The EAAP series is published under thedirectio n of Siem Korveran d Jean Boyazoglu

lUROp.f

Production ofhides , skins,woo l and hair

Symposium organizedby :

European Association forAnima l Production (EAAP)

International Center forAdvance d Mediterranean Studies (CIHEAM)

European Community (EC)

University ofÇukurova , Faculty ofAgricultur e (ÇUZF)

General Directorate ofProject s and Implementation - Turkish Ministry ofAgriculture , Forestry and Rural Affairs (MAFRA)

The European Association for Animal Production wishes to express its appreciation toth e Ministero Agricoltura e Foreste, Associazione Italiana Allevatori and Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Bovini Razza Frisona Italiana for ther valuable support of its activities o /&/ £)CK\/Uw v.-^o., ^ ••:-,,o \

Production of hides, skins, wool and hair

Proceedings of the joint EAAP-CIHEAM-EC-ÇUZF-MAFRA Symposium Adana,Turkey , 2-6 November 1991 (EAAP Publication No. 56)

O. Güney,O . Biçer & M.S. Ranieri (Compilers)

Pudoc Scientific Publishers Wageningen, 1993

yj^^mA As these proceedings were being finalized, we were informed of the untimely passing away of our colleague and good friend Professor YALÇIN. We want to dedicate this issue to his memory, in recognition of his loyal and unselfish action in favour of the Mediterranean Small Ruminant Sector.

Jean Boyazoglu and Jean-Claude Flamant Is t June 1992

BlbLlU'lHiLkjsi rwoßouwuNrvERsiTKi*.

CIP-data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

ISBN 90-220-1067-8 NUGI 835

ISSN 0071-2477

© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc), Wageningen, Netherlands, 1993.

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Printed in the Netherlands Contents

Preface — M.Özsa n 1

Introduction —/ . Boyazoglu, J.C.Flamant 3

Introductive session Chairman: O.Tekinel ; Co-chairman:J.L .Tisseran d Aworl drevie w of hides, skins,woo l andhai rproductio n andmarketin g— W.Krostit z 7 Sheepproductio n inTurke y— E. Pekel, B.C. Yalçin, O. Güney, O. Biçer, O. Torun 25

Session 1.Hides ,skin san dleathe r production Chairman: M.Vail sOrtiz ;Co-chairman :E .Pekel .

Anisotrophy of physical characteristic functions of sheepleathe r— M. Eskolin, M.Marjoniemi, E.Mäntysalo 33 Effects of diseases on theproducti n of hides, skins and animal fibres * — L.Blajan / 38 Effects of abattoirprocedure s on thequalit y of hides and skins *— L. Blajan 43 Theus e of hides in Morocco,characteristic s of the sector * — A. Eddebbarh, B. Jabrane, N. Chraibi 47 Problems andpossibilitie s of theTurkis h privateleathe rindustr y * —T. Kosar 52 TheTurkis h Leather Industry,it sfutur e andpossibilities ,th ecompetitio n with the industry in theEuropea n Community —U.E. Artan 59

Session 2. Environmental problemsassociate d toth eleathe r industry Chairman: R. Février; Co-chairman: O. Öztürkcan

Scientific andtechnica l innovations for controlling the environment and the water waste quality of the leather industry * — A. Simoncini, E.Miriani 67 Possibility ofreductio n andre-usin g thewaste s of Turkish leatherindustr y that causeenvironmenta l pollution— Ö. Sari, AN. Yapici 74 Use of thebiomasse s andth e by-products of theleathe rindustr y in agriculture — S.Silva, C. Baffi 11

Session 3. Breeding andfeedin g inwoo l andhai r production Chairman:V . Timon;Co-chairman :A .Eliçi n

Physiological basis and genetics of wool andhai rproductio n in smallruminant s andrabbit s *— D. Allain, R.G.Thébault, H. deRochambeau 85 Producing desired woolcharacteristic s during fleece growth— ML. Ryder 92 Nutritional characteristics andfeedin g strategies for Angora goats * — P. Morand-Fehr 97 Comparison ofTurkis h angoragoat swit hAmerica n x Turkish crossbred generations in body weight andmohai r traits— B.C. Yalçin, P. Horst, H. Günes 108 Session 4. Angora andcashmer e goats Chairman:R . Sonniez;Co-chairman :H .Alik o

Wool andmohai rproductio n inTurke y— A. Eligin,N. Akman, SM. Yener 115 Mohairproductio n inFrance :valorizin gfleece s bydirec t sales *— A. Billant, M.Joly 118 Cashmereproductio n in China— ML. Ryder 123 Opportunities for cashmere production— R.C. Couchman, E.Tuncel 128 Breedingobjective s for Australian cashmeregoat s— R.W. Ponzoni, D.R. Gifford 135 Phenotypic andgeneti cparameter s for production characteristics of Australian cashmere goats— D.R. Gifford,R.W. Ponzoni, N.J.Simon Ellis, F.C.R. Levinge,ML. Milne 147

Session5 . Woolan dfleece characteristic s Chairman:T .Treacher ; Co-chairman: E.Tunce l

Wool associated toothe r sheepproduct s indifferen t production systems and breedingprogramme s inEurop e— S. Jankowski 157 Objective measurements of wool: stateo f thear t— C. Sergent 162 Colorimetric analysis andmelanin s quantitative determination in thehai r of goats withdifferen t pigmentation genotypes *— C. Renieri, L. Ramunno, N.Montemurro, V.M. Moretti, M.Trabaha Marinucci 170 Carpet wool,productio n andrequirement s— RA. Guirgis 175 Investigations on the suitability of wool,fo r textileproduc t andcarpets ,obtaine d from improved sheep inWester n Turkey— N. Erdem, M.Kaymakçi, R. Sönmez 181 Camel hairan d hides;a revie w * —J.L. Tisserand 185 Fleececharacteristic s of Moroccan breeds of sheep— M. Bourfia, A.Abdelali, M.S.Laidouni, MM. ElHmamsi 190

Session 6. Carpet and rug production Chairman: B. Markotic; Co-chairman: H.Ipe k

Thehistor y andpresen t situation ofTurkis h carpet industry— O. Aslanapa 197 Thecarpe tproductio n andpossibilitie s of improvingproductio n in Eastern Anatolia— N.S.Tellioglu 202 Thepreservatio n of the traditional characteristics of hand-wovenTurkis h carpets andth eimportanc eo fnatura l dyes— G.Paksoy 204 Research anddevelopmen t of thenatura l dyesuse dfo r traditional carpets in the Aegean region "Dobagproject "— M. Aslier 208 The state'srol ei n theTurkis h carpet sector— LH. Güngör 212 Production andloca l transformation of wooli n Algeria * —A. Ayachi, M.T.Benyoucef 215

Discussion pannel and conclusion Chairman:J . Boyazoglu;Co-chairman :K .Doga n

Theexten t towhic h wool,hair , hide andski nproductio n areprofitabl e for farmers; anintroductio n to thediscussio n *— J.P. Boutonnet, J.C.Flamant 225 Poster presentations Coordinator: O.Biçe r

Genetic analysis of greasyfleece weigh t andew elam b growth of the Gentiled i Puglia sheep breed *— C. Renieri,C. Pieramati, S.Dell'Aquila, L. Taibi 233 Postnataldevelopmen t of woolfollicle s ofPramenk a sheepbree d— M. Vegara 236 Heredity of woolfinenes s ofdifferen t sheepbreed s andthei rcrosse s — Z. Causevic, B. Markotic, M.Vegara, A.Smajic, H. Omanovic 239 Thecomparativ e study of woolfollicle s ofPramenka ,Merinolandscha f and Romanoff sheep breeds andthei rcrosse s— B. Markotic, Z.Causevic, M. Vegara, A. Smajic, H. Omanovic 242 Use andproductio n of Angorarabbi t hairi nItal y— C. Lazzaroni, I.Zoccarato, G. PaganoToscano, A.Bosticco, MJ. Auxilia 245 Mohairproductio n districts andconsumptio n of mohairi n Turkey— Y. Yazicioglu, Z. Yildirim 247 Aresearc h on somephysica l properties andprincipa l utilization of mohairs producedi n Ankara andBol u districts— Y. Yazicioglu, Z. Yildirim 249 Cashmere fibre production from Australasian andSiberia n (GornoAltai ) goats in acros s breedingprogramm e— L.C. Roger, A. Waterhouse, N. Wray, M.Gallagher, S.Scanlan 251 Angora goats breeding in Italy:preliminar y data— S. Misiti, M.Antonini, F. Carnevali, F. Castrignan, E.Stella / 254 Ovulation rateo f maiden andmatur e South Australian cashmere does— D.O. Kleemann, D.R.Gifford, TL Grosser, CL. Trengove, F.C.R. Levinge 257 Therelatio n between aptitude for transhumance andfleec e characteristics in seven French sheep genetictype s— J.F. Hocquette, M.Vermorel, J.Bouix 259 Phenotypic correlations andproductiv e wool traits of Australian Merinoan d Polwarth breeds raised in Brazil— E.R. Siqueira, P.F. Vieira, S.B.Pons 263 Repeatability of woolcharacteristic s andbod y shorn weighti n ewes of five breeds,raise d inintensiv e grazing system— E.R.Siqueira, P.F. Vieira, S.B.Pons 266 TheSard a sheep breed andth e local carpet industry —S. Casu, P. Cappai, M.Atzori 269 Present situation andfutur e of hand woven wool carpets— M. Arli, F. Ilgaz, N.Kayabasi 21A Design characteristics in Anatolian carpets— LH. Güngör 276

Summary and conclusions

Summary of symposium sessions— 0. Kaftanoglu 281 Conclusions * —/ . Boyazoglu, J.C.Flamant 290

* texti nFrenc h Preface

Dear Colleagues,

Iti sa grea tpleasur e for mehavin g youher efo r the"Internationa l Symposiumo nProductio n ofHides , Skins,Woo l andHair :Evaluatio n andFutur eRol ei nTh eMediterranea n Basin and TheMiddl eEast "whic h isjointl y organisedb yEuropea n Associationfo r AnimalProductio n (EAAP), International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (QHEAM), the European Community (EC), Çukurova University and The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs in ÇukurovaUniversit y campuso n November 2-6,1991. Ouryoun g University with apas thistor y of only 17year s is situated on 200 0hectare so f landoverlookin g theSeyha nRive rLake ,i nth efourt h largestcit yo fTurkey ,Adana ,th ecente r oftextil eindustr y andmajo r producero f cotton andcitru sfruits . During the symposium,yo u willb ehavin gscientifi c andtechnica ldiscussion swit hyou rcolleague so nman y subjects and will exchanges ideas and information as well. Besides, you will also have the chance to see ourhistorica lan dnatura l beauties.Th echurc h ofSt .Peter si nAntaky aan dth eearl y Christian settlement of Cappadoccia and their natural beauty and historical sites will attract your attention. Your short stayi n Istanbul onyou r arrival oro nyou r departure, will giveyo u achanc et o observeth eminglin go fth ecultures ,historie san dart so fth eEas tan dth eWest . Repeatingm y earnest desire of having you at the Symposium and visiting our University, I would like to express myregard s toyo uall .

Prof.Dr . M.Özsa n Rector University of Çukurova Introduction

TheMediterranea n basin andth eneighbourin gregion shav ea long-standin ghistor yo f sheep andgoa traising .Ther ear evariou sproductio n systems;however ,extensiv e systemspredomi ­ nate. Recent changes had aconsiderabl e effect on the evolution of the traditional chains of smallruminan tproduction ,an dals oo nth eprocessin gan dmarketin go fproducts ,i nparticula r underth eeconomi cinfluenc e ofintensiv eproductio nmodel so fth eNort hEuropea n countries whichprovid eth emarke twit h massproduce dmil k andmea tproducts . This symposium is one among a series of Mediterranean symposia organized every year byEAA P and the CIHEAMi n cooperation withFA O and theEC . Acommo n feature is the search for alternativest ointensiv eproductio nmodels ,base do nimprovin gindividua l perfor­ mances of animals, which are usually proposed by livestock science for meat and milk production. The subject of this symposium shows such aconcern :wha t areth eprospect s for theproductio n ofhides ,skins ,woo lan dhai ri nth eMediterranea nregio n and surroundings? Actually beside meatan dmilk ,anima lhusbandr y produces also by-products,textiles ,lea ­ theran dhides ,intende d notonl yfo r marketing asra wmateria l atinternationa l level, butals o forloca lprocessin gint ospecialize dproducts .Farmer s' attentio nshoul db edraw nt oth eimpor ­ tance of the secondary products particularly whenever the economic relevance of the main products diminishes. It could be apossibl e specialized orientation for the animal husbandry in the Mediterranean basin.Thi s was theissu eo f thisinternationa l symposium. Iti stru etha trecen ttechnica lan deconomi cevolution sa swel la smoder nmarketin gpattern s tended to ignore'th erelevan t importance of these products.Thi s symposium highlighted the fact that this was and still is more a matter of choosing the easy and sometimes convenient way of voluntary marginalizing their importance, rather than developing the more intricate themeo f thepotentia l high commercial valuei n their specificity and their traditional impor­ tancei nth econtex t ofloca l domesticindustrie slinke d toregiona lproductio n andprocessin g patterns, asi t should be. In anutshell , the valorization of these so-called "by-products"wil l allow thereductio n of the global production costs of the sheep and goat industries in our region and can help its development. Atthi spoin ti ti simportan tt oremembe rtha twha tca nb ecalle dth ehide san dskin ssubsecto r concernshere ,ove ran dabov eth esmal lruminants ,als oth ecattl ean deve ncame lan d buffalo productions. From a general standpoint, all these products of the animal sector represent a noteworthy potential of thelivestoc kincome . It seems normal that the national andregiona l agricultural policies (including thoseo f the EC.) shouldgiv emor eattentio nt othes eproducts ,particularl y sincea competition ,no talway s fair, has developed in recent years from far-off, low costproducin g areas of the world. The relevantprocessin gindustrie si nEurop ean di nth eMediterranea nregio n area nimportan tlin k within therura l chain andi t is thus indispensable toevaluat e thefutur e possiblepathway so f development through research and technological information. This symposium can help in this direction. At production level, the fundamental problem could be the improvement of production technicso f thesesecondar yproducts ,particularl yi nth emor edifficul t andmargina lextensiv e production areas with special reference to the local animal genetic resources. It seems tou s that we must aim atlinkin g the obvious aspects of specificity and quality of these products with the concept of acertai n degreeo f modernization of production technics and with some form of dynamic collection andmarketing . Textiles,leathe r and hidesrequir e a greatdea lo fprocessin g andmarketin geffort s before they become afinishe d product that can be purchased by the consumer. Procedure analysis showsthat ,i ffarmer s want tomak egoo dprofit s from theseproducts ,the ymus tintegrat epar t of the added value,particularl y bypersonalizin g theproduc t range.However , inthi s case,i t is amatte ro f"smal l series"tha t cannotpreten d toreac h aru no fcustomers . In thefiel d of transformation, it isprobabl y theupdatin g andmodernizatio n of thepro ­ cessingstructure san dmachiner ytha tw emus tloo kat .The yar emostl yto odisperse dan dscat ­ tered over large areas andthei r technological level isprimitive . This means high production and transformation costs, squandering valuable available resources, and even insufficient qualityo fth emarkete dproducts .Settin gu plarg ecentralize dprocessin gfacilitie s isno tneces ­ sarilyth eanswe rt othi sproblem ;instead ,w eshoul drathe rthin ki nterm so fdevelopin gmedi ­ um-sizedunit sensurin gadequat etechnic san dbette reconomi cprospects .Obviousl ya nup-to - date gradingproces s andminimu m standardso fth eproduct s areabsolutel y necessary.I n any case,long-ter mview sca nonl ylea dt osom eactiv eawarenes sregardin genvironmenta lprotec ­ tion. From themarketin g point ofview ,i t seems that the golden road lies somewhere between specialized productions offering high added value anda planne d diversification andnovelt y of theproducts .I nal lcases ,a lon gter m strategyca n only be thatthe y arecomplementar yt o oneanother ;therefore , alsofro m theinvestmen tpoin to fview ,ther emus tb ea planne dcoope ­ ration between production andtransformatio n zones, andprivat e andpubli c sector involve­ menti s necessary. Wewoul dlik et othan kou rTurkis hcolleague sher efo rmakin gthi smos timportan tmeetin g possible, the Ministry of Agriculture, the local authorities and the leather, hair and carpet industries.W ewoul dlik et omentio ni nparticular , notonl ythos efriend s from Adanabu tals o from Ankara, Istanbul,Burs a andIzmir , butthi s listwoul db eto olong .Though , inth enam e of allo fu sw ewan tt othan k theRector ,Prof . Özsan,an dthroug h himth eDea n ofth eAgri ­ cultural Faculty, Prof. Tekinel, andth eDirecto r ofth eDepartmen t of Animal Science,Prof . Pekel,who ,i ntru eTurkis h tradition,receive d usher ei nth emos tmoder ncampu swhic hthe y builtthemselve swit hhar dtea mwor kan dtenacity ,i na relativel y shorttime .Whe nw estarte d planningthi smeetin gmor etha nfiv eyear sago ,an dou rgoo dfriends ,Professor sElicin ,Dogan , Yalcin, Tuncel, etc. said: "letu sg ot oth esouth" , weha ddifficult y inunderstandin g why in thebeginning .W eal lkno w nowtha tther ewa sa nee dafte r thefirs t successful EAAPsympo ­ sium weha di nAnkar ai n 1983t oconfir m that successi nAdan aeigh t years later. Last butno tleas t a hearty word of thanks, personally andcordially , to ourfrien d Okan Guney and all his colleagues for thehar d work they puti n thepreparatio n of the meeting; without theirdevotio n this wouldno thav e beenpossible . In the name of theorganizer s ando f both CIHEAM andEAA P wewan t to express our appreciation to the European Community andFAO' s European Office without the helpo f whichth eparticipatio n ofman yforeig n scientists tothi smeetin g andth epublicatio n ofthes e proceedings wouldno thav ebee npossible .

J. Boyazoglu, J.C.Flaman t Introductive session

Chairman: O.Tekine l Co-chairman: J.L.Tisseran d Aworl d reviewo fhides ,skins ,woo lan d hair production and marketing

W. Krostitz EAAP Consultant, Berchtesgaden, Germany

Summary Worldsupply ,deman d andparticularl y priceso fhides ,skins ,woo l andderive dproduct s have beensubjec tt oconsiderabl efluctuation s overth epas tquarte rcentury .B y 1991 priceso fbot h hidesan dwoo lfel lt orathe rlo wlevel sa sdeman ddecreased ,wherea ssupplie sincreased ,wit h wool stocks reaching an all-time high. In February 1991 Australia and other major wool exportersdiscontinue d theirpric estabilizatio n schemes,allowin gth ewoo lmarke t tooperat e freely for thefirs t timei n 17years .Followin g the abolition of price stabilization schemesi n major exporting countries, and with the progressive liberalization of wool markets in East Europe,mos to f theworld' swoo li sno wbein gproduce dunde rfre e marketconditions .Trad e inhide s and skinsremain s subject toexpor trestriction s by developing countries. The reduction in demand for consumer goods made from these raw materials has been particularlypronounce di nEas tEurop ean dth eUSSR .Whil eth edevelopin gcountrie saccoun t for the larger part of global population of ruminant animals, productivity in terms of such products asmeat , milk, hides,skin s andwoo li s generally muchlowe r thani n thedevelope d countries. However, there has been a shift in the processing of hides, skins and wool to the developingcountries ,notabl y inEas tAsi a andpart so fLati n America andth eMediterranea n region. Although being increasingly dependent on shipments of hides, skins and wool from theOEC D area, aconsiderabl e number of developing countries have becomelarg e exporters ofleathe ran dleathe rgoods ,a swel la swool-base dtextiles ,i nspit eo fheav yimpor tprotectio n in several industrialized countries. The short-term outlook is for little change in demand and supply in general, although demandfo rwoo lshoul dexperienc esom erecover y duet oth ecurren tlo wrelativ epric eo fthi s commodity.I nth elonge r term,successfu l conclusiono f theGATT' smultilatera l negotiations (Uruguay Round)woul dno tonl yenabl edevelopin gcountrie s tocapitaliz e onthei rcompara ­ tive advantage in theprocessin g of hides, skins and wool, but there could also be some shift towards developing countries in milk and meat production, both for export and domestic consumption.Th eresultan tincreas ei nemploymen tan dincom ewoul dprobabl yals ostimulat e domesticdeman dfo rleathe rgood san dtextile si nth edevelopin gcountries ,whic hb yth eyea r 2000 will account for about four-fifths of global population. At present, average per caput consumptiono fleathe r shoes,fo rexample ,i nth edevelopin gregion sa sa whol ei sonl y about one pair in three years, as against 2-3 pairs a year in West Europe and North America. In contrast, if the Uruguay Round failed, growth in the world livestock and derived products economywoul dpresumabl y besluggish ,an dth edifferenc e inincom ean dconsumptio n levels between OECD countries and developing countries, especially those in Africa and Latin America,migh twide nfurther , accompaniedb ya declin ei nEas tEurop ean dth eSovie tUnion . Presentsituatio nan drecen t developments Production

Although the number ofruminan t animals which provide thehide s and skins,woo l and hair discussedi n thispape r (cattle,buffaloes , sheep, goats and afe w other species)ha s increased over thepas t quarter century or so,growt h haslagge d behindtha ti n humanpopulation .Thi s reflects to someexten trisin gproductivit y peranimal ,notabl yi n terms of milk andmeat , but alsoi nterm so fhides ,skins ,woo lan dhair . Moreover,th erise i ndeman dfo rmilk ,bovin ean d sheepan dgoa tmea tha sslowe do rcom et oa hal taltogethe ri nsevera lpart so fth eworld ,wit h pig and poultry meat accounting for an increasing proportion of global meat consumpti'on. Finally,competitio n fromra wmaterial so fvegetabl eorigin ,suc ha scotto n and synthetics has grown. The developing countries keep the larger part of global population of ruminant animals. However, asca n be seen from Table 1,th edevelope d countriesproduc e not only more meat andmil kbu tals omor ewool ,whil eoutpu to fhide s andskin sfro m bovineanimal san dsheep , in quantitative terms,i sabou t thesam ei nth etw ocategories .Onl y theoutpu t of goat skinsi s concentratedi nth edevelopin gcountries .Milk ,mea tan dwoo lyield si nth egrou po fdevelope d countries are generally higher, which is alsoreflecte d in larger output of hides and skins per animal. But unlike in the majority of developed countries, cattle and buffaloes in the de­ velopingregion s arestil lused ,t oa considerabl eextent ,fo rwork ,whic h whileo f greatimpor ­ tance to the overall economy of the countries tends to depress average yields of meat, milk andhide s aswel l asth e quality of thelatter . According to FAO (FAO, 2), since hides and skins account for only a relatively small proportion of the total value of the animals from which they areobtained , theproductio n of hides and skins rarely forms the principal object of livestock breeding. Cattle and goats are keptchiefl y for theirmea t andmilk ,an dshee pmainl yfo r theirmea tan dwool .I tfollow s that their supply varies independently of changes in the demand for leather and leather products. The collection and marketing of hides and skins in remote areas may intensify when prices risesufficientl y tocove rcost s of collection, handling andtransport , andslacke n when falling prices render collection and marketing unprofitable.

Table 1. Ruminantanimal numbers and their output (late 1980s).

World Developing Developed Total Countries Countries Cattlean d buffaloes (billion head) 1.42 1.02 0.40 Sheep (billion head) 1.18 0.62 0.56 Goats (billion head) 0.53 0.50 0.03 Beaf and veal (million tons) 50.90 16.80 34.10 Sheep and goatmea t(millio n tons) 8.80 5.10 3.70 Milk (all species) (million tons) 528 144 384 Hides and skins (fresh) (million tons) 8.64 4.62 4.02 of which cattle and buffalo 6.90 3.55 3.35 sheep 1.29 0.64 0.65 goats 0.45 0.43 0.02 Wool (clean) (million tons) 1.94 0.54 1.40 Source:FA OProductio n Yearbooks (FAO,l). Morerecently ,cattl enumber s andconsequentl y slaughtering andhide s andskin s outputhav e decreased in almost all developed countries. In North America, the world's principal beef producingregion , the shift indeman dfro m redmea tt owhit emea tha scurbe dcattl e farming. Current beef and dairy cattle numbers are well below the levels registered in the 1970s,an d the historical cattle cycle has virtually disappeared. In WestEurope , where cattle farming is predominantlyoriente dtoward smilk ,government shav etake nmeasure st oreduc ecattl epopu ­ lationsi nvie wo flarg emil kan dbee f surpluses.Ther ehas ,however ,bee n somechang ei nth e composition of West European cattle herds, with specialized beef breeds and their crosses becoming more important. In addition, theproportio n of calves to total cattle slaughterings hasfalle n and,i nth evea l sector,calve shav ebee nfattene d toheavie rweights .Th eUSS Ran d EastEurope ,wher ecattl efarmin gi sals omostl ymilk-oriented ,hav eexperience da contractio n in cattle numbers since the late 1980s which has accelerated in 1990/91. The decline was particularly sharp in theforme r German Democratic Republic when its agriculture andlive ­ stocksecto rha dt oadjus t toa completel yne weconomi csituatio nan dth ecommo nagricultura l policyo fth eEuropea nCommunity .A t11 6millio ni nearl y 1991,th eU SS Rstil lha dth elarges t cattlepopulatio n amongdevelope dcountries ,althoug hthi swa s5 percen tles stha na tth e198 6 peak. In terms of beef and hides,however , theU S continues to be the number oneproduce r in thedevelope dregions ,i n spiteo f thefal l incattl enumber sfro m arecor d levelo f 132millio n in 1975 to slightly less than 100millio n by theen d of the 1980s,wit h only a small recovery in most recent years. Japan has been one of the few developed countries experiencing some increase in cattle numbers, although thecountr yremain s arelativel y smallproduce r of milk, beef and hides.I n fact, withdeman d for beef anddair yproduct s outpacing domesticproduc ­ tion, Japan has gradually opened its market andraise d imports. This in turn has encouraged beef output in North America and Oceania for export toJapan . In the past, developments of the beef cattle population of Australia and New Zealand had largely paralleled those in the US, themai n outlet for Oceanian beef.Cattl efarmin g in Australia, asi n theUS , is basically beef-oriented, while New Zealand is an important producer and exporter of beef and milk products. In the developing regions, China and other countries in East Asia have expanded cattle numbers with avie w tosatisfyin g higherdeman d for beef andmilk . Indiacontinue s tob eth e countrywit hth elarges tnumbe ro fbovin eanimal si nth eworl dbut ,becaus eo freligiou screed , slaughterings arelimite d and the bulk of hides output is obtained from fallen animals.I n the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey is by far thebigges t producer of beef and hides.Whil e Africa accounts for arelativel y small proportion of global cattle population, Latin America has traditionally been a major consumer and exporter of beef.However , the almost chronic depression ofprice si n international beef trade sinceth emid-1970s , accompanied bydecrea ­ singdeman dfo rbee f athome ,ha scurbe dcattl efarmin g inman ycountrie so fthi sregion ,mos t notably in Argentina. By the late 1980s, cattle numbers in Argentina had fallen below 50 million from over 60millio n at theirpea k in 1977, although there has been a slight increase at the beginning of this decade. On average, in the developing countries the offtake rate in cattlefarmin g is about 13 percent andbee f carcass weight 161kg ,compare d with 36percen t and 242 kg respectively, in the developed countries. The resultant lower yields in terms of hides andskin s areofte n accompanied bylowe rqualit yo f theseby-products .Hence ,ove rth e paston ean da hal fdecade so rso ,cattl ean dbuffal o numbershav etende dt orise i nthos epart s ofth eworl dwher ehide sproductivit yan dqualit yar erelativel ylow .I ncontrast ,cattl enumber s havebee nreduce dsharpl yi nsuc hregion sa sNort hAmerica ,th elarges tproduce ran dexporte r of cattle hides, and Scandinavia, the hides and skins of which are appreciated for their high quality. However, the short term effect of measures to curb excess milk production in West European dth econtractio no flivestoc kindustrie si nEas tEurop eha sbee na temporar yincreas e incattl e slaughterings andhid e supplies in 1990/91. Goat farming has staged some recovery in the developed regions, mainly for milk and hair production, but, as can be seen from Table 1, most goats continue to bekep t in developing countries,wit hAsi aan dAfric a asth emos timportan tregions .India ,China ,Pakistan ,Ira nan d Turkey have the largest goat populations. In a number of developing countries, notably in Africa andLati nAmeric a whereincome s andstandard so flivin ghav ebee n falling, thereha s been someshif t from larget osmal lruminants ,suc ha sgoat san dsheep ,a swel la si nconsume r demand from beef to goat and sheep meat. According toFA O (FAO,2) , goat skins tend to accountfo r ahighe rproportio n of thegros scarcas svalu etha n skins andhide s from sheepo r cattle.However ,i nquantitativ e terms,globa loutpu t of goat skins ismuc h lower. In the case of sheep numbers and sheep skin output, developing and developed countries share about equally in the world total. In the former category, Asia and Africa are the most importantregions ,althoug hth eproportio no fLati nAmeric ai slarge rtha ni nth ecas eo fgoats . China, Turkey, India, Iran and Pakistan are the biggest producers of sheep skins in Asia. In Africa, Nigeria and Ethiopia are the main producers, and in Latin America, Argentina and Uruguay.Th elatte rtw ocountrie skee pshee pprimaril y for woolproduction . Chinaexpande d sheepfarmin g duringth e 1980swit ha vie wt oraisin goutpu to fbot hwoo lan dmeat ,althoug h theexpansio n seemst ohav ecom et oa hal tmos trecently .Shee pmil ki sappreciate di nsevera l countries of Asia andAfrica , and someshee pbreed s alsoprovid ehair . Among the developed countries, sheep milk is of some importance in Southern Europe. However, lamb production is the main objective of sheep farming in Western Europe, with mutton,woo lan dskin sarisin ga sby-products .Suppor tgrante dt oshee pmea tproducer sunde r thecommo n agricultural policyresulte di n a substantial expansion inE C sheep flocks in the 1980s,althoug hmeasure shav erecentl ybee ntake nt ocurtai lthi sincrease .I nEas tEurop ean d theU SS Ra hig hdegre eo fself-sufficienc y inwoo lwa son eo fth eobjective s oflivestoc kpoli ­ cies untilth elat e 1980s.Nonetheless , sheepfarmin g in theUSS Rha sexperience d adecreas e since the second half of the 1980s, the contraction accelerating at the beginning of the new decade.I nth eforme r GermanDemocrati cRepubli cth ewool-oriente dshee psecto rwa svirtu ­ ally wiped out in 1990/91 during the rapid integration of East Germany into the European Communitywhic hprovide sn ospecifi c supportt owoo lgrowers .Remova lo fsuppor tcouple d withliberalizatio no fwoo limport sha sals ocurbe dshee pfarmin gi nsevera lneighbourin gEas t European countries, although greater emphasis isno w given tolam b production. TheU Sre ­ mainson eo fth efe w developedcountrie swher egovernmen tgrant s supportt owoo lgrowers , butshee pfarmin g hasfo r alon gtim ebee na ninsignifican t itemi nth eU Slivestoc k economy. WhileNe wZealan di sa nimportan tproduce ran dexporte ro flam ban dwool ,shee p farming inAustrali aan dSout hAfric a iswool-oriented .Shee pnumber sros erapidl yi nAustrali adurin g the second half of the 1980s, and the country has again become the world's biggest sheep producer although theupwar dtren dha s beenreverse da tth ebeginnin go fth e 1990s.I n 1990 Australia kept some 173millio n sheep,4 0 million more than ten years ago,prio r toth e start ofth eexpansionar yphas ei nth ecurren twoo lcycle .Bu tflock shav ebee nsignificantl y reduced by 1991.Th eSout hAfrica n sheeppopulatio ndecrease db ynearl ya fift h duringth e 1970san d thefirs t half of the 1980s although itha srecovere d somewhat morerecently . Sheep farming in New Zealand has contracted since the early 1980s,wit h some shift towards merino wool production.Whil ether eha sbee na rapi dincreas ei nth enumbe ro fothe rsmal lruminants ,suc h as goats and deer, totalpopulatio n of deer and goats at about 2 million accounted forjus t 2 percento fNe wZealan dlivestoc kpopulatio n (interm so flivestoc kunits )i n 1990.Inventorie s of farmed deer and other gameruminan t animals have also increased in Australia andWes t Europe, reflecting growing demand for venison and policies to discourage dairy farming. Overall, world production of hides and skins is estimated to have increased by about a tenth during thepas tdecade ,wit houtpu t of bovinehide san dskin srising a ta slowe rpac etha ntha t of sheep andgoa t skins. In global woolproduction , the developed countries' share is much larger than in that of sheepskins ,a sshow ni nTabl e 1. Asa matte ro ffact ,five develope dcountries ,Australia ,Ne w

10 Zealand, theUSSR , theUnite d Kingdom and South Africa, account for nearly two-thirds of world wool output. The first two, Australia and New Zealand, which are by far the largest suppliersi nth einternationa lwoo lmarket ,alon eproduc eove r4 0percen to fth eworld' swool . In theU K and elsewhere in theEC , support to sheep meatproducer s has alsoresulte d in an increase in wool output. In New Zealand the contraction of sheep farming and wool output sinceth eearl y 1980sreflected , toa larg eextent ,th ediscontinuatio n of government subsidies on sheep meat and wool, although the wool industry maintained its own price stabilization scheme(introduce di n 1952)unti learl y 1991.I nearl y 1991,woo lboard si nNe wZealan dan d otherproducer san dexporter si nth esouther nhemispher ecease dsettin gfloo rprices ,followin g the suspension of theAustralia n WoolCorporation' s reservepric e schemei nFebruar y 1991. Thepermanen tabolitio no ftha tschem ewa sannounce db yth eAustralia nGovernmen ti nMa y 1991. Inth edevelopin gregions ,Chin aexpande dwoo loutputrapidl ydurin gth e1980s ,becomin g theleadin gproduce ri nthi scategory ,althoug hth eris eha slevelle dou tmos trecently .Argentin a and Uruguay are the next most important producers, being also the largest exporters among developing countries.Othe r major producers arePakistan , Turkey,Morocco ,Indi aan dIran . Overth epas tdecad eworl dwoo loutpu t grewb yalmos ta fifth . Theexpansio n accelerated during the second half of the 1980s,chiefl y reflecting the developments in Australia, China and toa lesse rexten t theEuropea n Community.Accordin gt oth eCommonwealt h Secretariat (1991),i n 1990/91merin owoo l (of whichAustrali ai sth ebigges tproducer ) accountedfo r4 6 percent of world raw wool output, crossbred wool (which is mainly used for carpets and of whichNe wZealan di sth ebigges tproducer )fo r2 5percen tan dothe rwoo l(o fwhic hth eUSS R and Chinaar eth ebigges t producers) for theremainder . Hair, produced by such ruminant animals as goats, some sheep breeds, alpaca or vicuna, albeitimportan t for somecountries , amounts toonl y aver y smallfractio n of total supplieso f naturaltextil efibre s anda neve nsmalle rportio no fth ecombine dsupplie so fnatura lan dman - madetextil efibres , asca n besee nfro m Table2 .

Internationaltrade andprices

The proportion of world output of hides, skins and wool that enters international trade is considerably higher thani sth ecas eo fothe rproduct sderive d from ruminant animals,suc ha s meatan ddair yproducts .A swit hmea tan ddair yproduct s thedevelopin gcountrie s asa grou p have been net importers of hides, skins and wool inth erecen tpast . However, since mucho f thefinal product smad efro m thesera wmaterial si ssol dt odevelope dcountries ,th edevelopin g countries arene texporter s inoveral l tradei n hides, skins,woo l andthei r derivedproducts . According toFA O(FA O2 an d5) ,th eexpansio n of tradei n bovinehide s andskin sdurin g thepas ttw odecade sreflecte d exclusivelylarge rshipment sfro mdevelope dcountries ,wherea s

Table2. Worldoutput of textile fibres (late 1980s).

100 0ton s Percent share

Total 3800 0 100 Man-made 17 600 46 Natural 2040 0 54 of which: cotton 17 500 46 wool (clean) 1950 5 mohair 25 - Source: Commonwealth Secretariat andFA O(FAO , 4).

11 exportso fdevelopin gcountrie shav edecrease dsignificantly , asca nb esee nfro m Table3 .Th e UScontinue st ob eth eleadin gsupplie ri nth einternationa lmarke to fbovin ehides ,accountin g for over athir d of totalexports .Th e sharpris ei ncompetitively-price d hide exports from the USSRha dpropelle d this country intoth esecon dpositio n amongworl dexporter s duringth e secondhal fo fth e 1980s,althoug hthi sgrowt hha slevelle dof fi nmos trecen tyears .I ncontras t shipments from Australia, the thirdlarges t supplier, haverecovered , in line with an upswing in beef output. Exportablesupplie sfro mdevelopin gcountrie shav eremaine dscarce ,give nth ewidesprea d exportrestriction so nra whide simpose dt oensur esuppl yt oth eexpandin gtannin gan dleathe r industries. Such important producers of hides and skins asIndia ,Pakista n and Argentina are amongthos ecountrie stha thav ebanne dexport so fra whide s altogether.Export so fshee pan d goat skins haveincrease d less, although,a sshow ni nTabl e3 , thereha sbee n asimila rchang e in the shares of developed and developing countries asi n the bovine sector. Importpattern s continue toreflec t the steady shift intannin g activities from developed to developingcountries .I nrecen tyears ,th eRepubli co fKore aha sovertake n Italy asth elarges t buyero fcattl ehides .Impor trequirement shav eals ogrow ni nThailan dan dIndonesia ,i norde r tosatisf y theneed so fthei rexpandin gtannin g sectors,a scapacitie sar ebein gtransferre d from higher-costcountrie s ofEas tAsia ,notabl yth eRepubli co fKorea ,an dTaiwan .I nfact , import requirements of Taiwan have declined in the wake of the transfer of tanning capacity to the People'sRepubli co fChin aan dothe rcountrie so fth eFa rEas t Inth eNea rEast ,Turke ywhos e economy is experiencing one of the highest growth rates in the world, hasraise d imports of hidesan dskins .Wherea si nLati nAmerica ,Argentina' sleathe rindustr ydepend so n domestic rawmaterials ,Mexico' sexport-oriente dleathe rindustr yha ssubstantiall yincrease dpurchase s from abroad in recent years, but Brazil has bought less due to a we:4cdomesti c economy. Amongth edevelope dcountrie s Italyan dJapa nremai n thelarges timporter s althoughimport s have levelled off or decreased more recently as have imports of East European countries,

Table 3. Exportsof rawhides and skins^.

Bovine hides Sheepan d goat skins

Production Share in world trade Production Share inworl d trade (103 tons) (%) (103 tons) (%)

60's 80's Growth 60's 80's 60's 80's Growth 60's 80's

World 1180.4 1830.4 55.1 100.0 100.0 209.6 220.3 5.1 100.0 100.0 Developed countries 884.7 1683.5 90.3 74.9 92.0 119.2 152.3 27.8 56.9 69.1 Developing countries:2 295.7 147.0 -50.3 25.1 8.0 90.4 67.9 -24.9 43.1 30.8 Latin America 199.8 17.2 -91.4 16.9 0.9 15.2 2.9 -80.9 7.2 1.3 Near East3 4.8 18.7 289.6 0.4 1.0 40.7 40.4 -0.7 19.4 18.3 Asia & Pacific region 24.5 63.6 159.6 2.1 3.5 12.9 7.8 -39.5 6.2 3.5 Africa 66.2 47.0 -29.0 5.6 2.6 21.5 16.8 -21.9 10.3 7.6 1 Late 60's andlat e80's . 2 Figure shownma y beslightl ydifferen t from thesum-tota l duet oexistenc e of some 'otherdevelopin g countries'no t shown separately. 3 ExcludingEgypt ,Liby a and Sudan which wereinclude d in Africa.

