Yo Mai Sam Sib Hok (36)’ (ยอมุมไมสามสิบหก),31 The base of the pagoda contains 2-3 Than Singhas (ฐานสิงห). Above them is a Bua Song Klum (บัวทรงคลุม) supports the bell-shaped body in spilt up corners plan. The top part is developed from Plong Chanai (ปลองไฉน), it represents a number of Buddha in the form of lotuses.32

29Silpa Bhirasri, Thai Buddhist Art, (Bangkok: Siva Phorn, 1963) (3rd edition), p.19. 30K.I. Matics, Introduction to the Thai Temple, (Bangkok: White Lotus, 1992), p.41. 31Karl Döhring, Buddhist Stupa (Phra Chedi) Architecture of Thailand, (Bangkok: White Lotus, 2000), p. 105-107. 32K.I. Matics, Introduction of the Thai Temple, p.38. 43

Figure 3.30 Crowned Chedi at Wat Pho, Bangkok, Thailand. 3) The Bell-Shaped Pagoda (เจดียทรงระฆัง) The bell-shaped pagoda developed from the ancient stupa and it was popular in Ayutthaya period and again in the reign of King Rama IV. It has features as below (Figure 3.31): The base of bell-shaped pagoda has a multiple Than Kieng (ฐานเขียง) support the Bua Kwam Bua Ngai base (ฐานบัวคว่ําบัวหงาย) and the bell-shaped body. Between the base and the body is ‘Malai tao’ (มาลัยเถา). The top part contains the Buddha seat (throne) (รัตนบัลลังก) in square plan and above it is the top ornament contains Plong Chanai (ปลองไฉน) and Pli (ปลี-the thin spire).33

Figure 3.31 Bell-shaped Chedi at Wat Bowonnivet (วัดบวรนิเวศราชวรวิหาร), Bangkok, Thailand. 3.2.1.2 The Ubosot and Vihara (Ordination Hall and Assembly Hall) Ubosot (bot) or ordination hall is the most sacred building in the temple, this building known as the ordination and confession hall and also a convocation chamber. In this building, monks congregate to warship and meditate. This building is not necessary large but it has to be set apart from other building by ‘Sema’ (เสมา), a boundary stone.34

33Sakchai Saisingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, 92. 34K.I matics, Introduction to the Thai Temple, p.25. 44

Sema, the boundary stone, has two forms: 1) the pillar with passible variants of either square or octagonal cross section and 2) the rectangular slab with many sub-groups. The most common sima in nowadays is the rectangular slap form.35 Vihara or an assembly hall means the permanent residence for monks during and after the Buhhda’s lifetime. In Thailand, vihara has many functions, for example; it can be used for assembling and preaching.36 As a Vihara and an Ubosot has the same construction (accept the sema stone), researcher places them together to category them in terms of construction and ornaments as below: 1) The Thai Traditional Style As the construction of the Emerald Buddha temple, Thai traditional style (Figure 3.32) has a tall building with Palai pillars support the roof construction. The roof or Thai Ubosot and vihara are the multi- tiered roof with a chofa (ชอฟา), bai raka (ใบระกา), naga lamyong (นาค ลํายอง) and hang hongse (หางหงส). The feature of Na Ban (หนาบัน) is a wooden craved in Thai Traditional pattern or a flower pattern in the temple that was built in the reign of King Rama III.37 Kantuay (คันทวย) of Thai Traditional building is small and thin and barely has a function as a supporting construction. It attaches to the pillar by the ‘Bua Vang’ (บัวแวง), a lotus shaped ornament with long petals craved at the top of each pillar. The doors and windows facades can be classified to two types; the Ban Thalaeng (ซูมประตูและหนาตางแบบบรรพแถลง) and the prasada- shaped frame (ซูมประตูและหนาตางทรงปราสาทยอด). The Ban Thalaeng facade contains Than Singh, support the door and window frame carved in pillar-form. Above the door and window imitate the Naban and Pan Lom decorated with all roof ornaments. At the imitate Naban carved the Thep Phanom (เทพพนม) and Lai Kranok (ลายกนก). The prasada shaped contains Than Singh and frame like the first type but at the decoration

35Ibid, 30. 36Ibid, 33. 37Sakchai Salsingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, p. 125. 45

above the doors and windows are decorated with a prasada shaped façade. Features of sema and its pedestal can be classified into two groups; a sema that situated on a late Ayutthaya period Than Singh (ฐาน สิงหแบบอยุธยา) and a sema situated in a prasada shaped pedestal (ซุมเสมา ทรงปราสาท).

