Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens; from Initial Inversion to Full Accretion: an Introduction

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Thick-skin-dominated orogens; from initial inversion to full accretion: an introduction

M. NEMCˇ OK1,2*, A. MORA3 & J. COSGROVE4 1Energy and Geoscience Institute at University of Utah, 423 Wakara Way, Suite 300, Salt Lake City, 84108 UT, USA 2Energy and Geoscience Laboratory at Geological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Du´bravska´ cesta 9, SK-840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia 3Ecopetrol Instituto Colombiano del Petro´leo, Km 7 Autopista Bucaramanga-Piedecuesta, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia 4Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK *Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: Fifty per cent of orogens have a thick-skin character, and have evolved from passive margin and intra-cratonic rift systems. One group of thick-skin provinces can be found at both pro- and retro-wedges of orogens associated with advancing subduction zones, that is, orogenic wedges whose advance vectors oppose the mantle flow. A second group can be found at pro- wedges of orogens associated with retreating subduction zones, that is, orogens whose advance vectors have the same direction as mantle flow. A third group is formed in intra-plate settings where mechanical strengthening is produced by internal shortening. Thick-skin province development is controlled by driving factors such as individual plate movement rates, overall convergence rates, orogen movement sense with respect to mantle flow, and pro-wedge v. retro-wedge location. These driving factors are themselves constrained by numerous internal and external factors. This introductory chapter focusses primarily on least-deformed case areas in order to understand the role of different factors in controlling the evolution of thick-skin tectonic provinces from the initial inversion stage to full accretion stage.

Many thrust belts exhibit both thin- and thick-skin and the Palmyrides (Carola et al. 2013; Teixell & structural styles in different portions of the belt. Babault 2013). Some thrust belts, such as the Andes, change style Each of these examples underwent a differ- along-strike (Allmendinger et al. 1997; Baby et al. ent portion of the complete deformation history 2013; Carrera & Munõz 2013; Iaffa et al. 2013; of a thick-skin orogen, that is, from initial inver- Moretti et al. 2013). Other thrust belts, such as the sion to full accretion. An excellent introduction to US Cordillera–Rocky Mountains, exhibit thin-skin this complete history can be found in Teixell & structural styles in their interior and thick-skin Babault (2013), who look at shortening across a style in their exterior (Hamilton 1988). A quick number of orogens. They record a total shorten- screening of the basic characteristics of orogens ing of 20–25% across the High Atlas, 25–30% whose deformation styles are known (see Nemcˇok across the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and et al. 2005) shows that 50% of orogens have about 40% across the Pyrenees. While Teixell & a thick-skin character. They have evolved from Babault (2013) reconstructed the complex defor- either passive margins or intra-cratonic rift sys- mation sequence in the Pyrenees and understood tems. The most typical examples of the former that mountain building comes from the numerous (initial passive margin setting) are various Andean large-scale footwall edge short-cut faults through thick-skin provinces, the Tienshan and the West- the rift margin, a less deformed record of the ern Alps (Schmid et al. 1996, 1997; Escher & Beau- Eastern Cordillera allows one to see that a slow mont 1997; Baby et al. 2013; Carrera & Munõz Paleocene–Eocene deformation was followed by 2013; Iaffa et al. 2013; Kober et al. 2013; Tesoń the faster Oligocene–Early Miocene deforma- et al. 2013). The most typical examples of the latter tion and then by an accelerated deformation that (initial intra-cratonic setting) include the High took place since Late Miocene (Mora et al. 2013; Atlas, Middle Atlas, central and eastern Pyrenees Silva et al. 2013). Work on the timing of these

From:Nemcˇok, M., Mora,A.&Cosgrove, J. W. (eds) 2013. Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 377, 1–17. First published online August 8, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP377.17 # The Geological Society of London 2013. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