12 among which Czechoslovakia had become the largest buyer in the 1980s. Weaker import demand ofth eleathe rindustrie si n severalOEC Dcountrie sha sbee n duet o acombinatio n of factors, such as rising labour costs, more stringent effluent control legislation and a mild economic recession. However, in East Europe the demand has decreased more sharply, as incomeshav efallen , subsidieso nbasi cconsume r goodsbee nremove d andexport so f leather shoes toth eUSSR , themai n outlet for EastEuropea n exporters, decreased. In this situation, worldmarke tprice so fhide shav efalle n considerably sinceth emiddl eo f 1990,a sillustrate d inFigur e 1.Thi schar tals oshow sth ehig hdegre eo f volatility ofprice si ninternationa l hides J3ade_qyerth epas t threedecades . The bulk of wool that enters international trade also comes from developed countries, in particular Australia and New Zealand, followed by South Africa. In the developing regions, Argentina andUrugua y havetraditionall y beenth emai nexporters ,bu ta sa grou pth edevelo ­ pingcountrie s havea larg ene timport .A si nth ecas eo fhide san dskins ,processin g capacities in thedevelopin g countries have grown faster than in the developed regions,partl y for ship­ ment of finished goods to developed countries. China, Taiwan, the Republic of Korea,Indi a andTurke yhav ebecom emajo r importerso fra wwool ,althoug hi nChin ath erapi dexpansio n of textileproductio n seendurin gmos to f the 1980sha s beenreverse d mostrecently .Overall , however, the shift in wool processing from developed todevelopin g countries has been less pronounced than in the hides and skins sector,partl y reflecting arelativel y higher degreeo f protectionism. In fact, thedevelope d countries still accountfo r thelarges tpar to f world wool imports, with the EC being the biggest purchaser, followed by Japan, the USSR and theU S (Table4) . Inth einternationa lwoo lmarket ,price shav ebee nunde rdownwar dpressur efo rabou tthre e years,a sillustrate db yFigur e2 .Thi sfollowe d ashar pincreas edurin gth eperio d 1984t o198 8 whenth eAustralia nWoo lCorporatio nraise dit ssuppor tpric e(i nloca lcurrency )b y8 5percent , accompanied by similar steps inothe rexportin g countries. (Itma y bewort h mentioning that, unlike thegovernment-finance d agricultural intervention schemes inWes tEurop e andNort h America, these stabilization schemes arelargel yfinance d byth ewoo lindustrie s of thecoun ­ triesconcerned. )Hig h supportprice s stimulatedoutput ,notabl yi nAustralia ,bu t discouraged demand andeventuall y led toth eaccumulatio n of large stocks,reachin g arecor d levelo f 0.5 million tons,i.e . one-fourth of world production at the beginning of the 1990/91 marketing year. Stocks rose further by 1991,wit h Australia alone holding more than 0.5 million tons early thisyear .I n this situation thefloo r pricei nAustrali a wasreduce d by2 0percen t inJun e 1990and , asmentione d in thepreviou s section, support purchasing wasdiscontinue d altoge­ theri nearl y 1991. According to USDA, the recent decline in wool demand partly reflected a switch by the textile industry to cotton and man-made fibres at a time when technical innovations in the manufacture ofman-mad efibr ean di nth eprocessin go fcotto nknitwea rprovide da wid erang e oftextur echoices ,enhancin g substitution.Moreover , economic growth has slowedi n several OECD countries, the principal wool consumers, which, together with thereactio n torecor d woolprices ,cause d asignifican treductio n inconsumption .However , thedecreas ei ndeman d was much more pronounced in East Europe and the USSR, for similar reasons to those mentioned withregar d to hides and skins, aswel l asi n China, ascountrie s suffered notonl y from an, at least temporary, contraction of demand, but also an acute shortage of foreign exchange tobu yra wmaterial si n theinternationa l market.Eas tEurope , theUSS R andChin a accounted for nearly 40percen t of world consumption of virgin wool (atth e spinning stage) by the wool textileindustr y during the secondhal f of the 1980s. The collapse of wool prices in international markets has been accompanied by a sharp reduction in prices of hair. According to Laniera (1991),price s of South African mohair, in terms of Italian Lire,decrease d by about athir d in the courseo f calendar year 1990.Curren t priceso fPeruvia n Alpacahai rar eonl yone-thir do fth elevel so fthre eyear s agoan dno tmuc h higher thanwoo lprices ,accordin g toa recen trepor ti nth eFinancia lTimes ,(Financia lTimes ,

13 Figure1. Cattlehide prices (US$per kg;Light native cowe hides, Chicago)

US J/kg 12

10

g | 1 I I 1 1 I I I I | 1_1 I I | I L_l I | I I L_J | ' I [_ 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Figure2. Woolprices (US$per kg,c.i.f. London).

Table4. Trade inwool (late 1980s, thousandtons, clean).

Exports Imports

World 420 400 Developing countries 70 150 Developed countries 350 250 Source:FA O(FA O ,1 )

14 15 August 1991).Peru' sAlpac aindustr yha sprogressivel ymove dint omanufacturing , expor­ ting cloth andknit s rather thanra wfibre o r tops which are more susceptible to international pricefluctuations. Per uan dBolivi akee pmos to fth eworld' sAlpaca ,althoug hther eha srecent ­ lybee n someexpor to fliv eanimals ,a tattractiv eprices ,t odevelope dcountries ,notabl yNe w Zealand andth eUS .Chil eha sbee nexpandin git spopulatio n ofvicuna sfo r theproductio n of atyp eo fhai rwhic hi ssai dt ob esofte rtha ncashmere .Fo rcashmer eChin aha srecentl yreduce d itsexpor tpric efro m US$9 5t oUS$ 7 9pe rkg .

Processing

Fromth een do fth e18t hcentury ,i.e. ,th ebeginnin go fth eindustria lrevolution ,unti lwel lint o the 20th century, the rapidly expanding processing industries in Europe, and somewhat later North America and Japan, conquered world markets, as aresul t of which, especially in the textilesector ,muc ho fth eexistin gloca lindustrie si nwha ti sno wcalle dth edevelopin gregions , was virtually eliminated. From a small net importer Europe turned into a large net exporter. However, during the second half of the 20th century leather and textile industries in thede ­ veloping countries grew muchfaste r than inth edevelope d regions. According toFA O (FAO,5) ,ther eha sbee n adrasti c shift in tanning andleathe r products manufacturing capacities awayfro m theindustrialize dcountries ,particularl ythos ebelongin g toth eOECD ,t oth edevelopin gcountries .Ove rth epas tquarte rcentur y orso ,th edevelopin g countrieshav echange dfro m ane texporte rt oa ne timporte rpositio ni nhide san dskin strade . Whileworl dproductio n ofligh tcattl eleathe rha srise n byabou tthre equarters'sinc eth eearl y 1960s, that of developing countries has grown by over 150percent . Similarly, while global leather footwear manufacturing rose by 60percent , that of the developing countries grewb y 180percent , to account for 40percen t of all shoesproduce d in the second half of the 1980s, against2 0percen t2 5year searlier .B yth esam etoken ,th epac eo f growthi nexport so fleathe r and leather footwear from developing countries has been much faster than for developed countries. The former group accounted for 40percen t of leather shoes entering international tradei n thelat e 1980s,compare d withmerel y 8percen ti n theearl y 1960s.However , growth has been uneven among developing countries.Export s of theAsi a andPacifi c region and,t o a lesser extent Latin America and the Mediterranean region, grew fast but Africa's share in world tanning and manufacturing output and trade remained small. Although being major producers of hidesan dskins ,countrie si nsub-Sahara n Africa haveofte n failed inthei r efforts toestablis h local manufacturing industries. In the 1980s, the USSR was by far the world's largest producer of shoes. Among OECD countries,Italy ,th e US,Spai n andFranc eremaine dmajo r producers, but output stagnated or declinedi nth eOEC Dare aa swel la sth eUSS Ran dEas tEurop edurin gth e 1980s. Incontrast , shoeindustrie s in countries such asChina ,India , Republic of Korea,Turke y and Brazil have experienced very rapid growth. High processing costs and increasingly stringent effluent control legislation have been amongth efactor s causingth eshif t intannin gan dleathe rindustrie sfro m OECDt odevelopin g countries.Mor erecently ,ther eha sals obee na transfe rfro m severalEas tAsia ncountrie swher e costs have reached relatively high levels, such asTaiwa n and the Republic of Korea, to the People's Republico f Chinaan dSout hEas tan dSout hAsia .Wit hth emai nexceptio n ofJapan , markets of shoesan dothe rleathe r goodso fth eOEC Dcountrie s arerelativel y open.Th eUS , for instance, has raised its net imports of shoes and leather products almost tenfold to over US$ 10billio nbetwee nth emid-1970 san d 1990(U SLeathe rIndustrie sStatistics) .Othe rlarg e markets_areGermany ,France ,th eU K and,despit eit shug edomesti c output, theUSSR . AÎtKoughth e developed countriesremai n thelarges t importers ofra w wool and manufac­ turers of wool textiles, there has also been apronounce d shift of fibre-processing capacities 1^ todevelopin g countries. According toFA O (FAO4) ,i n the mid-1980s almost 50percen t of alltextil efibre s werespu ni nth edevelopin gcountries ,a sagains t3 7percen ti n 1975.Th eex -

15 pansioni nmil lactivit ywa saccompanie db ya shar pincreas ei nexport so ftextil emanufacture s by developing countries, although the expansion was most pronounced in cotton and man- madefibr e manufactures. Unlikei nth eleathe r sector,Japan' s market for textilesi srelativel y open, with capacities beingprogressivel y shifted towards Asian developing countries where costsar elower .Import sint oWes tEurop e andNort hAmeric ahav ebee n subjectt osubstantia l restrictions under the Multi-Fibre Arrangement. Li the developed regions, the USSR, Italy, Japan, Germany and the UK are the largest processors of wool, while China is the biggest manufacturer of wool textiles amongdevelopin g countries andth eworld' s second largest.

Consumption

Although the developed countries export a sizeable portion of their production of hides and skinsan dwoo lt oth edevelopin gregions ,muc ho fthi scome sbac ki nth efor mo f semi-finished orfinishe d consumergoods .Thus ,pe rcapu tconsumptio no fleathe ran dwoo li nth edevelope d regions iswel l abovetha ti nth e developing countries, asca nb e seenfro m Tables 5an d6 . The wide differences may bepartl y due to climate, but the principal factor is income. In fact, largelyreflectin g incomes,pe rcapu tconsumptio n levelsi nth edevelopin gregion s differ not only substantially from country to country but, within countries, also between income groups.O n thewhol e inth edevelopin g countries, notmuc h improvement has occurred over the past quarter century or so.I n this group of countries theproportio n of leather going into shoesha sbee ngraduall yincreasing ,wherea si tha sbee ndecreasin gi nth edevelope dcountries . Onth eworl dlevel ,probabl y somewhatles stha nhal fo ftota lleathe routpu ti suse di nfootwea r manufacture. In Western Europe and North America per caput consumption of shoes seems to be near saturation point level, although demand for other leather goods is stillrising .I n quantitative terms,pe rcapu t consumption ofleathe r shoes andwoo li nEas tEurop e and theUSS R in the 1980s wasabou t the same asi n theOEC Darea , in spite ofgenerall y lowerincomes .Thi sre ­ flected governmentpolicie s tokee pretai lprice so f basicconsume r goods low,usin gmassiv e subsidiest obridg eth edifferenc e betweenth ecost so fproductio nan dth efina lconsume rprice . However,wit hcountrie s movingt oa marke teconomy ,consumptio nha sfalle n sharply byth e beginningo f the 1990s. Inth eforme r GermanDemocrati cRepubli c mucho f theloca lleathe r and textile industry was laid idle, when following the abrupt integration into the European Community in 1990,income s decreased, subsidies wereremove d andconsumer s switched to

Table 5. Apparentconsumption ofleather shoes (pairs per caputper year).

Early 1960s Mid 1980s

World 0.8 0.8 Developing countries 0.2 0.3 LatinAmeric a 0.8 0.8 Africa 0.1 0.1 NearEas t 0.5 0.8 Asia and Pacific 0.2 0.3 Asian centrally planned 0.1 0.1 Developed countries 1.9 2.2 NorthAmeric a 2.8 2.7 WestEurop e 1.8 2.1 EastEurop e andUSS R 2.0 2.8 Source:FA O (FAO,5 )

16 Table 6. Apparentannual consumption ofwool and total apparel fibres (mid1980s, kg per caput).

rool Total fibres

World 0.4 7.1 Developing countries 0.1 3.8 Latin America 0.2 5.2 Africa 0.1 1.3 NearEas t 0.6 7.0 Asia and Pacific 0.0 2.6 Asian centrally planned 0.2 4.9 Developed countries 1.2 18.0 NorthAmeric a 0.8 26.0 WestEurop e 1.3 16.2 EastEurop e andUSS R 1.3 15.4 Source:FA O(FA O ,4 )

Table 7. ECImports from thirdcountries ofwool carpets in1989 (10 3 ECU).

TotalE C W.German y

Carpets comprising <35 0knot s per metreo f warp knotted Totalimport s 264 182 of which from Nepal 68 54 China 54 24 Morocco 46 43 India 44 33 Iran 15 7 Turkey 6 3 Carpets comprising 300-500knot s Totalimport s 397 283 of which from Iran 214 156 India 63 56 Turkey 45 29 Afghanistan 19 16 China 17 8 Pakistan 14 4 USSR 11 8 Carpetscomprisin g >50 0knot s Totalimport s 206 132 of which from Pakistan 71 33 India 56 44 Iran 40 30 China 19 16 Turkey 9 7 USSR 5 5 Source:Eurostat .

17 western goods.Similarly ,i nth eneighbourin gcountrie so fEas tEurope ,rising unemploymen t andinflation ,remova lo fsubsidie san dgradua lliberalizatio no ftrad ehav ecurbe ddeman dfo r and output of leather goods and textiles. This decline has been reinforced by areductio n of exports to the USSR while access to OECD markets has remained restricted. In the USSR, following a 5 percent decline in 1990, the output of textiles and footwear decreased by 11 percent each in thefirs t half of 1991, whileimport s of textiles and footwear and distribution through thestat ean dcooperativ eretai l networkfel leve nmor e sharply (Ekomomikai Zhizn No.30 ,Jul y 1991).I nth e sameperiod ,productio n ofleathe rfootwea r declined by2 4percen t inPolan d and 12percen t in Czechoslovakia. Output of woollenfabric s wasdow n 23percen t inbot hcountries .Hungary' stextil ean dleathe rindustrie sbot hcontracte db y2 4percen ti nth e first half of1991 . Next to textiles and clothing, carpets and other floor-coverings are probably the most important itemi nworl d wool usage,especiall y insofar ascoars ewoo li sconcerned .Fluctua ­ tionsi nprice so fcoars ewoo lhav ebee nsmalle rtha ni nthos eo ffin e wool.Also ,internationa l trade in carpets is subject to lessrestriction s than thati n textiles andclothing , with customs tariffs being lower. WestEurop e is by far the chief outletfo r carpets made in the developing countries, notably in Asia and North Africa. Annual registered purchases of knotted carpets byE Can dothe rWes tEuropea n countries haveexceede dUS $ 1billio n inrecen tyears . Table7 show simport so fthre ecategorie so fcarpet so fwoo lint oth eEuropea n Community andWes tGermany ,th elarges tbuye r (International TradeCentre , 1980an d 1981).Durin gth e second half of the 1980s,th e officially recorded valueo f WestGerma n imports of the above typeso fcarpet sros ea ta nannua lrat eo f3 percentt oreac hD M 1.1 billioni n 1990.Th elarge r market of united Germanyi s likely toexperienc efurthe r growthi nth e 1990s.

Outlook Short-term

Global supplies of hides and skins are unlikely tochang emuc h during the next yearo rtwo . In East Europe and the USSR cattle and sheep numbers are still decreasing. The mid-1991 census in the USSR showed areductio n in cattle and sheep (including goats) inventories on statean dcollectiv efarm s by4 an d9 percent ,respectively ,compare d withJul y 1990.I nWes t Europeth eexpansio ni nshee pnumber si sslowing .Th ecattl epopulation ,althoug h stillmilk - oriented, is gradually changing towards increased beef output. Slaughterings of cattle in the ECar eexpecte d toris esomewha ti nth eearl y 1990s,partl ydu e toeffort s tocur bexces smil k output, but they should decline towards the mid-1990s. There will also be some increase in slaughterings in North America, Oceania and Japan, with the proportion of intensively fed animals rising further. In the developing regions China intends to expand its population of ruminantanimal st omak ebette rus eo fit svas tarea so fgrassland ,bu tconsiderabl eeffort s will be necessary to improve pasture productivity. Although overall output of hides and skinsi n developing countries will probably grow only slowly, technological developments such as more widespread splitting of hides could addt oleathe r supplies in this group ofcountries . wooloutpu ti sforecas t tofal l by4 percen ti n 1991/92,followin g a 1 percentdeclin e in 1990/91, according to the International Wool Textile Organization. Oceania, East Europe !/ and theUSS R arelikel y to account for most of thereduction , with apossibl e small increase in West Europe and China. Australian production in 1991/92 is forecast to decrease by 10 percent, with sheep numbers in early 1992expecte d to be 155million , about2 0millio n less thani n 1990.However ,tota lsupplie sfro m currentproductio nan dstock swil lprobabl yexcee d thepreviou s year's level by some6 percent , andthu sremai n wellabov eth erequirement s of theworl d wool textilemanufacturin g industry.

18 Following a 13percen t contraction in 1990, consumption of wool has started to recover in recent months, a recovery which should continue into 1992,reflectin g the present very low relative price of wool, replenishment of traders' and manufacturers' stocks and somewhat improved economic conditions in several OECD and developing countries, although the recession mayno tye thav ebottome d outi nth eUSS R andEas tEurope .Wit h global supplies exceedingdemand ,woo lprice swil lremai nrelativel ylo wi nth eshort-term .I nfact ,th eAustra ­ lianBurea uo fAgricultura l andResourc eEconomic sexpect sa 3 0percen tdecreas ei naverag e woolprice si nAustrali ai n 1991/92,althoug hprice scoul dincreas e slowlyove rth e following few years. Prospects ofdeman dfo r leather aresimilar .However ,FA Oexpect s (FAO,2 )tha tdeman d forth edifferen t enduse swil lno texpan da tth esam erates .Deman dfo rleathe rfurniture , using large quantities per unit produced, could continue to be the pace-setter for leather usage, althoughthi swoul db elargel yconfine dt ohighe rqualit ycattl eleather .Othe rfas tgrowt harea s areleathe rbag san dfashio n accessories,wherea smor emoderat eexpansio nmigh tb eexpecte d forleathe rshoe san dleathe rgarment sa ssom eclothin gmarke tsegment ssee mt ohav eapproa ­ ched saturation. Acertai nincreas ei nprice scoul doccu ri nth elonge rrun ,notabl yregardin ghighe rqualities . Generally,deman dfo rnatura llookin gleathe rwit hful l graini sexpecte dt ogrow ,wherea stha t for low-grade, corrected leathers is likely to decrease. However, price developments in the shortter mma yvar yconsiderabl yfo r hidesan dskin sfro m different animals,fo rdifferen t qua­ lities from the same animal species and for the different types of leather derived from them. Hence,th evolatilit y ininternationa l marketcondition s andprice sexperience dm recen tyear s is notlikel y todisappea r (FAO, 2).

Longer-term

Looking ahead beyond the early 1990s,th e number of potential consumers will continue to rise, whereasprospect sfo reffectiv e demandar emixed .Worl dpopulatio ni sprojecte dt oreac h some6. 1 billion by theyea r200 0(a s against 5.2 in 1990).Mos to f the increase willoccu ri n thedevelopin g countries (from 4.0 billion in 1990t o4. 8 billion in 2000).I nEas tEurop e and the USSR population is projected to be about 0.4 billion in 2000, but average incomes may continue todecreas e for some timet ocome .A t theen do f the decadepe rcapu t consumption of animal products such as meat, milk, wool and leather may still be lower than in the late 1980s. Theric h countries of OECD areprojecte d to have apopulatio n of 0.9 billion in 2000 (as against 0.8 billion in 1990),no t assuming massivemigratio n from theEas t and theSouth .I n thisgrou po fcountries ,deman dfo rth eproduct san dby-product sfro mruminan tanimal sseem s to have reached, and in some cases passed, saturation point level. While the trend towards higher quality products is likely to be maintained, there is a small, but rising proportion of consumers who reject products from slaughtered animals, such as meat and leather, a trend whichha salread yha dadvers eeffect s onth efu r industry.Thi scoul dstimulat esubstitutio n by synthetics or other raw materials. In contrast, as regards wool, as M.J. Godfrey (Common­ wealth Secretariat, 1991) has pointed out, re-substitution away from man-made fibres as a resulto flowe rwoo lprice s"coul db ereinforce d byth e'gree n'tren di na mor eenvironmentall y conscious society, for wool is ecologically sound, being notonl y natural but also renewable and biodegradable". Thus, once stocks of exporting countries have been worked down and prices have recovered, world wool output may witness a new cyclical upswing later in the currentdecade . Regarding economic prospects in thedevelopin g regions, there is general agreement that incomes will increase further in Asia, although perhaps not at the samerapi d pace as in the 1980s.I n theyea r 2000,Asi a will accountfo r overhal f of globalpopulation .Fo r Africa and Latin America, the World Bank and theInternationa l Monetary Fund forecast arecover y of

19 incomes, following the contraction during the 1980s, whereas the United Nations is rather sceptical,particularl y insofar asAfric a isconcerned . Economic,employmen t andincom eprospect s wouldimprov e inth edevelopin g countries asa resul to fsuccessfu l conclusion ofth eGATT' smultilatera lnegotiation s (UruguayRound) . Betteracces st oOEC Dmarket sfo rfood , textilesan dleathe rgoods ,couple dwit hth eremova l oftrad edistortin g subsidieso nWes tEuropea n andNort hAmerica n agricultural commodities would probably also lead to more rapid economic recovery in the former centrally planned developed countries. Liberalization would not only enable these two groups of countries to capitalizeo nthei rcomparativ e advantagei nth eprocessin go fhides ,skin san dwoo lbu tther e couldals ob esom eshif t awayfro mWes tEurop ean dNort hAmeric ai nmil kan dmea tproduc ­ tionfo rbot hdomesti cconsumptio n andexport ,addin gt oloca lsupplies ,notabl yo fhides .Th e resultant increase in employment and incomes would probably also stimulate domestic de­ mandfo rleathe rgood san dtextile si nth edevelopin gcountries .A tth esam etime ,liberalizatio n of tradei n food, leather goods and textiles andremova l of support toagricultura l production in West Europe, North America and Japan would mean lower prices to consumers and a reduced burden totaxpayer s in theseOEC Dcountrie s of thenorther n hemisphere. However, complete liberalization of trade appears to be aver y distant goal. In any event, especially in the beef anddair y sectors,followin g decadeso f depressedprice si nexpor t mar­ kets, it wouldprobabl y take some time until producers andprocessor s in low-cost countries regain confidence and start investing again. If theUrugua y Round fails, growth in the world livestock andderive d products economy wouldpresumabl y besluggis h andth edifferenc e in incomean dconsumptio nlevel sbetwee nOEC Dcountrie san ddevelopin gcountries ,especiall y those in Africa and Latin America, might widen further. Excessive cost of support policies mayeventuall yresul t in somereductio n ofanima loutpu ti nWes tEurop ean dNort h America, but supply would continue to exceed effective demand, and world markets would remain distorted. Tocop e with the environmental problems,livestoc k industries mayconside r high- tech (and probably high-cost) solutions for processing and disposing of manure rather than loweringoutpu to fanima lproducts .Manur ewoul db eprocesse dint odr ypellet s andpossibl y marketedoversea s(Doornbos , 1991).Suc hplans ,understandabl ea sthe yma yb efro mamicro - economic viewpoint, wouldjus t add to whatProfesso r H.Prieb e has called "Die subventio­ nierteUnvernunft " — subsidized irrationality (Priebe, 1985).I n order toutiliz e its excessive productionan dprocessin gcapacities ,th eWes tEuropea nlivestoc keconom ycurrentl yimport s sizeable amounts of feed and disposes of, in external markets or as livestock feed, sizeable amountso fmeat ,dair yproduct s andeggs ,a thug ecos tt otaxpayers .Drie dmanur ecoul dthe n become another costly export item of the West European livestock industry, possibly being shippedt oth esam ecountrie sfro m whichth efee dcomes .Fro ma macro-economi c viewpoint, and in the context of optimum resource allocation atth e global level, it would of course be muchmor esensibl et oenabl econversio n offee dint oanima lproduct sdirectl yi nth eexportin g countries where this would add toemployment , incomean d foreign exchangeearnings . Acompromis e regarding agricultural trade,woul d beth ediscontinuatio n of export subsi­ dies. Referring to the European Community's agricultural policy, the former West German chancellor, Helmut Schmidt, at a time of rising world petroleum prices, asked the question, whyIranians ,Arab so rVenezuelan sshoul dge tchea pEuropea ncheese ,mea tan dmil kpowde r when Europe had to pay high prices for their oil.Thi s was arhetori c question. Mr. Schmidt knew,o fcourse ,tha ta chie fopponen tt oan yrationalizatio no fth eCommo nAgricultura lPolic y was the Minister of Food, Agriculture and Forestry in his own cabinet. In fact, ever since Bismarckintroduce dhi scor ndutie smor etha na centur y ago,Germa nminister so f agriculture havebee namon gth etoughest ,an d— fro m theirpoin to fvie w— mos tsuccessfu l fighters for protection in agricultural trade.Nevertheless ,thi s scenarioha smor erecentl y been discussed at some length in several quarters of theEuropea n Community andelsewhere , and might be acceptedb ytraditiona lexportin gcountrie sa sa secon dbes tsolutio ni fful lliberalizatio nprove s unattainable.Fo rinstance ,Professo rWeinschenc ko fHohenhei mUniversity ,i na recen tarticl e

20 inAgrarwirtschaf t (Weinschenck, 1991)ha ssuggeste da compromis ebetwee necologists ,wh o callfo ra reductio no fanima loutpu tt osav eth eenvironmen t (Isermann, 1990)an dproponent s offre e trade.Whil eexpor t subsidieswoul db ephase d out,th eE Cwoul dmaintai n arelativel y restrictiveimpor tpolic ys oa st oenabl ea sustainable ,mor eecologicall yoriente dcro pan dani ­ mal agriculture. At the Berlin International Green Week Fair last January, I also heard from Germanagricultura lpolitician san dfarmer s'representative stha tbette rus eo fth emone ycoul d bemad e than spending it on subsidisation of exportsan ddepressin g world market prices. It remainst ob esee nwhethe rothe rmembe rcountrie so fth eEuropea nCommunit ywhic hdepen d moreo n agricultural exports than Germany can go alongwit hthis . InWes tEurope , discontinuation of subsidies on agricultural products might be accompa­ nied by certain concessions on imports of textiles and foods, which would benefit mainly neighbouringcountrie si nEas tEurop ean dth eMediterranea nregion ,althoug hsevera lo fthes e countries mayeventuall yjoi n theEuropea n Community anyhow. Similarly, underthi sscena ­ rio, North America, South Africa and Japan might grant greater import concessions to and enhance economic cooperation with developing countries in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, respectively. However, this second best solution of a compartmentalized worldeconom y wouldfal l far shorto f theexpectation s raised when theUrugua y Roundwa s launched atPunt ade lEst e in 1986.

Tentativeassessmen to fth eimpac t ofprotectionis t measures on international trade

Presenttrade policies

Withth ediscontinuatio n ofpric e support schemesi nmajo r exportingcountrie s inearl y 1991 andth eprogressiv eliberalizatio n ofmarket si nth eforme r centrallyplanne ddevelope d coun­ tries,th ebul ko fth eworld' s wooli sno wbein gproduce d andtrade dunde rfre e marketcondi ­ tions. TheU S is one of the few developed countries that continues toprovid e direct support to wool growers. Indirectly, however, the industry benefits from support to sheep meat production,notabl yi nWes tEurope .Similarly ,i nWes tEurope ,Nort hAmeric aan dJapa nhide s andskin saris ea sby-product sfro m animalskep tb ymea tan ddair yproducer s whoenjo y sub­ stantial protection. ,- Although several major developingcountrie srestric t exportso fra whide san d skins,inter - J national trade in raw hides and skins and wool isrelativel y free overall. In contrast, tradei n ! leatheran dleathe rgood san dwoo ltextile sremain ssubjec tt owidesprea dprotectionism ,nota ­ blyb y importing developed countries.Eve n so,th edegre e ofprotectionis m anddistortio no f international trade appears to be less than for such products as meat and milk, derived from thesam eanima lspecies ,wher esever erestrictio no fimport si saccompanie db ymassiv esubsi ­ dization of exports of several OECD countries in the northern hemisphere. Also, whereas quantitativerestriction snegotiate dunde rth eMulti-Fibr eArrangement ,fo rinstance ,generall y providefo r agrowt hfactor , thisi srarel yth ecas ewit hmea tan ddair yproduct simpor tquotas . Accordingt oFA O(FAO , 3),th eU Scharge sa tarif f ofu pt o2 0percen to nimport so fshoes , while tariffs on leather are between 5 and 10percen t and nil on raw hides.Nevertheless , as mentionedearlier ,U Sne timport so fleathe ran dleathe rproduct shav eexperience da rapi dris e overth epas ton ean da hal f decades.A si n theUS ,tariff s onleathe ran dleathe rgood sten dt o increasewit hth eleve lo fprocessin g(tarif f escalation)i nothe rdevelope dcountries ,sometime s accompaniedb ya rise i nnon-tarif f barriersalon gth eprocessin gchain .I nth eEuropea n Com­ munityth etarif f onra whide si snil ,i ti s7 percen to nleathe ran d8 percen to nshoes .Althoug h under theGeneralize d Systemo fPreference s (GSP)import so f leather and shoesint oth eE C arefre e of tariffs, such important shoeexporter s asBrazi l and the Republic of Korea dono t

21 enjoy thispreference . Japandoe sno tcharg ea tarif f onimport so fra whides ,wherea sth ebul k ofleathe rimport s (overan dabov ea tarif f quotao nwhic h a2 0percen tdut yi slevied )i staxe d at up to 60 percent (which is to be reduced to 40 percent over the next five years). In the developing countries customs tariffs and tariff-like charges on imports are generally higher than those of developed countries. Anumbe r of developing countries, notably Brazil, grant subsidies on exports of shoes. Other developing countries tax exports of hides, leather and leatherproduct s andsom eimportan thid eproducers ,includin gIndia ,Pakista n andArgentina , havebanne dexport s ofra whide s altogether. ' "There is a similar tariff escalation in trade in wool and wool textiles, besides a host of non-tariff barriers,notabl yquantitativ erestrictions ,o nimport san d'voluntar y'restraint simpo ­ sedb yimportin gcountrie so nexportin gdevelopin gcountries .Accordin gt oth eGATT' slates t annual report (GATT, 1991), the product group with the highest number of discriminatory export restraints in 1990 was agricultural products, with textiles and clothing close behind. Thefac t thatth elatte rgrou pha dth esecon dlarges tnumbe ro frestraint sacquire d addedsigni ­ ficance when itwa srecalle d thatth efigure s didno tinclud erestraint s specifically negotiated under theMulti-Fibr e Arrangement(MFA) . Among thethre ebi geconomi cpowers ,Japan ,U S andEC ,Japa n doesno trestric timport s of textiles and clothing under the MFAbut , as pointed out by GATT (1991),i t has recently askedcertai ndevelopin gcountrie st orestrai nthei rtextile san dclothin gexport st oth eJapanes e market, while maintaining relatively high tariffs for theseproducts . In theUS , according to theOversea sDevelopmen t Council (ODCPolic y Focus, 1991,No .4 ) thetextil e and apparel industries^are.among4he_most-protectedmanufacturin g sectors. Tariffs on woollen clothing range from 17 to 21 percent. In addition, there is a complex system of quota arrangements with specific countries under the MFAa swel l asregiona l arrangements for off-shore manu­ facture of US apparel in Caribbean countries and Mexico. According to ABARE (ABARE Quarterly,Marc h 1991),mor etha n8 0percen to fU Simport so ftextile san dappare li srestricte d by quota arrangements under theMFA .Nevertheless , as stated in theabov eOD Creport ,U S imports of textiles and apparel rose threefold during the 1980s. In theEuropea n Community tariffs arelowe r than in theU S and Japan, but asi n theU S therei sa larg enumbe ro fquantitativ erestriction s onimport sfro m developingan dEas tEuro ­ pean countries. Asth elates t GATTrepor t mentions,member s ofth eMF Aaccoun tfo r mosto f theworld' s exports andimport so ftextile san dclothing .Textil eexport s from themember so fth eMF At o all destinations amounted to an estimated US$ 125 billion in 1989, accounting forjus t over 80 percent of world textile exports (excluding EC intra-trade). The restrictions negotiated underth eMF Aappl y toa larg epar to fth eexport so fdevelopin g andstate-tradin gparticipant s to developed countries. The MFAJias^beenj^g^üatingjntemationjd tradeJn_texiiles_and çtatfmgjrincejjï^ljt wasextende d for thethir d timei nJul y 1986fo r aperio d offiv eyears . Thecurren t arrangement (MFAIV )ha sno w beenextende d untilth een do f 1992.Accordin g to ABARE, while the MFA was intended to be a temporary measure to allow older textile industriesi ndevelope dcountrie stim et oadjus t tocompetitio nfro mlo wcos tforeig n suppliers, subsequent negotiations haveresulte d in an increase in its restrictiveness and an increase in the coverage of fibre types.Althoug h esjablished under GATT,th e MFAi sinconsisten twit h the-basicrules ;o fGATT ,especiall y thegenera lprohibitio n onquantitativ erestrictions ,i ntha t itpermitsrestrictio n ofin^rt^ftamtiwèl^mg andEas tEuropea ncounrne so ha^s d bjlajteran^ajos. Hence, the Uruguay Round negotiating goàlïor textiles and apparel is the re-integration ofth esecto rint oth eGATT , asdistinc tfro m theMFA .I twa shope dtha tal ltex ­ tilean d apparelimpor tquota swoul db ephase d outdurin g atransitio n period.

22 Costof protectionism and possible benefits resulting from liberalization

Anumbe ro fstudie shav ebee ncarrie dou tb yFAO ,o rfo rFAO ,t odiscus sth eeffect s ofprotec ­ tionistmeasure so n tradei nhides ,skin san dleathe r (FAO,3) ;meat ,wit hparticula r reference tobee f (Tangermann andKrostitz , 1982);an ddair yproduct s (Krostitz, 1986).Th efirst stud y concluded that, after full liberalization, trade in hides and skins and their derived products would expand significantly, with some increase in world market prices and export earnings accruingt oth edevelopin gcountrie sa sa group .I nth ebee fan ddair ysector swher eth edegre e ofprotectio n ishigher , therecover y of worldmarke tprice sdu et oliberalizatio n andremova l of support toproduction , notably in WestEurope ,Nort h America andJapan , would bemor e pronounced. At the same time,ther ewoul d be acertai n shift in beef andmil k production to lowcos tproducin g countries inOceani aan d thedevelopin gregions .I n theseregions ,expor t earnings and incomes from increased employment in farming and processing would grow whileth eburde no nconsumer san dtaxpayer si nWes tEurope ,Nort hAmeric aan dJapa nwoul d decrease. Theeffect s ofprotectionis t measureso n tradei n textiles havebee n studiedfo r instanceb y theWorl d Bank, the OverseasDevelopmen t Council and ABARE.Th elatte r twostudie s are mainly concerned with protection of the US textile and apparel industries. Removing the quotas andtariff s thatprotec ttextil eindustrie s inOEC Dcountrie swoul dproduc e substantial welfare gains for the countries while considerably raising export earnings of developing countries.Th eWorl dBan k (WorldDevelopmen t Report, 1990)estimate s that,i ftrad ei ntex ­ tiles and clothing were fully liberalized, developing countries whose export earnings from theseproduct samoun tt oabou tUS $3 0billion ,woul drealiz ea nextr abenefi to fUS $1 1 billion. Atth esam etime ,employmen tb ytextile san dclothin gindustrie si ndevelopin gcountrie smigh t riseb y 20t o4 5percent . Restrictions by OECD countries on imports from developing countries and East Europe have, to someextent , also furthered trade in textiles amongOEC D countries.I n fact, among thefiv eleadin gexporter sther ear eonl ytw odevelopin gcountries .I nth elat e 1980sth eworld' s largest exporters of textiles were West Germany (which was also the largest importer) and Italy,followe d byChina ,Hon g Kongan dJapan .T ooffse t theirhig hlabou rcost s (in 1990,th e total cost per operator hour was between US$ 15an d 20i n Japan, North America andWes t Europe,mor etha nfive time sth eleve li nHon gKong ,Taiwa n andSout hKore aan dte nt o fif­ teentime sa smuc ha si nSout h andSout hEas tAsia) ,OEC Dcountrie shav ebee nrapidl yratio ­ nalizing local textile industries, turning spinning and weaving into highly capital-intensive activities ("WorldTextile" ,Financia l Times,3 Octobe r 1991). Acomprehensiv e look at the impact of protectionist measures in the livestock sector and suchderive dproduct s asleathe r andwoo ltextile s suggests thatliberalizatio n would notonl y enabledevelopin gcountrie s tocapitaliz e onthei rcomparativ e advantagei nth eprocessin go f hides,skin san dwool ,bu tther ecoul dals ob esom eshif t towardsdevelopin gcountrie si nmil k andmea tproduction , adding toloca l supplies of hidesi nparticular . Theresultan t increasei n employment and incomes would probably also stimulate domestic demand for animal pro­ ducts, bethe y for food orfootwea r andclothing , from theircurrentl y verylo w levels.A tth e sametime ,consumer san dtaxpayer si ndevelope dcountrie swoul drealiz esubstantia lbenefits .

References

ABARE(Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics), Canberra. Agriculture and Resources Quarterly, variousissues . Boyazoglu,F. & Flamant,J.C., 1990. Mediterranean systemso f animalproduction ,reprinte d from: TheWorl do fPastoralism ,Ne wYork . Commonwealth Secretariat, London. WoolQuarterly , variousissues .

23 Commonwealth Secretariat,International WoolTextile Organization andInternational Wool Study Group, London, 1991. Wool Statistics, 1990-91,Pape r submittedb y M.J. Godfrey toth e 60thInternationa l WoolConference , Lisbon. La Concerta, Milan,variou sissues . Doornbos,WJ., 1991. Marke tan denvironment-specifi clivestoc kproduction .Pape rpresente d toInternationale s Forum Agrarpolitik atth eGree nWeek ,Berlin . Ekonomika izhizn, Moscow, variousissues . Eurostat, Brussels/Luxembourg. External Tradeo f theEC ,variou sissues . EuropeanAssociation/or Animal Production (EAAP), 1982.Livestoc kProductio ni nEurope , Perspectives andProspects ,Amsterdam . FAO (1),Rome. Productio n andTrad eYearbooks ,Rome ,variou sissues . FAO(2), Rome, 1991. Factor sgovernin gth einternationa lhide san dskin san dderive dproduct s markets, current status and outlook. Rome,Pape r prepared for an ECDC workshop, held inBulawayo ,Zimbabwe . RAO (3),Rome. Impact of protectionist measures affecting imports and exports of hides and skins andthei r derivedproducts .Pape rprepare d for aboveECD C workshop. RAO (4),Rome, 1989. World apparel fibre consumption survey FAO(5). Rome, 1986-1987. World statistical compendium for raw hides and skins, leather andleathe r footwear. FAO (6),Rome. Commodity Review andOutlook . Variousissues . RAO (7),Rome, 1991.Worl d meat situation and outlook. FinancialTimes, London,variou sissues . GATT. GATTActivitie s 1990,Geneva . InternationalTrade Centre, Geneva(l), 1981. MajorMarket san dSupplier sfo rHand-knotte d Carpets, InternationalTrade Centre, Geneva (2), 1980.Hand-knotte d carpets in theFedera l Republic of German. Isermann,K., 1990.Di e Stickstoff- und Phosphor-Einträge in die Oberflächengewässer der BRD.Pape rpresente d tomeetin go f Akademiefü r Tiergesundheit, Wiesbaden. Krostitz,W., 1991.Potentia lneed san dfutur emarket sfo rlivestoc kproduct si nth enew ,broade r European context, andexpor topportunities .Pape rpresente d toa nEAA PRoun d Tableo n thelivestoc kproductio n sectori nEaster n Europe, Budapest. Krostitz,W.,1986. Trend si nworl dtrad ei ndair yproduct san dfutur eprospects .Pape rpresente d toth eXX n International Dairy Congress,Th eHague . Laniera(organo ufficiale dell'associazione dell'industria laniera italiana),1991. Milan . Overseas Development Council, Washington, 1991. Global Textile and Apparel Trade: A policy unraveled. PolicyFocus ,No .4 . Priebe, H., 1985 Die subventionierte Unvernunft, Siedler-Verlag,Berlin . Tangermann, S. &Krostitz, W.,1982. Protectionis m in the livestock sector with particular reference toth einternationa l beef market,Göttingen , Germany. TheEconomist, London,variou sissues . US Department of Agriculture,Washington, 1991. World Agriculture Current Trends and Perspectives,Woo lmarket si ndisarray ,Issu e63 . USLeather Industries Statistics. LeatherIndustrie s of America,Washington , variousissues . Weinschenck, G., 1991. Ökologische Chance durch Scheitern der GATT-Verhandlungen?, Agrarwirtschaft, VerlagA .Strothe , Frankfurt/Main. WorldBank, Washington., 1990. WorldDevelopmen t Report 1990,pp . 121-125.

24 Sheepproductio n inTurke y

E.Pekel*, B.C. Yalçin**, O. Güney*, O.Biçer* and O. Torun* * Departmentof Animal Science, Çukurova University, Facultyof Agriculture, 01330, Adana-Turkey ** University ofIstanbul, Faculty ofVeterinary Science,Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey

Summary

Turkeyi samon gth emajo r sheepraisin gcountrie so f theworl dwit ha shee ppopulatio n of4 5 millionhead si n 1988.O fth eshee ppopulation ,97 %belon gt onativ ebreed san dth eremainin g 3% are Merino and Merino crosses. Among the sheep breeds, White Karaman is the most numerous breed(43.2% )followe d byRe dKarama n (22.4%),Dagli ç(12.3%) ,Kivici k (7.7%) andAwass i (2.3%).Karakul , Chios andImro zhav e smallpopulations . The sheep population of Turkey have been decreased by 12%i n the last 5 years.On eo f the major reason of the decrement is the changes which arerecentl y occured in economical and socialstructure s of thefarmer s whoar einvolve di n sheepindustr y aswel la sth echange s inth ewhol eTurkis h economical structure.I nfac t itwa smor edesirabl e thatth edecremen ti n theshee ppopulatio n wouldappea ra sa resul to fshif t inth eshee praisin g systemsfro m exten­ sive toth eintensiv e system. / Mutton is the primary product of sheep in Turkey. Although it forms some 44% of total red-meatproductio n ofth ecountry ,carcas sweigh tpe rcapit ai sstil lver ylo wa s8 kg/head for lamb and 16kg/hea d for adults. Milk is still considered as a secondary product of sheep in Turkey andi t consists of 22.4% of thetota l milkproduction . Regarding thewoo l production ofTurkey ,nativ eshee pbreed shav elo wgeneti cpotentia li nterm so fwoo lqualit yan dquantity . Although woolproductio n follows theothe r two, sheepbreedin g strategy inearl y fifties was intensified on improving the wool production of sheep.O n the otherhand , sheep industry is one of themos t numerous sectorprovidin g rawmateria l for theleathe r industry inTurkey . Since theimprovemen t strategies have tob ebase do n naturalcondition s of thecountry ,i t is strongly suggested that to import and adapt new technologies into Turkish sheep industry is stillnecessary .