Figure 3.32 An Ubosot of Wat Pra Kaeo (Temple of the Emerald Buddha), Bangkok, Thailand. 2) The Chinese Influence Style It can be called the ‘Architectural Order Style of King Rama III’ (สถาปตยกรรมแบบพระราชนิยม) or the ‘Non-traditional’ (แบบนอกอยาง) style (Figure 3.33) as it was influenced by Chinese art; this style was very popular in the reign of King Rama III. The feature of Naban mostly has a cement construction and decorated in Chinese influenced mosaic style. There are either Chinese felicitous, flower patterns or Kanok (กนก) in Chinese style. Some of the Chinese Influence temples have a traditional roof element. Doors and windows façade will be decorated with leaf or flower pattern called ‘Foreign Style’, the flower they often carved is the peony. The sema will be situated in a Chinese cart pedestal built by granite or slate. It has a high base and the Chinese pavilion as the roof.38

Figure 3.33 An Ubosot of Wat Rajaorasa, Bangkok, Thailand

38Ibid, 172. 46

3.2.1.3 Ho Trai or Library Ho trai has a function as the library in the temple as it collects the Tripitaka and other Buddhist documents. Ho Trai can be classified to two types by its construction; a Thai traditional wooden building and a modern building. The Thai traditional wooden building mostly built in the pond in order to prevent the documents from insects. It has a feature almost like an ubosot and vihara as it has a multi-tiered roof and roof ornaments.39 The modern building Ho Trai is constructed by both wood and cement. It has two floors; the second used for collecting documents and was built in Thai traditional style (Figure 3.34).40

Figure 3.34 Ho Trai of Wat Saket, Bangkok, Thailand. 3.2.1.4 Ho Rakang or the Bell tower Ho Rakang (Figure 3.35) or the bell tower is a tall building with a large bronze bell. It has a function as a time telling for minks to devotions at specific time of the day. It is used for indicating the noon hour and to toll the day’s end when minks assemble for evening vespers.41 Ho Rakang has two types, categorized by forms and a time they were built; a Thai traditional style and a Chinese influenced style.

39Ibid, 242. 40Ibid, 244-245. 41K.I. Matics, Introduction to the Thai Temple, 47. 47

Figure 3.35 Ho Rakang (Bell Tower) of Wat Pho, Bangkok, Thailand. 3.2.2 Early Rattanakosin Buddhist Sculpture (Buddha Image) Early Rattanakosin sculpture was developed from Ayutthaya sculpture as it was believed that Ayutthaya is a golden era of the Siamese. Buddha images casted during Early Rattanakosin Period are the Crowned Buddha and the General style Buddha image. 3.2.2.1 Crowned Buddha (พระพุทธรูปทรงเครื่องตนอยางพระมหา จักรพรรดิ) The crowned Buddha (Figure 3.36) was popular since Ayutthaya Period and again in the Third reign of Rattanakosin Kingdom. King Rama III built a crowned Buddha to honor kKing Rama I and II; two Buddha images were built dedicated for the Former Kings. The Buddha image wears a royal wardrobe.

Figure 3.36 Crowned Buddha at Wat Theptidaram (วัดเทพธิดาราม)

48

3.2.2.2 Typical Style Buddha Image Typical style of Buddha images (Figure 3.37) in Early Rattanakosin started in the reign of King Rama III. Those images have a same feature as they were casted in the royal foundry and sent to many important temple during the third reign.

Figure 3.37 Phra Buddha Tre Loka Chet (พระพุทธตรีโลกเชษฐ) at Wat Suthad (วัดสุทัศนเทพวราราม) 3.2.3 Early Rattanakosin Mural Painting Mural painting in Early Rattanakosin Period still used the tempera technique that was developed from Aytthaya Period. At the early age, the characteristic wasn’t much changed. Later on, because of the influence from outsider, Rattanakosin mural Painting changed by the content of Rattanakosin social, as reflected in the mural. The Indianization progress over Southeast Asia had been embodied the art and architectural designs in Thailand since the tenth centuries. Even though the evidence of such development of the early Indianized civilization is merely found, the artifacts and historic sites of Dvaravati Kingdom (seventh to eleventeenth centuries) suggest that the concept of Buddhism and Hinduism cosmology had been accepted as the main stream of belief in mainland Southeast Asia. Thai mural painting maybe developed from the incising in Buddha Footprint. As found in Sukhothai and now exhibited at Thai National Museum, the bronzed Buddha Footprint is incising with the “lively depictions of devotees and celestial being, as well as real and mythical creatures.”42 From the evidence survived, researcher can say that the actual Thai mural painting started in Ayutthaya period. Unfortunately, the war raged between Ayutthaya and the Kong Bong Dynasty destroyed all of the temples in Ayutthaya. The evidence that survived remains outside the former center of the kingdom, for

