The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe Since 1919
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THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE SINCE 1919 The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe since 1919 is a compact and comprehensive reference guide to the area, from the Treaty of Versailles to the present day. With particular focus on the early nationalist and subsequent fascist and communist periods, Adrian Webb provides an essential guide to the events, people and ideas which have shaped Central and Eastern Europe since 1919. Covering cultural, economic, political and environmental issues, this broad-ranging and user-friendly volume explores both the common heritage and collective history of the region, as well as the distinctive histories of the individual states. Key features include: • wide-ranging political and thematic chronologies • maps for clear visual reference • special topics such as the economy, the environment and culture • a full list of office holders and extensive biographies of prominent people in all fields • a glossary of specialist terms. With a wealth of chronological, statistical and tabular data, this handy book is an indispensable resource for all those who wish to understand the complex history of Central and Eastern Europe. Dr Adrian Webb was a part-time lecturer at Southampton Solent University, 1996–2007. His publications include The Longman Companion to Germany since 1945 (1998) and The PDS: a symbol of eastern German identity? (2008). ROUTLEDGE COMPANIONS TO HISTORY Series Advisors: Chris Cook and John Stevenson Routledge Companions to History offer perfect reference guides to key historical events and eras, providing everything that the student or general reader needs to know. These comprehensive guides include essential apparatus for navigating through specific topics in a clear and straightforward manner – including introductory articles, biographies and chronologies – to provide accessible and indispensable surveys crammed with vital information valuable for beginner and expert alike. 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No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Webb, Adrian, 1938– The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe since 1919/Adrian Webb. p. cm.—(Routledge companions to history) Includes index. 1. Europe, Eastern–History–20th century. 2. Europe, Eastern–History–21st century. 3. Europe, Central–History–20th century. 4. Europe, Central–History–21st century. I. Title. DJK48.5.W43 2008 943.0009’04—dc22 ISBN 0-203-92817-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10: 0-415-44563-9 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0-415-44562-0 (pbk) ISBN 10: 0-203-92817-2 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-44563-4 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-44562-7 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-203-92817-2 (ebk) ISBN 0-203-93689-2 Master e-book ISBN FOR MISS T. T. CONTENTS Introductory note: the scope of this book x Geographical equivalents xii Politically inspired name changes xiv Personal names xv A brief guide to pronunciation xvi Acknowledgements xviii Section I The reordering of Europe 1 1.1 The background to 1919 2 1.2 Versailles, the establishment of the new order and its consequences 7 1.3 The concept and history of nationalism in eastern Europe 14 1.4 Authoritarianism, fascism and the problem of national minorities from 1919 to 1939 19 1.5 Anti-Semitism 24 1.6 The liberal tradition 26 1.7 Communism 29 1.8 Titoism 37 1.9 Politics since 1990 39 Section II Historical chronology of key events 45 2.1 Key events before Versailles 46 2.2 Key events from Versailles to the outbreak of the Second World War 50 2.3 Key events during the Second World War 61 2.4 Key events between the end of the Second World War and the death of Stalin 70 2.5 Key events during the Communist period 1953–89 85 2.6 Key events since the fall of Communism 96 Central and eastern Europe excluding Yugoslavia 96 2.7 The disintegration of Yugoslavia and its aftermath 113 CONTENTS Section III Thematic chronologies 139 3.1 The rise of authoritarianism 1919–39 140 3.2 Anti-Semitism: character, scale and scope 154 3.3 Wartime administration, collaboration, government and resistance 158 3.4 Post-war retribution and revenge 166 3.5 Communism 169 3.5.1 The post-war consolidation of Communist power 169 3.5.2 The purges and the show trials 179 3.5.3 The struggle between church and state 182 3.5.4 Orthodoxy and reform 1953–90 185 3.5.5 The reformed Communist Parties since 1990 188 3.6 Foreign affairs 191 3.6.1 Regional agreements and alliances 1919–39 191 3.6.2 Wartime allegiances 196 3.6.3 The Communist period 198 3.6.4 Regional relations and relations with East and West since 1990 207 Section IV The nation states 213 4.1 Introduction 214 4.2 States and regions of central and eastern Europe: origins, characteristics and particularisms 215 4.3 The countries of ‘further’ eastern Europe 230 4.4 The impact of the EU, NATO and Russia since 1990 233 Section V Special topics 243 5.1 The economy 244 5.1.1 The economy 1919–39 244 5.1.2 The impact of the Second World War 247 5.1.3 Post-war reconstruction under Communist rule 248 5.1.4 The impact of 1990 252 5.1.5 The economy: recent developments 253 5.1.6 Comparative GDP 255 5.2 The environment 257 5.2.1 The Communist legacy 257 5.2.2 The impact of 1990 259 5.3 Human statistics 263 5.3.1 Population statistics 263 5.3.2 Ethnic minorities 264 viii CONTENTS 5.3.3 War losses 265 5.3.4 The post-war migrations 266 5.3.5 Life expectancy in years (2003) 267 5.4 Culture 268 5.4.1 Cosmopolitanism and cultural nationalism 268 5.4.2 The Arts under Fascism and Communism 269 5.4.3 Post-war rebuilding of the national heritage 271 5.4.4 Linguistic politics 272 Section VI People 275 6.1 Office holders 276 6.1.1 Heads of State 276 6.1.2 Heads of government (prime ministers/ premiers, unless otherwise indicated) 283 6.1.3 Heads of the Communist Party Politburo 294 6.2 Communist Party membership statistics 296 6.3 Major assassinations, suicides and political executions 298 6.4 Biographies 300 Section VII Glossary of specialist terms 327 Section VIII Historiography 335 Maps 345 Index 349 ix INTRODUCTORY NOTE: THE SCOPE OF THIS BOOK Dividing history into periods is notoriously artificial, but by any historical standard, 1919 marked a new beginning in central and eastern Europe. Politically, it had been largely divided for at least two centuries, and in many areas for much longer, between the competing empires of Austria, Germany, Russia and Turkey. (See map.) In 1917, however, the Russian Empire had been defeated by Germany. That German victory was overtaken the following year by the defeat of Austria–Hungary, Germany and Turkey, which marked the end of the First World War in November 1918. This defeat of all the imperial powers created a vacuum unparallelled before or since in which the political system could be completely reordered in accordance with the nationality principle. Poland and Lithuania returned to the map of Europe as sovereign states. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia appeared for the first time, Estonia and Latvia for the first time as independent entities. Further east, Georgia and the Ukraine briefly enjoyed autonomy. (See map.) If the timescale of this book is easy to justify, its geographical limits are very much harder. This is to no small degree because the terms ‘Central’ and particularly ‘Eastern’ Europe have been used to describe subjective perceptions rather than objective geographical realities. Before 1919, Central Europe was broadly understood as the territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire ruled from Vienna, and Eastern Europe as the territory of the Russian Empire ruled from Saint Petersburg.