Introduction

There is a wide spectrum of regions in terms of topography and climate in Turkey. In some regions,wher esubtropi cclimat ei sdominant ,intensiv ehorticultur ei sgenerall ypractise dan d in otherpart s where arid and semi-arid climate is dominant there is only vast native grazing lands andsteppes .Tota lannua lprecipitatio nvarie sfro m 300m mi nstepp earea st o2 00 0m m in veryproductiv e regions. In this natural topographic and climatic conditions, sheep breeding has been playing an important role in Turkish agricultural system for centuries and Turkey is always one of the leading country in sheep production in the world. Because of the current demand for sheep products and relatively high prices paid for these commodities, sheep population showeda n increasing trend in number withregar d to otherlivestock . Thevas tpermanen t grazing lands and dry steppe areas andpoo r nutritive valueprovide d by these lands are the other affecting factors of the increment in number of sheep. This increasing trend has been continued until recentyear salthoug himprove dirrigatio nsystem san dmechanizatio nar eapplie di n intensified agriculture.

25 Table 1.Composition ofsheep population in relation to breeds.

Number Proportion Breed (106) (%) Fat-tailed White Karaman 23.2 47.6 RedKarama n 9.0 18.5 Dagliç 7.4 15.2 Awassi 1.1 2.2 Thin-tailed Kivircik 3.8 7.8 Turkish Merinos 1.4 2.9 Karayaka 1.2 2.4 Imroz 0.07 0.14 Others Chios 0.01 0.05 Local crossbreds 1.6 3.2

Table2. Meanvalues of production data for Turkish native sheep breeds.

Liveweight Milk yield Greasyfleece Breed (kg) (kg) weight(kg ) White Karaman 40-45 50-55 1.5-2.0 Red Karaman 40-45 55-60 1.2-1.5 Dagliç 35-40 40-50 1.8-2.0 Kivircik 40-42 70-90 1.3-1.7 Karayaka 38-40 40-45 2.0-2.5 Merinotype s 50-55 55-60 3.0-3.7 Awassi 40-50 100-155 1.8-2.2 Chios 40-45 120-180 1.6-2.0 Imroz 35-40 70-100 1.6-2.0

Asi ti ssee ni nsom e countries inth eworld ,mutto n andespeciall y lamb meati spreferre d by theconsume ran dreceive sa hig hpric ei nTurkey .Beside sther ei sa bi gdeman dfo rshee pmil k products such aschees e andyoghur ti nth ecountry . Onth eothe r hand, wool isa nimportan t raw material forTurkis h carpet and kilimindustries .I ti s alsopartl y usedi n woolen material manufacturing. Therefore itca nb esai d that sheephusbandr y willmaintai n itsimportanc ei n the foreseen future where scanty rainfall, poor rangelands and insufficient winter feeding occurs. The sheeppopulatio n in 1983wa s48. 7million .Th e numbero fanima lo fdifferen t breeds andthei rproportio n inth epopulatio n aregive ni nTabl e 1 (Yalçin, 1985).Th econtributio no f sheep meat andmil k totota lre dmea t and milk output ofth ecountr y is3 2an d22% , respec­ tively.Moreove r animportan t amounto fshee pexportatio n (livean d carcass)t oth e neighbor countries wasrealize di nth elas t decade which makes animportan t sharei nth etota l animal productsexportation .Shee pi sals oth emajo rra wmateria lsourc eo fleathe ran dcarpe tindustr y which areimportan texpor t commodities.Shee phusbandr y makes animportan t contribution

26 intoth eTurkis h economy by using the vegetation on noncultivated, unproductive lands,an d thevegetatio n of in and/or nearfores t areas. Theagricultura lproductio n projections covering 1968-2000year spublishe di n 1969. The sheeppopulatio n in 1968wa s32.65 4 million headwhic h wasmad eu p of 16.3millio newes , 0.64 millionrams , 15.714millio n yearlings andlamb s and the numbero f sheep estimated to be the same in the year 2000.Accordin g to this projection, milk yield, number of sheep for slaughter and fattening, mean carcass weight for ewes,rams ,lamb s and yearlings wereesti ­ mated tob e733.00 0 tons, 11.99an d7. 0 million heads,30 ,4 0 and 20k grespectively . Itwa s alsoforesee n that the contribution of sheep meat to totalre dmea tproductio n would be 25% (Anonymous, 1969).

Theshee pbreed si nTurkey ,thei r distribution and characteristics

Accordingt o 1983statistics ,Turke yi splace di nth efirs t 10amon gth eshee praisin gcountrie s of theworl dwit ha populatio n of48. 7millio n heado f sheep.Thi s highleve lo fshee ppopula ­ tioni sa natura lresul to fanima lproductio n systemapplie di nTurkey .Because ,anima lproduc ­ tion ismainl y basedo ngrazin g on naturalpastur e which is more than 80% of theseland s are typical sheep grazing lands covered with poor and short vegetation. Therefore sheepraisin g isfre e from thecompetitio n of eitherothe rlivestoc k oro f horticulture (Diizgiines, 1968). Howeverth econdition s arechangin gi noppositio n toth e sheepindustry .I nfac t asa resul t ofunplanne dan dovergrazing ,a ver ybi gproportio n ofth eshee pgrazin gland sbecom eunpro ­ ductive. Sofa r as there is not legislative measurements taken in order topreven t and to use these lands in amor e effective system. The foreseen number of sheep of 32millio n headi n the year 2000 is a striking indication of this statement. The production performance of indi­ genousbreed swhic h aresuitabl efo r theextensiv eproductio n wouldno tb eeconomica li nth e future,replacemen t oftraditiona lsyste mb yintensiv ean dsemi-intensiv e systemwoul db eex ­ pected.Thes echange s wouldno texpecte d tob erealizin g atth esam etim ewit hth e samerat e in different regions of Turkey. But distribution and rate of changes and targets that sheep production willb edirecte di n arefeasibl e (Diizgiines, 1968). Fat-tailed native sheep breeds aredominan t in theinlan dregion s of thecountr ywhic h has aridclimati c conditions.O f thesebreeds ,Whit e Karaman is distributed in Central andpartl y Eastern Anatolia, Red Karaman is distributed in Eastern Anatolia regions. Dagliç breed is mainlyraise daroun dth eCentral-Wes tprovince so fTurke yan dAwass ii si nth eSouth-Easter n provinces. Of the thin-tailed breeds Kivircik is kept in Marmara and Ege regions, Karayaka isth edominan tbree di nth eBlac k Searegio n andImro zi sraise d around Çanakkaleprovince . As it is noticed, thin-tailed breeds are mainly distributed the coastal regions of the country. Pure and crossbred Merinos are localized in South Marmara and Central Anatolia and semi-fat-tailed Chios iskep t in Ege andpartl y of coastal Marmararegion s (Yalçin, 1978). Meanvalue so fdat arelate dt oth eproductio nperformanc e ofsom enativ eshee pbreed sar e given in Table 2. As it is seen in the Table, live weight, lactation milk yield (exc. the milk sucked)an dfleec eweigh to fWhit eKaraman ,Re dKarama nan dDagli çbreed swhic hrepresen t 80%o fth eshee ppopulation ,ar e35-45,6 0an d 1.5-2.0kg ,respectively .The yproduc ecoars e carpet typewoo la swit hth eothe rnativ ebreeds .I ngeneral ,the yar elo wproducin g breedsi n terms of meat, milk and wool production. On theothe r hand,Kivircik , ymroz and especially Awassian d Chios havebee nnote dwit hthei rhig hmil kproduction .Th eaverag emil kyiel di s 120-180 kg/year and it can beincrease d up to 210k g under good management and feeding conditions. Tob e some individual record animals in these breeds having milk yieldo f more than 300 kg/yearca nb econsidere da sth eevidenc eo fpossibl eimprovemen tleve lo faverag emil kyiel d in Chios andAwass ishee pb y selection.

27 Whileth eaverag elitte r sizefo r nativebreed si s85-90% ,i tca nb ea shig h as230 %fo r Chios breed.Wit hit slambin gperformance , Chiosha sa noutstandin gpositio ni nth eworld .Th emil k yield for the thin tailed Kivircik and Imroz sheep are reported to be 70-100 kg/year. But Kivircik is noted with its potential for milk fed lamb production and carcass quality among thenativ ebreeds .Th eMerin ocrosse sbre di nTurke y aredistinguishe d with theirmatur eliv e weight,fleec e weight and quality withregar d tonativ ebreeds .

Improvement direction inshee phusbandr y

Since the foundation of theRepubli c of Turkey, several research studies related toimprove ­ mento fgenotyp eo fnativ ebreed san dth eexistin genvironmenta lcondition shav ebee ncarrie d out andth eresult s obtained havebee n extended toth efarmer s asmuc h aspossible .Howeve r the progress gained in sheep breeding up to day can not be considered satisfactory. The necessity of changes in the present extensive sheep husbandry system will be firstly in the areaswher eth econdition s for economical dairy cattleproductio n areavailable .I t seems that the defined regions will be theMarmar a andEg e whereclos et o thehig h consumer potential andgenerall y intensivean dsemi-intensiv eagricultura lsystem sapplied .Eve nthes enecessar y changes can be expected in the East and North-East Anatolian regions where appropriate conditions are available for cattle production although they are far from mass consumer centers.Bu t shifting thedirectio n in sheepbreedin gwoul db eexpecte d tob eslowe ran dwit h a lowerrat ei n dry and stepperegion so f thecountry .Thi srat emigh t gearu p with theState s policy appliedrelate d to sheep husbandry inthes eregion s (Düzgünes, 1968).

Improving studieso fnativ eshee pbreed si nTurke y

Thever yearl y and themos timportan t improvingwor kfo r Turkish sheepbreed s isMerinoli - zing. Although some attempts were made aiming at Merinolizing the local breeds by means of crossbreeding before the Republic, the basic works were realized afterwards. With this objectives,th efirs t Merino sheepwer eimporte di n 1934accordin gt oa crossbreedin g project to apply in Bursa, Balikesir and Çanakkaleprovince s which is prepared by W.Spöttel ,wh o wasthe nth eProfesso r ofAnima lHusbandr y atth eAdvance dAgricultur eInstitut ei nAnkara , Turkey.Th eobjective s weret oimprov ea shee ptyp ewhic hproducin gfleec e withhig hqualit y andquantity ,hav ebette rfattenin g performance andmoderat emil kyiel dan dals oi sadaptabl e toth enatura lan dproductio n conditionso fth eregion .Becaus eo fno tt ob eabl et oachiev eth e objectives in the mentioned region, the project wasremove d to the Central Anatolia by the Ministryo fAgriculture .Th eWhit eKarama newe sa tth eStat eFarm si nCentra lAnatoli awer e inseminated with Merino semen by means of A.I. in 1952 and in consecutive years, cross­ breeding isexpande d toth evillag eflock s level (Düzgüneset.al . 1960). As a result of the big size of Fl generations and the higher income that farmer obtained from crossbreds wool which is subsidized by the State,farmers ' interest to the Merinolizing worksincreased . Consequently theprojec t isextende d toth eEas t Anatolianregio n aswel li n order to improve Red Karaman sheep by crossing with Merino. However the high level of Merino genotypecouple dwit hunfavorabl e production conditions,a decremen ti n prolificacy andgrowt hperformanc e incrossbre d animals wereobserved .I n addition tothi sb yliftin g the subsidy of State on the Merino crossbred wool, the Merino population is kept rather small within this limited breeding area of three regions and the present population of 3% in total sheeppopulatio n ismad eup . Until recently the breeding studies of native sheep breeds by crossbreeding are realized betweenKivirci kan dWhit eKarama nwit hmutton-woo lMerinos .Beside sth edifferen t ecolo­ gicalcondition s andcharacteristic so fnaiv ebreeds ,th echangin gtren di nth emarke trequire -

28 ments must be taken into account. It ispointe d out that therei s anee d in using some exotic breeds known with their growth performance, carcass quality,prolificac y and milk yield for improvement studieso f nativebreeds .Fro mthi spoin t of view,sinc e 1968Turkis h Scientific and Technical Research Council have been supporting steering some number of research projectsentitle d"Improvin gth eTurkis hShee pBreed sb yCrossbreeding "coverin gTexel ,Eas t Friesian, Ile-de-France, Rambouillet andMutto n merinobreed s (Yalçin, 1978). Oneo f theseresearc h projects isrelate d toimprovin gDagli çshee p whichi sth edominan t breedi n Central andWes tAnatolia n provinces.Wit hthi saim ,Ile-de-Franc e andRambouille t sheep were used as the breeding stock. The other research project is on the improving possibilities of milk production and prolificacy in Kivircik sheep which is kept mainly in Western Anatolia andThrac eregions ,b ycrossbreedin g withEas tFriesia n andTexe lbreeds . It is reported that satisfactory results obtained from most of these research projects. Therefore improvement can be achieved in the productivity of Turkish sheep husbandry by transferring theresult s intopractise .Wit hth eenlighte n of theseresearc h works someEnglis h meattyp ebreed s wereimporte d in 1987i n acountr ywis e sheepprojec t anddistribute d toth e StateFarm s and willing farmers in different regions. But for the time being now,ther e isn o records and any information about the performance and future of these breeding stocks at farmers level. It is believed that there is an urgent need to find out the required information and to analyze themi norde r toevaluat eth e project. The research works on improvement of native sheep breeds by selection were mainly focusedo nAwass ishee pwhic hi sth edominan tbree di nth eSout hAnatolia nRegio no fTurkey . Milk is the primary product followed by meat production in Awassi sheep (Spnmez, 1973). Ceylanpinar Agriculture Enterprise has an important role on improvement of Awassi flocks aroundth eregio nwit hth epur eAwass ifloc ko f7 0 000hea dan dth emal ean dfemal ebreedin g stocks distributed from this centermake s abi gcontributio n tothi s improvement. A group of Awassi rams were imported from Israel within a project conducted at the Ceylanpinar AgricultureEnterpris ewit hFA Ofounds , inorde rt ocompar eth eperformanc e of different characteristics of localan dIsrae lorigi nram s underCeylanpina rconditions .Th eob ­ jectives of thisprojec t aret ofin d outth eusin gpossibilitie s of Israelorigi nram sfo r improve­ ment studieso f Awassi sheepi n theregion .

Newapproache sfo r sheephusbandr y inTurke y

Marmaraan dEg eregion sgenerall yposses sfavorabl e managementan dnutritio n facilities and climatic conditions for intensive and semi-intensive sheep raising especially high quality fat lamb production. Therei sa nee dfo rresearche s ondevelopin gth eshee pbreedin go nthi starget .I nparticula r possibilities on improving prolific, high milk producing and unseasonal sheep genotypes which can be used asdam-lin e in fat lamb production practices must be studied. Toachiev e this, two-way and three-way crossbreeding must be applied between Kivircik ewes andFin , Romanov and Chios breeds.The n comparative studies aiming todetermin e the reproductive performance, milk yield, length of breeding season and nursing ability of crossbred females obtainedmus tb erealized .Wit hth esam eobjectives ,t ous eIle-de-France ,Germa nan dEnglis h mutton breedsca nb econsidered .Thu sb yusin gth eobtaine d sirean dda mlines ,a nindustria ­ lized fat lamb production system which produce more lamb with high growth performance and carcass quality will be developed. Theexpecte d situation in sheepproductio n in Central andEaster n Anatolian regions does not seem favorable for intensive sheep meat production in the near future. In some part of these regions, where conditions are suitable improving the present performance of native breeds by using mutton-wool sheepbreed s mustb e considered. Butth e level of exotic breed

29 genotype must be kept at 50-75% in crossbred animals. This statement is also right for the Merinocrossbre dpopulatio n raisedi n Central Anatolia atpresent . It isprove d that Rambouillet x Akkaraman crossbred genotypes can be successfully used asmutton-woo ltyp ebreedin g stocki n thisregion .Moreove r workingo npossibilitie s ofma ­ king useo f American Rambouillet, Targhee and Colombia breeds in grading up theRe d and WhiteKarama n sheep inEaster n Anatolia seems tob ea nimportan t issuei n the future. Whileplannin g thesedevelopmen t worksfo r thefuture , rawmateria l sourcesfo r Turkish woolen textileindustr y andfo r traditional carpet sector mustno t beignored .Henc e wemus t consider the necessity of required coarse wool production for these industries in some parts of thecountry .

References Anonymous,1969. Theprojectio n inagricultura lproductio n ofTurke y (1968-2000).Turkis h Ministry of Agriculture,Ankara ,Turkey . Düzgünes,O., I. YarkinandR. So'nmez, 1960. Astud yo nth evariatio ni ncolo ri nth e fat-tailed White Karaman sheep, Merino-Fleisch-schafe and theircrosses . Zeitschrift fur Tierzuch- tungun dZuchtung s Biologie, 74(l):36-47. Düzgünes,O., 1968.Development s in sheep production in Turkey andi n the world (Diinya ve Türkiye koyuculugunda gelisme yönleri). Univ. of Ankara, Agricultural Faculty Year­ book,Volume ,3-A, Ankara. Sönmez,R., 1973.Studie so ndevelopin gth eshee pproductio n of Turkey (Türkiyekoyuculu - gunu gelistirme veislah içalismalari) .IV .Scienc e Congress, 8-9 Nov. 1973,Ankara . Yalçin,B.C., 1978. Research and development works in the sheep breeding in Turkey (Tiirkiye'de koyun islahi alanindaki arastirma ve gelistirme çalismalari). Proc. of VI. Science Congress, Turkish Scientific andTechnica l Research Council Publications, 747- 755,Ankara . Yalçin,B.C., 1985.Shee pproductio n andit sproblem s inTurke y (Tiirkiye'dekoyu n yetistiri- ciligi veproblemleri) .J . of Vet. Fac.Univ .o f Istanbul, 11(2)87-97.

30 Session 1

Hides,skin san d leather production

Chairman: M.Vail sOrti z Co-chairman: E.Peke l

L Anisotropy of physical characteristicfunction s of sheep leather

M. Eskolin, M.Marjoniemi, E. Mäntysalo Tampere University ofTechnology, Laboratory of Fur and Leather Technology, P.O. Box527, SF-33101 Tampere, Finland

Summary Thepropertie s of leather arefunction s ofth epositio ncoordinate s andth eorientatio n angleo f samples. Asamplin g system was used in which either the orientation angle or the position coordinates,o rboth ,wer echanged .Th ebackbon elin ewa schose na sth eY axis .Th esmalles t samplesiz ewa s selected.Result s ofth ephysica lcharacteristic s obtainedfro m thetensil ean d elongation experiments are given for threeAustralia n sheep leathers andthre eFinnis h sheep leathers. Australian sheep leathers formed group 1an d Finnish sheep leathers group 2.A H sheep leathersha d been normally thinnedi nth edressin gprocess .Tha tma y affect the sample thickness (THB) and the breaking load (BRL) for the sheep leathers studied. Asregard s the tensile strength, sheep leather is much stronger in the longitudinal direction than in the transverse direction. The skins were chrome-tanned. The properties of any given leather depend partly on thepropertie s of thera w skin andpartl y on theprocesse s of manufacture. Properties ofra w skins are of great importance in a scientifically controlled tanningproces s andi nal lattempt s tomeasur ean devaluat equalit yi nleather .Two-dimensiona lpicture so fth e physical characteristics show variations as afunctio n of the transverse coordinate X and the longitudinal coordinate Yove rth eentir eare ao f theleather .Th edifference s inth eelongatio n at break between belly, neck and rump are not statistically very significant, which suggests that there do not exist big differences in the collagen fibre structure of sheep leather at these sites. Typically, when the elongation at break gets higher values, the values for the tensile strength are then lower. The results for the tensile strength of sheep leather are different in naturefro m Wilson's classicalresult sfo r thetensil estrengt h of typical calfskins. Keywords:shee pleather ,physica lcharacteristics ,sampl ethickness ,breakin gload ,elongatio n at break, tensile trength.

Introduction There have been many investigations on the physical properties of sheep skins, also in the leatherstate .An ytuggin gapplie dt oth ewool ,especiall yi nth eweake rzones ,i ssur et oproduc e grain cracks aspointe d out byGrataco s et al. (1991).Accordin g to this study it is clear that theflank s of sheepskin s havea lowe rtensil e strength than thecentra lpart so f theskin .Shee p skinsar ever ysensitiv et oan ystron gextensio ni nth ehead-tai ldirectio ni fth estretchin gpasse s theabdomina lregions . Changes inth ecollage n fibretissue o f theadjacen t skin arecause db y directional changes in the external muscle fibres of the animal's body and by changes in the hair follicles. Strength variations and directional variations in the skin's physical resistance arepresented .I tha sbee nfound ,particularly ,tha tth epercentag eo fshrin kma yb econsiderabl y affected byth epositio n ofth esampl ean dth eorientatio n angle.Obviousl y directionmus tb e takenint oaccoun t inmeasurin g suchpropertie s asth etensil e strength,th ebreakin gload ,etc . (Conabere, 1944). Measurements of thephysica l properties of leather of the same species,wit h reference to their position relative to the backbone line,produc e different results, as noticed earlier with blue-fox and mink leathers. Sample size has a great effect on the physical characteristics in the tensile and the elongation experiments, which show a nonlinear behaviour as regards

33 -300 -270 -240 -2(0 -180 -I50 -120 -90 -60 -3D ü 3D EO 90 121 150 180 210 240 270 TBANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)

Figure1. Samplethickness (THB) asfunction oftransverse coordinateXfor chrome-tanned Australian(1) and Finnish (2) sheep leather. ALPHA= 0'and Y = 400mm.

samplesiz e(Mäntysal oe tal. ,198 9an d1990) .Als oanatomica lvariation si nth ecollage n fibres produce directional variations aswel l asvariation s in thephysica lcharacteristic s of the skin. All testing measurements were done using a fully computerized physical testing system developedi nth eLaborator y ofFu ran dLeathe rTechnolog y (LFLT)a tTamper eUniversit yo f Technology (TUT).Thi ss ys yter nenable sal lth edat at ob estore dan dprocesse dautomatically . Breaking and elongation tests were carried out in accordance with SLP.6 (or IUP/6). The pulling rate was 100 mm/min and the sample width 5 mm. All measurements made using digital equipment had an accuracy of 0.1pe r cent, which is goodconsiderin g the variability of the functions determined in this work. Ablunt-pointe d measuring head was used with a diameter of 1 mm,eliminatin g the need toremov e thehai ri n measuring the thickness of the samples.

Resultsan d discussion

The characteristics of fur leather used in this work were the breaking load (BRL), the per­ centageelongatio na tbrea k(PEB) ,th esampl ethicknes s(THB )an dth etensil estrengt h(TEN) . The total number of samples was 2700 .Th ephysica l characteristics of different leathers werestudie d andcompare dusin ga nanalysi so fvariance .Th emedia n wasuse da sa statistica l measure.Th emedia n ismor e satisfactory than themea n whenther ei s arathe r small number of samplesan dn onormalit y assumptions.Strengt hvariation san ddirectiona lvariation si nth e skin's physicalresistanc e arepresented .

Samplethickness (THB)

InFigur e 1 THBi spresente d asa functio n of thetransvers e coordinateX .Th e solidlin ecor ­ responds toth echrome-tanne d Australian andth e shadowedlin et oth eFinnis h sheepleather . Overallth eAustralia n sheepleathe rha shighe rsampl ethicknes svalue stha nth eFinnis hshee p

34 -SED -331 -3O0 -270 1-210 - IAO-150-120 -30 -SO -30 0 30 SO 30 12D 150 18 210 210 270 30G 330 360 TKANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)

Figure2. Breaking load (BRL)as junction of transverse coordinate X for chrome-tanned Australian(1) andFinnish (2) sheepleather. ALPHA= 0°and Y = 400mm. leather. We should remember that sample thickness affects the breaking load as well as the fibre structure of collagen andth echange s inth edirectio n of thehai r follicles.

Breaking load(BRL)

BRLi splotte d as afunctio n of the transverse coordinateX inFigur e 2.Wit h the orientation angleALPHA= 0th evalue so fth eBR Lar esignificantl y higherfo rth eAustralia nshee pleathe r thanfo rth eFinnis h sheepleather .I nthes etest sth eAustralia n sheepleather ssee mt ob estron ­ gertha n theFinnis h sheepleathers .BR Lha sit smaximu m values alongth ebackbon elin ere ­ sulting from the fibre structure of collagen, asexpected . Breaking load vary asymmetrically likeothe rphysica l characteristics around thebackbon eline .

Elongationat break (PEB)

In Figure 3PE B is shown as a function of the transverse coordinate X with the orientation angle ALPHA= 0 .Th evalue s ofPE Bar ehighe rfo r theAustralia n sheepleathe r than for the Finnish sheep leather. The values of PEB have their minimum on the backbone line, which correlates with the former studies donei n theLFL Tan d was tob eexpected .

Tensilestrength (TEN)

TENi sshow ni nFigur e4 a sa functio n of thetransvers ecoordinat eX .TE Nvalue sar ehighe r for theAustralia n sheepleathe rtha n for theFinnis h sheepleathe rwit h the sample orientation angle ALPHA = 0 and the value of Y= 40 0 mm.Th eresult s correspond to the fundamental structureo f the skin, which alsowa s tob e expected. Tensilestrengt h (TEN)a sfunction s oflongitudina lcoordinat eY an dtransvers ecoordinat e X for chrome-tanned Australian sheep leather is presented in Figure 5. Orientation angle ALPHAo f thesample si sno w30 .Th eeffec t ofpositio ncoordinate so nth ewhol esurfac eare a

35 -360 -330 -300 -270 -2-10 -210 -I8D-I50 -I2D -9D -60 -30 0 30 60 30 I2D 150 IBD 211 240 210 300 330 360 TKANSV. COORDINATE X (min)

Figure3. Elongationat break (PEE) as function of transverse coordinate Xfor chrome-tanned Australian(1) and Finnish (2) sheep leather. ALPHA= 0 'and Y = 400mm.

35 X

S

2 £ 20 as Eo- 2 15

E- 5

-f- -I H H H H 1 1 H H H H 1- - • -90 -50 -30 0 3D 60 30 I20 ISO IBO 210 210 2?B 300 330 360 360 330 100 270 2-10 210 IBD ISO 120 TRANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)

Figure4. Tensile Strength(TEN) asfunction of transverse coordinate Xforchrome-tanned Australian(1) and Finnish (2) sheep leather. ALPHA = 0'and Y = 400mm. can be seen. This figure differ from Wilson's classical results for calf leather and shows the asymmetry of the values of sheepleather . There aren oremarkabl e differences in theresult s with theFinnis h sheepleather s andth e Australian sheep leathers. Twoadditiona l reasons which might cause asymmetry are: firstly, the backbone line has been roughly estimated and, secondly, there is natural physiological

36 Figure5 . Tensile Strength(TEN) as functions of longitudinal coordinate Y and transverse coordinateXfor chrome-tannedAustralian sheep leather. ALPHA - 30°. asymmetry.Th echang ei n characteristicsi sgreates tnea rth ebackbon eline .Accordin gt oou r measurementsY-coordinat edoe sno taffec t theresult sver ymuch .Th eresult sfro m thisstud y areroughl y similar toth eresult s gotfo r blue-fox leatherearlie ri nou rLaboratory .Variation s of thevalue so f thephysica l characteristics of sheep leathercorrelat e to someexten t withth e thickness of theleather .

References Conabere, J., 1944.Int . Soc.Leather . Trds.Chem. , 28,270. Costa,R., Sans, J. andPortavella, M., 1990/91. DasLeder ,41,21 ; Grain Straini n Sheepskins ProducedDurin g Flaying:Par t I,JSLTC ,74 , 174. Gratacos,E., Costa,R., Sans,J. andPortavella, M., Grain Strain in Sheepskins Produced DuringFlaying :Par t II,JSLTC ,75 ,1 . Mäntysalo,E., Marjoniemi, M. andKemppinen, E., 1989. Tamper eUniversit yo fTechnology , Physics,Repor t 10-89. Mäntysalo,E., Marjoniemi, M. andKemppinen, E., 1990. Anisotropy of Physical Charac­ teristic Functions of Fur Leather, Presented at the 86th ALCA Annual Meeting on June 24-28,1990 in BoyneFalls ,Michigan , U.S.A.T ob epublishe di n JALCA.

37 Effets des maladies sur la production des cuirs,peau x et fibres animales

L. Blajan Directeur Généralhonoraire deVOIE, Office internationaldes Epizooties, Paris, France

Summary Themajo r disease of animalshav e aquantitativ e effect on theproductio n of hides, skins and animalfibres ,becaus eth edeath scause db ythe musuall yresul ti ncomplet elos so fth ecarcass . However, more important areth e effects of allpathologica l processes onth equalit y of these products. Allcondition swhic haffec t generalhealt hca nleav evisibl edefect so fth eski nan dit sappen ­ dages,althoug h the skindisease sprope rcaus eth emos timportan tdamage . Someo fthes ear e of microbialorigin :shee ppox ,goa tpox ,contagiou s ecthyma,lump y skindiseas e andderma - tophilosis.Other sar eo fparasiti corigin ,notabl ymang ean dmycose si nal lspecies ,an ddemo - dicosis ingoats . Myiasis is also responsible for depreciation of hides, skin and animal fibres. The most cosmopolitan of these is bovine hypodermosis (warble infestation). Other forms of myiasis areconfine d tocertai nregions ,suc ha scutaneou sdermatobiosi so fcattl ean dTunga penetrans infestation,occurrin gi nintertropica lAmerica .Myiasi scause db yth escrew-wor m(Calliphora hominivorax) is of major importance, being confined to the American continent until its appearancei nLiby ai n 1988.Th ebite so ftick sleav emultipl esmal lpit so rfibrou s scarschic h devalueleather . Thediminutio n of losses depends on theimplementatio n ofmeasure s aimed atpreventin g diseaseso f animals.However , therei slittl echanc eo f suchmeasure sbein gapplie d unlessth e disease has anobviou s effect on thehealt h of animals oro nth equalit y ofproduct s marketed directly by theproducer .

Introduction Lesqualité s etle sdéfaut s desproduit sfinis, qu'i l s'agissed ecui r tanné,d efourrure , delain e ou de toute autre fibre animale, traités pour leur assurer une présentation conforme à leur destination commerciale,reflètent , d'unepar tle scaractéristique s génétiques etl epass ébiolo ­ giqued el'anima let ,d'autr epart ,le scondition s etméthode sd epréparatio n etd e transforma­ tion desproduit s bruts.E n cequ i concerne lepass é biologique, l'influence del'alimentatio n etcell ed e lapathologi e sont considérables. Toutes les affections qui ont unerépercussio n sur l'état général,peuven t laisser une trace visible surl apea u et lesphanère s del'animal . Lesmaladie sparasitaire s internesexercen tu n effet notable sur les agneaux dont la diminution de pousse de la laine a pu être estimée de l'ordred e 60%.Pa r ailleurs,lorsqu el amaladi e évoluever s lamort , ledécubitu s apou r con­ séquence unralentissemen t del acirculation ,un econgestio n du tégument etla stagnation du sang dans les vaisseaux superficiels. Il en résulte la formation de veinules apparentes après tannage, quirenden t lapea u impropre àcertaine s finitions. Cesont , cependant,le spathologie s spécifiques intéressant directement letiss u cutané,qu i entraînent lesperte s économiques lesplu s importantes et qui sont l'objet duprésen t exposé. Dans une première partie seront examinées les maladies infectieuses, et dans une deuxième partie,le sparasitose s externes.

38 Maladies infectieuses

Ladermatophilose es tun emaladi eà évolutio naigu ëo uchronique ,qu el'o n observeche ztou s les herbivores et qui provoque une dermatite exsudative avec formation d'éscarres et de croûtes. Fréquente en Afrique de l'Ouest en particulier, on la rencontre également dans les pays tempérés, là ou la pluviométrie est tres élevée. Elle est due à une bactérie tellurique, Dermatophilus congolensis, qui traverse l'épiderme, lorsque les conditions hygrométriques sont favorables. Les lésions s'installent, enpremie r lieu, au niveau de la face, des oreillese t del arégio ninguinale ,le scroûte sinitiale sfaisan t ensuiteplac eà u nvéritabl etiss u corné.Le s jeunes animaux sont plus sensibles que les adultes qui présentent généralement une forme subclinique, mais peuvent aussi présenter une forme aiguë, avec, comme chez les jeunes, extensionde slésion sà l arégio ndorsale .L atransmissio npeu ts efair epa rcontac tdirec te tpa r l'intermédiaire des tiques etde smouches .L econtrôl e del a maladierepos e surl a balnéation régulière des animaux en utilisant des solutions acaricides etbactéricides . La clavelêee t la variole caprineson t des viroses du mouton et de la chèvre largement répandues enAfriqu e ete nAsie .L eviru speu ts etransmettr epa rcontac tdirec tentr eanimau x malades et animaux sains, mais la contamination est le plus souvent indirecte. Les croûtes desséchéesréduite s enparticule svirulente s sedéposen tsu rle seaux ,le spâturages ,le slocaux , lesvéhicules ,l alain eetc. ,qu ipeu treste rdangereus etrè slongtemps ,e nraiso nd el arésistanc e du virus desséché. Les lésions sont le plus souvent observées sur les oreilles, le museau, le ventre, la face interne des cuisses, mais les parties couvertes de laine ou de poils peuvent également être envahies.O n voit d'abord apparaître despapules , des tâches quipeuven t être hémorragiques et setransformen t ensuitee npustule s suivies del aformatio n descroûte s qui, en sedétachant , laissent des cicatrices se traduisant par autant de défauts de la peau tannée. Lalutt e contre laclavelê ee tl avariol e caprinerepos e surl a vaccination. La tremblante est une maladie àévolutio n lente dont l'agent causal appartient à la catégorie nommée des 'virus lents'o u 'virus nonconventionnels' .Le s symptômes semanifesten t chez lemouto nadult ee tmoin sfréquemmen t chezl achèvre .Ell ees tsignalé ee nAmériqu ed uNord , auJapon ,a uNépal ,à Chypre ,e nFrance ,Irlande ,Islande ,a uRoyaume-Un i ete nTurquie .Ell e estcaractérisé epa rde strouble snerveu xqu is etraduisen tpa rde stremblement se tde strouble s locomoteurs ainsiqu epa rd upruri tamenan tle sanimau xà s efrotte r contretou sle sobjet s durs età s'arrache r lalain eo u lepoil .L atransmissio n del amaladi epeu t êtrevertical e de lamèr e à l'agneau ou horizontalepa rcontac tprolongé . Iln'exist e nivaccin ,n i traitement. On reparle beaucoup de la tremblante, depuis l'apparition en 1988,d e l'encéphalopathie spongiforme bovineo u 'maladiede svache sfolles 'e nGrande-Bretagne .Selo ntout evraisem ­ blance,l acontaminatio nde sbovin sa pou rorigin ele saliment scontenan tde sfarine s deviand e d'ovins atteints detremblante . La dermatose nodulairecontagieuse s e manifeste par l'apparition, dans l'épaisseur du derme,d e nodules denombr e variable,mai s pouvant atteindre plusieurs centaines.Du e àu n virus, elle est restée longtemps cantonnée à l'Afrique australe et à Madagascar, mais s'est étendue, au cours des dernières années à toute l'Afrique subsaharienne, ainsi qu'à certains pays du Moyen-Orient.

Parasitoses externes

Danstoute sle srégion sd'élevage ,o nrencontr eun eo uplusieur sespèce sd eparasite sexternes , qui provoquent des pertes économiques importantes, essentiellement imputables à ladépré ­ ciation despeau x etde s fibres. Lesparasite s externese ncaus e sontde sinsecte se tde sacarien squ ipeuven têtr erangé se n troisgroupes ,selo nqu'i ls'agi td eparasite svivan tsu rl'hôt ee npermanenc eo utemporairemen t ou seulement pour senourri r de son sang.

39 Parasitespermanents

Les poux, très communs dans toutes les espèces, peuvent être piqueurs (Anoploures) ou broyeurs (Mallophages).Le sfemelle s pondentleur s oeufs àl abas ede sbrin sd elain e oude s poils,prè sd el apeau .L ecycl ebiologiqu e aucour sduque ll'oeu f setransform e enadult edur e 30à 4 5jours .L apullulatio nde spou xpropremen tdits ,comm ede smallophages ,es t d'autant plusrapid e quele s animaux en grand nombreviven t en confinement. Les espèces de poux broyeurs provoquent une irritation intense qui pousse l'animal às e frotter contrele sobjet sdur so umêm eà s emordre .Che zl emouton ,e nparticulier ,l astructur e de la toison s'en trouve modifiée, ce qui a pour effet de détériorer les fibres et de rendre la tonteplu s difficile. Les poux piqueurs, de plus grande taille que les précédents, entraînent également des démangeaisons.Che zl emouton ,o ncompt etroi sespèce s différentes: Linognathusovillus, L. pedalis, qui se localisent aux parties non couvertes de laine des races à laine améliorées des régionstempérées ,etL .africanus po ud ucorp sde smouton s àpoil se tde schèvre sobserv ée n Afrique, Asiee tAmérique .L. stenopsis serencontr e chezl achèvre . Cespou xpiqueur sprovoquen tmoin sd edégât squ ele smallophages .Cependant ,il speuven t occasionner desdommage sconsidérable s auxtoison sde schèvre s Angora. Melophagusovinus, genr e demouch e sans ailes,parasit e du mouton,peu t provoquer une infestation abondante de la toison. Son cycle biologique est de 5 à 6 semaines. On voit, en écartant la laine, des taches rouges correspondant aux insectes adultes gorgés de sang.Leu r piqûren'es tpa strè sdouloureuse ,mai sl'irritatio n qu'ilsprovoquen tport el'anima l às e frotter età semordre .E n conséquence,le speau xpeuven têtr e défectueuses. Lesacariens sarcoptidés responsable sde sgale ssont ,parm ile sparasite spermanents ,ceu x qui causent le plus dégâts aux cuirs,peau x etfibres. Le s gales les plus fréquentes chez les ruminants sont dues àdeu x sortes d'acariens: les sarcoptes etle spsoroptes . Lessarcopte spercen tl apea upou re naspire rl alymphe .Le sfemelle s creusentde sgalerie s épidermiques dans lesquelles,elle s pondent leurs oeufs. Leparasit e dontl ecycl e biologique est d'environ 17jours ,provoqu e de trèsforte s démangeaisons,poussan t l'animal às e frotter jusqu'à s'écorcher, aggravant ainsi les lésions primaires et entraînant la kératinisation et l'épaississement despartie s lésées.Che zl emouton , seules sont touchées lesrégion s dépour­ vuesd elaine . Alors que généralement les sarcoptes épargnent letron cd e l'animal, lespsoropte s s'éten­ dentl eplu s souvent àtou tl ecorps ,d'o ù leno mdonn éà l agal epsoroptique ,d egal ed ucorps . Ilsviven tsou sl apea u senourrissan td el'épiderme ,provoquan tl aformatio n debouton se tu n prurit intense. Chezl emouton , lalain e sedétach ed'elle-mêm e lorsque l'animal ne l'arrache pase n semordant . La galechorioptique , moinsfréquente , estplu s facile àsoigner , dansl a mesure oùell ees t localisée aux pattes. La gale démodécique, qui peut atteindre les bovins et les chèvres, se manifeste parde spustule s cutanéesprovoquée s parl eparasit elog édan sle sfollicule s pileux. Ilconvien td e signalerenfi n unparasit equ ies tu nsuje t depréoccupatio n pourle séleveur s de Mérinos en Australie,Psorergates ovis.Cett e gale est apparue avec l'abandon des bains arsenicauxpou rle ssolution sd'insecticide s organochlorés moinsefficace s pourl econtrôl ed e ceparasite . Ladestructio n desparasite sresponsable sde sgale ses tparticulirèemen tdifficil e dansl eca s des sarcoptesqu iviven tdan sle sgalerie screusée sdan sl'épaisseu r del apeau .Le s traitements par balnéation ou aspersion de solutions irsecticides doivent donc être renouvelés très fréquemment, en prenant la précaution d'interrompre ces traitements avant l'abattage ou la traitedan sle s délaisprescrit spou révite rl aprésenc ed erésidu stoxique sdan sla viand eo ul e lait.