42Rita Ringis, Thai Temples and Temple Murals (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), 95. 49

example; in Wat Yai Suwannaram, Petchburi. In this temple, the Late Ayutthaya period mural painting still survives; it shows the Ayutthaya style of the celestial assemblies painting. After the Kingdom of Ayutthaya was destroyed in 1767, King Taksin (ตาก สิน in Thai) found the new Kingdom at Thonburi (south from Ayutthaya). According to the short reign and the war, Thai arts barely developed from Ayutthaya period. Researcher found that Thonburi arts preserved the styles and designs from Ayutthaya as to represent that it was the successor of the great Kingdom of Ayutthaya. After the war with three Lan Xang Kingdoms and the disturbance situation in the royal palace, the reign of King Taksin ended. The new dynasty, Chakri, started to control and to maintain order and peace in the new kingdom, Rattanakosin (acrossed the Chao Phraya River from the Thonburi area). Arts and rituals of Ayutthaya were used for emphasized the authority of the new found kingdom.43 As a purpose of the mural painting is for a wider audience, to ensure easy recognition of Buddhism taught, most of murals painted a story of Lord Buddha, a Buddhist cosmology as described in the Traiphum and celestial assembly. Rita Ringis described a general layout and pattern of Thai murals as below:

A congregation of monks and laypeople seated on the floor of an assembly hall, paying homage to the Buddha as represented by one or many images, can appreciate at a glance some of the major themes of the teaching. Painted behind the presiding Buddha images, on the west wall (symbolizing death) are scene from the Traiphum. Graphically depicted reminders of the fate of all –death and rebirths-in the Three Worlds of thirty-one ascending levels or states of existence, ranging from the lower hells, through the world of men and the gods, to increasingly lofty states. Depicted on the lateral walls above the windows, to the left and right (south and north, respectively) of the human congregation may be rows (in one or many registers) of celestial beings (devata) and benign demons (yaksha, also celestial rank) seated in the same position as the human devotees. These beings are depicted in semi-profile, turning in homage toward the Buddha images … Thus both celestial and human beings form part of a united group paying homage to the Teachings. The

43Ibid, 102. 50

lateral walls, particularly after the late eighteenth century, also depicted scenes of the Life and Former Lives of the Buddha (the Jataka tales), painted below the register(s)of the divine congregation. While the celestials may be almost life-size, the inhabitants of the Buddhist scenes are almost always rendered in miniature. Traditionally, on the east wall directly behind the congregation and above the entrance doors of the assembly hall, is depicted the scene of the Enlightenment of the Buddha, or the Victory over Mara (delusion and ignorance) by Calling the earth to Witness. This scene is visible to the devotee as he leaves the building, a reminder of the path he must tread on the way to understanding.44

Figure 3.38 Thai mural painting at Wat Suwannaram (วัดสุวรรณาราม) 3.2.3.1 Evolutional of Thai Mural Painting 1) Successor of Ayutthaya: Early Rattanakosin Mural Painting in the Reign of King Rama I and II Even though temples built in the reign of King Rama I and King Rama II still survived, all of them were renovated in the reign of King Rama 3rd and thus, contain some influence of the Non-traditional arts that was popular in the third reign. However, the fine example of murals of the first and second reign can be found in Buddhaisawan Chapel in the Bangkok National Museum. The area of Bangkok National Museum was a former Heir Apparent Palace or Wang Na in Thai. Buddhaisawan chapel was built in the late eighteenth century and renovated in the mid-nineteenth century yet it contains one of the most complete Thai Traditional murals. It has a feature as below:

44Ibid, 88. 51

It was painted by tempera technique45, but before that, the temple wall surfaces need to be prepared by traditional techniques as below:

After a series of wash treatments to desalinate the brick wall surface, a succession of priming coat was applied. The priming consisted of layers of white chalk bound with a solution of boiled tamarind seeds. When these layers were judged sufficient, they were ‘sealed’ by a series of pale washes which then become the ground for the designs. The designs were then finely outlined in ochre or black and the appropriate areas filled in with coloured pigments, leaving the outlines still visible. For very delicate work, brushes of extraordinary fineness and suppleness were used. A range of coarser brushes was used for less detailed work. … in Thai painting traditions tempera pigments were applied to the already primed dry wall surface. The potential for deterioration is, unfortunately, inherent in this method as priming and, more frequently, the pigments ‘bubble’ and flake off in the humid climate.46