2 M. NEMCˇ OK ET AL. pulses of deformation by Jimenez et al. (2013) full accretion, and factors controlling the orogenic reveals that: deformation in thick-skin provinces. (1) the faster Oligocene–Early Miocene deformation was characterized by the coeval activity of the main inversion faults and footwall Dynamic setting categories of thick-skin short-cut faults, with inversion faults accom- provinces modating displacement rates, which were larger than rates of short-cut faults; and, Thick-skin provinces can be further divided, (2) the fastest Late Miocene–Recent deformation according to their tectonic/orogenic setting, into: was characterized by coeval activity of the (1) provinces located in a pro-wedge setting main inversion faults and footwall short-cut (Fig. 1), for example, the Ouachitas, the Apen- faults, with short-cut faults accommodating nines, the Balkans, the Carpathians, the displacement rates, which were larger than Southern and Western Alps (Arbenz 1989; rates on the inversion faults. Shumaker 1992; Doglioni 1993a, b; Kley & By comparing the High Atlas, Eastern Cordillera Eisbacher 1999; De Donatis et al. 2001; and Pyrenees, Teixell & Babault (2013) have Nemcˇok et al. 2006; Stuart et al. 2011); concluded that initial inversion is characterized by: (2) provinces located in a retro-wedge setting (Fig. 1), for example, the Rocky Mountain (1) distributed deformation of the rift fill; basement uplifts, the Coastal Cordillera of (2) low structural relief; and Venezuela, the Central Cordillera of Colom- (3) long longitudinal rivers. bia, the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and Meanwhile, full accretion is characterized by: Peru, the Sub-Andes of Ecuador, the Salta and the Sierras Pampeanas regions of the (1) strong inversion, located mainly at rift Argentinian Andes (Eva et al. 1989; Oldow margins; et al. 1989; Lowell 1995; Allmendinger (2) large basement-involved faults; et al. 1997; Baby et al. 2013; Jimenez et al. (3) higher relief; and 2013; Mora et al. 2013; Moreno et al. 2013; (4) river reorganization to transverse system. Silva et al. 2013; Tesoń et al. 2013); and Further shortening, they argue, would lead to the (3) provinces having an intra-plate position, for development of a doubly vergent orogen. example, the North Sea region, the High Atlas This Special Publication contains contributions and, perhaps, the Sierra de Perija and Merida that were presented at the meeting ‘Thick-Skin- Andes (Chigne et al. 1996; Teixell et al. Dominated Orogens; From Initial Inversion to 2003; Zanella & Coward 2003; Bayona et al. Full Accretion’ hosted by ECOPETROL-ICP (Insti- 2013). tuto Colombiano del Petroleo) at Barichara, Colom- Orogens can be subdivided, following Dog- bia, during 24–27 January 2011. The key problems lioni (1993a, b), into those whose advance vectors that are addressed in this volume include: oppose the mantle flow and those whose advance vectors have the same direction as mantle flow † the role of rheologies of deforming layers in (Fig. 2a, b). thick-skin orogenic deformation; A good example of the former, that is an oro- † the role of existence v. non-existence of poten- gen at an advancing subduction zone (Fig. 2a, tial detachment horizons in thick-skin orogenic right side, 2b, lower panel, Fig. 3, upper panel), is deformation; the Western Alps (Fig. 4a). The best results on the † the role of basement buttresses in thick-skin involvement of subducting crust in their structure orogenic deformation; come from the Swiss segment of the Alps thanks † the role of crustal (lithospheric) thickness vari- to a unique combination of the European Geotra- ations in thick-skin orogenic deformation; verse (EGT), the National Research Program on † the role of inherited strength contrasts in thick- the Deep Structure of Switzerland (NFP 20) and skin orogenic deformation; probably the best geological and supplementary † the role of pre-existing anisotropy in thick-skin geophysical data on any collisional orogen world- orogenic deformation; wide (e.g. Schmid et al. 1996). These data indicate † the role of syn-tectonic erosion and deposition that the whole upper European crust is involved in in thick-skin orogenic deformation. accretion to the advancing orogen. Updoming of This introductory chapter addresses the dynamic the most external basement block is interpreted as settings of thick-skin provinces, their dynamics, a crustal-scale ramp fold related to a detach- choice of the optimum case areas for a study of ment at the interface between lower and upper Euro- the entire development from initial inversion to pean crust. This detachment is interpreted to be Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 3