40 Parasitestemporaires

Onappell emyiase sle saccident splu so umoin sgrave sproduit spa rle slarve sissue sde soeuf s déposés surl ecorp sd el'anima lpa rplusieur s sortesd emouches .Seule sle smyiase scutanée s intéressentl aproductio n descuirs ,peau x etfibres . Lesmyiase s cutanées lesplu s redoutables sont dues à: • Calliphorahominivorax limité ejusqu'e n 1988à l'Amérique , du Mexiquejusqu' à l'Amé­ rique du Sud, mais introduite depuis lors en Libye, par des moutons vraisemblablement importés d'Amérique du Sud; • Chrysoma bezziana,e n Afrique tropicale, en Asie méridionale etdan s les pays tropicaux dela zon e Pacifique; • Wohlfahrtia magniflca enAfriqu e duNor de te nAsi eCentrale . Cesmyiase sn epeuven t êtrecontrôlée squ epa rl'exame n quotidiene tindividue lde sanimau x pourdécele rle splaie s surl ebor ddesquelle sle smouche sdéposen tleur soeuf squ ivon tdonne r les larves se nourrissant de la chair des animaux pour, ensuite, tomber sur le sol etredonne r des mouches. Il existe également une myiasecutanée dumouton provoqué e par les larves de mouches différentes selonle scontinent s: Lucilia cuprina, e nAustrali ee te nAfriqu eméridionale ,Lucilia sericatae tCalliphora stygia e nNouvelle-Zélande ,Lucilia sericata e nEurope ,Phormia regina etProtophorma terrae novae enAmériqu e du Nord. L'infestation favoriséepa rl'humidit épeu tavoi rpou rpoin td edépar tun eplai eo ule spartie s souilléespa rl'urin e oule sfèce s surlesquelle sle smouche sponden tleur soeufsCmai sell epeu t aussi, dans le cas deL. cuprina notamment, sedéveloppe r directement dans les parties cou­ vertes delain e lorsque latoiso n est mouilléejusqu' à lapeau . Letraitemen trepos esu rl'applicatio n d'insecticides.Cependant ,le sphénomène sd erésistanc e desparasite s sedéveloppen t rapidement. C'est ainsi queL. cuprina estmaintenan t résistante àl aplupar t des insecticides connus. Lesmyiase sprovoquée spa rle slarve sd ecertaine smouche sd el afamill ede soestridé s sont également à l'origine deperte s non négligeables pour l'industrie des cuirs et peaux.L aplu s connue, qui est répandue dans les zones tempérées de l'hémisphère nord est l'hypodermose bovine,communémen t appelée vairon.L amouch ed u genreHypoderma dépose sur lespoil s d'un animal des oeufs qui éclosent pour donner des larves qui pénètrent sous la peau. Ces larvesmigren tà traver sl ecorp se ts'établissen t dansle stissu ssous-cutané sd udo sd el'animal , oùelle sprovoquen tde sboursouflure s percéesd epetit strou spermettan tau xlarve sd erespirer . Les cicatrices qui seformen t lorsquele splaie s guérissent laissent laplac e àde s trous lorsd u tannage. Onrencontr e également unvarro n chezl achèvre ,d û àPrzhevalskiana spp.e nAfriqu e du Nord et en Afrique de l'Est, dans certains pays méditerranéens, en Asie centrale et dans le sous-continent indien. Dans les pays d'Amérique tropicale, Dermatobia hominis, a des effets semblables chez l'homme, etche z tousle s mammifères, mais surtoutche zle sbovins .

Ectoparasiteshématophages

Dans cegroupe , lesparasite s àconsidére r sont les tiques. Présentes danstoute s lespartie sd u monde, c'est cependant dans les pays chauds qu'elles sont les plus répandues et qu'elles occasionnentl eplu sd edégât sau xcuir se tpeaux .Ce sdégât sson tl aconséquenc ede smarque s ressemblantà de spiqûre sd'épingle s laisséespa rle smorsure sde stique s auxendroit so ùelle s seson t fixées. La lutte contre les tiques, dans les pays où elles posent un problème sérieux, repose sur l'application, parbalnéatio n ou aspersion, de solutions insecticides.

41 Conclusions Lesperte scausée s àl'industri e mondiale descuirs ,peau xe tfibre s parle smaladie s animales sont difficiles à évaluer, en l'absence d'informations suffisantes à cet égard. Elles sont particulièrementimportante sdan sle spay se ndéveloppemen tqui ,généralement ,n edisposen t pas des moyens nécessaires àl amis e en oeuvre des mesures quipourraien tréduir e l'impact de ces maladies. Cependant pour la quasi-totalité d'entre elles, les techniques permettant de lescontrôle refficacemen t existent.Pou rqu'elle s soientutilisées ,le séleveur sdoiven ty trouve r un avantage. S'agissantd el apeau , ellees tà l'exceptio n dequelque sproduction s commel'astrakan , un sous-produit de l'élevage dont la qualité n'influence pas la valeur de l'animal. Il en va différemment del alain equ iconstitu el'obje t principald el'élevag e extensif dumouton . Ace t égard, l'exemple de la Nouvelle-Zélande, cité montre que la volonté des éleveurs, stimulée par leur intérêt estplu simportant e que tout autre facteur. Les éleveurs demouton s néo-zélandais, considérant les pertes que leur faisait subir la gale ont, à la fin du 19esiècle , décidé d'éliminer la maladie, par des dispositions pénalisant lourdement les propriétaires d'animaux galeux. Bien qu'on ne disposât pas alors des moyens techniques efficaces qui existent actuellement, la volonté collective des éleveurs s'appuyant sur laprophylaxi e sani­ taire, permit d'obtenir l'éradication de la gale une dizaine d'années avantl'établissemen t du Ministère de l'Agriculture, vingt ans avant l'arrivée du premier Vétérinaire dans le pays et trente ansavan t lacréatio nd'un eStatio n derecherche s surle s maladies animales.

Bibliographie

Anderson, N., 1982. Internai parasites of sheep and goats. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat ProductionElsevie r Scientific Publ. (WorldAnima l Science, Ser. CVol . 1). 175-191. Andris, T., 1979.Diagnosti c différentiel des affections et maladies de la peau et de la laine chezle s ovins.Thès e vétérinaire no. 89Ecol e Nationale Vétérinaire Toulouse,4 9p . Barlow,R.M., 1982.Infectiou s diseases of goats and sheep. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat Production Elsevier Scientific Publ. (WorldAnima l Science, Ser. CVol . 1), 151-174. Murray,MD., 1982.Externa l parasites of sheep and goats. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat ProductionElsevie r Scientific Publ. (WorldAnima l Science, Ser. CVol . 1),193-203 . Office Internationaldes Epizooties, 1990. La Santé animate dans les années 80.OIE , 12ru e dePron y7501 7 Paris,40-70 . Zouari,R., 1979. Maladiese taffection s del apea ude sbovins .Thès evétérinair eno . 87.Ecol e Nationale Vétérinaire Toulouse, 76p .

42 Effets des traitements al'abattoi r sur laqualit é des cuirs et peaux

L. Blajan DirecteurGénéral honoraire deFOIE, Officeinternational des Epizooties, Paris, France

Summary The commonest defects of hides and skins, and those most frequently seen are those which appear atth e time of slaughter, after death of the animal. Blows aimed atth e animals during brutal slaughterprocedure s producecontusion so rexcoriation s whichfavou r overheatingan d putrefaction of leather. Incompetence or negligence by abattoir workers during carcass skinningi s acommo n causeo f losses anddefect s through: • loss of rawmateria l due tofault y cutting; • thinningo fth eski ni nplaces ,whic hbecome sobviou sdurin gtanning ,cause db yth eflayin g knife:cuts ,depressions ,plaque s andflora l patterns,sometime spracticall y penetrating the skin; • grain splitfollowin g tooforcefu l flaying; • damage from excessive traction whenpullin g off thehide . Hides and skins may also deteriorate after theirremova l through: • either toomuc h drying byexposur e to sunlight, or toolittle ; • deterioration following salting; • from faulty folding orpacking ; • during storageo r transport Improvement in quality atth e levels of the abattoir and the warehouse depends on education of theworkers , grading of the hides,an dpaymen t according toquality .

Introduction S'il est vrai que l'état de santéde s animaux est un facteur important de la qualité despeaux , celle-cies tégalemen tconditionné epa rle sprécaution sprise slor sd utranspor tjusqu' à l'abat­ toir,d el'abattage ,d el adépouill ee td utraitemen tde speau xaprè sdépouille .C eson tle sdéfaut s pouvant survenir aucour s dechacun ed ece sphase s qui serontexaminé sci-après .

Transportde sanimau xjusqu' àl'abattoir ,battag ee tsaigné ede sanimau x Les glissades,le s coups decorn eéchangé s entre animaux,l'espac e insuffisant dansle svéhi ­ cules,le scoup sd ebâto n desconvoyeur s sontautan td ecause sd eblessure s endommageantl a peau desanimau x avant leurabattage . Le maniement brutal des animaux, l'absence de précautions pour leur éviter la vue de l'abattaged eleur scongénère sson tégalemen tresponsable sd eblessures .L'abattag esan srepo s préalable des animaux, l'absence de dispositifs de levage sont responsables d'une saignée insuffisante, etpa r suite del aputréfactio n del apeau .

43 Dépouille

Lapremièr e opération estl a 'parfente' quiconsist e àpratique r surl'anima l unelongu e fente, quiattein tl achair ,e ts'éten dd el'encolur ejusqu' àl aqueue ,e nsuivan tla lign eventrale . Puis, de chaque côté de cette incision, l'ouvrier pratique une autre incision à la face interne des membres,e n avantde s membres antérieurs,e t enarrièr ede s membrespostérieurs . Vientensuit el adépouill epropremen tdite ,qu iconsist eà sépare rl acarcass ee tl apeau ,san s léser viandee tcuir ,e tpeu t êtreeffectué e selon plusieurs méthodes: • au sol, avec ou sansberc ed edépouille ; • suspendue,dan sle s chaînesd'abattage , avec appareils dedépouill e mécanique; • suspendue, aupoin go u aumartea u pour lespetit sruminants ; • parinsufflatio n d'air,o u gonflage, dansl eca sde smouton se tchèvres . Les dommages occasionnés à la peau peuvent provenir du manque d'habileté ou de la négligence de l'ouvrier (défauts de main d'oeuvre) ou encore être facilités par la méthode pratiquée. Lors de mauvaise parfente, le cuir n'est plus symétrique, donc déprécié, car les tanneurs recherchent despeau x deform e régulièrequ i donnent lemeilleu rrendemen t en cuir. La dépouille au sol, si celui-ci n'est pas lisse et sio n nedispos e pas d'une quantité d'eau suffisante n'est pas àconseiller , enraiso n durisque d'abîme r le grain du cuir. La dépouille par arrachage, si la traction de l'arracheuse est trop brutale compte tenu du rythme de la chaîne ou de la résistance plus ou moins grande de la peau selon l'origine de l'animal, peutêtr eresponsabl e dedéchirure s oud'un edéformatio n del apeau , aupoin td el a rendre,parfois , inutilisable. L'utilisation du marteau pour ladépouill e despetit s ruminants est pratiquement abandon­ née,e nraiso nde séclatement s de 'fleur' (partiesuperficiell e del apea uvoisin ed e l'épiderme) qu'elle peut occasionner. Lesdéfaut s demai nd'oeuvre ,le splu sfréquents , sontdû sà l'utilisatio n decouteau xà lam e pointuequ itraversen tpartiellemen t ou totalementl ederme .

Traitement despeau xaprè sdépouill e

Selon les cas, lespeau x sont livrées par l'abattoir, après traitement pour assurer leur conser­ vationo u après avoirét ésimplemen técharnées ,rognée se tlavée s (peaux 'vertes').Dan stou s lescas ,le speau xdoivent , avanttout ,êtr elavées ,débarrassée s dusan ge tde smatière squ ile s souillent,pou révite rla putréfactio n quis emanifesterai t plustard . Celavage ,pratiqu éà l'ea u froide pour refroidir les peaux encore chaudes, doit être effectué soigneusement avec une brossedure . Lespeau x dechèvre sà long spoil s etd emouton sà lain en edoiven têtr elavée squ ed ucôt é chair,pou révite rl arétentio nd'un egrand equantit éd'eau ,qu iconduirai tà utiliser ,pa rl asuite , de tropgrande squantité s desel . L'écharnage despeau x demouton se td echèvre sà long spoils ,trè smince se tfragile s exige desprécaution s particulières pour éviterd ele s endommager. Lapea u 'verte',qu icontien tenviro n 62%d'eau , constitue unmilie ud ecultur eidéa lpou r ledéveloppemen t desmicro-organisme s quiprovoquen tde sdommage s allantd el adécolora ­ tion à 1' 'échauffe', putréfaction débutante et localisée qui, au tannage, entraîne la fente du derme dans le sens de l'épaisseur. Ilspeuven t même allerjusqu' à laputréfactio n quiren d la peau inutilisable, du fait de la décomposition et de la liquéfaction des matières protéiques. Afin d'arrêter ledéveloppemen tde smicro-organismes ,i lconvien td'expédie r trèsrapidemen t les peaux aux tanneries où elles seront traitées par des méthodes diminuant lateneu r en eau. Ces méthodes qui peuvent également être mises en oeuvre à l'abattoir, pour assurer la

44 préservationde speau xde squ'elle sson tretirée sd el acarcasse ,facteu ressentie ld eleu rqualité , reposent surl e séchage àl'ai ro ul esalage . Leséchage à l'air s epratique , soita usol ,soi tpa rsuspension .L eséchag ea uso ldonn ede s peaux demauvais equalité ,ca rl'ai rn epeu tcircule r surl afac e côtépoil squi ,touchan t lesol , ne sèchepa s àfon d etgard e l'humidité favorable audéveloppemen t del'échauffé . Exposées directement au soleil, les peaux peuvent présenter des défauts plus graves: desséchées à l'extérieur, elles peuvent receler à l'intérieur des poches gélatineuses qui provoqueront des trous aumomen td u chaulage,o uencore ,surchauffées , leurgraiss e sedécompos eet ,imprég ­ nant les fibres, rend le tannage impossible.Le s peaux de bovins séchées au sol deviennent durese t secraquellen t lorsqu'on lesplie . Ilconvient ,donc ,d eproscrir ecett eméthod ee td elu ipréfére r leséchag ede speau x suspen­ dues sur cadres suffisamment grands pour éviter le contact avec le cadre ou, pour les peaux depetit sruminants ,su rfil s defe r oucorde s tendus horizontalement. Unetensio n insuffisante sur lecadr eo u le fil de séchageprovoqu e laformatio n de plis, àl'intérieu r desquels lapea u restehumid ec equ ientraîn el aproductio nd e1 ''échauffe' . Unetensio ntro pfort e entraînede s tiraillements, lors de la rétraction de la peau, pouvant être suivis de rupture des fibres et de cassure de 'fleur'. L'inconvénient du séchage est de donner aux insectes la possibilité d'attaquer les peaux séchées.L'insect el eplu snuisibl ees tl edermeste ,don tle slarve sprovoquen tl eplu sd edégâts . Ces larves dévorent, en effet, et détruisent le poil et le grain du cuir qu'elles peuvent même perforer entièrement. Ilconvien t donc de saupoudrer d'insecticide, les peauxplacée s dans un magasin. Si elles n'ont pas été suffisamment séchées,o u en milieu humide, lespeau x peuvent être également envahiespa rde smoisissure squ iabîmen tl egrain ,mai squ ipeuven têtr eégalemen tcombattue s parde sproduit s appropriés. Le trempage dans une solution arsenicale,o u arsenicage,pou r protéger lespeau x séchées de l'attaque des insectes, est encore utilisé dans certaines régions. Les défauts d'arsenicage peuvent être dus àun e concentration insuffisante de la solution, ou àu n bain trop vieux,o u encore àu nbai n deduré e insuffisante quirenden t encorepossibl e l'attaque parle s insectes. Lesalage peut sepratique rpa rvoi ehumide ,o u àsec .L e salagepa rvoi ehumid eexig eu n personnelqualifié , degrande squantité sd ese le tun etempératur econstant ecompris eentr e1 5 et 20° C. Déconseillé dans les régions tropicales, où il est difficile de le pratiquer de façon satisfaisante, iln'exclu tpa sl apossibilit éd edéveloppemen t decertain smicro-organisme s qui provoquent la 'décoloration' ou 1' 'échauffe'. Dans le salage à sec, après quelques jours de salage, les peaux sont séchées à l'air pour permettre l'évaporation del'ea u restante,e n utilisantgénéralemen t des supports en bois.Le s peaux salées à secn ecraignen t pasle sinsectes ,mai s doivent êtreprotégée s de l'humidité.

Conclusions

L'abattoir constitueu nobservatoir eremarquabl ed el'éta td esant éd uchepte lqu is erépercut e nonseulemen tsu rl asalubrit éd el aviande ,mai sauss isu rl aqualit éd el apeau .I les tégalement , avecso nannex el eséchoir ,u nmaillo nd el achaîn ed eproductio n descuir se tpeau x surleque l iles tfacil e deporte r les efforts nécessaires àl'amélioratio n deleu r qualité. Celle-cipeut ,e n effet, êtreobtenu e parl'applicatio n detechnique s simples,don c faciles àenseigner .Le s faire accepterpa rle sopérateur s est, selonle spays ,l erôl ed el'Etat ,o ude scollectivité slocales ,o u encored u secteurprivé . Dans certains pays en développement, ont été créés des Services pour l'amélioration des peauxdépendan t souventde sService sresponsable s del aproductio n animale,don tle saction s éducatives et de contrôle concernent l'ensemble de la filière, du stade de l'élevage jusqu'à l'exportation.L ào ùl'intérê t desopérateur sa ét ésuscit épa rl epaiemen tde speau xà l aqualité ,

45 Iesucce sa ét éassuré .Mais ,lorsqu ele scircuit scommerciau x sonttel squ ele seffort s despro ­ ducteurs et bouchers ne sontpa srécompensés ,comm ec'es tl eca s lorsd'acha t 'tout venant', aucun progrès nepeu t êtreescompté . Dansle spay sindustrialisés ,l'Eta tencourag eparfoi s lesecteu rpriv éà évite rle sperte sdue s notammentau xmaladie se taméliore rl aqualit éde scuir se tpeaux .L astratégi epeu têtr eétabli e àce teffet , aunivea unational ,pa ru nComit éconsultati fcomprenan tde sreprésentant sd el'éle ­ vage,de sabattoir se td el'industri ed ucuir .C'es tains ique ,dan scertain scas ,on tp uêtr emise s en oeuvre, avec succès,de s mesures delutt e contrel e vairon etd'encouragemen t de bonnes pratiques pour lapréparation , laconservatio n etl'entreposag ede speaux . Maisc'es t surtoutdan sle spay se ndéveloppemen t quele sprogrè sle splu simportant sson t à faire. Ces progrès sont nécessaires pour la balance deleu r commerce extérieur susceptible d'êtreamélioré epa rl'exportatio nde scuir se tpeau xqui ,d etou sle sproduit sd el'élevage ,son t ceuxauxquel sle spay sindustrialisé sopposen tl emoin sd erestrictions .Il ss'imposen td'autan t plus que ces pays sont devenus, au cours des vingt dernières années, de gros utilisateurs de cesmatière spremières .L acapacit éd etannag es' y estaccru econsidérablemen t et,alor s qu'ils étaient globalement exportateurs,il s sont devenus importateurs. Ce sont maintenant lespay s industrialisés qui détiennent pratiquement le monopole des exportations de cuirs et peaux, avec près de 90%d e la valeur totale deséchange s internationaux. S'ils surmontent les diffi­ cultés,a univea u del aproductio n del amatièr epremière ,le spay se ndéveloppemen tpourron t s'affranchir del anécessit éd'importe ret ,s'il sparviennen tà satisfair e lesexigence sd umarch é internationale nmatièr ed equalité ,il spourron tcrée rde semploi se nvendan tde sarticle sà plu s forte valeur ajoutée.

Bibliographie

FAO,1987. Cuirs, peaux et produits dérivés. Document de travail CCP: ME/MS 87/2 du sous-groupe des cuirs et peaux du groupe intergou vernemental sur la viande de laFAO , 24p . Jeannin,A., M.Lobry & A.H. Robinet, 1971.Manue lde sagent sd uconditionnemen tde scuir s etpeau x enzon etropicale ,2 eéd. ,Paris ,S.E.A.E .(Coll .Manue le tpréci s d'élevageno . 6). Manu,L, 1963. Traitemente tutilisatio nde ssous-produit sanimaux ,(Collectio nFAO :Progrè s etmis ee nvaleur , Agriculture no.75 )FAO ,Rome . Robinet, A.H., 1977.Rev .Elev .Méd .vét .Pay s trop.,30(1):101-105.

46 Utilisation des peaux au Maroc, caracterisation de la filière

A. Eddebbarh*,B. Jabrane** etN. Chraibi* * Départementdes Productions Animales Institut Agronomique etvétérinaire Hassan II. BP,6202 Rabat-Instituts, Maroc ** Institutprofessionnel du cuir, Casablanca.

Abstract Theleathe rsecto rha splaye d animportan trol ewithi n thenationa leconomy .I tinclude stradi ­ tional andindustria l tanneries.Th epurpos e of thispape ri sfirs t tocharacteriz eth e sectoran d itsevolutio n and toestimat e theimportanc e of hideproductio n atth efar m level. Datause dar efro m surveysorganize da tdifferen t levelso fth esecto ran dfro m theslaughte r of animals raised ata nexperimen t station. Imports,export san dinvestment swithi nth esecto rhav eincrease ddurin glas tyears .Fourt y tanneries areoperating .Thei r capacity is 80millio nfee t squares of which 45% arefo r cattle. Majordifference s betweenartisana lan dindustria ltannerie sar eo nth eprocedur ean dth elengh t of treatment and the nature of final products. Severalkind so fleather sar eproduce dfro m hidesan dskins .Qualit yi saffecte d by different factors of which the conditions of storage of hides and skins is the most important for the industry. Therati oo f value of hides/value of carcassei s thesam e for theproductio n systems investigated. Thepricin g andth ecollectio n systemsar eno tqualit ybased .Th epape rpresent s somerecommendation s for theimprovemen t of the sector.

Introduction Lesecteu rd ucui rqu iregroup ele sactivité sd el atannerie ,l afabricatio n d'articleschaussants , laconfectio n devêtements , lamaroquinerie,. ,occup e uneplac e sensible dans l'économied u pays.Ell ees tapprécié eà traver sl avalorisatio nde smatière spremières ,l'importanc ede sinves ­ tissements,l agénératio nd el'emplo ie tl apromotio nde sexportations .Comm edan sl amajorit é despay se ndéveloppement , oùl'industrialisatio n estprogressive ,l esecteu res te nplein eévo ­ lution.L aphas eactuell es ecaractéris epa rl acoexistanc ed esecteur straditionnel se td esecteur s relativement modernisés.Plusieur s questionsresten tposée se t sontrelative s àl'efficienc e des systèmesd eramassage ,d etraitemen te tsurtou tà l'importanc ede sproduction sd epeau xpou r les acteurs àl'amont :l'éleveu re tl e chevillard. L'objetd uprésen trappor tconsist eà l acaracterisatio nd usecteu re tso névolution ,ains iqu e l'appréciation de l'importance économique de la production des peaux pour l'éleveur et le chevillard. Les donnéesrelative s aupremie r aspect proviennent d'enquêtes initiées en 1990, auprèsd edifférent s acteursd el afilière .Afi n d'apprécierl'importanc eéconomiqu ede speau x à l'amont,nou sprésentons : a. Lesdonnée sd'abattage scontrôlé sd e 188mâle sappartenan tà 6 génotype sélevé se nstatio n expérimentalee tabattu s àde sâge scompri sentr e 18 et2 2mois .Le sdonnée son tét éanaly ­ séesà l'aid ed'u n modèlelinéaire ,dan sleque ll epoid sà l'abattag ees tintrodui tcomm eco - variable. b. Lesrésultat s d'enquêtesconduite s dans4 région s dupay s durant lacampagn e 1990-1991 pour la caracterisation de la structure et de laproductivit é des systèmes deproductio n de viande bovine. L'importance économique des peaux est appréciée, pour chaque système par le rapport valeur de laproductio n moyenne depeau x par unité zootechnique / valeur de laproductio n moyenne decarcass epa runit é zootechnique.

47 Caracterisation dusecteu ra l'échell enational e Sur labas ede s abattages contrôlés, lesdisponibilité s nationales en matièrespremiere s s'ele- vent àenviro n 60000 0 peaux bovines par an, 2 80000 0peau x ovines et 80000 0peau x ca­ prines.Sep tcen ttroi sentreprise s sontimpliquée sdan sl esecteu rdepui sl acollect ede speau x jusqu'à lavent e desproduit s finis. Lepay s compteun equarantain e detannerie s mégisseries d'une capacité totale de 80million s depied s carrés dont40 % pour les bovins. On distingue trois typesd etanneries :artisanales , semi-industrielles etindustrielles .L evolum ed el'emplo i dans lestannerie s industrielles etle s services auxiliaires s'élève àenviro n 15 000. Commel'indiqu el eTablea u 1,l ecommerc e exterieura univea u du secteur est caractérisé par desimportation s etde sexportation s dontl evolum e aaugment é lorsde sdernière s années respectivement de 5.68xl06 DH à 847.08xl06 etd e 2.64xl06 à271.36xl0 6.L e volumede s investissementsdan sl esecteu r alu iauss iaugment éd'un emanièr etrè ssensibl elor sde sving t dernières années. Cinqphase scaractérisen t l'évolutionhistoriqu ed usecteur .L apériod e 1965-1972a conn u la multiplication des tanneries industrielles. Les exportations se sont accélérées depuis 1972-1974.Aprè s 1974e tjusqu' à 1983,o na assist éà l apromotio n desinvestissement s dont levolum e aét émultipli épa r 4.L a sécheresse,qu' a connuel epay s audébu tde s années 80, a eu desrépercussion s surl e secteurqu i n'a connu leredressemen t qu'à partir de 1986. Troistype sd etannerie s opèrentdan sl esecteur :le stannerie sartisanales , semi-industrielles et industrielles. Les tanneries artisanales ont une histoire de plus de dix siècles au Maroc, notamment àFè se t àMarrakec h où letanneu rétai tl'artisa n duvillag eo ud uquartier .I lcon ­ servaitjalousemen t sesprocédé s techniques quiconstituaien t unhéritag e familial. Lescarac ­ téristiques principales del afilièr e artisanalerésiden tdans :

Tableau 1. Evolution desvolumes desImportations, desExportations etdes Investissements dansle secteur de cuir au Maroc en10 6 dirhams.

Année Import Export Investissement 1972 5.68 2.64 1982 393.58 74.07 40.53 1987 847.08 271.36 110.17 Source:Ministèr e du Commerce etd el'Industrie , 1989.

Tableau2. Classifications desraies selonle poids etle rendement moyen.

Catgorie Poids Rendement (kg) (pieds/kg)

Veau léger <3 2.5 moyen 3-5 2.25 lourd 5-8 2.00 Taurillon et vachette légers 8-12 1.80 moyens 12-18 1.60 lourds 18-24 1.45 extralourds >24 1.35

48 a. Le 'clientélisme'développ é aunivea ud uramassage , b. laprécarit éde sprocédé sd etraitement ,ex :utilisatio nd el afiente d evolaill epou r 'assouplir' lespeaux , séchageà l'ai r libre,égrainag emanuel,. . c. lano n utilisation del acroût e quies ttou t simplementperdue ,e t d. la lenteur des traitements: laduré eentr e laréceptio nde speau x brutes et laproductio n du cuir artisanal peut atteindre 42jours .L e coût économique du traitement s'élève à4 6 dir­ hams, soitenviro n 50dollar sU.S .pa rpièc ee tpou r une tramed e 50peaux . Lestannerie s industrielles sedifférencien t destannerie s artisanales par a. lamécanisatio n desprincipale s opérations:l ecoroyage ,l e séchage àl'ai r conditionné,.. b. l'utilisation desproduit s chimiquespou rl etannag e c. larapidit érelativ ede sprocédé sdepui sl aréceptio nde speau xjusqu' àl afabricatio n ducuir , d. l'utilisation des deux côtés de lapeau x (la fleur et lacroûte) .Dan s l'unede s tanneries de Casablanca, lecoû td etraitemen t s'élève àenviro n 15D H (quinzedirhams )pa rpie dpou r chacune desoperation sd erivière, d e tannage,d eretannag e etd e finissage.

Facteursaffectant s la qualitéd ucui r

Les principales qualités du cuir marocain, fabriqué à partir des peaux bovines sont les sui­ vantes: a. le 'box calf' obtenu àparti r duvea upleine ,fleu r ou légèrementponc é , b. la 'vachette box'obtenu e àparti r desvachette s etde s boeufs c. avachett e fleur corrigée obtenued el avachett e fleur poncée d. le Nubuck obtenu à partir des peaux de veaux et de vachette. La croûte est utilisée pour obtenir différents produits. Commel ementionn el eTablea u2 ,l epoid sde sraie sains iqu el erendemen tvarien te nfonctio n des catégories d'animaux. Alors que le poids des raies augmente de moins de 3 kg pour les veaux legersjusqu' à plus de 24k gpou r les taurillons etvachette s extralourds, lerendemen t enpied s park g évolue dansl e sensinverse :d e 2.5pou r lesraie s des veaux legers,i ldescen d à 1.35 pour celles des taurillons etvachette sextralourds . La qualité des peaux est affectée par différents facteurs à différents niveaux de la filière. Selonle sutilisateur smarocains ,surtou tle stanneur sindustriel se tsemi™industriels ,le smau ­ vaisescondition sd econservatio n constituentl efacteu rqu iaffect e leplu sl aqualit éde speaux . Laputréfactio n peutcause rl apert etotal ed el apeau .Le scondition sd edépouill ede sanimau x constitue ledeuxièm efacteu r quie n affecte laqualité .Le s animaux sonttoujour s dépouillés manuellement, ce qui cause des déchirures au niveau de la croûte de la peau. Si le secteur artisanaln'utilis epa sl acroûte ,l esecteu rindustrie la beaucou pd emanqu eà gagne rà c eniveau . Lesestimation s quantitatives àc enivea u sonte n cours deréalisation . Aunivea ude sélevage sle svarron sconstituen tl efacteu r principalqu iaffect e laqualit éde s peaux bovines.

Systèmed epaiemen te timportanc eéconomiqu e despeau xpou r l'éleveur

Pourcaractérise rl'importanc e del aproductio n despeau xpou rl'éleveu r etl echevillard ,i les t nécessaired'examine r lesystèm ed eramassag ee td epaiemen tde speaux .L'éleveu r vendle s animauxvivant sa uchevillar dqu idispos ed el alicenc ed'abattage .Aprè sabattag ee tdépouill e manuelle desanimau x (lepaiemen tpou rl adépouill e sefai t àl'unité) , lespeau x sontvendue s parl echevillar d aupoid s quiinclu t celui descorne s etd el aqueue . LeTablea u 3montr el'absenc e dedifférence s significatives aunivea ude spoid sde speau x brutes desanimau xmaie sd edifférent s génotypes abattusà de s âgesvariant sd e 18à 2 2mois . Lesmoyenne s ajustées despoid s despeau x brutes se situent autourd e4 0kg .

49 Tableau3. Moyennesajustées despoids des peaux des tourillons de6 génotypes.

Génotype Moyennekg/pea u 75% Holstein, 25% local 42.34 50% Holstein, 50% local 40.68 75% Frison, 25% local 40.12 50% Frison, 50% local 40.42 100%Frison 41.26 50% Frison, 50% local 40.67 local:Brun e de l'Atlas.

Tableau4. Importance dela production des peaux pour quelquessystèmes deproduction de viande bovine.

Région Système Production Production Importance decarcass e depeau x économique (kg/UZ/an) (kg/UZ/an) despeaux ^

D Naisseurs1 111.6 17.2 4.28 L Engraisseurs 88.2 13.6 4.28 T Naisseurs2 83.6 12.9 4.28 C Naisseurs2 61.5 9.5 4.28 1 Systèmes définis parEddebbarh , Arabae tBenzekri(no n publié) 2 Systèmedéfini s parAraba ,Eddebbar h etOulahbou b (non publié) 3 Valeur appréciéepa rl erappor t del aproductio n despeau x endirham s surl a production descarcasse se n dirhams. UZ Unité zootechnique

Le Tableau 4 résumant l'importance économique de la production des peaux pour l'éleveur montrequ el erappor td el avaleu rd el apea usu rl avaleu rd el acarcass epa runit ézootechniqu e estl emêm epou rle s4 système sd eproductio n étudiés.I les td e4.28, alor squ ele sproduction s absolues decarcasse se td epeau xvarien t sensiblementd'u n systèmeà l'autre . Le systèmed e paiment des animaux, despeau x ainsiqu e lesystèm e dedépouill e n'inclut aucune incitation surl aqualit éde speau x

Conclusions Cerappor tprésent ele srésultat spréliminaire sd'u nproje te ncour sd eréalisation .Il spermetten t de tirerle spremière s conclusions etd e soulever lesquestion s suivantes: Toutd'abor d àl'amon t del afilière , l'éleveur etl echevillar d n'ontpa s beaucoup àgagne r en améliorant la qualité des peaux dans le cadre des systèmes actuels de paiement et dedé ­ pouillede sanimaux .L esystèm ed'utilisatio nde speaux ,surtou ta univea ud el afilièr eindustri ­ elle, souffre beaucoup de la qualité des peaux. L'amélioration de la filière à ce niveau, doit passerpa ru nsystèm ed'incitatio nd el'éleveu re tsurtou td uchevillard .L esystèm ed edépouill e des animaux méritent d'etremécanisé .

50 Les conditions deconservatio n entrel'abattoi r etl a tannerie affectent énormément laqualit é despeaux .A c eniveau , sil esystèm ed eramassag eparai tdifficil e àréorganiser ,dan sle scon ­ ditions actuelles, il est nécessaire et possible d'améliorer les conditions de conservation. La collaboration entre la recherche et les organisations professionnelles des industries du cuir devraitabouti rà l amis ea upoin td eméthode ssimple sd econservatio n appropriéesa usystèm e marocain decollecte ,e t leurdiffusio n auprès desramasseurs . Le secteur d'utilisation des peaux, au Maroc est en pleine évolution. La coexistance des deux secteurs artisanal et industriel soulèvel aquestio n dudilemm eentre : • Unetraditio n artisanale maintenue auvestitud e del'histoir e depuisplusieur s sièclese tqu i constitue l'activité principale etl asourc ed ereven u deplusieur s familles, et, • Un secteurindustrie lqu in epeu tcontinue rd'évolue r quedan sde scondition sd erentabilit é économique. Dansce s conditions, assistons-nous àd'autre s formes dudilemm eentr el'équit é socialee t l'efficience économique?Jusqu' àque lpoin tfaut-i l pousserl amodernisatio n dusecteur ?L'u n despremier s éléments derépons epou r éviterle sconséquence s socialesd e l'industrialisation (chômage,...)résid e dans lanécessit é del'intégratio n des artisans dans lesprocessu s d'orga­ nisation etd e modernisationd u secteur.

Bibliographie

Ministère duCommerce etde l'Industrie 1989. Rapport annuel, Rabat.

51 Lesproblème s etprevision sd el'industri eT\irqu ed u cuir

T. Kosar TurkishLeather Industrialist Assoc, Demirhane Cad.30, Kazliçesme,Istanbul, Turkey

Summary

Theleathe rsecto rcover sa wid erang eincludin gmarketin gan dsale soperation sbeside sdoin g allprocessin ga thide san dskin st oth estat ei nwhic hthe yar eoffere d forus ea sleathe rarticles . Theleathe r sector has proven that it has astructur e toenabl ei t to adapt itself in a shorttim e toindustrializatio n efforts in spiteo f itsbein g atraditiona lbranc h of craft with old andtradi ­ tional roots. Due to the fact that leather sector has competitive power and wide economical fields effected by it,i ti sinclude d inth emarke d sectorso f strategical importance. Especially iti sa tth eto psecon dplac eamon gth emanufacturin g sectorfro m thevie wpoin t of earning net foreign exchange. Leather sector has the potential to rise its present yearly amount of export of US $ 800^900 million to one and half-two billion dollars with agive n andreasonabl e support.Leathe r sector is,however ,i n astructura l transformation stagei nth e direction of industrialization. It has certain problems and expectations in keeping up itssuc ­ cessful development live.Fo rexample ,hid ewhic hi s themai n input ofth eindustr y andpro ­ cured from the sources within thecountr y and abroadi s insufficient in quantity wise aswel l asi tha s different problems inrespec t of quality.Establishmen t of free leather zone takes the first place among themeasure srequire d tob etake n to solve the saidproblems . Especially it has been forced to fight the financial problems due to the reasons such as resettlement And reconstruction, keeping pace with newproces s and technologies and reor­ ganization works, aiming at wide scale investments, obligation to increase operating capital for moreproduction . Especially theindustrialist s baseda torganize dindustria l sites andexporter s ofleathe ran d leatherproduct s areneedin gan dexpectin gmediu mter mchea pcredi twit ha vie wt ocomplet e their expected development in the medium term and the sub-sector of shoe making industry toovercom ethei rproblems .Marketin gan dsal emethod san dsystem snee dt ob ereorganized . Therei s necessary toge toriente d towards original trademar k and fashion. Organized training institutions andorganization s are sufficient inquantit y but insufficient in respect of quality. Preparation and application of packaged training programs based on analytical method should be widened. Although environmental pollution constitutes aproble mfo r theleathe rindustr y aswel la s foreac hbranc ho findustry ,th esecto ri swrongl ykno wbecaus eo fth eeffect s ofth einformatio n acquireddurin git soperatio nwit hth eol dconditions .Today ,th eleathe rindustr yi sth eprincipa l sector or branch showing most obvious respect toit s Environment. Theorganize d industrial sitei sth emos tconcret eexampl efo rit .Problem san dpossibilitie s arereviewe dunde rsi xhea ­ dings:hides ,production , finances, marketing, training, environment.

Introduction Ainsiqu'i les tsoulign édan sl apremièr ephras ed eintroductio nd el abrochur ed eprésentatio n du symposium, dans lesréunion s àcaractèr e scientifique engénéral ,le s articles 'cuir, poile t laine brute (Toison)' qualifiés de "sous produits animaux"n e sontpa s suffisamment pris en considération. Orà commence rpa rle sannée s70 ,l'Industri ed uCui re tde sArticle se ncui rqu i suitrégil - ièrement un rythme de progression ascendante possède une large part de contribution dans

52 l'économie nationale.L echiffr e deproductio n relatif àl'Industri e du Cuir et desArticle se n Cuirreprésent eu nnivea usupérieu rà 3 % e nmoyenn edan sl'ensembl ed el aproductio nréell e denotr epay sbie nqu eselo nle sannée sc echiffr e accusecertaine svariations .E n 1988,e n effet il aét é 3.2%. Sil'o n envisage laquestio n surl epla n du secteur defabrication , l'on constate que la production de cuir et de l'industrie d'articles en cuir représentent les 4.5 % de la production totaled ec esecteur . L'Industrie du Cuire t des Articles en cuires t un secteur qui nécessite unemai n d'oeuvre diversifiée et spécialisée et par conséquent elle est susceptible de créer un large secteur d'emploi. D'après les sources de l'Organisation dePlanificatio n de l'Etat, la répartition de la main d'oeuvre nombred'ouvrier s dans lesecteu r seprésent ecomm eci-dessous :

Traitement del apea u 2637 4 Vêtements en cuir 2223 2 Pelleterie 300 0 Bourrelerie-sellerie 221 2 Chaussures 2230 9 Total 76127 Source: Organisation dePlanificatio n del'Etat , Vued'ensembl e surl'Industri e ducui r etd'article s encuir ,Octobr e 1988.

Toutefois,j e suisd'avi squ ele schiffre s produitsdan sl etablea uci-dessu s sontexcessivemen t bas parrappor t à nos chiffres réelsd'emploi .L e nombred eno stravailleur s occupésdan sle s secteurs de 'vêtements en cuir', de 'bourrelerie' etd e 'chaussures' notamment est nettement supérieur aux chiffres indiqués. Selonno sestimation sc echiffr e n'estpa sinférieu r à400 000.S iS iàc echiffr e nousajouton s ceux qui d'une manière ou d'autre travaillent le ouir, il sera possible d'affirmer que 7 ou 8 centmill epersonne s gagnent leurvi edan sc e secteur. Un côté important de ce secteur d'autre part est qu'il est orienté vers les exportations. Il constitue en effet le 'secteur locomotives'd eno sexportation s decuir . Cari l seclass eimmé ­ diatementaprè sl e'secteu rtextile 'e nc equ iconcern ele srecette snette se ndevises .I lreprésent e un chiffre annuel d'exportation deu n milliard deU S $environ . D'autre part, le secteur de cuir qui s'est essentiellement renouvelé aux années 1970, se trouve, aparti r du milieu des années 1980dan s laphas e deréalise r d'importants projets qui luidonneron tle sdimension sréelle sd'un eindustrie .L etransfer t du 'KazliçesmeDer iSanayii ' quireprésent el ecentr ed el'industri e detraitemen td ucui rd enotr epay se tqu is eglorifi e d'un passéd e53 8années ,dan sl a 'zoneorganisé ed el'industri e ducui rd'Istanbul ' aménagéedan s le secteur Aydnli-Orhanli de Pendik vient de commencer cette année. Les préparatifs des Industrielsd uCui rd eYesilder eà Izmi rsuivron timmédiatemen te tle stravau xd econstructio n del a 'zone organiséed'Industri e duCuir 'comprenan t 140usine s àMeneme n sonte ncours . L'Industrie duCui rd el aVill ed'Usa k quia marqu éu nrapid edéveloppemen t aucour sde s dernières années se trouve candidate àun e 'zone industrielle organisée' dont les études sont encours . Messieurs les intivées et chers collaborateurs,j'a i essayé de faire un aperiu général sur l'ensemble de notre secteur. Jedésir epa r la suite mepenche r sur des sujets plus spécifiques qui seront présentés sous six titres différents: peau brute, production, finances, marketing, formation, environnement.