The murals often painted in idealistic style; the main characters of the story, weather a man or a celestial being, were painted in a “highly stylized manner, ‘frozen’ in graceful attitudes and gestures”47 and a body of “S” shaped curve. The most important characteristic of noble characters and celestial beings in Thai murals is that their face express no emotions, they express their emotions by hand gestures that used in Thai traditional Dancing. Differently from the noble characters and celestial beings, commoners painted in mural are more ‘realistic’ and some erotic scenes are often painted in small details of the walls. Noble characters and common folks also share something in common, despite of hoe importance the characters are, they were

45Sakchai Saisingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, 399. 46Lecture by Wannipa Na Songhkla at the Siam Society, Bangkok, 1995. In Rita Ringis, Thai Temples and Temple Mural, 95. 47Rita Ringis, Thai Temples and Temple Murals, 92. 52

painted in small size, proportion to the size of the landscape and the wall space.48

The landscape, architecture, and figures are depicted in a highly stylized two-dimensional ‘flat’ form. Every scene in a given panel or area has the same size value, as there is no diminution of size to suggest distance between scenes. However, a multiplicity of these small scenes and figures, …, creates vast panoramas of palaces and town and country landscapes people by real and mythical beings. … Such episodes and scenes, though occurring at 5different points in time, are depicted simultaneously, being separated by landscape or architecture, or, frequently, as an eye-catching zigzag design.49 50 2) Chinese arts in Thai Mural Painting: Characteristic of Murals in the Third Reign Rattanakosin in the reign of King Rama III usually traded with the Imperial Kingdom of China. The King himself also fond of Chinese arts, thus he created a new style of arts and architectures called the ‘Royal Art and Architectural Style of King Rama III’ or often called the ‘Non-Traditional Style’ (Figure 3.39). Chinese style or Chinese influenced mural painting can be found inside the non-traditional vihara or ubosot, in order to match up with the exterior architectural design. Mostly murals were painted Chinese favorable things or tables, peony patterns or a story from Chinese literature ‘The Three Kingdoms’.51 Even though the painting was influenced by Chinese culture, they had a little influenced from the West as well. In the Royal Art and Architectural Style of King Rama III, three- dimension perspectives were often used, thought they are not completely correct.

48Sakchai Saisingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, 90. 49An ‘eye-catching’ zigzag design is called ‘Sin Tao’ line in Thai. 50Rita Ringis, Thai Temples and Temple Murals, 90. 51Sakchai Saisingh, Buddhist Arts in Rattanakosin Period: the Evolution of Creation and Changing Concept, 456-457. 53

Figure 3.39 Mural painting at Wat Nang Nong (วัดนางนอง) depicted a scene from 'the Three Kingdoms' (สามกก) 3) The Beginning of Westernization in Rattanakosin: Mural Paintings in the reign of King Rama IV. In Qing Dynasty, the great China lost the Opium War, the imperial power began to lose to the West. For Rattanakosin who had always admired China as the most powerful state (in their world) began to reset their aspect towards the world’s situation. The more interacted with the West, the more they realized how ‘uncivilized’ they were to the West. Therefore, the Siamese adjust themselves to be more modernized. Such phenomena reflected in mural paintings as well. As King Rama IV established the new nikaya of Buddhism; the ‘Dhammayuttika’ nikaya, temples under that nikaya has a more ‘Realistic’ style of painting. Dhammayuttika is a Buddhism combined with science, in order to show the Western that Buddhism in Siam wasn’t an ignorant belief. Thus, this though was expressed in new modern Rattanakosin arts and architectures. “Khrua In Khong” was the painter who introduced Western ‘perspective’ (but not perfectly correct) to Thai arts. Thus, a new technique of mural painting was born; it often called the “Khrua In Khong Style” (Figure 3.40). Murals in Khrua In Khong style always depicted in a three- dimensional realistic style. It represented a situation of Rattanakosin in the meantime, so Western people were painted in the more realistic way; they were “realistic and up to date in their authentic nineteenth century fashion.”52 Furthermore, Western-style building in Western landscapes was often painted. Although Khrua In Khong himself had never been

52Rita Ringis, Thai Temples and Temples Murals, 109. 54

abroad, he received the idea of Western through the foreigner resident and Western commercial prints from the United State.53

Figure 3.40 Mural painting at Wat Bovonnivet (วัดบวรนิเวศราชวรวิหาร) 4) Modernization in Rattanakosin: the Mural Painting after Early Rattanakosin Period Mural painting in the reign of King Rama V tended to be more ‘realistic’ and ‘Westernized’. The three dimension technique was developed during this time. The story of the mural often depicted a historical story or an event that truly happened. A picture of the King was also portrayed (Figure 3.41).

Figure 41 Mural painting in the reign of King Rama V

53Ibid, 108.