Fig. 1. Plain-strain finite-element model of subduction–collision transition (Beaumont et al. 1999). Retro-lithosphere is fixed. Proto-lithosphere moves as indicated by white arrows. Phase 1: negative buoyancy of the subduction load drives the entire pro-lithosphere subduction. Phase 2: subduction load starts to decrease (increasing buoyancy) either with entrance of continental margin into the pro-lithosphere subduction or with slab break-off. Progressively more pro-lithosphere detaches and doubly vergent deformation begins. Phase 3: pro-lithosphere detaches entirely to form pro-wedge. Continued retro-transport creates a retro-wedge. The main differences among individual phases are controlled by increased buoyancy of proto-lithosphere (i.e. decreased downward flexing under slab pull and/or other forces). kinematically linked to the lower crustal wedge Ductile basement nappes are fold structures for- of the over-riding orogen. Complete detachment med by basal simple shear and superimposed pure near the top of the highly reflective European shear (Handy et al. 1993; Schmid et al. 1997). lower crust indicates a strength minimum situated Numerical models made for orogens at advan- immediately above the lower crust. The unchanged cing subduction zones have promoted an under- thickness of the European lower crust traced all standing of the basic mechanical controls on the way from the Alpine foreland to a location crustal deformation, assuming that orogenesis beneath the orogen argues for its relatively high involved phases of oceanic subduction and conti- strength. As a general rule, the amount of strain nental collision, together with a transitional period increases from the most external basement mas- between these phases (Beaumont et al. 1996; Ellis sifs, where strain is partitioned into separate shear & Beaumont 1999; Fig. 1). Total subduction invol- zones, to the more internal units, where strain is ves the asymmetric normal convergence between penetrative (Escher & Beaumont 1997). This early two lithospheric plates, in which the subducting deformation took place under greenschist-facies lithosphere passes completely beneath the overrid- conditions in the external nappes and under amphi- ing lithosphere (Ellis & Beaumont 1999). Partial bolite facies in the more internal nappes. Most of subduction and continental collision have been pos- the cover of the European upper crust was detached tulated to be variations of this process, in which during formation of the basement nappes. Cover the slab pull of the subducting lithosphere is insuf- nappes in the Alps utilized weak horizons and ficient for total subduction, and consequently only were generated by brittle deformation mechanisms part of the lithosphere subducts and the rest operating simultaneously with ductile mechanisms becomes part of the orogen. The subduction/col- in the basement fold nappes (Escher et al. 1993; lision transition is understood as the time when the Epard & Escher 1996). The temperature threshold first basement nappes are derived from the subduct- for the ductile deformation in the basement was ing crust at great depths (Ellis & Beaumont 1999). assumed to be approximately 300 8C, following These depths, based on examples of basement studies of Handy (1989, 1990), and interpreted nappes from the Alps, are at about 70 km during as occurring below the depth of this isotherm. early stages of collision (Escher & Beaumont 1997). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

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Fig. 2. (a) Orogens, foredeeps and foreland basins differentiated on the basis of the related subduction; namely systems with orogen advance vector the same as that of mantle flow (west-dipping, left-hand-side diagram) and systems with orogen advance vector opposing that of mantle flow (east or NE-dipping, right-hand-side diagram; Doglioni 1993b). Foredeeps and thick-skin tectonic regions develop at three sides of these two systems: (1) at the front of pro-wedge of the west-dipping subduction system; (2) at the front of pro-wedge of the east or NE-dipping subduction system; and (3) at the front of its retro-wedge. Orogen advance vector is indicated by small arrow and mantle flow is shown by large arrow. Left side shows retreating subduction zone; right side shows advancing subduction zone. (b) Main differences between orogens whose advance vector is the same as that of mantle flow (west-dipping) and orogens whose advance vector opposes that of mantle flow (east or NE-dipping) shown in more detail, using the same geographic orientations as those in (a) (Doglioni 1993b). Orogens with advance vector the same as mantle flow are characterized by low structural and morphological elevation. The rocks occurring at the surface indicate relatively shallow burial. The tangent to the anticlines of the accretionary wedge descends orogen-wards. The depocentre of the deep foredeep basin is within the accretionary wedge. Orogens with advance vector opposite to mantle flow are characterized by high structural and morphological elevation. The rocks occurring at the surface indicate relatively deep burial. The tangent to the anticlines of the accretionary wedge ascends orogen-wards. The depocentre of the shallow foredeep basin is in front of the accretionary wedge. The curves on the right side represent a possible elevation history of a reference point, which was Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 5

Fig. 3. Conceptual interpretation of the two end-member convergence scenarios (Waschbusch & Beaumont 1996). (a) Scenario without subduction zone retreat requires space for crustal accretion to be created by retro-thrusting. (b) Scenario with subduction zone retreat manages to create space for crustal accretion without a need for retro-thrusting.