53 Peaubrut e Les peaux brutes fournies à l'Industrie du cuir par les sources intérieures sont 'insuffisantes enquantit ée tno n satisfaisantes enqualité' . Bien quede sdonnée s statistiques existent ausuje t del'existenc e dansnotr epay sd ubétai l sur pieds,personn e ne peut prétendre que ces chiffres correspondent exactement au nombre réel de bétail.O n sait que dans notrepay s l'élevage sefai t en majorité dans le secteurrural . Ceci explique lefai t qu'il n'est pas intensif etqu'i l estcontinuellemen t enmouvement . Iles t horsd edout equ ede svariation simportante s seconstaten t surle snombre sde sbestiaux ,selo n les saisons d'étée t dhiver. Les chiffres fournis par les statistiques officielles etexposé s dans les tableaux doivent donc pour ces raisons, être admis comme exacts, jusqu'à preuve du contraire.Le s trois tableaux suivants indiquent lenombr ee tle sprojection s du bétail. Onvoi tqu'i l nes eprodui tpa su naccroissemen tvisibl edan sl enombr ed ubétai l surpieds . On nesai tpa sd'ailleur s lenombr ed ebétai l abattuspa rl aconsommation .Le s abattages hors controleson tnotammen tdifficile s àévaluer .Ce sabattage shor scontrol ee tl enombr ed ebétai l sacrifiés pendant lesfete s de Kurban sont évalués par approximation. Cequ ies tcertain , estqu el aquantit é depeau x brutes obtenue àl'intérieu r dupay s nepeu t plus répondre aux besoins du secteur la production de cuir et d'articles en cuir étant en augmentation progressive. D'autre part, lesproblème s d'avant l'abattage, aucour se t après l'abattage proviennente n grandeparti e de l'erreur des hommes.Le s mesures àprendr e contre les maladies provenant de manque de nutrition ou de manque de soins del apea u ne sontpa s appliquées pour cause de négligence ou d'ignorance. Les données statistiques en rapport avec les importations de peaux brutes confirment en effet cette situation: Dansle sabattage s debétai lsan scontrol eopéré s surtoutdan sle srégion srurales ,le speau x sont abimées àcaus ede s erreurs decoup eo ud epelage .Aprè sl'abattage , il arrive également d'importantes détériorationse td eberte sdue ségalemen ta umanqu ed esoi ne td econnaissanc e en matière de conservation. En résumé, il est constaté que les actions négatives sur les peaux brutes, des problèmes d'avant, au cours et après l'abattage atteignent des dimensions importantes. Ces défauts qui serévèlen t lors du traitement de la peau sont les cuases deperte s matérielles considérables. Pour les peaux brutes provenant des régions où les abattages s'effectuent sans controle,ce s pertes de valeur atteignent despourcentage s élevés telqu e50% . J'estimequ'i les tnécessair ed es'attarde r surl'importanc ed el avaleu rd el apea ubrut epou r notre économie. Par ailleurs, les notions de baserelative s à labattage et àl a protection del a peau doivent êtreinclu s dans lesprogramme s del'enseignemen t primaire etsecondair e dans les secteurs ruraux. La condition d'un 'Certificat d'abatteur de bétail' doit êtreexigée , après un bref coursprofessionna l àl'exempl e deschauffeur s decolorifere . Cettemesur equ i serait imposée d'abord auxabattoir s serad'un egrand eutilit ééconomique . Amo n avis, la mesure la plus efficace et la plus utile à mettre en application contre l'in­ suffisance en nombre,d epeau x brutes serait decrée r une 'zone franche depeaux' . Acot éd e la zone organisée d'industrie de cuir d'Istanbul d'ailleurs une zone franche a commencé à naitre. Ceci facilitera sans doute l'accès aux sources extérieures. L'industriel pourra voir la peauqu'i l achèted'un epart ,e td'autr e parti l seralibér éde slongue s duréesd ecommande se t desdifficulté s de financement.

54 Tableau 1. Nombrede bovins et de bufflespar années.

Années Bovins Buffles Total

1987 1395152 7 72995 4 1468148 1 1988 14 174 751 737 254 14 91200 5 1989 14 401 547 737 254 15 13880 1 1990 1463197 1 737 254 1536 922 5 1991 14 866 082 737 254 15 60333 6 1992 15 103 939 737 254 1584 1 193 1993 (projection) 1534 560 2 737 254 16 08285 6 1994 (projection) 15 591 131 737 254 1632 838 5 Source: DPT,VI ,BYKP ,rappor t préliminaire del acommissio n spécialisée d'élevage.

Tableau2. Nombrede moutons et de chèvres par années.

Années Moutons Chèvres Chèvres Total mohair àpoi l / 1990 48 66354 0 277 9 524 13 36289 4 64 80595 8 1991 49 190 175 2 821 217 13 463 115 6543 450 7 1992 49 641 677 2 86353 5 1356 408 8 6606 930 0 1993 (projection) 50 13807 4 290 648 8 1366 581 9 6671 040 1 1994 (projection) 50 639 475 295 008 5 13 768 313 67 357 873 Source: DPT,VI ,BYK PRappor t préliminaire del acommissio n spécialisée d'élevage.

Tableau3. Productionlocale et importations de peaux brutes etdepeauxpicklées (103têtes).

Petit bétail Gros bétail

Années Local Importation Local Importation

19861 2667 5 11782 4 392 295 19871 2604 6 1774 1 4 533 642 19882 2580 3 12 223 4 535 324 19893 2594 0 2024 0 4 127 451 19903 27 257 2393 7 4 230 718 Source: 1 DPT.Vu egénéral e surl'Industri e du cuire td'article s en cuir (Octobre 1988) 2 Calculépa rtêt e surbas ede sdonnée sd el'Institu t des Statistiques del'Eta t (DIE) 3 Données del'ordinateu r duDI E

55 Production L'industrie du Cuir enTurqui e bénéfice en général d'une technologie et deméthode s dével­ oppées.Mai sso ndéveloppemen tgénéra ls'es teffectu épa rl'extensio n despetite sexploitation s etpa rl'adaptatio n aux technologies etméthode snouvelles . C'estpourquo i les techniques et lesméthode sd'exploitatio n etd egestio nrationnelle s exigéespa run eproductio n industrielle n'ont pu êtreappliquées . Lefai t que cette industrie soitinstallé e dansde s bëtiments de 3,4 et mêmed e 5,6 étages constitue àc e sujet l'exemple leplu sconcre t etl eplu sfrappant . Cet aménagementempêch e d'autre parttout e solutiond uproblèm ed el'environnement . Pource sraisons ,dan sle slocau x etle srégion so ul etannag ee tl aproductio n ducui rs efon t àl'échell e industriellel aform e de l'installation 'physique' devient un problème qui gêne la production. Des 'zones organisées del'industri e du cuir'e nnombr e suffisant apparaissent commel a solution dec eproblème . D'autre part, iles tobligatoir e de suivre lesnouvelle s méthodes et technologies et d'envi­ sager les investissements exigés pour une production decui r à l'échelle industrielle. Au cas contraire des difficultés apparaîtront enmatièr ed erentabilit é etd equalité . Cet pourquoid'ailleur s l'ingustrie ducui rd eKazliçesme-Istanbu la commenc éà parti rd e la secondemoiti éd e 1991à transfére r soninstallatio n dansl a 'Zone Organisée de l'Industrie du Cuird'Istanbul ' crééedan s lesecteu r Aydnli-Orhanli dePendik . Tandis que l'industrie du cuir de Yesildere à Izmir seprépar e à s'installer dans quelques années dans la Zone Organisée d'Industrie du Cuir de Menemen. Pour l'industrie du cuir d'Usak égalementle smêm emesure se tle smême sdisposition s setrouven te ncour s d'études. Leschiffre s deproductio n depeau x traitées etarticle s encui r sontci-dessous :

1982 1989 19901

Production despeau x traites: Menubétai l (millons dedm) 2 1 180.0 2 485.7 2 679.7 Gros bétailvea u chromé (mil.dm) 2 640.0 845.3 996.4 Cuir àressemele r (mille tonnes) 5.6 6.6 7.5 Produits encuir : Articles d'habillement (millepièces ) 2 476.4 5 960.2 6 342.4 Articles deselleri e (millions deTL) 3 85286. 1 130 911.0 139608. 0 Chaussures (millionsd epaires) 4 69.8 86.5 89.9 Souliers encui r 26.0 33.2 34.9 Souliers en plastique 5.0 7.3 7.5 Souliers enmatièr e textile 5.6 37.2 37.8 Pantoufles 33.2 37.2 37.8 1 Estimation Chiffres descommission s spécialisées d'élevage 3 Prixd e 1988 Sauf caoutchouc etbois .

S'il fautrésumer ,l'industri e turqued ucui rtravers eun epériod eimportant ed e transformation durable. Si l'Etat accorde le soutien nécessaire aux problèmes financiers notamment de ce secteur, cette transformation peut seréalise r dansun epériod e decin qans . Laproductio n depeau x traitées et d'articles en cuir accuse une augmentation sensible au cours de dix ans. Toutefois avec l'entrée en circuit de la zone organisée d'industrie du cuir d'Istanbul seulement,l aproductio nd usecteu rser adoubl éa ucour sde s3- 5 annéesprochaines .

56 Financement Letransfer t desusine sinstallée s àKazliçesm edan s la 'Zone organiséed el'Industri e du Cuir d'Istanbul'a oblig él'industri ed ucuir ,qu is etrouvai tdan ss asecond ephas ed e transformation, àentreprendr ede s investissements extraordinaires. L'industriel s'estv u d'une partoblig é àentreprendr e d'importantes investissements pour laconstructio n denouveau xbatimant sd'usin e etpou rl'équipemen t dece sbëtiment se td'au ­ tres part, l'obligation d'augmenter sa production a rendu urgents ses besoins de capitaux d'exploitation. C'estdan sce scondition sextraordinaire squ'i latten dqu ede s 'Crédits àmoyen termee tà bo nmarché 'lui soientconsentis . L'autrefacteu rimportan tqu iagi td efaço nnégativ esu rl ecapita ld'exploitatio n estl e 'Taux d'inflation élevé'. H devient impossible deporte r sur lespri x lesrapide s accroissements des prix derevien t etd' y adapterl erythm ed u capital etcec icondui t àun ediminutio n dal apro ­ duction causéepa rl'insuffisanc e ducapita l d'exploitation. Nidan sl epay sn ià l'étranger ,i ln'exist eu nproblèm ed emarch épou rl ecui re tle sarticle s encuir .C equ ies timportan t c'estl aqualit ée tl eprix .Su rle smarché s extérieurs notamment, iln'es t pas question demesure srestrictive s telles que 'des quotas'pou rl e secteur ducuir . Toutefois, ilimport e quel egouvernemen t mettee nvigueu rle smesure s d'encouragement pour promouvoir les exportations de ce secteurs.Tandi s que nos concurrents tels que l'Inde, le Pakistan et la Corée du Sud bénéficient d'encouragements officiels et officieux, nous sommes amputés chaque mois des modestes encouragements dont nous bénéficions et ceci n'augmentepa sno schances .Acot éd'un epolitiqu ed esuppressio nde sencouragement s d'ail­ leursinsuffisants , lapolitique sd enotr efouvernemen t relativeau x 'coursd edevises 'paralys e l'exportateur. Le fait que les cours dedevise s soient tenus au dessous des chiffres d'inflation cote àl'exportateu r unepert e annuelles de20-30% . En outre lespolitique s etle sméthode s misese ncouvr epou r lemarketin ge tle s Ventese n cuire tde sarticl ed ecui rà l'intérieu r commeà l'extérieu r dupay s serévèlen tnettemen tinsuf ­ fisantes. Une politique d'enseignement et de réorganisation simpose dans ce domaine.L e secteur doitd'un epar tintensifie r sestravau xrelatif s aux 'marques originales'e tà l amod ee tl egou ­ vernement de son coté doit porter ses encouragements à un niveau stasfaisant et mettre en application unepolitiqu e réalisted ecours .

Enseignement

Lesétablissement squ ifournissen t unenseignemen torganis ée nrappor tave cl esecteu rd ucui r sont en nombre suffisant. Il importe toutefois d'améliorer la qualité de cet enseignement. Le nombree tl acompétenc e desenseignant s doivent êtrerevu se tremi s àjour . L'Institutprofessionne l dePendi kdoi têtr edot éd'u n statutautonom ee tacquéri rl ecaractèr e d'uneétablissemen t fournissant unenseignemen t denivea u international. L'enseignement extensif doit être développé. Pour la main d'oeuvre dont l'industrie a besoin en grand nombre desprogrammes-paque t s'inspirant d'une méthode analytique doi­ ventêtr emi s aupoin t ete n application.

Environnement L' opinion publique considère le secteur peaux et cuirs comme une 'branche d'industrie à caractèreextrêmemen tpolluant' .O rle stechnologie savancée sde srécente sannée snotammen t ontrédui tsensiblemen tle sfacteur sd epollution .D'autr epar tcett eindustri ea ,à tout eoccasion , manifesté sonrespec td el'environnemen te tcontinu e àl e faire.

57 AKazliçesm ede s efforts visibleson tét édéployé sdan sc e sensdan sl amesur equ ele scondi ­ tionsl'on tpermi se tdevan tl'impossibilit é demultiplie rdan sc esecteu r lesmesure scontr el a pollution ladécisio n du transfert dans la zone organisée de l'industrie du cuir a étémis ee n application ce qui constitue une preuve tangible de son comportement. La zone organisé de l'industrie du cuird'Istanbu l possède actuellement uneinstallatio n d'épuration et derécupé ­ ration unique aumonde ;6 000 0arbuste s sonte nc emomen tplanté s dans cetterégion . Lesindustriel s decui rd el arégio nd'Izmi régalemen t seson torienté sà mettr ea upoin tle s meilleurs dispositions et dans l'intention de supprimer totalement lapollutio n ils sonte n ce momente ncour s decrée r la zoneorganisé e del'industri e de Menemen.

58 The Turkish leather industry, itsfutur e and possibilities, the competition with the industry in the European Community

M.E.Artan Facultyof VeterinaryMedicine, Universityof Istanbul, Istanbul, Tiirkiye

Summary In this invited paper, theplac e of Turkish Leather Industry within European Community, its future andit sccompetitiv ei nrelatio n toth eindustr y inEuropea n Community aredeal twith , in the lighto f the existing information inTiirkiye . Whencompare dwit hE Ccountries ,Tiirkiy eoccupie s3r dplac ei nlarg eruminan tnumbers , 1st place in small ruminant numbers, 5th place in the production of raw hides from large ruminants and 1s tplac ei n theproductio n ofra w skins from smallruminants . Withit sshar eo f 30-40percent ,Europea n Community hasa nimportan tplac ei nth eworl d marketo fski nan dleathe rproducts .Th efigure s showtha tth eshar eo fthi ssecto ri nth eTurkis h tradewit h ECcountrie s hasreache d important dimensions. With itsperformanc e attained in exports inrecen t years and with theimportanc e given to technologicalchanges ,Turkis hLeathe rIndustr yha sattracte da significan tamoun to fattention . Animportan t improvement in theproductio n potential andqualit y will beobtaine d when the organised industry units using the most recent technologies are put to operation in the near future. Turkish Leatherindustr y hasa noutstandin g performance which setsa nexampl efo r com­ petition inEuropea n Community.

Introduction Tiirkiye applied for themembershi p of ECo n April 14, 1987afte r which newpolitical ,eco ­ nomican dsocia lactivitie sbegan .Sinc eth eapplicatio nman yestablishment san dfirm s studied theTurkis h capacity tocompet e withE CIndustry . This note explains the position, future and competition capacity of the Turkish leather industry through studies carried out inTiirkiye .

Hidesan dskin sproduction s

Thequantit yo fproductio ni srelate dt oanima lpopulation .Whe nlooke da tth eanima lnumber s ofE Ccountrie s andTiirkiy ealtogether , (Table 1),i twil lb esee n thatTiirkiy eha s 1155 100 0 cows. This would make Tiirkiye the fifth country in Asia, and the fourth country in Europe (excluding USSR). The number of its sheep is 4067 7 000, which makes it 4th in Asia, and thefirs t inEurop e (excludingUSSR) .Th e number of its goatsi s 1132 9000 which brings it to fifth position in Asia and first position in Europe. Another evaluation would show that Tiirkiyeha s9.2 %o fth etota lnumbe ro fcows ,26.9 %o f sheepan d98. 1% o f goatsi nEurope . Tiirkiye, by producing 7748 0 mt hides is the fifth producer country in Europe (excluding USSR)an dAsia ;i ti sth ethir dcountr yi nAsi aan dth efirs t amongEuropea n (excludingUSSR ) andE Ccountrie s byproducin g 76 160m t skins (Table1) . In Tiirkiye, the hide production in proportion to the livestock number is at a rather low level;because ,th eproduc epe runi ti sa ta rathe rlo wleve land ,sinc eth euncontrolle d slaugh-

59 Table1. Livestock numbers(10 3 head),hides and skinsproducts (mt) in The World, Asia, Europe andTürkiye (TR).

Cattle Sheep Goats Hides Skins

World 1 281 472 1 17552 4 52644 0 6 90388 0 1 741 174 Asia 33955 6 290793 28324 2 1516 930 62038 7 Europe (TR included) 137 120 191 941 2646 4 1 24763 1 29167 3 EC 8536 4 10296 7 12 315 87159 5 15483 4 Bel.-Lux. 296 7 190 8 2800 0 1700 Denmark 222 6 86 - 2062 5 225 France 21780 12 001 1 103 160100 17 460 Germany 2036 9 409 8 71 25990 0 601 7 Greece 731 10 376 597 0 7 652 1916 0 Ireland 563 7 499 1 9 3900 0 805 0 Italy 873 7 11623 1214 149 008 1670 0 Netherlands 460 6 1405 34 5200 0 1342 Portugal 1359 5 354 745 12780 6 300 Spain 5 050 23 797 3 100 4593 0 41280 UK 11902 2904 6 61 9660 0 3660 0 Türkiye 11551 4067 7 1310 0 7748 0 76 160 FAO,TOKB . teringtake splac ea ta hig hlevel ,i tcause sgrea tlosses .Sprea do fcultur erace si sa nimportan t factor causing an increase on the hideproduce . Controlled slaughtering, which is being fol­ lowed upon with greatinterest , isanothe r important factor thatprevent s lost on the hidean d skinproductio n atlarg escales .B ythi sway ,th epresen tcapacit y canb eincrease du pt o5 0pe r cent level (Artan, 1982).

Structural condition ofth eleathe r Sectori nTürkiy e

Leathersecto ri son eo fth eoldes tsector so fth eTurkis hindustry .Th eestablishment sar emost ­ ly small ones.Sinc e the attempts on utilizing the advanced technological improvement have notreache d to arequire d level yet, the sector still maintains its labourprinte d character. The technological level being maintained at the leather processing and leather clothing branches isrecorde d tob ea ta mediu mdegre ewhil ei texhibit s alo wdegre e atth eshoemakin g branch (Kartay, 1988). Thepresen testablishment sar especiall ysettle da tth ewester narea so fth ecountry .Istanbu l andIzmi r are someo f thesecitie s where thoseestablishment s are settledrathe r densely.Ap ­ proximately80 %o fth eoutpu to fth esecto ri sbein gproduce da tth ewor kplace sa tKazliçesme , Istanbul.I norde rt ocreat ea capacit y increasea swel la sa t oappl ya modernizatio n atth elea ­ ther sector in Türkiye, several investment encouraging funds are being executed (Table 2). Nowadays, there arefou r important projects thatpla y animportan t rolefo r the sector: 1. Totransfe rth epresen testablishmen tsettle da tKazliçesme ,stanbul ,whic hha sa 30 0ton/da y totalproductio n capacity, toth eTuzl aOrganize dLeathe r Industry Center where thedail y capacity level is aimed tob eincrease d to aleve l over60 0ton/day . 2. To activate the Minor Industrial Center atIkitelli-Istanbul , which has been constructed in order to provide appropriate work places for the shoemaking, sadolery and ready-made

60 Table2. Documents ofincentive investmentused in leather and sole industries.

Doc. Total Operating Foreign Employment Year No. investment revenues exchange (Labour) &. Share (106TL) (106TL ) (103 $)

1982 8 943 214 1411 553 1983 10 1726 432 2193 775 1984 16 6408 1886 4155 1811 1985 30 9 634 1413 6 320 1 135 1986 27 21624 643 5 1064 1268 1987 40 33 765 2036 8 11991 273 8 Total 131 74100 3074 8 3671 2 828 0

Table 3. Theproduction ofleather and leather products.

1986 1987

Skin leather (106dm 2) 1931. 7 2 407.2 Hideleathe r Upper leather (106dm 2) 822.1 885.9 3 Soleleathe r (10 tons ) 6.6 7.0 Leathergarment s (103no. ) 6 3 968.3 5 639.4 Shoes (10 pair ) 81.9 3 86.6 Others (10 tons ) 2.3 2.9

Table 4. World leathergarments andaccessories exportmarket (1(P US $).

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 World 139261 1 145 072 4 151635 3 200 229 1 2019 313 Europe 55848 1 55123 9 54236 0 58802 0 65125 7 EC (10countries ) 45814 5 47343 3 49201 3 53665 5 59899 3 1985.Internationa l Trade Statistics Yearbook UnitedNations , 1987.

leatherworkshop s which arealread y making theirmanufactur e underextremel y primitive conditions. 3. Totransfe r theestablishment ssituate da tYesildere-Izmi rt oth eOrganize dIndustria lCente r of Leather situated at Menemen, and to increase the production level to 27 00000 0 num./year. 4. To complete the modern center in Bornova-Izmir, which is being constructed by 750 shoemakers. By therealizatio n of theseprojects , theexportatio n volumeo f the sectori sexpecte d toreac h up toa leve l of 3billio nU S $i n 1995 (Özcörekci, 1988).

61 Inparalle lwit hth eimprovemen to fth esecto ritself ,compensatin gth enee dfo rqualifie dman ­ poweri sanothe raspec t thati sals obein gresearched . Atth emoment ,leathe rtrainin gcourse s basedupo na tw oyear so rfou ryear so feducatio nprogram sa tth ecolleg eleve lhav ebee nstar ­ teda tcertai nuniversitie s such asEg eUniversit y (four yearso feducation ,commencin g from 1983onwards) ,Istanbu lUniversit y (twoyears ,commencin g from 1987); andthes eeducatio n programs are already beactive .Moreover , atPendi k LeatherTrainin g andResearc h Institute (establishedi n 1974),a leathe rtechnicianshi p trainingcours ebase d uponhig h schoolleve li s being given. Inth ePlai nObjective san dAnnua lApplicatio nPlan so fth eprogram sfo r5 Year so fPeriods , DPT(Stat ePlannin g Organization) haspu tforwar d certain measuresregardin g theimprove ­ mento fleathe ran dth eleathe rproduct ssecto reithe ri norde rt ob ebrough tint oapplicatio na t acontinuou s basis orwithi n theprogra mperio d (DPT, 1988).

Production ofleathe ran d leatherproduct si nTiirkiy e

Production of leather and leather products in Tiirkiye regarding the years of 1986 and 1987 hasbee n showna tTabl e3 .Productio nincreas espee di n 1987ha dbee nrecorde da s26. 9per ­ cent. During therecen t years, important increase levels have been recorded. However, these increases are still insufficient to respond the demands on the sector, and a great amount of leatheri sbein gimported .Withi nth eyea ro f 1987,39600 000 0dm 2o fleathe rha sbee nimpor ­ ted (Özcörekci, 1988). Accordingt oth esource so fth eInternationa lTrad eStatistic sYearbook ,th eWorld' sLeathe r Clothing and Accessories Export Market, and the world, Europe and EC Countries markets regarding theexportatio n of leather clothing and accessories have shown atTabl e4 .Amon g the world's leather and leather products market, EC Countries maintains an important place havinga 30-40 % shareo f the market.

Tiirkiye's competition and theE C countries

Leathersecto ri son eo fth eenterprisin g sectorsa nexportatio ni nTiirkiy eaccordin gt oth edat a gatheredconsiderin g theyear so f 1980-1988.Th erati oo fth eleathe rproduct so nth eproduc ­ tion percentage of the whole exportation has been recorded as 19.2%, and the ratio of this amount to the total exportation is 2.7%.Growt h at exportation is 125.8%,whil e growth on productionexhibit sa 11.7 %o flevel .Accordin gt oanothe revaluatio nrealize dconsiderin gth e relations between theworld' s exportation andth eTiirkiye' sexportation :th eleathe rsecto rha s been classified to be among the sectors having acompetitiv e superiority (sectors recorded a relative success) (TUSIAD). When thefactor s determining thecompetitio n superiority areconsidere d according toa n evaluation basedupo n 10scale ,th epresen t situation atth eleathe r sectori sa sfollows : labour force cost,salarie s9 ;labou rforc e productivity 9;capita lcos t4 ;qualit y9 ;specialitie s 9;Mis ­ matches7 ;Technolog y 5;Qualifie d labourforc e 4;Intrastructur e5 ;Availabilit yo fra wmate ­ rial 10; Domestic competition environment 7; Image of country 3; Foreign connections 4; Geographical situation 3(Senatalar , 1991). At thisevaluation , thislabou rforc e productivity andth egeographica l situation can beac ­ ceptedt ob epositiv efactors , whilecapita lcost ,applicatio no fne w technologies anddomesti c competition environments aretake n asnegativ efactors . When compared toth edevelope d or developing economics, Tiirkiyei sa t anadvantageou s situation from therespect s of medium period labor force supply and salary level.Th etechnologie s being applied by certain sectors in Tiirkiye,generally , exhibit avariabl e situation atlarg e scales andthe yca n beclassifie d as unproductive ones.However ,th eleathe rsecto ri samon gthos ewhic h applyadvance dtechno -

62 logiesa tsufficien t degree.I nTürkiye ,ra wmateria lavailabilit y andlo wlabou rforc e costar e importantfactor s whichprovid ea competitio n superiority toth eleathe rsector . Thesecto rha s an important effect on the employment volume, foreign exchange input power and the de­ velopment of thenon-develope d regions.

Conclusion In recent years, Turkish Leather Industry has gained an important success due to its recent performance on theexportatio n field aswel l asdu et oth eimportanc e of technological trans­ formation it experiences. When the organized industrial centers of leather are activated by applyingth emos t advancedtechnologies ,th epresen tproductio ncapacit y andqualit y areex ­ pected tob eincrease dt ohighe rlevels .Turkis h Leather Sector,agains t theE CCountries ,ha s aremarkabl e performance capability from therespec t of itscompetitiv e power.

References Artan,E., 1982. Th estudie so nth eskin san dhides ,collecte da tth emusli mfestiva lo f sacrifice, inth eyea ro f birthcentenar y ofAtatiirk .J .1st . Un.Vet .Fac .8(1) :1-88 . DPT(SPO), 1988.Th ecompetitio nprobabilitie so fTurkis hindustr yi nE Cmarket .Th ePrivat e Specialization. Commission's Report of Leather and Leather Products. State Planning Organization (SPO),Türkiye . FAO, 1990. FAOYearboo kProductio n 1989.Vo l43 . Kartay,H., 1988.The, structural stationan dth eexpectation si nTurkis hLeathe rIndustry .Deri , Year5 ,Issu e 50,p .6-13 . Özgörekgi,M., 1988.Genera lrevie wo fth eleathe ran dleathe rproduct sindustries .DP T(SPO ) ISBN 975-19.0102-2. Senatalar, F., 1991.Leathe rlabo r section,Deri ,Yea r7 ,Issu e78 ,p . 8-13. TOKB,1990. TurkishAgricultura l Ministry'sdocuments . TUSIAD, 1991.Türkiy e21s tcentury , Vol.2 ,TUSIA DPublications .

63 Session2

Environmental problemsassociate dt oth eleathe r industry

Chairman: R.Févrie r Co-chairman: O.Öztürkca n Innovations scientifiques et techniques pour le controle de l'environnement et de la qualité des décharges dans l'industrie du cuir

A. Simoncini, E. Miriani UnioneNazionale Industriel Conciaria U.N.I.C.-Italie

Abstract TheItalia nleathe rindustr y startedove r3 0year sag ot obrin gabou ta neffectiv e actioni norde r to face ecologie problems connected with the industrial processing and it has always held a leadingpositio n atinternationa lleve lfo rth ewor kperforme d andth estudie srelatin gt owast e watertreatment ,depletio n ofemissions ,sludg edisposa lan drecover yo fproces sby-products . 2 600tanneries ,producin g 1 billion70 0millio n squarefee to f tannedleathe ran ddischargin g around3 0millio n cubicmeter so feffluen t peryea rgiv eunquestionabl y riset oproblem scon ­ cerning depollution,als oowin g toth efac t theItalia n legislationi samon gth emos trestrictiv e inth eworld . Keepingi nmin dtha tnecessaril yfo rprocessin ghide sint oleather schemical^reagent shav e tob eused ,a nevaluatio nwil lb emad eo fal lth etechnologie sdevelope dfo rreducin gth epollu ­ tiont oa maximu mexten tfro m theste mpoin titsel fo fwast etreatmen tplants ,whil eals opoin ­ ting out the problems connected with emissions into the atmosphere as well as the present trends inth e field ofecologica l finishing. Ast oth eove r30 000 0ton so f chromed andunchrome dresidue sfro m Italiantannin gpro ­ cesses,th ecurren tline sfo r approaching thequestio no f themos teffectiv e utilization of these valuablenitrogenou sra wmaterial swil lb epointe dout .A noveral lvie wwil lthe nfollo w about thetechnologie s which shouldb eadopte dfo rmaintainin gth epresen tproductio n standardsi n compliance with environmental requirements and in the context of the need for an overall higherproductivit y of theleathe renterprises .

Introduction

Al'occasio n d'un symposium international dontl esuje t estax éessentiellemen t surle speau x brutes,le srace s animales,le sressource s zootechniques et surl'utilisatio n dedifférent s types depoil se tlaine ,i les tauss inécessair ed eparle rd etannage ,c'est-à-dir ed el'industri equ itrans ­ forme les peaux en cuir, récupère la laine et les poils engendrant de véritables problèmes écologiques liés autravai lde speaux . Le tannage des peaux représente la transformation d'une substance organique putrescible enun esubstanc eimputrescible ,c equ ies tun evéritabl eopératio nécologique ;c'es tains iqu'o n récupère un bien précieux quel'homm eutilis edepui s lapréhistoir e etqu idériv e du tannage despeau x réalisé au fil des sièclespa rde s systèmes empiriques telsqu e lafumée , contenant des aldéhides, l'écorce des plantes,contenan t des tannins,le s substances grasses des peaux qui libèrent des aldéhides lors de leur rancissemnt ; au début de ce siècle, les peaux étaient tannées avec des sels basiquesd echrome . Laproductio n depeau x dansl emond e semont eà 1 milliardd epeaux/an ;plu sle spoten ­ tialités dans un pays sont élevées,plu s les problèmes écologiques auxquels il faut faire face sontgrave s (Tableauno . 1).Dan splusieur spay sreprésenté s àc eSymposiu mInternational ,i l existeu n nombre important detanneries :

67 Turquie 700 Maroc 40 (140million s pc/an) France 182 Angleterre 70 Grèce 160 Egypte 230 (130million s pc/an) Finlande 45 Italie 260 0 (160 0million s pc/an) Face à ces énormes quantités de peaux transformées, l'Italie a mis en oeuvre des stratégies exceptionnelles pour donner unerépons e opérationnelle àl aquestio n environnementale dans son ensemble, par le biais d'études et de recherches multidisciplinaires pour aboutir à la construction de systèmes d'épuration dont lesfrai s de gestion sontfor t élevés. Malheureuse- ment.l'épuration des eaux a pour conséquence laproductio n de boues dont l'évacuation est très coûteuse. Une série de sous-produits dérivent des travaux de tannage; nos études ont démontré qu'ils peuvent être considérés comme des matièrespremière s secondaires (MPS), utilisablespou rl aproductio n dematièr eazoté epou rl'alimentatio n dubétail ,pou rle semploi s

Tableau 1. Productionde peaux.

- Production depeau x dans lemond e (peaux/an en millions)

Bovines 240 Ovines 450 Caprines 210 Autres 100 Total 1000 (5.5million s de tonnes/an) - Tanneries dans lemonde : 1300 0ave c 50000 0empoyé s - Peaux tannéesproduites : 12.5milliard sd epied scarrés/a n - Valeurd u cuir tanné:5 000 0milliard s enlire s italiennes

Troispay sproduisen t 25% du cuir tanné (pieds carrées millions) Italie 1 600 (260 0tanneries ) U.R.S.S. 1000 ( 650 tanneries) U.S.A. 700 ( 120tanneries )

- L'Europe produit 43% ducui r tannémondia l - L'Europe occidentale enprodui t29 % - L'Italie produit 50%d u cuir tannéd el a CE,c equ ies t égal à 14%d uprodui t tanné mondial

Eaux etresidues : Eau usée Boues Residues tannées (filtrées-pressées) et non-tannées (millionsmc/an ) (tonnes/an) (tonnes/an)

Monde 300 Italie 28 28000 0 27000 0

Incidence surl epri x du cuirtann éde scoût s d'épuration, del'écoulemen t des bouese t desrésidus ,d el'abattag e desémissions :enviro n 12centime s américains/carré.

68 Tableau2. Residuesdu tannage.

100k gd epeau : eau kg 65 solide kg 35 55% quideviennen t des peaux tannées = 18-19k g

Les solides sedivisen t en: 45% derésidu s tannéso u non-tannés +le sboue s

- Résidus non-tannés Résiduse npoil . L'écharnage (aprèsextractio nde s graisses)perme td'obteni rd el afarin e azotéepou r l'alimentation dubétail . Le découpage entrip eperme t d'obtenir del agélatin e alimentaire etphotographique , du collagène pourl'industri ecosmétiqu e etpharmaceutique . Biométhanisation , Pyrolyse énergie Incinération Résidus tannés Dérayagea uchrom e +enzyme s chrome protéines cuir torréflié Dérayage+ découpag e +dépoli ssag e- matériaux composites carton-cuir

pharmaceutiques, pour les utilisations agricoles comprenant aussi les boues d'épuration (Ta­ bleauno .2) . Récemment,uneCommissio nd el aCommunaut éEuropéenn ea envoy éa uParlemen tEuro ­ péen un document sur les stratégies communautaires à adopter en matière de gestion des déchets. Suivant les directives du Parlement, l'effort conjoint doitdébouche r surla 'préven­ tion'd el aformatio n desdéchet s avantleu rvalorisatio n quies tprévu ee tsouhaitable .L'Itali e suit cette directive depuis plus deving t ans avec descoût s considérables; larépercussio n sur le coût du cuir tannés'élèv e àplu sd e 6%.Dan s les autresPays , aussibie n communautaires qu'extra-communautaires , cesproblème s neson tpa sabordé se tle smesure sadoptée se nma ­ tièreécologiqu en'e n sontqu ' àu n stadeembryonnaire . Parconséquent , unaperç u surle spossibilité s disponibles aujourd'hui, enamon te te nava l ducycl ed etravail ,pou rréduir el'impac técologiqu epeu tdonne rde sindication svalable sau x opérateurs du secteur, qui devraient saisir la nécessité de mettre en place des mesures éco­ logiques, désormais inéluctables, pour la survie du commerce des peaux et des travaux de tannage. Considérant que le temps à notre disposition pour exposer un sujet si vaste est réduit, je présenterai une synthèseportan t surle sopération s possibles,phas e aprèsphase .

Peauxbrute s Les peaux sont stockées suivant la méthoded e la chaîned u froid ou bien en ayantrecour s à l'emploid e conservants autres que le chlorure de sodium qui n'est pas biodégradable etqu i

69 constitue un problème dans les effluents. Le battagede s peaux salées avant le verdissageo u l'emploi defoulon s enrésea uperme td erécupérer ,mêm es ic en'es tqu epartiellement ,c epol ­ luant.I lexist e aussi des systèmes derécupératio n des eauxd edésalinisatio n qui séparentle s protéinesd ela saumure ;celle-c ies tensuit econcentré epa revaporatio ne tl e selréutilis épou r lesalage .

Pentachlorophenol(PCP )

Lesproduit s àbas ed ePC Pson tutilisé spou rpréserve r surtout lespeau x traitées en saumure desmoisissures .Ce templo icré eplusieur sproblème spuisqu ele squantité sd ece sconservant s sur lespeau x finies sont supérieures àcelle s prévuespa rla Loi .L alimit ed e5 pp mimposé e enAllemagn eser aaugmenté esuivan tun eDirectiv eCommunautair e (76/769)qu iprévoi tun e quantitéjusqu' à 1 000pp md ePCP .Entr etemps ,le sconservant sd ecett eclass epeuven tengen ­ drer,aprè sincinération ,de strace sd edioxine ;pa rconséquent ,il s sontremplacé spa r d'autres produits àbas ed'ortophénilphénol , deparachlorométacréoso l oubie npa rde sproduit s àbas e de TCMTB ayant le même effet anti-moisissure bien qu'ils soient plus coûteux et moins durables surla peau.

Dépilage Le dépilage traditionnel à base du complexe sulfure-chaux peut être remplacé par d'autres alternatives.L aprésenc ed equantité sd esulfure ,d eDC Oe tDB Oélevée saprè sl adestructio n despoil s provoquent des inconvénients pendant l'épuration; l'eau après chaulage a un COD de4 0000à5 0 000contr eun evaleu rd e1 2000 a 13 000s il epoi les trécupér épa rde sprocessu s d'immunisation etl'emplo i debasse s quantitésd e sulfures.Dan sl eca sde s peauxlainées ,l e dépilageenzymatiqu eo ul'emplo i depetite squantité sd esulfur e combiné auxenzyme sayan t une activité spécifique en milieu alcalin,auron t untrè s grandintérê t àl'avenir . Les enzymes susmentionnés sontdéj à disponibles età l'étud e auprèsde scentre sd erecherche .L eprincip e de l'injection d'enzymes sous pression du côtécui r (Penetrator) est valable du point de vue écologique.

Déchaulage

L'une des substances chimiques les plus difficiles à éliminer des eaux résiduaires est l'ion ammoniumqu idériv eessentiellemn tde ssel sd'ammoniu mutilisé slor sd udéchaulage .L'utili ­ sationd uga zcarboniqu etesté emêm eà l'échelo nindustrie lrésou te nparti ece sinconvénients . Leprocessu s esttrè s simplee t lesfrai s pour l'installation desfoulon s ne sontpa sélevés .

Tannage Laplupar tde speau xproduite sdan sl emond eson ttannée save cle ssel sd echrome .Considéran t quele s eauxrésiduaire s doivent contenir desquantité s très basses dechrome ,allan t de 1 mg à2 m gd eC rpa rlitr ee tqu el aprésenc ed echrom etrivalen tlimit el'emplo i desboue se nagri ­ culture, on a cherché à remplacer le chrome par d'autres produits minéraux, en particulier l'aluminium etl etitanium .Mai smalheureusement ,ce ssel stannants ,y compri s l'aluminium, ont des effets nocifs et les sels de chrome ne serontpa s remplacés par d'autres systèmes de tannage.Pa rvoi ed econséquence ,i lfau tévalue rtoute sle spossibilité sexistante spou rréduir e les quantités de chrome à utiliser et surtout pour épuiser les bains de tannage et pour en

70 récupérerl echrom erésiduaire .S il'o nconsidèr equ ele sboue sd etannag econtiennen tenviro n 50%d ematièr e organique azotée,pou rqu ece smatériau xconviennen tpou rl afertilisation , il faut faire tousle s efforts possibles afin deréduir e aumaximu m lesquantité s dechrom e dans leseffluents . Les systèmes permettant d'obtenirl'épuisemen ttota lde s bainsd etannag e sont nombreux; le chrome, tout comme les autres produits chimiques, ne peut réagir que sur la substancedermiqu e (SD)d el apea uqu ies tégal eà 20 %d upoid sd el apeau ;s io napport esu r lespeau x en tripe 2.5%d e Q2O3, nous fournissons àl aparti eréactiv e de lapea u (SD)plu s de 50% de son poids! Il est fort évident quece s quantités sont excessives, qu'une partie du chromen'es tpa sfixé ed'un emanièr establ ee tqu'o n laretrouv eno nseulemen tdan sle sbain s résiduels detannag e mais aussidan sle slavages ,lor sd el aneutralisatio n etdan sle s bainsd e teinture.Outr el anécessit éd'optimise rtou sle sfacteur s quiinfluencen t laréactivit éd u seld e chrometel squ el epiclage ,le stemps ,l ep He tl abasification , latempératur edemeur el'u n des paramètres fondamentaux. Suivant les expériences réalisées en Italie, nous avons démontré qu'à l'aide d'un chauffage programmé,qu ipeu t accroître la température dans lesfoulon s de manière progressive et linéairejusqu' à atteindre 40 à45 ° C dans les phases finales, onpeu t utiliser des quantités de chrome inférieures d'un tiers pour fixer àla substance dermique les mêmesquantité sd ese ltannant .E nItalie ,plusieur stannerie son tappliqu éc esystèm eréduisan t ainsi la quantité de chrome, obtenant des eaux de tannage presque épuisées et de faibles quantités dechrom edan s lesboues . Ilexist esu rl emarch éde ssel sd echrom eà hau tdegr éd'épuisemen tqu ipermetten td'obte ­ nirdan sle sbain s épuisésmoin sd e 1 gr/1pa rrappor t àun equantit éconstant ed e4 à 6 gr/1 . En outre, beaucoup de produits peuvent favoriser la fixation du chrome ainsi qu',on l'a suggéré parexempl ee nutilisan tde shydrolysat sd echératin eobtenu sà parti rd upoi lrécupér épendan t laphas ed edépilag eave crecyclage .Quo iqu'i le nsoit ,i lfaudrai tmene rde sétude sultérieure s afin quel echrom efix élor sd utannag en esoi tpa sélimin épendan tle sopération s successives.

Teinture L'emploi de classes decolorant s quion t remplacé lesproduit s benzidiniques ou ceux à base detoluidin eafi n deélimine rle seffet s cancérigènes dece ssubstances .L avéritabl einnovatio n est l'emploid ecolorant s liquides qui évitent l'inhalation depoudres , quipeuven t êtremieu x dosése tqu ion tun eréactivit éplu simportant evis-à-vi sde speau xchromées ,grâc eau xdimen ­ sions pluspetite sde sparticule s du colorant.

Finissage

Ilexist e différents types definissag e qui comportent l'utilisation de machines et de produits chimiques.Le sfinissage s peuventêtr esubdivisé se ndeu xcatégories :l efinissag e àbas ed'ea u etl efinissage à bas ed esolvant .Le sfinissages à bas ed'ea uimpliquen tl'utilisatio nd ecaséine s etde straitement s avecde sproduit sréticulant s (telsqu el eformaldehyd eo ude sproduit ssimi ­ laires). Les finissages à base de solvant prévoient, suivant les articles, l'emploi de solvants soit solubles,dan s une certainemesure , soitinsoluble s dans l'eau. Les solutions sontapportée s surl apea upa rl apulvérisatio n (lignesd epistolet s àvapeur) , lesaupoudrag e ou l'enduisage. Lesproduit squ ipeuven tprovoque rde sproblème sécologique s (pollutiond el'atmosphère ) sont les suivants: l'émission de particules, le formaldehyde et les solvants insolubles dans l'eau.Pa r ailleurs,d upoin t devu ede smachines ,le sproblème s majeurs sontlié sessentielle ­ ment aux lignes de pistolets à vapeur où la pulvérisation de mélanges, avec la création de l'aérosole tle sdébit sélevé sd'ai r(jusqu' àenviro n 1500 0m 3/h),demand el'emplo id egrande s

71 quantités deproduit s dontun eparti eseulemen tes tapporté e surl apeau ,alor squ el erest ees t dégagé dansl'air . Dès lors,i l est nécessaire d'analyser chacun de ces éléments susceptibles de représenter une forme potentielle depollution : Particules: lesparticule s solides,composée s essentielle­ ment derésines ,d ecaséine s etd epigments , sontprésente s seulement dansle s lignes depul ­ vérisation. Al'heur eactuelle ,grâc eà de scritère se tà de ssystème sd'abattag eà l'ea u (toursà contre-courant),d etrè sbon srésultats ,e nconformit é avecle snorme se nvigueur ,peuven têtr e obtenus.Formaldehyde: cett esubstance ,employé etraditionnellemen t dansl esecteu rd utan ­ nage,pou r lesfinissage s àl'"aniline" , n'a pas étéremplacé e aujourd'hui encorepa rd'autre s produits aussivalables .Le sproblème s quel eformaldehyd epos e sontcorrélé s à sa volatilité élevée et aux fortes contraintes établiespa r lalégislatio n actuelle.L'utilisatio n du formalde­ hydea comport éde sinvestissement simportant safi nd'équipe rle sligne sd epulvérisatio nave c desinstallation s d'abattageappropriées .Nu ldout equ ele srésultat s obtenus sont satisfaisants et ceci aét épossibl e en réduisant les quantités deformaldehyd e employées ete n appliquant destechnologie sd'installatio nqu iexploiten ts asolubilit édan sl'ea ue ts aréactivit éparticulièr e danscertaine sconditions .Solvants: i lfau tfair eun edistinctio nentr ele ssolvant ssoluble sdan s l'eau(pa rexemple ,le sglycols ,l'acéton eetc. )e tle ssolvant sinsolubles .E nc equ iconcernen t lespremiers ,i ln 'exist epa sd eproblème sd'abattag eimportant sca re nexploitan tleu rsolubilit é dansl'eau ,o narriv eà limite rleu rteneu rdan sle sémissions .E nc equ iconcern ele sautre ssol ­ vants, leproblèm e estbie nplu sclai rétan tdonn équ ele scaractéristique s desémission s (con­ centrations,débit setc. )sonttelle squ'elle sempêchen td'avoi rrecour sà de stechnologie sexpé ­ rimentées dans d'autres secteurs, par exemple les chambres de combustion catalytiques ou thermiques.L e coût del'investissemen t etsurtou t del agestio n nepourrai tpa sjustifie r cette opération. Quefair e alors?L a seule alternative seraitd en eplu s produire certains typesd'ar ­ ticles,mai s àvra idire ,celle-c i nesembl epa s êtrel ameilleur e solution. Ilfaudrai t plutôtun e actionconcerté eave cle sproducteur sd esubstance schimiques .Ceux-c idoiven têtr ee nmesur e depropose rd e nouvelles formulations quipermetten t d'obtenirle s mêmesproduit s avecde s solvants différents de ceux utilisés actuellement et solubles dans l'eau: une hypothèse qui a déjà étépréconisé epa rde sétude smenée spa rl aStazion eSperimental ePell id eNaples .C'es t là,indiscutablement , lavoi eà suivr ee tà approfondir . Desraison s écologiques,technique se t économiquesson tà l abas ed ece sorientation sd'autan tplu squ ed ecett efaçon ,i lser apossibl e d'envoyer les eaux d'abattage des solvants aux installations normales d'épuration des eaux dont chaque tannerie estpourvue . Enc equ iconcern ele sémissions ,l alégislatio nitalienn ees trécente ,pe uclaire ,incomplèt e etpénalisant ee tpa rvoi ed econséquence ,ell edoi tfair e faceà tou sle sproblème sd el aréalit é productive. Onespèr eque ,dan su nfutu rproche ,de snorme sseron tformulée s àl'échelo neuropée nqu i ne soientpa s discriminantes pour lesdifférent s pays del'Europ eUnie .

Machinespou rl etannag ee tcycle sd etravai l

Cesdernière s années,le sactivité s detannag ee nEurop eon tsub iu nfléchissemen t légerd el a production,d ûessentiellemen tà l acris ed el'industri ed el achaussure ,au xdifficulté s d'appro­ visionnement enmatière spremière s etau xproblème s écologiques du secteurqu icontribuen t àcrée rde ssujet sd eréflexion .L enivea ud el aqualit éd ucui rtanné ,un econditio n fondamentale pourl acompétitivité ,n esembl eplu sêtr esuffisan t pourassure rl'expansio ndan sl'avenir .Un e telle expansion est au contraire corrélée à une innovation technologique constante qui doit créerle sdifférence s nécessairespou rl acompétitivité .Afi n deréalise rc eprocessu sd'innova ­ tion,i l seranécessair e decompte r sur des systèmes d'automation très sophistiqués,ave c une gestion entièrement informatisée de latannerie .Dan s une moindre mesure,i lfaudr a réaliser

72 unemécanisatio n intégréepoussée ,e nparti ea umoye nd esystème s informatisés etessentiel ­ lement enrobotisan t laplupar t desopération s demanipulatio n despeaux . Lapremièr e solutionpeu têtr eréalisé e àlon g terme seulementpa rde s tanneries ayantde s productionstrè sélevées .E nrevanche ,l asecond esolutio noffre , àmoye nterme ,un epossibilit é réelle d'applications différenciées selon l'importance de la production. Par conséquent, les initiatives industrielles auxquelles ondevr aaccorde ru nintérê tprioritair e sontno n seulement lecontrôl ede sprincipale sphase sd uprocessus ,mai sauss il'emplo i denouveau xtype sd ema ­ chines destinées à toutes les phases de la transformation, outre la robotisation de la mani­ pulation des peaux. Ceci, dans le but de transformer le travail 'discontinu' de laplupar t des machinesutilisée s actuellement entravai l 'continu'. Depuis plusieurs années, on a mis au point des machines qui sont largement employées: pourl'écharnage ,l edécoupage ,l aventilatio nl apresse ,l ateintur ee tl edérayage .A notr eavis , lesperspective sfuture s del atransformatio n despeau x sontétroitemen tliées ,pou rde sraison s économiquese técologiques ,à un eséri ed eprocessu sd erationalisatio n ducycl eproducti f qui doivent êtreinterprété s surtout commeun emodificatio n essentielle desprocessu s derivière , notamment du dépilage-chaulage, comme une simplification des opérations de charge et de décharge, comme des contrôles et si possible, lerecyclag e des bains et le dosage plus facile desproduit s chimiques. Desinnovation s substantiellesdan sl arationalisatio n desopération smécanique s sontauss i nécessaires,à traver sl edéveloppemen t del'automation , surtoutpou r leprélèvement ,l eposi ­ tionnement et l'empilage des peaux à la sortie des foulons et des machines. En réduisant le nombred etravailleurs ,le scoût sseron teu xauss iréduits .Toutefois ,i les tclai rqu ece sinnova ­ tionsn eseron tappliquée squ es ile scoût sd el'innovatio n sontlimités .E nmêm etemps ,i lser a possible d'obtenir une amélioration de la qualité des peaux, de plus grands rendements en termed e surface et aussid eréduir e lesproblème s écologiques.De sligne s detravai l 'en con­ tinu'son tactuellemen tdisponible soù ,bie nqu el'homm erempliss eencor eun efonctio n fonda­ mentale, des solutions valables sont adoptées pour l'automation et le contrôle du processus. De fait, la continuité et la vitesse de travail sont assurées par l'automation des transferts, ce qui permet une forte diminution des coûts de manipulation tout en garantissant la souplesse de travail nécessaire. Amoye n terme, il est possible d'envisager une économie de la main d'oeuvre employéed e4 0à 50 %pou rle sraison ssuivantes :1 )toute sle sopération sd edépilage , de chaulage, de tannage et de teinture peuvent être réalisées dans un seul foulon, réduisant ainsil emouvemen tde speaux ;2 )toute sle sopération smécanique speuven têtr eexécutée ssu r des machines en continu, dont plusieurs sont reliées en série,c e qui comporte uneréductio n considérable du nombre d'ouvriers. En ce qui concerne les avantages écologiques des nouvelles lignes de travail préconisées — l'écharnage et ledécoupag e associés au foulon àrecyclag e — elles permettent d'obtenir unediminutio n d'environ 50%de s bouesproduite s par latanneri e et uneéconomi e considé­ rabled'eau .I les tégalemen tpossibl ed erécupére rle sdéchet sd edécoupage ,le scroûte se tle s oreillonsqu ison tindemne sd eproduit schimique se tqu ipeuven tdon cêtr erecyclé sauss ipou r l'alimentationanimal eo upou rl apréparatio nd eproduit sà haut evaleu rajoutée .Dan sl'atelie r de finissage, si on adopte la pigmentation avec des machines à rouleaux pour remplacer le système traditionnel de pulvérisation, tout problème d'épuration s'en trouve éliminé et les solutions de couverture peuvent être entièrement utilisées.Enfin , le découpage automatique despeau xave c lesdéchet sréduit s auminimum , surtoutpou rle spetite speau xd evaleur ,aug ­ mentera lesrendement s etlimiter a lesproblème s d'élimination desdéchets . Grâce à un effort conjoint des tanneries, de l'industrie chimique, des producteurs dema ­ chines et d'installations et de larecherch e du secteur, il est actuellement possible deréalise r une tannerie qui, sans gaspillage deressources ,puiss e garantir l'avenir de l'industrie du tan­ nagelié ,san saucu n doute,à un eproductivit éélevée ,à un eréductio n généralede scoûts ,à u n contrôled uprocessu se tdon cà un equalit éconstante ,tou tcec ie nrespectan te nplei nl'environ ­ nement.

73 Possibility of reduction and re-usingth ewaste so fTurkis h leather industry that causeenvironmenta l pollution

Ö.Sari and A.N. Yapici UniversityofEge, Facultyof Agriculture, Department of Leather Technology, 35100-Bornova-hmir, Turkey

Summary From traditional handicrafts in twenty years theTurkis h leathermanufacturin g has becomea majorindustry ,meanwhil erapi dflo w ofpopulatio nfro mrura larea st otown sresulte di nunor ­ ganized urbanization. Tanneries once located in provincial zones of towns now engulfed in rapid expansion and become parto f city center areas where tanneries lackprope r infrastruc­ tures.Consequentl y treatment plants weren't installed byth efirms . And now suddenly envi­ ronmentalhazard s ofleathe rindustr y comet oattention . Institutionst osuppl ythi sindustr ywit hskille dresource st oincreas eth estandard so fknow ­ ledge were slow in forming. Insufficient establishments while moving upward for space in progressmad ei tdifficult , sometimesimpossible ,t otrea tan dprocesse sliqui dan dsoli dwastes . Thus,establishment swh obrough tne wtechnolog yweren' tabl et omak ecomplet eus eo fthem . Considering the state of the Turkish tanneries today, to achieve desired decrease in solid andliqui dwastes ,variou sprecaution sca nb eeffective . Educationan dtrainin gcraftsme n must beth eprim econcern .Withou t skilledcraftsme n nomatte rho wne wth etechnolog yi sdecrea ­ singth ewast et opreven tpollutio n willno t bepossible .Als o thechemica l andwate rquantit y inapplicatio nfo rsorting ,soaking ,dehairing ,limin getc .I fi tca nb eapplie di nspecifi camount s it willhel pt ominimiz e the liquid and solidwastes . Tannerieso f Tiirkiyemak en oeffor t torecycl e the waste.Wast e water studies for agricul­ tural usearen' t made.Als on oresearc h ismad efo r using the solidwastes . Key words:tannery ,wastes ,reduction , sorting,recycling .

Introduction Turkish leather industry, which has become a major manufacturing from traditional handi­ crafts, ison e of theindustr y brancheswhic h mustb epointe d outwit h sensitivity andimpor ­ tance.Th e sector, which has showed arapi ddevelopmen t andchangin g in last twentyyears , hadneithe rit sow ninfrastructur e noreducate dpersonnel .Whe nth esectors' spollutin gsid ei s noticedi twa s very late thatth etake n preventscouldn' t beenough . Thearea stha tth eleathe rindustr yi sestablishe d andsettled ,i n ashor ttime ,starte dt otak e place in city centers becauseo f unorganized urbanization andrapi d flow ofpopulatio n from rural areas to cities. So the establishments that normally have to show horizontal growth, parallel to unorganized urbanization, showed perpendicular development in limited areas. Environmental pollution has gradually intensed, treatment plants couldn't beestablishe dan d theone stha thav ebee nestablishe dcouldn' t giveth eexpecte dresul t becauseo f technological incompetence. Incities ,proble m ofenvironmenta lpollutio n graduallyincrease d andresul to fthis ,leathe r industry had the problem of changing place. As a result, studies about moving the leather establishments in Istanbul Kazliçesmet oTuzl aOrganize d Leather Manufacturing Areas and theone si nIzmi rYesilder et oMeneme nMaltep eOrganize dLeathe rManufacturin g Areasar e increased.Studie slik etha tar eals odon ei ncitie slik eBursa ,Usak .Howeve rfinancia lproblem s

74 hindered theorganize d leather manufacturing areas to gain workingness in a short time.O n one side the prevents that the local administration took ando n the other side the obligations thatth eenvironmenta l laws submitted especially caused themovin go f theestablishment s in Kazliçesmet oothe rcities .So ,i ncountr ybas ebeside sno tbein gabl et otak eprevent st ohinde r the environmental pollution, postponing and decreasing occurred in the production of the establishments,th equalit y becamelowe ran dman yfirm s couldn'timplemen tthei rcontracts .

Generalsituatio no fTurkis hleathe r industry

Thereisn' t anycertai nknowledg e aboutth enumbe ro fleathe restablishment si nTurkey ,i ti s thoughttha tther ear eabou ttw othousan destablishments .Thes eestablishment sar e insufficient bothtechnicall yan dtechnologically .Besides ,the ysho wdifferenc e fromeac hothe ri nworkin g methods. Mosto f the establishments inTurke y areintense d in cities and towns likeIstanbul , Izmir, Usak,Bursa ,Denizli ,Çorlu ,Gönen ,Gerede ,Kula .Whe n theseplace s are searchedfo r their treatment plants the collected treatment plants are only in Izmir Yesildere and Gökdere. In otherplaces ,ther earen' tan ytreatmen tplant sexcep t5-1 0establishments .So ,al lliqui d efflu­ entsar edirectl y givent onatura lenvironment . Theseeffluents , whicharen' tdepende do nan y kind of treatment, causes environmentalpollution .Shortly ,today' s TurkishLeathe r Industry doesn't have any possibilities to treat its own enfluents except 5-10 treatment plants. This problemca nb esolve donl yi nth eplac ewher eth etreatmen tplan ti san donl yi fi twork sgood .

Decreasingth eenvironmenta lpollutio n

Someprevent s can betake n by taking into account the situation of Turkish Leather Industry wementione d above.Thi s is possible only byeducatin g firstly the leather manufacturer and then the ones working in the sector. Because it isn't possible to establish and to labour the technological possibilities to decrease the environmental pollution in these establishments. Here,becaus etha tman yfactor s likediscontinuit yi nth eproduction ,variety ,an dlo wcapacit y playsa nimportan trole ,investment saren' tbecom erational .So ,i tcan' tb epossibl et oevaluat e eitherliqui d orsoli d effluents in aneconomi c way. Iti spossibl e to separate theeffluent s inleathe r manufacturing into two general groups as liquid and solideffluents . So,her ei twil lb e told aboutfirstl y how todecreas e theliqui d and solideffluent s andthe n howt oevaluat e these effluents. Asknown ,ra wmaterial sar eprocesse di ndifferen t floatamounts .Becaus eo fthis ,accordin g toth ekin do fth era wmateria lo rsemi-manufacture d leatherdifferen t amountso fwate ri suse d and chemical materials in various characters are added to the water. Also,th e wasted-water structureshow sa ver ymixe dcharacte rwit hth eprotein ,fat ,hair ,dust ,solid ,etc .durin gvariou s processes.Becaus e of this,t otrea tth eeffluent s of leather manufacturing ismor e difficult in contrastwit h theothe rmanufactures ' effluents. Below, approximate water amounts, which are used in labouring 1 000 kg of some raw materialsan dsemi-manufacture d leatheri na classi cformula , aregive na sa nexampl et ogiv e anide a aboutth eliqui deffluen t amounts. Forra w skin 70-90 m3/t Forpickle dleather s 30-^40 m3/t For wet-blue leathers 24-30 m3/t For goatleather s 60-70m 3/t Forpickle d goatleather s 20-30 m3/t For wet-blue leathers 18-22m 3/t For calf upper leathers 60m 3/t

75 Today,i n mosto f theplace s of theworld ,wate ri suse d less than thesevalues .Here , besides economical and ecological factors, the knowledge, technology and new auxiliary agents, which areimprove s gradually, started tob ever y effective. Theresearche s done in EgeUniversit y Agricultural Faculty Leather Technology Depart­ ment showed that at least % 50 of water can be saved which is used for the production of clothing anduppe rleathe ri nth esecto rtoday . Todecreas eth eeffluen t volumei spossibl e byoptimizin gth eprocesses .Thi s needs firstly qualified personnelwit henoug htechnologi cknowledge .B ydoin gthat ,th evariable s effecting theprocedur edurin gth eproces sca nb eadjuste d wellan dth eexpecte dresul tca nb eprovided . Thefirs t prevent tob e taken toprovid e thedecreasin g of the effluent volume is to eliminate the superfluous washings andrinsing .Th ewashing s after limingdecreasing ,tanning ,dyein g andwashing s before andafte r theneutralizatio nneed sver ymuc hattention .Also ,th eamoun t of the water thati s used in theproces s must beadjuste d very good and byusin g thetechno ­ logicalknowledge ,th echemical s thatar egive n toth efloa t mustb etake n asth emaximu mb y theleather . Someproces s effluents can beuse d many times byrecycling .However , theesta ­ blishments areno t suitablet oestablis h ansyste m liketha tbecaus eo f settling and infrastruc­ ture.Also ,i tmustn' t beforgotte n that theregeneratio n needs aver y goodanalytica l control. Besides liquid effluents, therei s another kindo f effluent causing environmental pollution whichi scalle d the solidwastes .Thes eca nb e classified in three groups, suchas : a. hairy raw materialwastes ; b. untanned leatherwastes ; c. tannedleathe rwastes . Their quantityrise s upt o50-5 5 % of totalra wmateria l weight. Thepossibilit y of evaluating them,change saccordin gt oth etyp eo fth ewaste . Therei sth epossibilit y of evaluating thewastes .A smos to f thetannerie si nTiirkiy ear ei n certaincenter s inIstanbu l andIzmir ,th eproble m ofcollectin g the solidwaste s isnearl yfini­ shed.But ,i nTiirkiye ,ther earen' tinstitution s yettha tca nproces sthes esoli dwastes .T oesta ­ blishthes einstitution sth erequire dstudie smus tb edon ean dth einstution smus tb eestablishe d as soon as possible in the areas where the leather establishments are intensed. When this is succeeded, thenatur ewil lb eeffecte d ina positiv ewa yan dth eeffluent s willb eevaluate db y becomingth era w material of another industry: Waste's type Waste'susage s 1. untanned wastes Sausagecase ,surgica l material,foo d matters,glue ,manur e 2. tanned wastes Artificial leather, glue,foo d matter, manure 3. other wastes Artificial leather, hair, soluble protein

76 Use of the biomasses and of the by-products of the leather industry in agriculture

5.Silva and C. Baffi Instituteof Chemistry, Facultyof Agriculture, Catholic University, Piacenza,Italy

Abstract Experimental data from trials with the use of leather tannery sludges in agricultural soils, typicalo fNort hItaly ,o ncrop so frice ,maiz ean dwhea twil lb epresented .Th ematerial s allow good yields, comparable with the yields of plots fertilized with mineral fertilizers only, and theypermi t agoo dsavin go fN fertilizers . Asfa r aschromiu mi sconcerned ,th edat afro m ex­ periments show thatther e aren orisk s connectedwit hchromiumlevel s in grains abdstra wo f crops because the element (present only in the form CrIII ) remains in the soil as chromium oxidewhic h is an inertmateria lwithou tan yris k for thepollutio n of soilan dgroundwaters . Keywords: Chromium, energy saving,fertilizin g action,leathe r tannery sludge.

Introduction Despiteth ediffus e opiniontha tbelive stha tby-product scomin gfro mchemical ,foo d andothe r industrieshav et ob econsidere donl ya swastes ,i nthes erecen tyear sscientist san dinternationa l organizations (ECC Directive n 91/156/ECC 18 March 1991) have begun to consider the problem under a different point of view.I n fact by-products are beginning to beregarde d as energy and nutrient sources by virtue of organic matter, nitrogen contents, to be favourably employeda sra wmaterial si nprimar yactivities ,a si nagriculture .I nthi sne wligh tth eproble m offindin g suitablesolution sfo rth edisposa lo fwastes ,change si nfindin g suitablefield s where thesematerial s couldb eprofitabl y employed.Thati sth ecas eo fbyproduct scomin gfro m lea­ therindustrie s whichproduc e large amounts of different materials;i n this paper sludges and theirpossibl eagricultura lus ewil lb eonl ytreate di ndetail ,neglectin gal lothe rleathe rindustr y by-products.Ai mo f thepape ri stherefor e toinvestigat eabou tth epossibl eus eo fleathe rtan ­ nery sludgesi n agricultural soilsa sorgani cmanure swhic h canrestor efertilit y levelsi n soils submitted tointensiv e agricultural cropping.

Materialsan dmethod s Theexperiment s carried out can be subdivided in twoparts :experimen t 1 and experiment 2. Theforme r willdea lwit h theus eo f leather tannery sludgesi n soils wheremaize/whea t have been grown and the latter will deal with the useo f the sludges on soils withrice crop .I n the experiments,bot htwo-yea rlong ,th e samesludge s andth e sameexperimenta ldesig n (rando­ mized blocks) have been employeda si t will bedescribe d inth efollowin g sections.

Experiment1

The experiment 1wa s carried out on aloa m soil,typica l of the Plain of Northern Italy,wit h medium fertility, subacid reaction and good e.c.c. (Table 1)wit h a cropping of maize (first year) followed by wheat (second year). The leather tannery sludges employed were of two types:on ecalle dSludg e 1,cam efro m vegetable tanning andth eother ,calle d Sludge2 , from

77 Table 1. Mainphysical-chemical characteristics ofthe soils.

Parameters Soil Soil exper.1 exper. 2 pH (inwater ) 6.2 5.3 TotalN % 0.12 0.19 Organicmatte r% 1.90 3.82 Avail.P2O 5 ppm 40.5 56.5 Exchang.K 20 ppm 77.0 39.6 Chronium solublei nHC l 6N pp m 73.5 18.9 Avail,chroniu m (Lakanen-Ervio) ppm 0.40 0.24 e.c.c. (meg/100g )pp m 20.9 15.1 Physical analysis sand% 31.1 27.8 silt % 48.7 68.8 clay% 20.2 3.4

Table 2. Chemicalanalysis ofthe sludges employedin the trials.

Parameters Sludge 1 Sludge2 chrome tanning vegetable tanning

pH (inH 20; 1:2.5) 9.1 7.8 Dryresidue s at 105"C % 38.3 32.0 Mineral substances at550 ° C(ashes )% 61.0 57.2 Organic substances% 39.0 42.8 Organiccarbo n (Springler-Klee)% 21.0 22.0 TotalN (Kijeldhal) % 2.1 2.2 TotalP 205 % 0.42 0.40 TotalK 20 % 0.010 0.023 TotalCaC0 3% 41.4 0.023 Exavalent chronium absent absent Chronium extractable byHC l 6N (Cr%) 2.23 0.33 Availablechroniu m (Lakanen-Ervio)% 0.440 0.036 C/N 10 10 Sludge treatment filter-press filter-press

chrome tanning. The main chemical analysis of the sludges are shown in Table 2.Th eexpe ­ rimentaldesig nwa srandomize d blockswit h4 replication s for each treatment; thetreatment s were6 th efirst yea ran d8 th efollowin g one,s osubdivided :th efirs t yearw eha dtw oorganic , twoorgano-mineral ,on eonl y mineral andon eno-fertilize d treatment tob ecompared.o nth e basiso fthei rN content .Th efollowin g year,i norde rt ohav esupplementar yinformatio n about theresidua leffec t ofth esludge sapplie dth eyea rbefore , twoorganicall yfertilize d plotswer e splitted.Th eexperimenta l design andth enutrien t supplies are showni n Table3 .

78 Table 3. Experimentaldesign andnutrient supplies for maizeand wheat.

Cropo f Maize Cropo f Wheat

Treatments t/haof Nutrients supplied t/haof Nutrients supplied sludge (kg/ha) sludge (kg/ha) suppl. suppl. (Am.) N P2O5 K20 (dm.) N P2O5 K20 Test unfertilized 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NPKminer , fertil. 0 300 168 200 0 200 100 0 Sludge 1org . fertil. 12.8 282 51 3 12.8 282 51 3 Sludge2 org. fertil. 15.3 322 64 1.5 15.3 322 64 1.5 Sludge 1+PK org.+ miner , fertil. 12.8 282 219 203 12.8 382 101 3 Sludge 2+PK org.+ miner , fertil. 15.3 322 232 202 15.3 422 114 1.5

Table4. Experimentaldesign and nutrient supplies 1for rice crop.

Treatments t/haof Nutrients supplied (kg/ha) sludge suppl. (dm.) N P2O5 K20 Test unfertilized 0 0 0 0 NPKminer , fertil. 0 140 100 180 Sludge 1org . fertil. 6.40 141 25.6 1.5 Sludge2 org . fertil. 7.66 161 32 0.75 Sludge 1+ P K org +min . fertil. 6.40 141 125.6 181.5 Sludge 2+PK org+ min . fertil. 7.66 161 132 180.8 Thedose s applied the secondyea r areequa l tothos eapplie d the first year.

Experiment2

Theexperimen t2 wa scarrie dou to n asilty-loa msoi lsite di na Norther nregio no f Italy,wit h highfertility , acidreactio n (Table1 ) wit h acroppin go fric efo r two years.Fo rthi sexperimen t are valid the same experimental design made for theexperimen t 1.Th eexperimenta l design andnutrien t suppliesar e showni nTabl e4 .

79 Table5. Grainyields for maize,wheat and rice crops (tlha ofdry matter).

Treatments Maize Wheat Rice Rice 1styea r 2ndyea r Testunfertilize d 9.22 4.203 * 5.80* 5.67a NPKminer ,fertil . 10.38 6.48d 6.03a 6.80b Sludge 1 org.fertil . 8.35 5.96d 6.78b 6.85b Sludge 1 residual effect 0 5.05b 0 5.99a Sludge 2org .fertil . 8.36 5.93cd 7.00b 6.7l b Sludge2 residua l effect 0 S^ 0 5.99a Sludge 1+PK 9.30 6.36d 6.61b 6.84b Sludge2 +P K 8.39 6.01d 6.77b 6.83b

1 0.01 confidence level;diference s in smallletters .

Table6. Contentsof chronium in grainand strawsamples of rice,maize and wheatafter harvesting (ppm).

Treatments Rice Rice Maize Wheat 1styea r 2nd year

chaff grain chaff grain straw grain straw grain

Test unfertilized 1.31 0.04 1.27 0.04 0.59 0.05 0.55 0.03 NPKminer , fertil. 0.91 0.05 1.33 0.05 0.50 0.06 0.48 0.03 Sludge 1 org. fertil. 1.03 0.05 1.11 0.04 0.62 0.06 0.54 0.06 Sludge 1 residual effect 0 0 1.13 0.05 0 0 0.48 0.07 Sludge 2org . fertil. 1.21 0.03 1.11 0.06 0.64 0.05 0.61 0.09 Sludge2 residua l effect 0 0 1.21 0.06 0 0 0.50 0.06 Sludge 1 +P K 0.83 0.03 1.08 0.04 0.61 0.06 0.55 0.08 Sludge 2 +P K 0.76 0.03 1.34 0.05 0.51 0.04 0.54 0.06 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. 1 ns:no n significant differences between themeans .

Resultsan d discussion

Experiment1

Table5 show sth edat arelativ et ograi nyield so fmaiz ean dwheat ;dat arelativ et ostra wyield s are lessimportan t and areno treporte d here.W eca n saytha t sludges needed acertai n period oftim et ob eincorporate d andt oreac h steady-statecondition swit hsoi lorgani cmatter ;never ­ thelesseve ni nth efirs t yearo fapplicatio n withmaiz ecrop ,th eyield so forganicall y fertilized plotsdon' t significantly differ from otherplots ,especiall y from thosewit h mineral fertilizers only.I nth esecon dyear ,wit hwhea tcrop ,th efertilizin gactio no fsludge sca nb ebette robserve d intha tth eplot sfertilize d withleathe rtanner ysludge ssho wyield scomparabl ewit hplot swit h mineral fertilizers only. Table 6 shows the valueo f contents of chromium in straw and grain of maize and wheat after harvest. There are no significant differences among themean s and

80 Table7. Statistical test on means of organic matter values in soils afterfinal harvesting (Duncantest).

Treatments Soilexp . la Treatments Soil exp. 2a o.m. %a o.m. %a Sludge2 +P K 1.95e Sludge 2+P K 3.88e Sludge2 1.92e Sludge 2 3.87e Sludge 1 1.91e Sludge 1+PK 3.86e Sludge 1+PK 1.90e Sludge 1 3.85e Sludge 1 residualeffec t 1.83b Sludge2 residua l effect 3.80b NPK 1.81b Sludge 1 residual effect 3.78b Sludge2 residua l effect 1.78b NPK 3.76b Test 1.64a Test ?,.&&

thevalue s arever y low,expeciall y for grains,whic h areo f interest for human food. Thedat a relativet oorgani cmatte r (Table7 )an dchromiu mcontent si nth eloa msoi lafte r harvest show thatleathe rtanner y sludgesrestor einitia lorgani cmatte rlevel si nsoil swhic hhav ebee nredu ­ ced in their values in the other plots with slurry supplies. As far aschromiu m levels in soils are concerned,the plots fertilized with sludges show an increase in chromium lévels.but this elementi nth esoi li spresen t asCr 203 (trivalentform ) andi nthi sfor mi ti stransforme d when it is added to soil by addition of sludges;therefor e it hast ob econsidere d as aniner t material (as suggested byEPA) ,withou t anyris kfo r groundwater pollution.

Experiment2

Table 5 shows thedat arelativ e toric e yields in the two-year experiment; weca n saytha tth e leather tannery sludges have been readily mineralized and their nutrients made available for rice roots, which uptake nitrogen directly as ammonium without any nitrification process. Therefore in rice field conditions leather tannery sludges have a fertilizing action already in thefirs t application year.Th edat arelativ et oyield sobtaine di nth esecon dyea rconfir m those relative toone so ffirs t yearan dpoin tou ttha tth eorgani co rorgani c+ minera lfertilize d plots hadyield ssimila rt othos erelativ et ominera lfertilizatio n only.Fo rchromiu mcontent si nchaf f and grain (Table 6) arevali dth e sameobservation s madefo r maizean d wheato f experiment 1 and the values of chromium, expecially for grain, are vary low for being arisk fo r human health.A sfa r asO.M . (Table7 )an dchromiu mcontent s areconcerned ,i nsilty-loa msoi l after final harvesting, data show that the sludges applied restore accettable levels of O.M. in soil more than a mineral fertilization only; for chromium the plots fertilized with sludges show chromiumvalue s significantly highertha n thoseo f theothe rplot s buteve ni nthi scas ei twa s detecteda sC ri n (chromium-oxide)only ,a niner tan dhighl yinsolubl ematerial ,withou trisk s for groundwaters.

Conclusions

After these field experiments thefollowin g remarks can bedrawn : 1. The leather tannery sludges show afertilizin g action both in aerobic and anaerobic agro- systems with yields comparable withminera l dressings only; 2. Thesematerial srestor eaccettabl elevel so fO.M .i nagricultura lsoil ssubmitte dt ointensiv e cropping and therefore theypermi t anitroge n fertilizer saving.

81 3. Theus eo f leathertanner y sludgesdon' tdetermin ea cumulatio n ofchromiu mi ngrai nan d straw of cropso f food interest. Thelevel s arealway s verylow . 4. hematerial sdetermin ea nincreas eo fchromiu mlevel si nsoils.bu tchromiu mi sonl yi nth e trivalent form,without risks for thepollutio n of soils and groundwaters. 5. During theexperiment s nopathologi c ortoxicologi ceffec t for health has been observed.

References

C.E.C., 1991.Directiv e of Council (91/156/CEC),N L78/32-37 . Silva, S.,Baffi, C, Ghilardelli, A. &G.P. Veneziani, 1986.Impatt o agricolo di fanghi pro- venientid a acquereflu e diindustri ech eutilizzan ol aconci a alcrom oe a ltannino .Annal i Facoltàd iAgrari aU.C.S.C .26:61-90 . Silva,S., Baffi, C, Ghilardelli,A. &I. Anguissola Scotti, 1987.Effett i dellous oi n agricoltura deifangh i didepurazion e conciari.Ing .Amb . 16:312-18. Silva,S., 1989.Impieg o agricolode iresidu i dilavorazion i déliepelli .L a Conceria (Ed.)pg g 60. EPA,1978. Revie w of the Environmental Effects of Pollulants:H IChromiu m EPA-600/1- 78-023p g9-11 .

82 Session 3

Breedingan dfeedin g inwoo lan dhai r production

Chairman: V. Tîmon Co-chairman: A.Eliçi n Bases physiologiques et génétiques de la production de laine et de poils chez les petits ruminants et le lapin

D. Allain*,R.G. Thébault** etH. deRochambeau* * Inra, CRToulouse, SagaBP 27,31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France ** Inra, CRPoitou Charentes, LeMagneraud 17700Surgeres, France

Summary Twotype s of hair follicles arefoun d inth e coat according toth e skin development: 1. epidermal hair follicles (primary +secondary ) whichproduc e coarsefibre s and some fine ones,originat e from theprimitiv eepidermis ; 2. derived hairfollicle s whichproduc eth efines t fibres, gatherb ybuddin go n thepreceedin g epidermalhai r follicle. Suchdevelopmen t provides asufficien t haircove rfo r thegrowin gmammals .Th enumbe ro f these hair follicles in activity which determine wool and hair production differs between species.I n sheep and goats,th enumbe ro f derivedhai rfollicle s is low andconstant . Growth ofhai ri seithe rpermanen ti nwolle dshee pan dangor agoat so rseasona ldependan ti ncashmer e goats andwil d sheep.Thi s character is additivean d duet o several genes.Fleece'i s harvested byshearin gonc eo rtwic ea year .Usually ,on etyp eo fnon-medullate dfibres ,respectivel ywoo l and mohair, is found in the fleece of woolled sheep and angora goat, and two types of me- dullatedan dnon-medullate d arefoun di nth ecoa to fcashmer egoat san dwil dsheep .I nangor a rabbit, thenumbe r of derived hairfollicle s is high andvariabl e according toth e season.Hai r grows during 14t o 20 weeks.Fleec e is harvested by plucking every 14 weeks.Th e angora character is due to a pair of autosomal recessive genes. Two types of medullated fibres are found in the fleece: bristles which are long (11cm ) and coarse, and down fibres which are shorter( 6cm )an dfiner .Th efactor sinfluencin g thequantit yan dth equalit yo ffibr eproductio n arenumerou s anddifferen t in these3 species .

Introduction Lepelag ede smammifère s estu norgan ed eprotectio ncontr ele sélément s dumilieu :tempé ­ rature, précipitations et prédateurs. Les propriétés mécaniques, physiques et chimiques des différents types depoil s formant latoiso njouen t unrôl eimportan t pour cetteprotection .Pa r ailleurs, la structure et la composition du pelage subissent des modifications périodiques se traduisant parun e adaptation dupelag eau x conditions climatiques.L e systèmepileu x sedé ­ compose d'une façon générale en 2 parties. Le pelage externe composé de poils longs et grossiers,le sjarre so upoil sd egarde ,qu iassuren tl aprotectio nmécanique ,e tl efragil e pelage internecompos éd eduvet squ iassur el'isolatio n thermique.Cett espécialisatio n des différents types de poils dans le pelage, leur nombre, leur répartition et leur morphologie s'établit au cours de la viefoetale . Les follicules pileux constituent des groupes biens définis où chacun occupe,suivan t sonordr ed'apparition , uneplac ehiérarchiqu ecorrespondan t àla fonctio n du poil. Mais cepelag e deprotectio n présente de nombreuses dérivations de composition et de structure, dues à des mutations que l'homme a conservé et sélectionné à son profit pour la productiond epoil stextiles ,comm el'illustr el eTablea u 1. Lepelag ed ulapi nangor aes thété - rotypique et composé exclusivement de fibres médullées. On y retrouve des poils de garde avecle sjarre sraides ,long se tgrossiers ,e tu nsou spoil ,le sduvets ,plu scourts ,tre sfin s frisés etenviro n 50foi s plus nombreuxqu ele sjarres ,ains iqu ede spoil sintermédiaires ,le sbarbes .

85 Tableau 1. Composition etstructure dupelage chez le lapin angora et les petits ruminants.

Lapin Chèvre Mouton angora cachemire angora sauvage merinos Fibres médullées Primaires1 jarre jarre (jarre) jarre 30-80 M-2 30-100\i 10 cm3 6-20c m Secondaires1 duvet 15n 6 cm Fibresno nmédullée s Primaires1 - - mohair - wool Secondaires1 - cachemire mohair (wool) wool 12-18 \L 22-45 n 12-20 n 18-25 n 4-8 cm 1 typed efollicul e pileuxproduisan t lesfibres désignées . 2 diamètre desfibres e nmicrons . 3 longueurde sfibres e ncentimètre .

Chez la chèvre on rencontre 2 types depelages :d'un epar t une toison hétérotriche, chez les races produisant du cachemire, composée de jarres grossiers médullés, et de duvets fins dépourvusd emoelle ,e td'autr epar tun etoiso nhomotrich eche zl achèvr eangor ao ùl'o n ren­ contrenormalemen t un seultyp ed epoils ,l emohair ,un efibr e kératiniquepur edépourvu ed e moelle. Toutefois selon les souches et les individus, on trouve dans la toison de la chèvre angora, quelques vestigesd upelag eexterne ,jarre se tfibres hétérotypique s munisd emoelle . Le pelage dumouto n est très diversifié selon lesraces .Cett e diversité s'apprécie selon la présencede sdifférent s types depoil spouvan tcompose rl epelag ed umouton : • toison homotriche composée exclusivement de laine, une fibre kératinique pure non médullée(Merinos) ,mai squelquefoi spourvu ed'un etrè sfine moell eplu so umoin sdiscon ­ tinuedan scertaine srace s (Texel,Romney) ; • toison hétérotriche oùl'o n rencontre àcot éd el alaine ,de sfibres grossière s médullées,d u crin àcroissanc epermanent e (Manech)et/o ude sjarre s àcroissanc e saisonnière (Limousi­ ne,karakul) . Afin demieu xmaîtrise rl aproductio n defibres che zce sespèces ,i les tnécessair ed ebie ncon ­ naîtrel agenès ee tl efonctionnemen t desfollicule s pileuxains iqu ele svariation s de structure etd ecompositio n dupelage .