Good examples of the latter, that is, orogens range of thick-skinned tectonics determined from formed at a retreating subduction zone (Fig. 2a, balanced cross sections through the Carpathian left side, 2b, upper panel, Fig. 3, lower panel), are and Balkan accretionary wedges (Fig. 4b). This is the West Carpathians (Fig. 4b) and the Eastern only several tens of kilometres, indicating different Balkans. Unlike the basement involvement known controls on orogens formed at retreating subduction from the Western Alps, the thick-skinned tectonics zones – compared with those formed at advancing of these regions developed during the latest stages subduction zones. of thin-skinned tectonics (Nemcˇok et al. 2006; The difference between orogens at retreating Stuart et al. 2011). Furthermore, the depth (70 km) subduction zones and those at advancing zones is of basement nappe formation described above for also highlighted by direct comparison of the rela- the Western Alps is much greater than the depth tively large convergence magnitude in the Alps

Fig. 2. (Continued) originally located in the foredeep, during development of the respective orogen. The upper curve shows a reference point affected by the migration of three main tectonic events, A, B and C. The foredeep subsidence, A, is driven by roll-back of the subduction hinge and complicated by smaller-scale uplift events associated with individual thrust sheet accretion pulses. The subsidence can be as high as 1.6 mm a21. It is followed by an uplift, B, controlled by mantle wedging at the top of the subduction hinge, shear and transition from shortening to extension. Segment C of the curves denotes the back-arc basin subsidence. The lower curve shows a reference point affected by migration of the two main tectonic events, D and E. The subsidence, D, is controlled by either thrust loading affecting the foredeep or localized subsidence controlled by out-of-sequence thrusts. The characteristic subsidence is about 0.3 mm a21. The uplift, E, is controlled by folding. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

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Fig. 4. (a) Example of an orogen opposing mantle flow represented by schematic profile through the Swiss–Italian Western Alps from the Mont Tendre in Jura Mountains to the Val Sesia in the Ivrea area (Escher & Beaumont 1997). Convergence drove subduction of the European and Brianconnais lithospheres. The nappe stacking and other deformation events took place within the upper part of the down-going continental crust, while the lower crust has been interpreted as subducting passively together with lithospheric mantle. (b) Example of an orogen following mantle flow represented by balanced cross section through the Western Carpathians accretionary wedge (Nemcˇok et al. 2006). Convergence drove subduction of the West European lithosphere. Accretionary wedge development and other deformation events took part within upper part of the down-going continental crust, while the lower crust is assumed to be subducting passively together with lithospheric mantle.