Genèsed upelag e

Lepelag ees tnormalemen t constituéd e2 type sd efollicule s pileuxqu is edifférencien t selon leur ordre d'apparition dans lapeau . Tout d'abord des follicules pileux épidermiques qui se forment aucour sd el avi efoetale ,pa rinvaginatio nd el'épiderm eprimiti f avecformatio n d'un canal pileux. On distingue les follicules primaires qui apparaissent les premiers et sont normalementorganisé se ntriade save cu nfollicul eprimair ecentra le t2 latérau x(Carter ,1943) , et les follicules secondaires qui apparaissent ensuite à l'intérieur de la triade de follicules primaires pourforme r un groupe folliculaire.

86 Après la chuted u périderme,lorsqu e lespremier s signesd ekératinisatio n apparaissent pour donnernaissanc eà l'épiderm edéfinitif , seformen tle sfollicule s dérivéspa rbourgeonnemen t des follicules épidermiques préexistants (Hardy et Lyne, 1956). Ce bourgeonnement donne naissance àu nfaiscea u defollicule s pileux quion te ncommu nun emêm egland e sébacée,l e mêmecana lpileu xe tform e unfollicul epileu xcompos é(Rougeo te tal. , 1984).L ebourgeon ­ nement des follicules dérivésqui , selon lesespèces ,peu t seprolonge r lors despremière s se­ mainesd ela vi ed el'animal ,perme td'assure run ebonn ecouvertur epileus ea ufu re tà mesur e del a croissanced e l'animal. Chez le lapin angora, lespremier s follicules pileux apparaissent vers le 18èm ejou r del a gestation (durée chez la lapine: 32jours) .L e groupe folliculaire est composé d'un follicule primaire central et de 4 latéraux. Al a naissance on dénombre 8 à 12 follicules dérivés par groupefolliculair e etd e4 0 à7 0 àl'âg ed e2 0 semaines (Mehnere tKoetter , 1965;Thébault , 1977). Cette multiplication de follicules dérivés est indépendante de l'âge de l'animal et s'arrête lorsque l'animal a atteint un poids de 2±0.1 kg, soit entre 14e t 20 semaines d'âge (Thébault, 1977;Rougeo te t al., 1984). Chezl achèvre ,le spremier sfollicule s pileuxapparaissen t versl e6 0êm ejou rd egestatio n (duréeche zla chèvre : 150jours) .O ndénombr ed e3 à 5 follicule sprimaire spa rgroup efolli ­ culaire. La multiplication des follicules dérivés se poursuit jusqu'à l'âge de 4 à 6 mois (Margolena, 1974),o ù l'on dénombre de2 à3 poil s émergeant del apea upa r lemêm ecana l épidermique(Dreye r etMarincowitz ,1967) . Chezl emouton ,le spremier sfollicule s pileuxapparaissen tver sl e6 0êm ejou rd egestatio n (duréeche zla brebis : 150jours) .L egroup efolliculair e estcompos éd e3 follicule sprimaires . L'apparition des follicules épidermiques secondaires et des follicules dérivés présente des intensités et des durées différentes selon les races. Ainsi on dénombre jusqu'à 8 follicules dérivéspa rfollicul e épidermiqueche zle srace sà toiso n dense(typ emérino sd'Arles) , 3che z desrace s àtoiso n hétérotricheo ujarreus e (Limousine,Karakul ) etnormalemen t aucun chez les races à pelage sauvage, mouflon, (Rougeot, 1974). Cependant, à la naissance, tous les follicules pileux sont formés. Ace stype sdiver se tdifférent s defollicule s pileuxcorresponden tde stype sparticulier sd e poilsqu iremplissen tchacu nun efonctio nbie ndéterminé edan sl epelage .Che zl elapi nangora , les follicules primaires centraux fournissent lesjarres , les primaires latéraux, les barbes ou poilsintermédiaire s etle sfollicule s secondairesproduisen t lesduvet s (Rougeote t Thébault, 1983). Chez le mouton et la chèvre, l'homme a profondément modifié la production des follicules pileux.Che zle srace sà toiso nd etyp eprimitif ,mouto n Soay,chèvr ecachemire ,o n trouvede sjarres ,émanan tde sfollicule s primaires,enfoui s dansla lain eo u lecachemir equ e produisentle sfollicule s secondaires.Che zle srace sà toiso nlaineuse ,mouto nMerinos ,chèvr e angora, la totalité des follicules pileux, primaires et secondaires, produit de la laine chez le mouton oud umohai rche zl achèvr eangora .Toutefois , àl'intérieu rd ela toison ,le spoil son t deslongueur se tde sdiamètre s trèsdifférents , dûsa utyp ed efollicule s pileux.Ainsi ,le s folli­ cules primaires fournissent les fibres les plus grossières et les plus longues, tandis que les secondairesproduisen tle sfibre s lesplu sfine s etle splu scourtes ,l'amenuisemen tde sdimen ­ sions s'accentue àmesur equ e laformatio n des follicules pileux aét éplu s tardive (Rougeot, 1974).Toutefois , chez la chèvre angora, les follicules primaires peuvent produire desjarre s et/oude s fibres médullées.

Lacroissanc ee tl erenouvellemen t dupelag e

Dans unpelag esauvage ,le spoil s sontrenouvelé spériodiquement . Ainsile sfollicule s pileux présententde sphase sd'activit éo u anagenee tde sphase sd erepo so u télogène.L a duréed e l'anagène est héréditaire et caractéristique de chaque type de poil.L a durée du télogène est variable et peut-être modifiée par des manipulations photopériodiques, traitements hormo-

87 naux,traumatisme so uepilation .Pa ru nmécanism e demue s saisonnières,l epelag e subitde s modifications de structure etd ecompositio n en accord avecle s variations du climat. Cependant,dan su nobjecti f deproductio nd epoils ,l'homm e aconserv ée t sélectionnéde s animauxdon tl epelag eprésent ede scaractéristique s appropriées àl afabricatio n textile:poil s longs,homogene ss ipossibl ee tfacil e àteindre .Toutefois ,de sdifférence s etde sparticularité s subsistent selon lesespèces . Chezl e lapin angora, la duréed e croissance despoil s est de l'ordre de 12à 20 semaines. D'où cette longueur caractéristique dupelag eangor ad u àu n allongement del aduré ed'ana - gène.C ecaractèr eangor aes tmonogénique ,récessi f etautosoma l(Rochambea u et Thébault, 1989).Toutefoi s chaque catégorie depoil spossèd e sapropr evitess ed ecroissance .Aprè s 14 semainesd epousse ,le sjarre smesuren t 10c me tl eduvet s6 cm .Selo nla saison ,le sdimension s despoil s varientlégèremen t (Rougeot &Thébault , 1983).Pa rcontre ,le snombreu x follicules dérivés des follicules composéesjouen t unrôl eimportan t dans lesvariation s saisonnières de structuree td ecompositio n dupelage .E neffet , uneparti ed'entr e euxdisparaî te nété ,pui ss e reconstituee nautomn ee te nhiver ,c equ ia u neffe t majeur surl acompacit éd upelag e(Rougeo t & Thébault, 1983). Il en résulte des variation saisonnières de la production quantitative de l'ordre de 10à 30 % selon lesauteur s (Rougeot etThébaul t 1983; Magofke et al., 1982). Chezle schèvre sproduisan td ucachemire ,l acroissanc ed upelag ees tsaisonnière ,le sjarre s serenouvelen t auprintemp s etle s duvets poussent du solstice d'été au solsticed'hiver , d'où deforte s variations saisonnièresd el apopulatio nd efollicule s pileuxave cl'absenc e deduvet s dansl atoiso na uprintemp se te nét é(McDonal de tal. ,1987) .Pa rcontre ,che zl achèvr eangora , la durée de croissance du mohair estpresqu e permanente, entre 8-9 mois minimum et 2 ans maximum (Schwarze tal. , 1987).C ecaractèr ed'allongemen t dupoi ld ûà un ecroissanc equas i permanentees tpolygéniqu ee tadditif .Toutefoi s lavitess ed ecroissanc ee nlongueu re te ndia ­ mètre des fibres varie selon la saison avec un maximum en été et un minimum en hiver.D e même,l etau xd ejarre se td efibre s médulléesvarien tlégèremen tave cl asaiso n(Ryder ,1978) . Onpeu tégalemen tobserve ru nrenouvellemen t saisonnierpartie lde spoil s (Margolena,1974 ; Ryder, 1978). Chez le mouton, la croissance des fibres est permanente, mais la vitesse de croissance fluctue selonl asaiso n avecu nmaximu me nét ée tu nminimu m enhiver .L'amplitud e saison­ nière est moins prononcée chez les races merinos. Chez les races à toison hétérotriche, les fibres grossièrese tmédullée son tun ecroissanc esaisonnièr ee tson trenouvelée schaqu eannée . La variation annuelle de la durée d'éclairement est l'un des principaux facteurs de l'environnement qui contrôle le fonctionnement des follicules pileux. Les variations saison­ nières du pelage qui en résultent: dimensions des poils, nombre de fibres, sont sous la dépendance de l'axe hypothalamo-hypophysaire et de la glande pinéale par l'intermédiaire dessécrétion sd eprolactin ee td emélatonin e(Rougeo te tal. , 1984;Allai ne tal. , 1986;Lincoln , 1990).L'administratio n demélatonin e en été,qu iperme t demime r l'action desjour s courts, induit lacroissanc e d'un pelage d'hiver chez le vison (Allain et Rougeot, 1980) et la chèvre cachemire (Lynch et Rüssel, 1989), et permet de supprimer la dépression estivale de la production de poils chez le lapin angora (Rougeot et al., 1986; Allain et Thébault, 1990). L'administration de mélatonine en hiverretard e l'apparition de la mue deprintemp s (Allain et al., 1981).Le s mues saisonnières et la reprise d'activité des follicules pileux ont lieu au printemps lorsque les niveaux de prolactine augmentent (Allain et al., 1986; Lynch 1990; Lincoln, 1990) et inver- sèment àl'automn e lorsqu'ils diminuent (Martinet et al., 1984).E n comparantl aproductio nd elain ee tle sprofil s endocriniensche zdifférente s racesd emoutons , Lincoln (1990) endédui t quel acroissanc epermanent e del alain ees t associée àde sniveau x élevés deprolactin e en hiver. Laproductio n depoil s

Chezl elapi n angoral atoiso nes trécolté epa rtont eo upa repilation . Cettedernièr e méthode quies tutilisé ee nFrance ,provoqu eu nsynchronism ed erepouss ede spoil so ùchaqu ecatégon e depoil sconserv eso npropr erythm ed ecroissance .D'o ùl aproductio nd'un etoiso nbie nstruc ­ turée,contrairemen tà l atont equ icoup ele spoil sà différent s stadesd eleu rcroissance .Rougeo t &Thébaul t (1984) recommandent auxéleveur s d'épiler les animaux toutes les 14semaines . Dansl ecadr ed ela tonte ,u nrythm eplu srapid ed erécolte , 10-11semaine s semblepermettr e uneaugmentatio n dela productio n annuelle,mai sun ediminutio n del alongueur s des fibres. Lesdifférent s facteurs devariation s identifiés (Rochambeau &Thébault , 1990;Rochambea u et al., 1991) sont:l epoids ,l e sexee tl'âg ed e l'animal ou sonnumér od erécolte , l'intervalle entrerécoltes ,l asaiso ne tl emod ed erécolte ,ains iqu ele scondition sd enaissanc ed el'animal : mois de naissance (Rochambeau et al., 1991)e t tailled eporté e (Magoflce et al., 1982)don t lesinfluence s sont sensibles surle spremière srécoltes .Ce sfacteur s influencent également la qualitéd el a toison dont lesprincipau x paramètres sontl alongueu re t lediamètr e des fibres, letau xd ejarres ,l amorphologi ede ssection sdroite sd ejarres ,laproportio nd echaqu ecatégori e depoil s etl aprésenc e depoil sfeutré s ousales . Chezla chèvre ,la toiso nes trécolté epa rtont e 1 fois par anche zl achèvr e cachemire et2 fois par anche z la chèvre angora.Le s différents facteurs de variations del aproductio n pon­ dérale,identifié s chezl achèvr eangor a(Nicoll , 1985;Nicoll ,Bigha me tAlderton , 1989)sont : le poids, le sexe et l'âge de l'animal et ses conditions de naissance, âge de la mère,moi s de naissance et taille deporté e dont l'influence est sensible surle s 2première s tontes,ains iqu e la saison de récolte et l'intervalle entre tontes chez la chèvre angora. Les critères de qualité d'unetoiso nson tl ediamètr emoye nde sfibre s etso ncoefficien t devariation ,l etau xd ejarre s etd e fibres médullées, lerendemen t aulavag ee tl aprésenc e defibre s sales oucolorées . Latoiso nd umouto nes trécolté epa rtont e 1foi spa ran .Le sfacteur s devariation sd el aproduc ­ tion pondérale qui ont fait l'objet de nombreuses études sont l'âge, le sexe et le poids de l'animal ainsiqu ele scondition s deso nenvironnemen t denaissance , âged el amère ,périod e denaissanc e ettaill ed eporté e dontl'influenc e est sensible surl apremièr e tonte.Le scritère s dequalit éd'un etoiso n sontnombreux :diamètr emoye nde sfibre s et soncoefficien t devaria ­ tion,l erendemen t au lavage,l alongueu r desmèche s et savariabilité , larésistanc e àrupture , larésistanc e àl acompression , ledegr é deblan c etl aprésenc e dejarre s etd efibre s colorées. Parailleurs ,che zce sdifférente s espèces,l enivea ud'alimentatio n etl'éta td ereproductio n ontun einfluenc e sensible surl aproductio n defibres . En conclusion, chez les petits ruminants et le lapin, nous pouvons distinguer 2 types de production defibre s enfonctio n del astructur ede stoison se td el acroissanc ede sfibres :d'un e partle stoison shétérotriches ,utilisée se nl'éta to uaprè s séparation desduvets ,qu eproduisen t respectivementl elapi nangor ae tl achèvr ecachemire ,o ùle sfibre son tun eduré ed ecroissanc e biendéfinie , des dimensionspresqu e contantes,mai s dontl enombr e varie selonl a saison,e t d'autre partle stoison s homotriches del achèvr eangor ae td umouto n àtoiso nlaineus eo ùle s fibreson tun ecroissanc epermanente ,leu rnombr ees tpresqu econstant ,mai sleur sdimension s varient avecl a saison.

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90 Rougeot,J. &Thébault, R.G.,1984. Lelapi n angora, satoison , sonélevage .Le sEdition sd u pointVétérinaire ,Maisons-Alfort , France, 182pp . Rougeot,J., Thébault,R.G. &Allain, D., 1984.Rol e of the compound follicle. Acta Zool. Fennica,171:19-21 . Rougeot, J., Thébault, R.G. & Allain, D., 1986. Suppression de la chute estivale de la production de poils chez le lapin angora par la pose d'implants de mélatonine. Ann. Zootech., 35:363-372. Ryder, ML., 1978.Growt h cycles inth ecoa to fruminants .Int .J . Chronobiol., 5:369-394. Thébault R.G., 1977. Le lapin angora. Développement post-natal de sa toison, variations saisonnièresd es aproductio nd epoils .Mém .Ing .D.P.E. ,Cons .Nat .Art se tMétiers ,Paris , 105 pp. Schwarz,R., Meyer, W. & Tanyolac, A.,1987. Structura l aspects of hairfollicl e growthi nth e angoragoat .Proc .38t hAnn .Meet .Europ .Ass .Anim .Prod. ,Lisbonne , 1080-1081.

91 Producing desired woolcharacteristic s duringfleece growt h

ML. Ryder 4, Osprey Close, Southampton, SOI 8EX, UK

Abstract How knowledge of wool growth is applied to wool improvement depends on the farming systeman dwhethe ro rno twoo li sa primar yproduct .Emphasi s shouldb eplace do nwha tth e buyer pays for fine fibres in clothing wools,lac k of kemp andpigmen t in carpet wools.Bu t inal lsystem s aheav yfleec e comesfirs t sinceprice/fleec e ismor eimportan ttha nprice/kg . Most fleece characters are highly heritable and so weight and quality can be increased through selective breeding.Increasin g weightb yfeedin g isonl y economicalthroug h pasture improvement. Anunderstandin g ofth erelationship so fcharacter sca nb egaine dfro m thefor ­ mula:Fleec eweight =th eaverag efibr elengt h(L )x th eaverag efibr ediamete r(A )x th edensit y in the skin (N)x the specific gravity of wool (D)x the skinare awit hwoo l(S) . Keywords:carpet , clothing,fleece , kemp,Merino ,pigment ,wool .

Introduction Developing countries grow 30%o f world wool production, but the fact that these countries alsoproduc e40 %o fworl dshee pmea tan d50 %o fth eew emilk ,indicate stha twoo li susuall y a byproduct (Howe and Turner, 1984).I n Britain, high meat prices and subsidies mean that woolaccount s for less than 10%o f the income from sheepflocks , despite much of thewoo l being of semi-fine 'Crossbred'type ,havin g unique speciality uses.I nth eMediterranea n area milki s often theprimar y product of theewe ,an dth ewoo li susuall y of less-valuable Carpet type, so that it is pushed into third place and accounts for no more than 5%o f the income. Only in low-cost, extensive farming systems is it economical to produce wool as a primary product,an dth ewoo lgrow ni sth emos tvaluabl efine-woolled ,Merin otype .Th ewa yi nwhic h thebasi cknowledg eo fwoo lgrowt hi sapplie dthe n depends onth efarmin g systeman dwhe ­ thero rno twoo li s aprimar y product,n osingl erecommendatio n canb emad e(Doney ,1983) . In all systems,however , aheav yfleec e weighti simportan t sincepric epe rfleec e ismor eim ­ portant toth egrowe r than thepric eo f woolpe rkg .I ti sals omor eeconomica lt omak e fleece improvements by breeding than through feeding. Sincewoo l islooke d on solely asa crop ,othe raspect s of the skinten d tob eignored . The fleece givesinsulativ e aswel la smechanica lprotection .A stapl elengt ho f5 c mwil lprovid e heatinsulatio nequivalen tt oa temperatur egradien to f40 °C i nho ta swel la si ncol dconditions . Afleec e therefore saves food thatwoul dotherwis e beeate n tokee p the sheep warm.

Whatdoe sth ewoo lbuye rpa y for?

Thewid evariet yo fwoo lan dth ediversit yo fit suse smake si tdifficul t fortextil emanufacturer s to specify wool's most desirable textile characteristics, which are also difficult to define in biologicalterms .Th ereactio n of woolbiologist s hasbee n tosee kobjectivel y thefactor s that determinewoo lprice .I nAustrali adurin gth e 1950si twa sfoun dtha tth epric eo fMerin owoo l wasdetermine d mainly byfibr efineness measure d asqualit ynumber , and thatth enex tmos t importantcharacteristic swer estapl elengt han da whit ecolour .Thi sindicate dtha tth egreates t return would be gained from sheep growing aheav yfleec e ofwhit ewoo l with ahig h quality

92 number, and alon g staple.Th etraditiona lqualit y number (e.g.50 so r70s )i sth ebuyer' sesti ­ mateo ffineness .I ti sdefine d asth enumbe ro fhanks ,eac h56 0yard s(47 4m )long ,tha tmigh t be spunfro m 1 lb (0.45kg )o fcombe dwool .Greate rqualit y numberstherefor e indicate finer wools.Th enumbe ro fcrimp s(waves )pe runi tlengt ho ffibre, whic hincrease swit hdecreasin g fibre diameter, is used as a guide to fineness, and it was found that crimp number could be substituted for quality number asa facto r determiningprice . In asimila rsurve ycarrie di nUS Adurin gth e 1960s,crim pnumbe rha dn oeffec t onprice , butbuyer spai dmor efo r wools with greaterqualit y numbers andlonge r staplelengths .Fibr e diameter is the single most important character in wool processing(contributing 80% of its spinnablity) and soi n Australia, crimp number is nolonge r used in fleece appraisal. In fact, quality numberitsel f hasbee nreplace d byth eobjectiv e measurement of meanfibr e diameter inmicrons . Asurve y of theBritis h Price Schedule showed thatincrease d fleece weight gavea greate r return thana bette r grade(Ryder , 1975).Th eBritis h 'Grade'refer s tooveral ldegre eo fexcel ­ lence, and incorporates penalties for faults as well as the quality number. Then, the 'Super' gradeo fsemi-fin e (Down-breed)woo lwit h56 squalit yfetche d 59.l ppe rkg ,whil eth e 'Pick' grade with 58s quality fetched 61.9p per kg. With an average fleece weight of 2.25 kg, the price differential was 6.3p. Butonl y 0.25 kg more of 'Super' gradewoo l would have added 14.8p. Farmersusuall y makecomparison s onpric epe rkg ,ye tpric epe rfleec e ismor e important. Thus therelativel y high (1991)pric e of 124.9ppe rk gfo r fine Shetland wool is transformed into a low return per sheep by the low fleece weight of 1 kg. Conversely a 5:5 kg fleece of LincolnLustr elon gwoo lconvert sth elo wpric eo f90 .l ppe rk gint oa gai no f495.6 ppe rfleece . Most price differentials between grades of British wool (and even between different classes of Merinowoo li n Australia) are suchtha tth emor ereadil y achievedobjec to f0.2 5t o0. 5k g morewoo li salmos tcertai nt obrin g agreate rretur ntha nth emor edifficul t changet oa bette r grade.Onl y theMerin obree dha sa hig h woolpric epe rk g anda heav y fleece weight, sotha t Merinofleece s on average areusuall y twice asvaluabl e asnon-Merin o fleeces. Anomalies existi n Britain wherecertai n grades receive ahig h pricebecaus e of increased demand, although thewoo lma yb eles sfine . Thecoarses t ScottishBlackfac e woolha stradi ­ tionally received the highest price for that type because of the demand for such wool tofill mattresses in southern Europe. In 1991 the mattress grade of Blackface wool fetched 92.4p per kg while the best carpet grade received only 89.9p. Changes in fashion can produce short-term variations inprice . During the 1980s one grade of lustre longwool fetched twice theaverag eBritis hpric e— 224.4 ppe rk gi n 1989— becaus ei tcoul db eblende dwit hmohair , yetb y 1991th epric eha dfalle n to 127.3ppe rkg .

Increasingfleece weigh tan dimprovin gwoo lqualit y

Havingdetermine dtha tfleec e weighti sth emos timportan tfeatur e for thegrower ,ho wca ni t beincrease d without increasingfibre diameter , whichi sth emos timportan t characteristic for the wool user. Heredity contributes more to fleece type than does the environment, which includes such factors asday-lengt h aswel l asnutrition . Geneticdifference s in fleeces canb e exploitedb yselectiv ebreeding ,whic hi sa slo wprocess ,bu ti ti sadvantageou stha tmos tfleec e characteristics are highly heritable, the heritability of fleece weight being 0.3 to 0.6. In no breedothe rtha nth eMerino ,however ,i si tlikel yt ob eeconomica lt oappl yselectiv ebreedin g solely towoo lcharacteristics .I nmos tothe rbreeds ,mea to rmil kprovid esuc h ahig hpropor ­ tion of the income that wool cannot be put first in breeding programmes and so the rate of geneticprogres si sreduced .Bu tthi sdoe sno tmea ntha ton ecanno tincreas efleec e weightan d eliminate woolfaults . Therei s noreaso n why a good meatra m should not alsohav e agoo d fleece. Improved husbandry byreducin g environmental variation leads to an immediateres-

93 ponsei n thefleece. Althoug h iti sno tusuall y economical toprovid eextr afoo d solely to get morewool ,wher eshee phousin gi scommo nther ei sth epossibilit yo freducin gothe rseasona l variations brought about bechange s in daylength. Asimpl eformul aworke dou tb yHele nNewto nTurne rfo rMerin oshee pi nAustrali ahelp s onet ounderstan dwha tth edifferen t componentso ffleec e weightare ,an dho wthe yar einter ­ related:fleec e weightW =LxAxNxDxS . Inthi sformula ,L = themea nfibr e length; A= themea ncross-sectiona lare ao fth efibre s (measureda sfibr e diameter);N =th emea nnumbe r of fibres per unit area of skin (fibre density);D = the density (specific gravity) of wool sub­ stance; and S= the total area of skin growing wool.T o simplify, to get more wool you need largershee pwit hlonge r anddense rwool .Th eonl ycomponen ttha tcanno tb echange di sth e specific gravityo fkeratin ,whic hha sth econstan tvalu eo f 1.31.Thicke rfibre sma yb eheavier , butthe y are undesirable sincethe yreduc ewoo lquality . First,ho w areth ecomponent schange db yfeeding for morewool ?Seasona lpastur evaria ­ tions mean that sheep rarely reach their geneticpotentia l for woolproduction .Extr a food in thefor m of long-termpastur eimprovemen t therefore stimulates woolgrowt h andth egreate r fleece weighti sbrough t aboutb yincreasin gL an dA .Fibr edensit y (N)i sunaffecte d by feed since all wool follicles are formed by about the time of birth. Good nutrition for the mother aboutth etim eo fth ebirt ho flamb si simportan ti nensurin gtha tth egeneti cmaximu mnumbe r of secondaryfollicle s willdevelo pan dproduc efibres .Thi si sillustrate db yth enutritiona lpe ­ nalty of being a twin, in which the smaller number of follicles developed can reduce adult fleece weight by 3%. Better nutrition can alsoincreas e body size and therefore the skin area (S), but this has no effect on fleece weight since the result is merely a lower wool follicle density. Breedingfo r increased fleece weight (W) could theoretically increase all the components exceptspecifi c gravity.I nsom eexperiment swit hth eAustralia nMerin oth eselectiv ebreedin g caused anincreas e in fibre length (L) anddiamete r (A),whil ei n others theincrease d fleece weightwa sbrough t aboutb ya nincrease dfibr e density,whic h wasactuall y associated witha decrease in mean fibre diameter of 1 micron.Th e bestpractica l advice with Merino sheepi s toselec tfo rfiner woo la tth esam etim ea sselectin gfo r agreate rfleec e weight.I n theMerin o there is no genetic correlation between fleece weight and body weight. Therei s therefore no dangero fobtainin gheavie rshee ptha twoul dea tmor ean ds oreduc eefficiency . Inothe rbreed s fleeceweigh ti scorrelate dwit hbod yweight ,bu tthi si susefu l sincean yselectio nfo rincrease d body weight willincidentl y increase woolproduction .

Fleececharacteristic s

Sincefibre diamete r is the most important textile characteristic, fleece weight should not be increased by making thefibre s thicker, andcertainl y noti n theMerin obreed . Becausepoo r nutrition reduces fibre diameter, its expected heritability of 0.5 can be less than 0.2. Crimp number has aheritabilit y of 0.4 to0.5 ,bu t crimp number should not beuse di n selection for fibre diameterbecaus ei ti spoorl ycorrelate dwit hfibre diameter .Fleec eweigh tca nb eraise d by increasing staple length, provided that theincrease d length does notpu t the wool intoa n inferior class,whic h can happen in theMerino . Staple length is less affected by diet than is fibre diameter andha s thehighe r heritability of 0.3t o0.6 . Lacko funiformit y infibr e length anddiamete ri sa commo ncomplain tamon gwoo lusers . In addition to the obvious genetic differences between breeds, there are genetic differences betweenflocks ,betwee nindividua lsheep ,betwee ndifferen t partso fth efleec ean deve nwithi n thewoo lstaples .Ther ei sconsiderabl escop ei nbreed sothe rtha nth eMerin ofo rreducin gthi s variability byselectiv ebreeding ,e.g .th evariatio no findividua lfibre lengt hwithi nth estaple s and of staplelengt h between sheep.

94 Wool faults Given that there might berestraint s on actual improvement, atleas t oneca n aim atreducin g wool faults. Common hereditary faults arecolou r andkemp . Natural black fibres andkem p arerar e inth eMerino ,bu tca n bea serious fault in crossbred and carpet wools.Pigmen t and kempar eentirel ygeneti ci norigi nan ds oca nb etackle db ychoosin gram slackin gsuc hfibres , and at the sametim ecullin g badly affected ewes.Hair s (longer and less coarse thankemps) , too,ar ebasicall y genetici norigin ,bu tthe yar esubjec t toenvironmenta linfluence s intha tth e centralmedull ao fhair si sonl yfully-forme d during summer;hair sbecom enarro wan dt olos e theirmedull a during winter, when theyca n appearlik e woolfibres-henc e their namehetero ­ types.Th eheritabilit y of hairinessrange s from 0.3 to0.7 . Faults sucha svegetabl ematte ran dexterna lparasite sca nb etackle dthroug h management. Other faults due to the environment are less-fully understood and more difficult to control. Break,whic hoccur sa tonl yon epoin ti nth estaple ,result sfro m seasonalnarrowin gworsene d by poor nutrition, but stress from cold or disease is another cause of break and actual wool loss.Tendernes s ofth efibre s canb ecause db y anattac kfro m microorganisms andca noccu r in shorn fleeces if they are storedi ndam pconditions . WoolBuyer spenaliz eal lyello wstain si nfleece s sincethe ycanno tdistinguis hcanar ystai n from thosestain stha twil lscou rou tdurin gtextil eprocessing . Canary stain iscommo ni nho t countriesan dmigh tb edu et oalkalin esuin t(sweat) ,bu tit sseasona loccurrenc eallow sshearin g to betime d before thewors t period. Weathering of the staple tip from toomuc h sun orrai n can causea hars hhandl ean duneve ndyeing .

Carpet wool

Sincehair yfleece s arecommonl y usedi n carpets,th eimpressio n is gained thatcoars e fibres with a wide medulla are a desirable feature in carpet wools. In fact, hairy fleeces are used because they are cheaper, and many such fleeces have too many brittlekemp s and coloured fibres forus ei ncarpets .Th emai nrequiremen tfo rcarpet si srelativel ycoarse ,non-medullate d wool.Thi si sshow nb ystudie so fol dorienta lcarpet s (Ryder, 1987).I nmoder nfactor y carpet manufacture this is achieved by blending woolso f several types (Incean dRyder , 1984). Herether ei s thepossibilit y of eithercrossin gwit h animprove d type,o ro f selectivebree ­ ding within existing breeds. Crossing with the Drysdale and Tukidale hairy strains of New ZealandRomne yi nBritai ngav eheavie rfleec e weightsan dlac ko fpigment ,bu tth ecrossbre d fleeces were kempy (Ryder, 1983). In a 20-year selection experiment with the Scottish Blackface, 8-weekol d lambs were selectedo n amedullatio n index andpu t into aHair y ora Fineline .Th eHair y lineeventuall y acquired very coarse,heterotyp e hair fibres (notkemps ) in each primary follicle, and the secondary (wool) fibres acquired a medulla, as well as becomingmor e numerous. In the Fine une, the lateral primaries grew wool fibres in place of hairs, but the centrals retainedkemps .Th esecondar yfibre sbecam efiner an dincrease di nnumber .Breedin gtogethe r of the Hairy and Fine lines gave no evidence of a single-gene effect, but some evidence of heterosisi nmedullatio n suchtha tcrosse so fhair ywit hfin eshee par elikel yt ohav emor ehair y fleeces than the intermediate value. In crosses with the long-woolled Wensleydale breed, offspring from the (kempy)Fin elin elacke dkemp ,bu toffsprin g from theHair y line showed much lessreductio n inmedullatio n (Ryder, 1985).

95 Clothingwoo l

Inth eBritis hstratificatio n systemdraf thil lewe swit hcarpe twoo lar ecrosse dwit hlong-wool - ledrams .Th eresultin gcrossbre dewe sar ecrosse dwit ha Dow nra mt oproduc efa tlamb .Thi s meanstha tcrossbre dshee pprovid emos to fth emediu man dsemi-fin ewool ,whic hi stherefor e not of clearly-defined grade,an d the semi-fine (Down cross) wool is obtained as skin wool. Merino influence could be injected at the hill stage and again at the longwool-cross stage (Boaz,Ryde r and Tempest, 1977).Th e Merino breed is unique in combining aheav y fleece weightwit h alo wfibr e diameter,an dMerin owoo li salway si n steadydeman dbecaus ei tha s the widest range of uses. But it should not be used in afirst cros s with 'hair' sheep. A first crosswit ha longwoo lprovide sa fleece an deliminate skemp .Th esecon dcros swit hth eMerin o then makes thefleece finer .

Producing desired woolpropertie sdurin gfleece growt h

Most IWSresearc h funds goint o the modification of thefibr e e.g. applying morecrim p and creating shrink resistance. Thephilosoph y of the wool biologist is to do this during growth, either by diet (feltability and plasticity) or permanently through breeding (crimp) (Ryder, 1975).Th ecurren tapplicatio no fgeneti cengineerin gt owoo lmake sthi smor eo fa possibility .

References Black,J.L. &P.J. Reis, 1979.Physiologica l and environmental limitations to wool growth. University ofNe wEnglan dPress ,Armidale ,Australia . Boaz, T.G., ML. Ryder & W.M.Tempest, 1977. A role for the Merino in British sheep production. J.Roya l Agricultural Society ofEngland . 138:98-115. Doney,J.M., 1983.Factor s affecting the production and quality of wool. In:P.W . Haresign (Ed.):Shee p Production. Butterworths,London . Howe,R.R. &HN. Turner, 1984.Shee p breed resources in developing countries. In: Proc. 2nd World Congress on Sheep and Beef Cattle Breeding. S. African Stud Book Assoc., Bloemfontein. Ince, J. & ML. Ryder,1984. Th e evaluation of carpets made from experimental wools. J. TextileInstitute .75:47-59 . Ryder, ML., 1975.Producin g desired woolpropertie s duringfleece growth .In :M . Cordelier & P.W. Harrison (Eds.). Contributions of Science to the Textile Industry. Inst. Textil Paris/TextileInst .Manchester ,p p 18-31. Ryder, ML., 1983. Woolsfo r carpets.ABR OReport ,23-27 . Ryder,ML., 1985. Crossbreeding studies with selected fleece lines of Scottish Blackface sheep.J .Textil e Inst.76:362-376. Ryder,ML., 1987.Th emeasuremen to fwool si nol dcarpe tyarns .Orienta lCarpe tan dTextile s Studies, 3:134-152. Ryder, ML., 1987.Wool . In: Marai, I.F.M. & J.B. Owen, (Eds.) New Techniques in Sheep Production. Butterworth,London ,p 3-10. Ryder, ML. & S.K.Stephenson, 1968. WoolGrowth .Acad .Press .

96 Caractéristiquesnutritionnelle s deschèvre sproduisan t du poils etstrategie s alimentaires aleu r appliquer

P. Morand-Fehr Stationde Nutrition et Alimentation (INRA) del'INA-PG, 16rue Claude Bernard 75231 ParisCedex 05 (France)

Summary

The level of Angora goat intake islimited . The digestibility of low quality roughage isclos e in Angora goats and other goats but it is lower in sheep.Th e nitrogen retention ishighe r in Angora goats than in Merinos sheep.Energ y requirements of mohair production for a goat producing 6 kg per year increases maintenance requirement by 7-7.5%. Supplementary nitrogen requirements is about2. 5g DC Ppe rday . Large underfeeding result frequently in abortions in Angora goats.A n energy or nitrogen underfeeding, particularly ifi tlimit s themicrobia lprotei n synthesisi nth erumen ,ca nreduc e hairproduction , but supplementary feeding suppliesca n improve thisproduction . When the quantityo fhai rproduce dincreases ,generall yth efiber diamete rtend st oincrease .Hea ttreate d oilmeals orprotecte dmethionin e allow toimprov e hairproduction . ' Thefeedin g strategyo fhai rproducin ggoat smus tb edefine d accordinghai rpric ecotation s and price differences between hair qualities. Nevertheless the production of kid hair must always bepromoted .Fo r that, gestating doesmus t becarefull y fed.

Introduction Traditionnellement lachèvr eproductric ed epoil s (Angora,Cachemire ) s'estdéveloppé edan s des systèmes deproductio n reposant sur l'utilisation des parcours et exigeant très peu d'in- trants. Il a été très tôt remarqué que cette chèvre posait des problèmes nutritionnels impor­ tants en raison de sa susceptibilité au froid et de ses fréquents avortements (Shelton, 1984; Wentzel, 1987).Mai se nréalit éce sproblème ssont-il sdu sau xaspect sspécifique s deschèvre s productrices de poil ou aux conduites alimentaires pratiquées? Malgré quelques articles généraux sur la nutrition des chèvres productrices de poil (Huston, 1981; Shelton, 1982; Wentzel,1987) ,le stravau xsu rl emétabolism ee tl anutritio nde schèvre sAngor ao uCachemir e sont encore limités par rapport aux connaissances acquises sur le mouton ou sur les autres caprins (Morand-Fehr, 1981).Ains i en raison du développement actuel de la production de poil par les caprins de par le monde, il a semblé intéressant d'identifier les caractéristiques nutritionnelles des chèvres productrices de poil par comparaison aux autres caprins et aux ovins,e td epropose r lesdiverse s stratégies alimentaires àleu r appliquer.

Caractéristiques nutritionnelles

Comportementalimentaire etniveau d'ingestion

La chèvre Angora estplu s portée vers laflor e arborée et arbustive que le mouton, et encore plus le bovin, (Huston, 1982; Knipe, 1982) bien qu'elle accepte, et parfois préfère la flore herbacée.Ell e semble secomporte rdan sl echoi xde s végétaux disponibles surprairi e ou sur parcours,dan ss arapidit éà s'adapte r auxmodification s dudisponible ,e tdan sl asélectio n des

97 Tableau1. Ingestion, digestibilitéet rétention azotée des chèvresangora et desmoutons merinos recevant3 fourrages dedifférante qualité(Doyle etEgan).

Espèce Régime1

1 2 3

Niveaud'ingestio n (gMO/k gpO-75 ) Chèvre 67.6 45.5 34.6 Mouton 60.7 48.0 34.1 Digestibilité (%) Matièreorganiqu e Chèvre 72.1 64.9 49.5 Mouton 71.3 57.3 45.6 Cellulose Chèvre 68.8 67.4 54.0 Mouton 67.4 58.9 51.1 Tempsd erétentio ndan sl erume n (h) Chèvre 17.1 29.1 25.9 Mouton 13.9 20.5 20.4 Rétention azotée (mgN/100g MOD ) Chèvre 673 -87 -246 Mouton 794 -200 -813 1 régime 1: foin detrèfl e souterrain (2.8% N,38.2 %NDF ) régime2 : foin deray-gras s (0.7%N ,73.6 %NDF ) régime 3: foin detrèfl e coupétardivement (1.1% N,75.8 % NDF).

Tableau 2.Influence des niveauxénergétique etazoté du régime sur lamortalité perinatale deschevreux angora (Westhuysen, 1980).

Niveau azoté (en %/Entretien ) 100 100 50 50 Niveau énergétique (en%/Entretien ) 100 50 100 50 Poids naissance (kg) 2.5 1.9 2.0 1.5 Mortalité 8 83 42 100 fractions de végétaux suivant la saison (Taylor and Kothmann, 1990; Somlo et al., 1987) commele sautre scaprin s(Maleche kan dLeinweber , 1972; Narjisse , 1991).L aconsommatio n d'herbe est dominante àl apériod e del apouss e d'herbe (printemps et automne).L e choix se tourne vers la flore arbustive pendant les périodes sèches ou les arrêts de la végétation. Le choixde scaprin ses tauss iinfluencé e parl avaleu rnutritiv ede svégétau xdisponible sdan sle s différentes strates. Domingue et al. (1991) observent que les caprins croisés Angora xFera ipassen t plus de temps àmange r et moins àrumine r que les ovins croisés Border Leicester x Ronney; cequ i confirme lesrésultat s obtenus surcaprin s laitiers (Morand-Fehr et al., 1991). Commedan sle spay sfort s producteursd epoi ld echèvre ,un eparti eimportant ed el aratio n estprélevé e surl eparcours ,nou sn edisposon spa sd edonnée sprécise s surl enivea u d'inges­ tion des chèvres Angora ou Cachemire et sur les facteurs qui le modifient. Même dans les documents duNR C (1981)o u del'INR A (1989)donnan t lesrecommandation s alimentaires, aucunedonné en'es tindiqué e surl'ingestio n descaprin sproduisan td upoil .Toutefoi s d'après les observations très fragmentaires d'ingestion sur les chèvres Angora dont nous disposons, les équations deprévisio n établies sur d'autres caprins auraient tendance à légèrement sur­ estimer le niveau d'ingestion des chèvres Angora. Sahlu et al. (1989) pensent aussi que les Angora ont un moindre niveau d'ingestion que les Alpines autant sur des régimes de faible qued efort e valeur nutritionnelle.