(400–450 km) with that of the Carpathians (75– 1995; Schmid et al. 1996; Nemcˇok et al. 2000). 223 km; Platt et al. 1989; Roca et al. 1995; Orogens at retreating subduction zones also have Schmid et al. 1996; Nemcˇok et al. 1999). The dif- different thermal regimes. Geodynamic models of ference is also indicated by the fact that the entire orogens at advancing and retreating subduction upper crust of the more proximal parts of the Euro- zones, based on systematic comparison of thrust- pean plate was accreted to the Alpine orogenic belts worldwide and on numerical simulations, wedge, while involvement of the basement of the indicate that the retreating situation is characterized European plate in the West Carpathian accretionary by more heat being available (Doglioni 1992; Roy- wedge is minor (Roure et al. 1993; Roca et al. den 1993; Waschbusch & Beaumont 1996). This is Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 7 thought to be because the retreating subducting slab individual snap shots of the entire deformation creates a gap that is commonly assumed to be filled history. by upwelling of hot asthenosphere. While the forceful scenario seems to develop When we consider the differences between the a thick-skin province under an excessive energy two types of orogens and divide each into pro- and budget, and its individual deformation events are retro-wedge cases, one can estimate the energy not always separable, the weak pro-wedge and budgets involved in their development and the forceful retro-wedge scenarios may develop thick- intensity of their deformation. Accordingly, the skin provinces, which allow us to see the entire thick-skin regions of pro-wedges (Fig. 2a) group complex sequence of: into ‘forceful scenarios’, located in orogens at (1) new fault propagation events; advancing subduction zones (Fig. 2a, right side), (2) reactivation events on pre-existing faults; such as the Ouachitas and the Southern and West- (3) energy events consumed on opposing gravity ern Alps (Fig. 4a), and ‘weak scenarios’, located in forces; and orogens at retreating subduction zones (weak oro- (4) internal deformation events on the thick- gen; Fig. 2a, left side), such as the Apennines, the skinned block. Balkans and the Carpathians (Fig. 4b). Interestingly, the thick-skin regions of retro-wedges cannot This is because they involve smaller energy bud- be divided into ‘forceful‘ and ‘weak scenarios’, gets associated with less intense deformation and because all of those known to us are located on individual deformation events are more likely to the retro-side of the orogens developed at advanc- be separable. Examples of the weak pro-wedge, ing subduction zones (forceful orogen; Fig. 2a). including the Carpathians (Fig. 4b) and the Bal- This, perhaps, indicates that the weak orogen does kans, indicate that thick-skin tectonics occurs at not have sufficient energy to develop any major later stages of the orogenic build-up, when the thick-skin provinces on its retro side. Furthermore, taper angle is high, the thermal regime is elevated as shown by numerical models (Waschbusch & and an extra mechanism for out-of-sequence short- Beaumont 1996), plate settings with weak orogens ening is required to increase the orogenic taper and retreating subducting plates manage to create further (see Nemcˇok et al. 2006; Stuart et al. space for crustal accretion without a need for retro- 2011). The Eastern Cordillera, an example of the wedge development (Fig. 3, lower panel), while the forceful retro-wedge detached at a depth of about settings with forceful orogens and without sub- 30 km (Mora et al. 2008, 2010; Parra et al. 2009; ducting plate retreat require space for crustal accre- Fig. 5), indicates that a new thick-skin tectonic tion to be created by retro-wedge development event occurs at stages when the orogenic foreland (Fig. 3, upper panel). refuses to flex under the advancing orogen and the The third type of thick-skin province, that is orogen needs to build up extra strength in order to the intra-plate thick-skin provinces, seems to deve- advance any further (Hermeston & Nemcˇok 2013). lop in situations where one of the converging For the same reason, that is, the inability of plates needs to be strengthened by internal shor- the orogenic foreland to flex, the most extreme tening. Occasionally this shortening can be signi- examples of vast areas affected by thick-skin tec- ficant, as for example in the Higher Atlas, which tonic events come from narrow foreland plates trap- underwent both full inversion and accretion of the ped between two orogens moving towards each syn-rift fill (see Teixell et al. 2003; Tesoń 2009; other. The two known examples come from the Teixell & Babault 2013). Apulian plate between the Dinarides and the Apen- nines (Bertotti 2000, pers. comm.) and the Kura Valley basin between the Greater and Lesser Cau- casus systems (Nemcˇok et al. 2013). They both Choice of optimum case area for a study illustrate an energy balance interplay between fac- of the entire development from initial tors controlling orogenic and foreland mechanical inversion to full accretion stratigraphies. This is well illustrated in the inverted Broad All the above indicates that it is an energy balance Fourteens basin of the North Sea, where it can be that controls the presence or absence of thick- seen that local development of either thick-skinned skin domains along pro-wedges, retro-wedges and or thin-skinned deformation is controlled by the contracted intra-cratonic rift systems. Thick-skin local salt thickness (see Nalpas et al. 1995; Brun provinces in forceful pro-wedge scenarios are & Nalpas 1996; Fig. 6). This inversion shows apparently characterized by an excessive energy clearly that the amount of coupling between the budget to spend on orogenic development. As a con- orogen and foreland plate is another important sequence, the resultant deformation is so intense factor controlling the overall energy balance. This and complex that it is rather difficult to restore is further demonstrated by the fact that even Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

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Fig. 5. Regional balanced cross section through the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia with earthquake hypocentres/foci (circles) projected (Ingeominas 2009; Teso´n et al. 2013).

Fig. 6. Structural map and line-drawing interpretation of seismic sections showing variation in structural style in the Broad Fourteens basin as a consequence of development of the Zechstein salt horizon (modiﬁed from Nalpas et al. 1995). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 9 orogens characterized by high convergence rates, same purpose since the Paleocene (see the timing such as the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, can lack in Mora et al. 2013; Hermeston & Nemcˇok 2013), basement uplifts or any kind of compressional before the onset of intensive deformation along intraplate deformation in their foreland if the fore- the Eastern Cordillera flanks, which was rapid land does not contain any major intra-plate discon- during the Oligocene–Early Miocene and acceler- tinuities, or if it lacks mechanical coupling with ated during the Late Miocene–Recent (Mora et al. the orogen (Ziegler 1989). As indicated by exam- 2013; Silva et al. 2013). ples from the West Carpathians (Nemcˇok et al. A closer inspection of the southernmost portion 2001, 2006) and Eastern Cordillera (Hermeston & of the Eastern Cordillera indicates that there is no Nemcˇok 2013), the coupling can be enhanced axial flat zone present there. On the contrary, this either by a lack of any major potential detachment portion of the orogenic belt resembles a double- horizon or by the presence of significant regional sided orogen. Its transition to the rest of the buttresses. Eastern Cordillera, which does contain the axial Honouring all the above, avoiding forceful pro- flat zone, lies inside ‘swath 7’ of Hermeston & wedge scenarios and focusing on weak pro-wedge Nemcˇok (2013; their Fig. 3). This Eastern Cordil- or forceful retro-wedge scenarios should be the lera segment matches well with a segment of the best strategy when attempting to understand the Llanos foreland basin that does not have a record role of different factors in controlling thick-skin of flexing starting with deposition of the Carbo- tectonics (Fig. 7, Table 1). This volume attempts nera Formation (42–16 Ma). Furthermore, this is to follow this strategy by examining the factors also the only segment of the Llanos foreland basin involved in the energy balance behind inversion that records initiation of the shortening associated and the potential subsequent full accretion from with basement-involved faults. thick-skin regions worldwide (Baby et al. 2013; Carola et al. 2013; Carrera & Munõz 2013; Iaffa et al. 2013; Kober et al. 2013; Moretti et al. 2013; Challenges and techniques of the Eastern Nemcˇok et al. 2013; Teixell & Babault 2013; Cordillera studies Fig. 8a–d) and by considering the systematic data collection from the Northern Andes, an example With regard to movement rates of individual plates of the forceful retro-wedge scenario (Bayona et al. controlling the Eastern Cordillera development 2013; Caballero et al. 2013a, b; Hermeston & history, it is interesting to compare ‘The tectonic Nemcˇok 2013; Jimenez et al. 2013; Mora et al. acceleration since Late Miocene’ noted by Silva 2013; Moreno et al. 2013; Silva et al. 2013; et al. (2013) and ‘The latest Miocene peak shorten- Teixell & Babault 2013; Tesoń et al. 2013; ing rates and out-of-sequence reactivation of the Fig. 8a). This allows an assessment to be made of main inversion faults, coeval with slower-slip foot- all the factors controlling the energy balance. wall edge short-cut faults’ documented by Mora et al. (2013) with the intra-Middle Miocene increase in Mid-Atlantic ridge sea-floor spreading rate The natural laboratory of the Eastern (Cobbold 2011, pers. comm.). Even more interest- Cordillera, Colombia ing is the outcome of the general discussion at the Barichara conference, which concluded that the The advantage of the Eastern Cordillera natural lab- most impressive thick-skin terrains along the entire oratory is the relatively small amount of total short- strike of the Andes are not necessarily correlated ening and the different stages of inversion with flat-slab segments of the subducting Nazca development along its strike from south to north Plate, but can be frequently correlated with seg- (see Hermeston & Nemcˇok 2013). This allows one ments having a steeply dipping subducting slab. to see the details of the transition from initial inver- The role of crustal (lithospheric) thickness vari- sion to full inversion. Serial sections through the ations on the Eastern Cordillera development was crustal distribution of earthquake locations (Her- discussed at the Barichara meeting by Saylor, who meston & Nemcˇok 2013) change along the strike. noted a change at the Oligocene–Miocene bound- They indicate an ongoing strengthening in the ary from the eastward propagating deformation internal Eastern Cordillera in its northern portion front to deformation fronts propagating from both that changes to fault activity at both its flanks and sides of the Eastern Cordillera. We may speculate no internal strengthening in its southern portion. that the cause may be the arrival of increased fore- This resembles lateral sand compaction in sand- land plate buoyancy associated with the thicker box experiments before the appearance of the first, crust of the foreland plate arriving at the conver- large-displacement faults (see Koyi 1995, 1997). gence zone. However, following Hermeston & By analogy, the internal deformation of the axial Nemcˇok (2013), Mora et al. (2013), Saylor (confer- flat region of the Eastern Cordillera has served the ence talk) and Silva et al. (2013), it appears that the Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

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INTRODUCTION 11

Table 1. Factors controlling the orogenic deformation

Factor group Main factor Factor

Main engine Individual plate movement rate Overall convergence rate Orogen movement sense with respect to mantle ﬂow Pro-wedge v. retro-wedge location of the thick-skin region Internal factors Rheologies of deforming layers Existence v. non-existence of potential detachment horizons Occurrence of intrusions Presence of basement buttresses Crustal (lithospheric) thickness variations Thermal regime Inherited strength contrasts Pre-existing anisotropy External factors Syn-tectonic erosion Climate Mean annual precipitation Mean annual temperature Relief Elevation Uplift rate Rock resistance to erosion Syn-tectonic deposition Elastic thickness of the foreland plate Orogen taper Orogen advance rate Effectiveness of denudation Effectiveness of sediment transport into the basin Effectiveness of the sediment distribution system inside the foreland basin Gravity resistance against further shortening owing to increasing potential energy of the orogen

Eastern Cordillera underwent pulses of deforma- (b) development of the mountain building tion migration, characterized by: asymmetry with pronounced building of the eastern flank relief, (1) the eastward arrival of the deformation (c) propagation of the detachment fault front into the region of the future Eastern underneath the frontal thin-skin thrust Cordillera; belt, and (2) the subsequent internal deformational streng- (d) development of new basement-involved thening of the Eastern Cordillera material; and thrust blocks in the proximal Llanos (3) the eastward movement of deformation after basin. the buoyant foreland plate stops flexing, this being accompanied by Two techniques have been used to investigate (a) the orogen deformation intensity the timing of these deformation events. The first, increasing, a low-temperature thermo-chronology method, is

Fig. 7. External and internal factors controlling orogenic deformation (Ellis & Beaumont 1999). (a) Velocity conditions contain pro-mantle lithosphere converging and subducting at uniform velocity vp and retro-mantle converging at uniform velocity vR. Mantle subduction point S moves with velocity vS. Its positive v. negative values represent subduction zone advance v. retreat. (b) Internal model properties include rheologies of deforming layers, detachment horizons, intrusions and inherited strength contrasts. (c) External factors include erosion and deposition modifying the load distribution. Thickened crust grows against increasing gravity resistance because of its increasing potential energy. Loads and thickened layers are ﬂexurally compensated by paired broken elastic beams below the model layer. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

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Fig. 8. Locations of study areas of Special Publication contributions on (a) South American, (b) Asian, (c) African and (d) European continents. Study areas include: 2, Kober et al. (2013); 3, Moretti et al. (2013); 4, Baby et al. (2013); 5, Carrera & Mun˜oz (2013); 6, Iaffa et al. (2013); 7, Carola et al. (2013); 8, Teixell & Babault (2013); 9, Nemcˇok et al. (2013); 10, Jimenez et al. (2013); 11, Moreno et al. (2013); 12, Teso´n et al. (2013); 13, Bayona et al. (2013); 14, Caballero et al. (2013a); 15, Caballero et al. (2013b); 16, Mora et al. (2013); 17, Silva et al. (2013); 18, Hermeston & Nemcˇok (2013). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 13

Fig. 8. (Continued). well suited to portions of the Eastern Cordillera were typically combined with cross section balanc- where syn-tectonic strata are absent. The second, ing. The grid of balanced cross sections (see Mora interpretation of syn-tectonic strata from outcrops et al. 2013; Tesoń et al. 2013) includes several and reflection seismic images, is useful in portions trans-Cordillera profiles. Long regional profiles of the Eastern Cordillera with syn-tectonic strata have allowed a comparison to be made of the and adjacent flexural basins. timing of deformation events derived from thermo- Interestingly a discrepancy in the timing deter- chronology in blocks without syn-tectonic strata and mined using the two methods can sometimes the timing derived from analysis of syn-tectonic occur. Because of this, the low-temperature thermo- strata. Blocks without syn-tectonic strata occur chronology methods used in the Eastern Cordillera in the central portion of the Eastern Cordillera. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

14 M. NEMCˇ OK ET AL.

Syn-tectonic strata are preserved on both sides of the et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2013) and Tesoń et al. Cordillera and in adjacent proximal portions of the (2013). The role of crustal (lithospheric) thickness flexural basins. They were studied either in long variations in thick-skin orogenic deformation is dis- regional balanced cross-sections or in a large grid cussed by Hermeston & Nemcˇok (2013). The role of short, balanced cross-sections cutting through of potential detachment horizons in thick-skin oro- the frontal structures on both sides of the Eastern genic deformation is documented by Moreno Cordillera (see Caballero et al. 2013a, b; Jimenez et al. (2013), who also study the effect of thickness et al. 2013; Mora et al. 2013; Moreno et al. 2013; variations of the syn-tectonic sedimentary wedge. Tesoń et al. 2013). The detailed documentation of ‘detachment lin- kages’ in the serial balanced cross sections of Jimenez et al. (2013) studies the effect of the rheol- Concluding remarks ogies of deforming layers. External factors controlling orogenic deformation are discussed by Silva The development history of thick-skin provinces et al. (2013), Caballero et al. (2013a, b) and starts with initial inversion, characterized by dis- Jimenez et al. (2013), with the first group studying tributed deformation affecting broad regions and the role of syn-tectonic erosion and the remaining resulting in low structural relief. It ends with full groups studying syn-tectonic deposition. accretion, characterized by the deformation localized along margins of the thick-skin province and This special volume is the result of a meeting entitled resulting in a high relief. Initiation, termination ‘Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens; From Initial Inversion and eventual shift of this deformation into a differ- to Full Accretion’, which was funded and organized by ent region is controlled by three groups of factors ECOPETROL-ICP (Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo) in the framework of the project ‘Cronologıá de la deforma- (Table 1), including the main engine (i.e. main cioń en las Cuencas Subandinas’ at Barichara, Colombia, convergence-driving), and internal and external and which took place during 24–27 January 2011. The factor groups. Our conceptual model for complete authors would like to thank all participants of the confer- thick-skin province development and its control by ence for their time-unconstrained discussion after each the factors listed in Table 1 presents the conceptual presentation that resulted in this Special Publication. The framework for an understanding of thick-skin volume contains a collection of unusually interlinked con- orogenic deformation. tributions and provides a relatively unified understanding The following 18 papers in this Special Publi- of the transition from initial inversion to full accretion in cation aim at different aspects of this model, with thick-skin-dominated orogens. L. Jimenez, A. M. Rangel, L. Campinõ and many others are thanked for the help with special focus on the individual controlling factors. logistics that extended well beyond conference guidelines. They are arranged into two main groups, both con- ECOPETROL-ICP and especially A. Reyes-Harker are taining predominantly field-based case studies. thanked for releasing the data from the project ‘Cronologıá The first and smaller group of papers draws from de la deformacioń en las Cuencas Subandinas’, which is the data gathered on thick-skin provinces located the fundamental part of the contributions in this Special anywhere, except the Northern Andes of Colombia Publication by Bayona et al. (2013), Caballero et al. (Fig. 8a–d). Field-based studies determining the (2013a, b), Jimenez et al. (2013), Moreno et al. (2013), role of pre-existing anisotropy in thick-skin oro- Mora et al. (2013), Silva et al. (2013) and Tesoń et al. genic deformation are presented in papers by (2013). Ecopetrol Vex is thanked for releasing data for some of those contributions. The authors are further grate- Baby et al. (2013), Carrera & Munõz (2013), ful to L. Ledveńyiova´, M. Gazˇi, J. Bobrovsky´,J.Mućˇka, Iaffa et al. (2013) and Kober et al. (2013), while T. Klucˇiar, M. Bosˇansky´, I. Nemcˇokova´, I. Perichtova´ the role of the inherited strength contrasts is and O. Pelech for help with figure drafting. studied by Morretti et al. (2013). The effect of the existence v. non-existence of potential detachment horizons on a large scale is discussed by References Carola et al. (2013), and on a smaller scale is discussed by Nemcˇok et al. (2013). The role of buttres- Allmendinger, R. W., Jordan, T. E., Kay,S.M.& sing effects of basement blocks is documented by Isacks, B. L. 1997. The evolution of the Altiplano– Carrera & Munõz (2013) and Iaffa et al. (2013). A Puna Plateau of the Central Andes. Annual Reviews detailed description of the structural architecture of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 25, 139–174. development from initial inversion to full accretion Arbenz, J. K. 1989. The Ouachita system. In: Bally, Palmer stages is given by Teixell & Babault (2013). A. W. & , A. R. (eds) The Geology of North America: An Overview. Geological Society of The second and larger group of papers draws America, Boulder, CO. from the data gathered on the Northern Andes of Babault, J., Teixell, A., Struth, L., Van Den Colombia (Fig. 8a). The role of pre-existing aniso- Driessche, J., Arboleya,M.L.&Tesoń, E. 2013. tropy in thick-skin orogenic deformation is pre- Shortening, structural relief and drainage evolution in sented in papers by Bayona et al. (2013), Mora inverted rifts: insights from the Atlas Mountains, the Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 24, 2021

INTRODUCTION 15

Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the Pyrenees. In: published online March 8, 2013, updated version pub- Nemcˇok, M., Mora,A.&Cosgrove, J. W. (eds) lished online March 8, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/ Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inver- 10.1144/SP377.2 sion to Full Accretion. Geological Society, London, Carola, E., Tavani, S., Ferrer, O., Granado, P., Special Publications, 377. First published online June Quinta`, A., Butille´,M.&Munõz, J. A. 2013. 18, 2013, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP377.14 Along-strike extrusion at the transition between thin- Baby,P.,Rivadeneira,M.,Barragań,R.&Christo- and thick-skinned domains in the Pyrenean Orogen phoul, F. 2013. Thick-skinned tectonics in the Oriente (northern Spain). In: Nemcˇok, M., Mora,A.&Cos- foreland basin of Ecuador. In: Nemcˇok,M.,Mora,A. grove, J. W. (eds) Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: & Cosgrove, J. W. (eds) Thick-Skin-Dominated From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion. 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INTRODUCTION 17

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