98 Digestionet efficacité de l'utilisation alimentaire

Huston (1976) indique quel achèvr eAngor a au nplu speti trume n etu nplu s court tempsd e rétention desaliment sdan sl erumen .D ec efait , ladigestibilit éde sfourrage s chezce scaprin s pourrait être inférieure à celle du mouton et du bovin en raison d'un plus faible temps d'exposition aux fermentations du rumen (Huston, 1982).Toutefoi s dans la plupart des cas (tableau 1),l adigestibilit éd el amatièr eorganiqu ee td el acellulos e seraitplu sélevé eche zle s caprins Angora queche z les moutons (Doylee tEgan , 1980).E n fait, d'autres facteurs pour­ raient intervenir tels que la plus grande sécrétion de salive qui apporterait de l'urée dans le rumencomm el'on tmis ee névidenc eDomingu ee tal .(1991) ,e ttel squ'u nrecyclag ed el'uré e plusintens ecomm ecel aa ét édémontr éche zd'autre scaprin s(Tisseran de tal . 1991).L etemp s derétentio n desfourrage s dansl erume n ap umêm eêtr etrouv é supérieur àcelu id u mouton, etcec id'autan t plusprononc équ ele sfourrage s ingérés sontd efaibl e qualité (Doylee tEgan , 1980,tablea u 1).Ce sdifférente s observations conduisent àpense r que ladigestio n des four­ rages de médiocre qualité chez les caprins Angora serait tout à fait comparable à celle des autrescaprins . Larétentio n azotéees t souventplu sélevé eche zle scaprin s Angoraqu eche zle s moutons Mérinos (Tableau 1). Cela peut traduire le fait que l'Angora produit plus de fibres que le moutonrapporté e aupoid s vif (Huston, 1982).O rl'efficacit é del'utilisatio n alimentairepou r laproductio n de fibres est nettement supérieureche z lachèvre .Gallaghe r et Shelton (1972) ont montré que la production de fibre par unité d'énergie digestible ingérée est 2.7 fois plus élevée chez le bouc castré que chez le mouton castré, et 3.2 fois chez le chevreau que chez l'agneau. Mais l'efficacité de l'utilisation alimentaire pour le gain de poids est plus élevée chez l'agneau queche z lechevrea u (+34%)e tche z lebou c castré que chez lemouto n castré (+17%).Ains i larépartitio n des nutriments est différente chezl'Angor a etl emouto n adulte; leur orientation versl aproductio n depoi l seraitdon c supérieure chez les Angora (Gallagher etShelton , 1972;Huston , 1982).

Capacitéd'adaptation etsensibilité au stress

Malgréleu raptitud e àbie n digérerl acellulos ee te nconséquenc e àbie n utiliserle s fourrages demédiocr e qualité, les caprins Angora ont fréquemment été décrits comme très sensibles à des sous-alimentations, ete nparticulie r àcelle s quiprovoquen t des avortements au coursd u quatrième mois de gestation (Shelton, 1979, 1984; Huston, 1982; Wentzel, 1987). Après l'émission de diverses hypothèses,Wentze l et al.(1975 )e t Wentzel etBoth a (1976) ontbie n confirmél arelatio nd ecaus eà effe t entrele ssous-alimentation sde schèvre se nfi nd egestatio n et la fréquence des avortements. Reeh et al. (1987) ont mis enévidenc e que c'est une sous- alimentation énergétiquequ i estl aprincipal e caused ece s avortements.E n outre,Wentze le t al. (1975) ont précisé que les avortements au quatrième mois et lamortalit épérérinatal e ont lesmême scause snutritionnelles .D 'aprè sWesthu yse n( 1 980 )l asous-alimentatio nénergétiqu e a uneffe t plus important que la sous-nutrition azotée surl a mortalitépérinatal e (Tableau2) . Plusieurs travaux ont essayé derecherche r les causes physiologiques de ces avortements consécutifs àun e sous-alimentation.U n excèsd'activit é physique (Reeh et al., 1987)o uun e perturbation de la fonction thyroïdienne (Wentzel etBotha , 1976) ont été mis hors decause . Lafaibl e glycémied el achèvr eAngor apa rrappor t àl achèvr eAlpin e(Sahl ue t al., 1989)o u son hématocrite plus faible que chez le mouton ou les autres caprins peuvent être évoqués comme facteurs favorisant l'avortement. En effet, la sous-alimentation abaisserait encore la glycémie;c equ imodifierai t l'équilibrehormona l(Wentzel , 1982).L etau xplasmatiqu ed'oes ­ trogènes de la mère augmenterait alors fortement et provoquerait l'expulsion du foetus (Wentzele t al., 1975). Est-cequ ecett esensibilit é auxavortement s liésà de sdéficit s nutritionnels estun e spécifi­ citéde s chèvres Angora? Il semblequ eno ncomm el ereconnai t Shelton (1979) puisque des

99 avortementslié sà d eforte s sous-alimentations ontauss iét éobservé s surde srace slocale se n zonetropical e(Shelton , 1979;Unania netFelician oSilva ,1987 )e tauss isu rle schèvre sBOE R en Afrique du sud (Coetzer et Niekerk, 1987). Mais le degré de sous-alimentation auquel étaient soumisesle schèvre sAngora :40 %de s besoinsénergétique s totauxe nfi n de gestation (Wentzel, 1982a,Westhuysen , 1980)es t suffisamment importantpou r nepa s êtreétonn é des accidentsimportant squ'i lprovoquait .Comm eche zle schèvre sAlpine so uSaanen ,i lapparai t des hypoglycémies chez leschèvre s Angora. Toutefois, chezle schèvre sd etyp elaitier , elles s'accompagnent de graves toxémies de gestation alors que les avortements seraient moins fréquents (Morand-Fehr et Sauvant, 1987) mais les sous-alimentations observées en fin de gestation chezle schèvre s laitièresn e sontjamai s aussi sévèresqu eche zle schèvre s Angora. Parailleurs ,Wentze le tal .(1979 )on tmontr éauss iqu ele scaprin sAngor aétaien t sensibles austres sd ufroid , lesjeunesplu squ ele sadultes .Aprè sl amis eenje u desmécanisme sd elutt e contre le froid (augmentation de la glycémie, du rythme cardiaque et de la production de chaleur),i l peut apparaître un effondrement de la glycémie, de la température rectale et du rythme cardiaque avec augmentation de la sécrétion de la thyroxine et des corticostéroïdes. Desperte sdéjeune sson tfréquentes ,due sà cett esensibilit éa ufroid ,notammen taprè sl atonte . Il apparait que la chute de la glycémie de 50 %d e savaleu r normale serait l'élément déter­ minant.Wentze l (1982b) préconise pourlutte r contre cespertes ,d'injecte r du glucose oud e distribuer uneratio nrich ee nhydrate sd ecarbon e toute névitan t lesacidoses .

Besoins

Les besoins spécifiques descaprin s producteurs depoi l sont souvent absents desrevue spro ­ posant des apports recommandés. Le NRC (1981) et l'INRA (Morand-Fehr et al., 1987) se sontappuyé s surde sdonnée sobtenue s surchèvre sAngora ,e nparticulie r celles deHusto n et al.(1971) .Ave cun eefficacit é del'énergi emétabolisabl ed e3 3 %,u nk gd emohai rbru tdeman ­ de6 25 0kca lEN ;c equ icorrespon dà 0.01UF Lpa rjou re tpa rk gd epoi lprodui tpa ran .Ains i selonle ssystème sénergétique sadopté s(NRC ,198 1; INRA ,1988) ,l'augmentatio nd el'appor t recommandéd'entretie nd'un echèvr ed e5 0k g(san steni rcompt ed e sesdépense sliée s àso n activitésu rl aprairie )e tayan tun eproductio nd eMohai rd e6 k ges td e7-7.5% ,soi tun evaleu r relativement faible. Lesperte sazotée spou rl aproductio n depoi lvarien tentr e0.0 3 ge t0.1 0g/k gP °- 75/j selon lenivea ud eproductio n (Hustone tal. , 1971;Brun-Bellu te tal. , 1987).Dan sl esystèm eMA D du NRC (1981), le besoin estfix é de 3 gpa rjou r etpa rk g demohai rprodui tpa r an etdan s lesystèm ePD I(INRA , 1988)compte-ten ud urendemen tmoye ndifféren t desPD Ipa rrappor t aux MAD,d e2. 5 gpa rjou r etpa rk gd emohai rprodui tpa r an. Iln'exist epa sà notr econnaissanc ed ebesoin so ud erecommandation s minéralescalculée s àparti r dedonnée s enregistrées surde scaprin sproducteur s depoil .

Influence del'alimentatio nsu rl aproductio n etl aqualit éde s fibres

Développementdes follicules

Wentzele tVoslo o(1975 ) ontétudi él edéveloppemen t desfollicule s etde sfibre s surde ssec ­ teursd epea u defoetu s etd echevreau xAngora .I lsembl equ' àquelque sdifférence s mineures près,il sson ttrè svoisin sd eceu xde sfollicule s etde sfibre s delain ed umouton .L acroissanc e desfollicule s atteignentu nmaximu ma uquatrièm emoi sd egestatio n mais s'arrêtea ucinqui ­ ème mois, probablement parce que le développement du foetus est alors prioritaire, pour reprendreaprè sla naissance .Le sfibre spropremen tdite sn es edéveloppen tintensémen t qu'au coursde squatr e moisqu i suivent lanaissance .

100 Bienqu'o n manquecruellemen td'informatio n àpropo sd el'effe t del'alimentatio nde smère s en gestation surl edéveloppemen t des follicules et des fibres dujeune , iles tprobabl e quel a fin degestation ,notammen tl e4 èmoi sd egestation ,es tun epériod ecruciale .D eplus ,puisqu e chez les autres animaux et en particulier les moutons, une alimentation insuffisante ou défectueuse risqued eréduir el epoid sà l anaissanc ede schevreau xe tqu el asurfac e del apea u dépend essentiellement du poids vif, cela peut avoir des répercussions importantes sur la production ultérieured e fibres.

Effetdu niveau alimentaire, énergétiqueou azoté du régime

Unerestrictio n alimentaire limite laproductio n de fibre etu n apport alimentaire supplémen­ taireaprè sun erestrictio n tendà l'améliorer .Ma cGrego re tHodg e(1989 )on tmontr équ epa r rapport àu nrégim efaisan t perdre5 k gd epoid s àde smâle scastré sAngor apendan t 84jours , unrégim e maintenant leurpoid s vifperme td'améliore rl aproductio n deMohai rd e20% .D e mêmel enivea ud'énergi eingéré einfluenc e lapouss e dupoi l Cachemirequan dle s animaux perdentd upoid smai spa squan dil se ngagnen t (MacGregor , 1987a).Toutefois ,un esurcharg e alimentairee ngénéra ln'amélior epa sl aproduction .Ains il aproductio nd etoiso nde schèvre s Cachemiredon tl enivea ud'ingestio npass ed e0. 8k gM Sà 3 k gM Spa rjou rn'es tpa samélioré e (Mac Call et al., 1989).Norto n et al. (1990)observen t le mêmerésulta t sur lamêm erac ee n diminuant la densité des animaux sur prairie de 60 à 15 animaux par ha. Cette absence de réponse àl'amélioratio n du niveau alimentaireparai têtr ed'autan tplu sfréquent e quel apro ­ ductiond epoi les tréduite .Shal ue tal .(1988) ,Shahjla le tal . (1990,1991),DeavffleetGalbraith (1991) ont observé une amélioration significative de la quantité de Mohair produite en augmentant lateneu r enmatière s azotées durégim ed e 10o u 12%à 18%(Tablea u 3);c equ i montrebie n quel aquantit é produited epoi les t sensibleà l'appor tgloba l dematière s azotées mais seulementjusqu' à un taux de 18% dansl erégim ee tprobablemen t 20%pou r lesjeunes mâles (Shelton, 1979). En réalité le caprin Angorarépon d àl afoi s aux modifications des niveaux énergétique et azoté du régime (Huston, 1980; Shelton, 1984). Il semble même comme chez le mouton (Dones, 1984),qu el enivea uénergétiqu e tend àavoi ru neffe t plusmarqu équ el enivea upro - téique.Toutefois , Shahjalal etal . (1990e t 1991)obtiennen t uneamélioratio n supérieure del a production de poil des mâles castrés Angora en augmentant la concentration protéique du régimed e 10à 18%,qu'e nfaisan t varierl aconcentratio n d'énergiemétabolisabl ed e 10.2M J à 11.9M J ou en la maintenant à 9.6 MJ par kg MS (Tableau 3ae t b).L'augmentatio n de la concentrationprotéiqu ees td e66 %e tcell ed el'énergi ed e16 %seulement .E nréalité ,i lsembl e comme le souligne Shelton (1984) qu'une amélioration de la production de poil n'apparaît quedan sl eca so ùl asynthès ede sprotéine smicrobienne sdan sl erume nétai tréduit ee nraiso n d'undéfici te nénergi e(PDIE )o ue nprotéine sfermentescible s(PDIN )(INRA ,1988) .L'appor t dufacteu rlimitan t(énergi eo uprotéines )perme tun eamélioratio nd el adisponibilit éde sacide s aminés au niveau desfollicules . Oncompren d mieux pourquoi une surcharge énergétiqueo u protéique n'augmentant pas la synthèse microbienne et laquantit é d'acides aminés absorbés (Huston, 1980) n'améliorepa s laproductio n depoil . Iles tauss itrè simportan t deremarque r qu'à chaquefoi s quel aproductio n depoi les tamé ­ liorée quelle que soit l'origine (niveau énergétique ou azoté), il apparait une tendance à la diminution de laqualit éd el afibre (Shahjala l et al, 1990,1991;Deavill e etGalbraith , 1990; MacGregor , 1987ae t 1987b; Miiftiioglu, 1960).L ediamètr ede sfibres augment ee tplu srare ­ ment laproportio n dejarr e s'élèvee tl alongueu r des mèches diminue (Müftüglu, 1960).

101 Tableau3. Inluence des niveaux énergétiqueet azoté du régime sur la croissanceet la productionde poil déjeunes maies castrés angora. a. Expérience deShahjala l etal . (1990) Résultats sur 112J.1 Niveau énergétique2 Bas Bas Haut Haut Niveau protéique3 Bas Haut Bas Haut Gain depoid s (kg) 5.4 8.9 9.9 13.0 Consommation énergétique (MJ) 851 949 1010 1 110 Production deFibr e (g/100 cm2) 8.9 13.4 10.7 12.9 Diamètre desfibres d uflanc (|i ) 29.7 35.4 32.4 35.4 Expérience deShahjala l et al.(1991 ) Résultats sur 63j.4 Niveau azoté (%MATAIS ) 10.2 12.6 16.5 18.5 Gain depoid s (kg) 2 1.50 2.63 3.36 4.34 Production defibre s (g/100cm ) 3.43 3.99 4.89 5.20 Diamètre desfibre s duflan c (|i) 29.8 31.5 36.1 33.6 Expérience deGalbrait h et al.(1991 ) Résultats sur 70j.5 Niveau azoté (% MAT/MS) 11.0 17.8 Gain depoid s (kg) 3.70 5.96 Production defibre s (g/100cm2 ) 9.84 11.2 Diamètre desfibre s ((J.) 28.0 30.1 Consomation limitée à3 0g/k gP V 10.2o u 11.9M JEM/k gm S 108o u 180g MAT Régimeisocaloriqu ed e9. 6M JEM/k gM Srationn é à5 5g MS/kg 0-75; Sources azotées: tourteau de soja etfarin e depoisson . Rationnement à 37g/k gPV .

Tableau4. Effetde lateneur des matières azotées durégime etdu traitementpar la chaleur du tourteau desoja sur la production etla qualité du poil mohair(Sahlu etal.,1988).

Teneure nmatière s azotées durégim e(% ) 12 12 18 18 Traitementd u tourteau de soja Non Oui Non Oui Production de toison en 150 j. (kg) 2.57 2.70 3.00 3.42 Rendement(% ) 70.1 70.5 71.6 73.5 Diamètre des fibres (|i) 34.4 36.0 37.2 36.9

Effetdes sources énergétiques et azotées

Commenou svenon sd el epréciser ,c eson tle sapport sd'énergi efermentescibl e quion tl eplu s dechance sd'améliore rla productio nd epoil ,mai sseulemen ts iceux-c ison tfacteur s limitants de la synthèse des protéines microbiennes dans le rumen. En général le gain de poids est améliorépa rde s hauts niveauxd'énergi efermentescibl e alorsqu el aproductio n depoi l n'est plus modifiée (Throckmorton et al., 1982).C'es t laraiso n pour laquelle des apports supplé­ mentaires d'énergie, et notamment de céréales n'ont pas eu dans beaucoup dé cas, l'effet escompté surl aproductio n depoi lMohai r(Shelton , 1984).

102 Les tourteaux (soja, coton)dan sl'alimen t semblent dessource sazotée sefficace s pouraméli ­ orer laproductio n de poil àl adifférenc e du tourteau de tournesol (Sahlu et al., 1988;As he t Norton, 1987). Ces sources ont une fraction protéique fermentescible dans le rumen et une autreno nfermentescibl e quiser adigéré edan sl'intesti n commeche zle smonogastriques .De s traitements technologiques (chaleur,tannag eà l aformaldehyde... ) permettentd'augmente r la fraction nonfermentescibl e etains id'évite rde sperte sazotée squan dle scapacité sd esynthès e protéique durume n sont saturées,e tains id'accroîtr e ladisponibilit é enacide s ami-nés .Le s résultatssemblen tdépendr ed upotentie ld eproductio n deschèvres .L etraitemen t àl achaleu r dutourtea ud esoj aa amélior él aquantit éproduit ed epoi lMohai r(Sahl ue tal. , 1981)(Tablea u 4). Mais la caséine, ou les tourteaux de soja ou de coton traités à la formaldehyde n'ont eu aucuneffe t surl aproductio nd eCachemir eave cde sanimau xà plu sfaibl enivea ud eproductio n (Ashe tNorton , 1987). Demêm el'utilisatio n demethionin eprotégé equ ies tbeaucou pmoin s fermentescible quel amethionin elibr e aauss ipermi s d'améliorer la quantité depoi l Mohair produited e0. 8g pa rjou re tpa rg d emethionin eajoutée .C erésulta tn'es tpa sétonnan tpuisqu e la synthèse des fibres exige une quantité relativement importante d'acides aminés soufrés. Toutefois une telle amélioration semble insuffisante pour que l'apport de methionine soit rentable économiquement. Ainsi commeche z lemouto n pour laproductio n delain e (Hogan etWeston , 1967),l ecapri n Mohairpeu tréagi r favorablement àu n traitement technologique, enparticulie r s'il au n bonnivea u deproductio n depoil . Commepou rle seffet s desquantité sd enutriments ,u neffe t positifd el anatur ed'un esourc e énergétique ou azotée sur la production de poil, entraîne une détérioration, le plus souvent légèred el aqualit éd upoi le t surtoutun eaugmentatio n dudiamètr e des fibres^

Effetsdes minéraux, desvitamines ou d'autres additifs

D'après Shelton (1984), les caprins producteurs de poil ne présentent pas de problèmes particuliers de minéraux etd evitamines .Toutefois , ilspourraien t avoiru n besoin spécifique en soufre qui favorise la synthèse des acides aminés soufrés dans le rumen, nécessaires àl a synthèse de protéines microbiennes (Lu et al., 1992).E n outre dans la pratique, les apports supplémentaires de sel comme chez le mouton à laine semble favorable, probablement en raison de l'augmentation des quantités d'eau bue et de la vitesse de transit qui limiterait la dégradation desprotéine s dansl erumen .L ephosphor e quies tparfoi s déficitaire surle spar ­ coursutilisé se tl avitamin eA qu iévit el akératinisatio n del apea ue tl abaiss ed el'activit é des follicules peuventêtr eajoutée s àl aration .D emêm el asupplementatio nd ecertain soligo-élé ­ ments commel emolybdèn epourrai t êtrebénéfiqu e (Galbraith et al., 1991)mai s ils agiraient en interaction entreeu x ouave cd'autre s minéraux. Les anabolisants peuvent aussi avoir un effet favorable sur la production de toison sans augmentationd udiamètr ede sfibre s (Snowderetal. , 1982).E neffe t l'introduction d'implants dezérano le td etestosteron eà de sjeune smâle sAngor acastré so uno namélior el aproductio n depoi l de7 à10% . Enfin desprobiotique s du type levures n'ont pas amélioré laproductio n des mâles castrés Cachemire (Deaville et Galbraith, 1990) mais plusieurs expériences sont nécessaires pour avoirun e vue objective surl'intérê t desprobiotiques . En résumé, les effets de l'alimentation sur laproductio n et la qualité des poils Mohair et Cachemire sont proches de ceux enregistrés sur la production de laine. Les informations disponibles actuellement nepermetten tpa sencor ed'identifie r desparticularité s nutritionnel- lesmarquée s chezle s caprinsproducteur s depoil .

103 Stratégiesd'alimentatio n Influencedu marché sur les stratégies d'alimentation

L'objectifde séleveur ses tgénéralemen td'améliore rleu rproductio nd epoi ltou te nmaintenan t unequalit éd efibre s satisfaisante.E nréalit él'orientatio nver sla productio n ouver sla qualit é dépendrad umarché ,c'est-à-dir ed upri xmoye na uk gvend ue td udifférentie lentr ele squalités . Or les facteurs alimentaires agissent de façon antagoniste sur les paramètres quantitatifs et qualitatifs. En conséquence, l'éleveur devra adapter sa stratégie alimentaire suivant les con­ ditionsd u marché.Pou rconcrétise r cetteproposition , analysonsdeu x situationsopposées : a. Lepri x moyen duk gd etoiso n venduees télev é avecu nrétrécissemen t du différentiel du prix entrele squalité sd efibre .Dan s cecas ,l'éleveu ra intérê tà opte rpou run eproductio n optimalee td'utilise rle smoyen salimentaire spou ry parvenir :apport sénergétique se tazo ­ tés suffisants et éventuellement, utilisation de sources azotées spécifiques en évitant les gaspillages. b. Lepri x moyen du kgd e toison est bas,e t souvent dansc ecas ,l a hautequalit éki d fine se vendra beaucoup plusche rqu el aqualit égrossière .L'éleveu r aintérê t àabaisse r aumaxi ­ mum sespri xd erevien te tà vendr el eplu sd equalit éfine . Alorsi ldoi tlimite rle s aliments complémentaires distribuésjusqu' àu nseui llimit eo ùle srisque sd'accident ssanitaire sson t trop élevés:avortements ,mortalit épérinatale ,faibl e protection immunitaire etc.. Cela nécessite de disposer d'animaux dotés d'une grandecapacit é d'adaptation autant àde s programmes alimentaires restreints.

Considérations techniquespour définir une stratégie alimentaire

Compte-tenu dumarch équ irecherch e lestoison sde sjeune sanimaux ,n edoit-o npa s adopter une stratégie technique pour augmenter au maximum laproductio n de toison de qualité kid, quitte àperdr e unpe u surl aproductio n ou laqualit éde s toisons d'adultes? Pourcela ,i les tessentie ld'optimise rsu rle sperformance s dereproductio n etd eréduir ele s pertes sur lesjeunes . Les chèvres reproductrices doivent arriver à lapériod e de lutte en état corporel suffisant. Un apport supplémentaire, surtout énergétique peut améliorer le taux de fertilité des chèvres Angora (Shelton, 1979; 1984) et le rythme dereproduction . Mais cette techniquedoi têtr e bien maîtriséepou révite rde saugmentation s depoid s qui provoqueraient tropd enaissance s gémellaires.Pa railleurs ,cett esupplementatio ndoi ts epoursuivr ependan t 3semaine sa umoin saprè sle sdernière s sailliesafi n quele sperte sembryonnaire sn eréduisen t pasà zér ol'augmentatio nd el apont eovulaire .Mai scomm enou sl'avon svu ,l afi nd egestatio n est unepériod e critique.Pou r éviter les avortements et lesperte s de chevreaux par mortalité périnatale,mai sauss ile satteinte sparasitaire s graves (typecoccidiose )e tle sconséquence sd u stressd ua ufroid , notammentaprè sl atonte ,un ecomplémentatio n seraitutil epou rcouvri rle s besoins d'entretien et de gestation (voir recommandations NRC, 1981; INRA, 1988). En gestation, elle doit surtout être énergétique plus que protéique. Les quantités distribuées, en générald e 150g à 30 0g d'alimen tconcentr épa rjou re tpa rtêt edoiven t êtremodulée s selon l'étatcorpore lde sanimaux ,l anatur ee tl aqualit éd el aratio nd ebas eo ude sdisponibilité ssu r le parcours. En effet dans des systèmes utilisant du parcours, la fin de gestation peut cor­ respondreà l afin d el apériod ed el'arrê td el avégétatio no ùl esurpaturâg ee te nconséquence , les sous-alimentations sont fréquentes (Somlo et al., 1987).U n supplément minéral et vita- miniquepeu t êtreutil edan sl eca so ùle sfourrage s ingérés sontd efaibl e qualité.L edébu td e lactation coïncide avec lapériod e desbesoin s lesplu s élevés des chèvresreproductrices . On doit rechercher une production laitière suffisante pour bien faire démarrer les chevreaux pendant les deux premiers mois.S io n veut limiter la supplementation,i lfau t faire coïncider cettepériod e aveccell ed umaximu md edisponibilité sd el aprairi eo ud uparcours .Sinon ,u n

104 apport supplémentaire decéréale s etd e tourteau dans unrappor t de 2o u 3/1 estnécessair eà raison de 100à 50 0g suivantle sdisponibilité s etl aqualit éde s fourrages ingérées. Comme on manque de donnéesprécises , la conduite alimentaire des mèresrisqu e d'être approximative enpratique .Pou rl arendr eplu srigoureuse ,i lnou s sembleimportan td'utilise r lessuivi sd el'éta tcorpore l avecde snotes-cible s auxpériode scritique sd ucycl ed ereproduc ­ tion: saillie, mise-bas, démarrage de la végétation etc.. La méthode des palpations d'abord mise au point pour les brebis (Rüssel et al., 1969) a été adaptée pour les caprins et donne satisfaction autantdan sle ssystème sintensif squ'extensi fs (Santucc ie tal. ,1990 ;Morand-Feh r et al., 1992). Quant aujeun e chevreau, ilfau t luiassure r unbo ndémarrag e enpériod e lactée.S inéces ­ saire,l elai td el amèr epeu têtr ecomplété epa ru nalimen tconcentr é auqueli laur a seulaccès . Ensuite pendant la période de croissance, il devra être essentiellement alimenté par des fourrages etde sconcentré sénergétique so uazoté ss'i l estnécessair ed'évite rde ssous-alimen ­ tations quiréduiraien t trop laproductio n depoil . Ces apports doivent êtreraisonne s selon la qualité etl aproductio n depoi lqu el'éleveu rdésir e obtenir. Mais enréalit é pour définir une stratégie alimentaire, il ne faut pas considérer seulement les effets sur la production de toison et laqualit é du poil mais aussi les effets sur les perfor­ mances dereproductio n etsu rl egai n depoid spuisqu'u n animalplu s lourd aura une surface de peau, donc une production de poil plus importante. Or le plus souvent les facteurs ali­ mentaires n'ont plus d'effets surl aproductio n depoi l alorsqu'il s ontencor ede s effets favo­ rables surl'éta tcorporel ,l afertilit é oul aproductio n laitièrede smères ,e tsu rl egai nd epoid s desjeune s (Sahlue t al., 1988). /

Conclusions Les caractéristiques alimentaires des chèvres Angora ou Cachemire sont assez proches de cellesde smouton sà lain e ;toutefoi s elless'e n différencient parl ecomportemen t alimentaire etcertain s aspectsd el adigestio n quison tproche sde scaractéristique s d'autrescaprin sélevé s dans desmilieu x difficiles. Laproductio n depoi l exigent des apports énergétiques et azotés permettant une synthèse optimale desprotéine s microbiennes dans lerumen .L'appor td eprotéine s by-passpeu tdan s certainscas ,êtr eintéressante .Mai sde ssurcharge salimentaires ,o ubie nde ssous-alimentation s enparticulie r en fin degestatio n oupendan t lapériod ed elutt edoiven t êtreévitées .Compte - tenude sbesoin srelativemen tlimité sd ece sanimaux ,l aproductio nd epoi ln'es tpa samélioré e parde s apports supplémentaires énergétiques ouazotés . La stratégiealimentair e dépendde scondition s dumarch émai sl arecherch ed'un eproduc ­ tionoptimal ed etoison sd ejeune s animauxdoi têtr eprioritaire .Cel apass epa ru nprogramm e alimentairede smère spréci sévitan tle savortements ,le smortalité spérinatale s etle saccident s sanitaires. Dansl esystèm eextensif ,l arecherch ed el adensit éoptimal esu rprairi eo uparcour ssuivan t le stade physiologique des mères pourrait améliorer l'efficience du système (Norton et al., 1990).D emêm ele stroupeau xmixte s(mouton ,chèvre )peuven tabouti rà un eutilisatio ncom ­ plémentaired uparcour s oud el aprairi eà un eintensit é decharg eprécise ,o uà un e utilisation concurrente àun eintensit é supérieure (MacGregor , 1987c). Dans lesystèm eintensif , ladiminutio n descoût s alimentaires enréduisan t les gaspillages ete nadaptan tmieu xle ssource sfourragère s àcett eproductio n afin qu'ellescouvren tun eplu s grandeproportio n des besoins seraitun eorientatio n derecherch e àdévelopper .

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106 Sahlu,T., J.M.Fernandez & R.Manning, 1988. Proc.3t hAnnua lFiel dday .Ann .Inst .Goa t Res.Langsto n Univ.,Oklahom a (USA),Oct . 1988,p .81-86 . Sahlu,T, J.M. Fernandez & S.P.Hart, 1989. ReportAmer .Inst .Goa tRes . 1985-88 Langston University, Oklahoma (USA),p . 7-10. Santucci,P., A. Branca,M. Napoleone, R. Bouche, G. Aumont, F. Poisot & G. Alexandre, 1991. In:Goa tNutritio n(Morand-Fehred.) ,PUDOC ,Wageninge n(Neth.) ,Chap .20 ,p .240-255 . Shahjalal, M.,H. Galbraith, J.H.Topps &J.M. Cooper, 1991.Anima lProd. ,52:608 . Shahjalal, M.,H. Galbraith. & J.H.Topps, 1990. Anim.Prod .50:564 . Shelton,M., 1984. In: Sheep and goat handbook (Baker F.H. &Mille r M.E. ed.)Vol.4 ,p . 441-447,Westvie wPres s(USA) . Shelton,M. 1979.I nUSA , in:Australia n goat breeding, husbandry, science and veterinary practice.Proc .2 Nat .Goa tbreeder sConf .Perth ,Austr . (1979),p . 23-31. Snowder, G.D.,M. Shelton, J.W. Basset& P. Thompson,1982. Proc .3 Intern .Conf .o ngoa t production anddisease ,Tucson ,Arizon a (USA), 10-15Jan . 1982,p . 528. Somlo,R., GL. Bonvissuto, E.P. Morioz de Tesco & A. Pellizade Shriller, 1987.Proc .4 Intern . Conf.o ngoats ,Brasili a (Brazil)8-1 3Marc h 1991,Vol .2 p .1394 . Taylor, CA. &N.M. Kothmann, 1990. J.Rang e Mang.43:123-126 . Throckmorton,J.C., D. Ffoulkes,RA.Leng &J.V. Evans, 1982. Proc .Austr .Soc .Anim .Prod. , 14:661. Tisserand, J.L.,M. Hadjipanayiotou &E.A. Gihad, 1991.In :Goa t Nutrition (Morand-Fehr ed.),PUDOC ,Wageninge n (Neth.),Chap .5 ,p . 46-60. Unanian, MM. &A.E.D. Feliciano, 1987. Proc . 4Intern . Conf. on goats,Brazili a (Brazil), 8-13Marc h 1987,Vol .2 ,p . 1414. Wentzel,D., 1987. Proc.4 Intern .Conf .o nGoats ,Brazilia ,Brazil ,8-1 2Marc h 1981,Vol . 1 p 571-575. Wentzel, D. 1982a.Proc . 3 Intern. Conf. on goat production and disease. Tucson, Arizona (USA), 10-15Jan . 1982,p . 155-161. Wentzel, D. 1982b.Proc . 3 Intern. Conf. on goat production and disease, Tucson, Arizona (USA), 10-15Jan . 1982,p . 530. Wentzel, D.,K.S. Viljoen &LJ.J. Botha,1979. Agroanimalia 11:19-22. Wentzel, D. & L.J.J.Botha 1976. Agroanimalia, 8,p 163. Wentzel, D. & L.P.Vosloo, 1975. Agroanimalia 7:61-64. WentzelD., J.C.Morgenthal &C.H. NiekerkVan, 1975. Agroanimalia, 7:35-39. Westhuysen, J.M.van der, 1980. AngoraGoa tan dMohai rJ .22:19-22 .

107 Comparison ofTurkis h angora goatswit h American xTurkis h crossbred generationsi nbod yweigh t and mohair traits

B.C. Yalçin, P. Horst andH.Günes Facultyof VeterinaryMedicine, University of Istanbul, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey

Summary

This study hasbee n carried out atAnadol u StateProductio n Farmnea rEskisehi r tocompar e the production levels of Turkish Angora goats with those of crossbred generations obtained from crossbreeding between Turkish (T) and American (A) strains of Angora goats. Least squaresmean s for different traitsi nT ,Fl , F2,AB l (backcross toAmerican ) andTB I (back- cross to Turkish) groups were found respectively as follows: birth weight 2.55, 2.63,2.62 , 2.64 and 2.60 kg, weaning (105-day) weight 15.32, 15.59, 15.27, 15.21 and 15.52kg , body weightafte r shearing31.00,30.24,30.26,30.0 1 and30.3 8kg ,greas yfleece weigh t2.40,2.81 , 2.58, 2.74 and 2.59 kg, staple length 17.17, 17.50, 18.02, 18.13 and 17.67 cm, and fiber diameter29.83,29.37,28.33,28.2 9 and29.6 0micron .Thes eresult sindicat ethat ,b ycrossin g Turkish Angora goats with American stock, significantly highermohai rproductio n of better quality can beobtaine d atF l and ABl stages ascompare d tothos ei npur eTurkis hgoats . Keywords:crossbreeding ,Angor a goats,mohai rtraits .

Introduction InTurkey ,Angor agoat sar eraise dmainl yo nth eCentra lAnatolia nPlateau ,abou t80 0meter s above the sealevel .Th e greatestpar to f theregio n isforme d bypoo rrangeland s and treeless steppes.Th eclimat e is semi-arid with dryho t summers andcol d winters.Durin g the grazing season goats depend almost completely on short andpoo r quality grasses on the rangelands ando ncerea lstubble .Animal sar ewintere dfo r about3 t o5 monthi nsimpl esheds ,whe nthe y aremaintaine d on cereal straw andpoor-qualit y hay.I n criticalperiods , goats in some flocks receive limited amount of concentrates.Becaus e of this poor level of nutrition, the levelso f important production traits in the Angora goat flocks in Turkey are generally low. In the producers'flock , averagevalue sfo rdifferen t mohair traitso fbreedin gfemale s werefoun da s follows: greasy fleece weight 1.6 kg, clean mohair yield 77.0percent , staplelengt h 13.8c m andfibe r diameter 33.3micro n (Müftüglu andÖrkiz , 1982).Correspondin g figures obtained forbreedin gfemale s atexperimenta lfarm s are3. 0kg ,71. 5percent , 16.4c man d35. 8micron . Heritability estimatesobtaine dfo rmohai rtrait san dki dweight so fAngor agoat si nTurke y aregenerall y low(Fro m0.0 7t o0.24 )indicatin gtha timprovin gthes etrait sthroug hindividua l selection willb ea slo wprocess . (Yalçin, etal. , 1979;Yalçi ne tal. , 1989).Althoug h selection for these traits may be made more effective by combining individual records with half-sib family averages and by using aselectio n index,increasin g genetic variation in these traitsi s needed for faster genetic improvement by selection. Theexistin g literature indicate that markedly higher levels for mohair production andki d weights areattaine d inAngor a goatflock s raised in theU.S.A . andi n South Africa (Shelton, 1965; Shelton and Basset, 1970; Basset, 1966; Marincowitz, 1959; Uys, 1963; Van der Westhuysen et al., 1981). If the superiority of the American and South African goats to the Turkish goats is greatly genetic, crossbreeding of Turkish Angora goats with American and SouthAfrica n strainsma ydirectl yimprov eth elevel so ffleec eweigh tan dsom efleec echarac -

108 teristicsi ncrossbre dgenerations .Suc hcrossbreedin gma yals ob eusefu l inincreasin g genetic variationi ndifferen t traits andmak e selectionmor eeffectiv e inth e subsequent generations. This study is concerned with a crossbreeding experiment initiated at Eskisehir-Anadolu State Production Farm, in Central Anatolia, in 1983 in order to investigate the value of y between Turkish and American strains of Angora goats in improving theproductivit y of the Turkish stock andfo r increasing genetic variation indifferen t mohairan d body weighttraits .

Materialan d methods In 1983,19buck sfro m American Angoragoa t strain wereimporte d from Texas,U.S.A. ,an d broughtt oth eAnadol u StateProductio nFar mnea rEskisehir ,i nCentra lAnatolia .The ywer e usedfo r inseminating arando mpar to f thebreedin gfemale s presenti nth eAngor a goat flock of thatfarm , in the autumn of the sameyear . Theremainin g part of the breeding females in the same flock was used inpurebreeding . Similar matings were made in thefollowin g years (1984throug h 1987),an dF l andpur eTurkis hgroup so fkid swer eobtained .Durin gth eperio d from 1985 to 1987,F l does were allocated into threerando m groups and were mated to Fl, American andTurkis hbucks .Al lo fthes emating swer emad ethroug h artificial insemination. In this way,contemporar y groups ofpur eTurkis h (T),Fl , F2,AB l (backcross to American strain) andTB I (backcross toTurkis h strain) wereproduced . Kidswer eidentifie d andthei rbirt hdate ,sex ,typ eo fbirt h andbirt hweigh t wererecorded . Theywer eweane da ta n average ageo f 105days .Animal swer eshor n oncea year ,usuall ya t theen do fMarch ,an dgreas yfleec eweigh tan dbod yweigh tafte r shearingwer erecorded .Be ­ fore shearing,mohai rsample swer etake nfro m shoulder,rib an dteig hregions .Fo rth edeter ­ mination offibe r diameter andstapl elength ,respectivel y 200fibers an d 10staple sfro m each region were measured. Improvedfeedin g wasprovide dt oth edoe sfro m abouttw oweek sbefor e matingt oth een d ofth ematin g season,an dals odurin gth elas t6 week so fpregnancy .The yreceive dha ydurin g the winter and grazed onpoo r rangelands from April toNovember .Th e level of nutrition in the flock was generally similar to thatprovide d to Angora goats in the majority of flocks in theregion . Theeffect s of typeo f genotype andknow n measurable environmental factors on different traitswer estudie db yleas tsquare sprocedure ,describe db yHarve y(1960) .Interaction samon g thefactor s studiedwer eassume dt ob enon-significan t andtherefor ewer edisregarded .B ythi s procedure,mea nvalue sfo rth egenotypi cgroups ,adjuste d forth eknow nmeasurabl eenviron ­ mentalfactors , were obtained.

Resultsan d discussion

Mean liveweights ofkid si ndifferen t genotypegroup s arepresente d inTabl e 1. Atbirth ,kid s in crossbred groups were significantly heavier (2.60-2.64 kg v. 2.55 kg) than pure Turkish kids. Significant weight differences among genotype groups were also present at the sub­ sequent ages, but their magnitudes were very small. At different ages, mean values in the groups varied within the following limits:birt h weight 2.55-2.64 kg, weaning weight 15.21 -15.52 kg,6-mont h weight 17.50-18.43k g and 12-month weight 24.36-25.24kg . Kidsurviva lrate st oweanin gag ean dt o6 month so fag ewer ehig h(98-100 %an d97-99% , respectively)i nal lgroups ;wit hfe wexceptions ,difference s betweenth egroup swer eno tsigni ­ ficant (Table 2). It appears that, in respect of growth and survival rates, kids in different genotype groupsperfor m similarlyunde rth eexistin gmanagemen t andenvironmenta lcondi ­ tions.

109 Table 1. Meanliveweights ofkids in different genotype groups.

Genotype ]Birt hweigh t (kg) Weaning weight (kg) groups n mean s.e. n mean s.e. Turkish 2 394 2.55a 0.012 235 7 15.32a 0.073 Fl 1235 2.63b 0.014 1217 15.59b 0.087 F2 133 2.62b 0.035 133 15.27ab 0.209 ABl 129 2.64b 0.035 127 15.21ab 0.210 TBI 645 2.60b 0.019 635 15.52ab 0.114

Genotype 6-month weight (kg ) 12-monthweigh t (kg) groups n mean s.e. n mean3 s.e. Turkish 2194 18.25a 0.095 1505 25.24a 0.147 Fl 1 105 18.203 0.114 737 24.58b 0.174 F2 121 17.58b 0.276 64 25.10* 0.430 ABl 116 17.50b 0.279 71 24.36b 0.414 TBI 625 18.43a 0.146 391 25.09ab 0.214 a'bDifference s between themean s with different superscripts are statistically significant.

Table2. Survivalrate of kids in different genotype groups.

Genotype Numbero f livekid s Survivalrat e(% ) groups birth weaning 6month s toweanin g to6 month s

Turkish 2 394 236 1 234 5 98.6a 97.9ab Fl 1235 1218 1203 98.6a 97.4a F2 133 133 132 100.0b 99.2b ABl 130 127 126 97.7a 96.9a TBI 645 635 630 98.4a 97.7ab a,bDifference s between groupswit hdifferen t superscripts are statistically significant.

Mean valuesobtaine dfo rbod yweigh to fdoe sar egive ni nTabl e3 .Amon gth egroups ,mea n bodyweigh t after shearing varied between 30k gan d3 1kg ,an dmea n bodyweigh t atmatin g varied between 35.2k g and 36.7kg . Crossbred groups had slightly lower body weights than pure Turkish group.However , this should not be considered a disadvantage for crossbreds, because Angora goats areprimaril y mohairproducin g animals. Fleece records were obtained from does aging from onet ofiv e years old.Tabl e 4 shows the mean values obtained for greasy fleece weight, staple length and fiber diameter. Mean values for pure Turkish,Fl , F2,AB l andTB I groups are2.40 ,2.81,2.58,2.7 4 and 2.59k g for greasy fleece weight, 17.2,17.5,18.0,18.1an d 17.7c mfo r staplelength , and29.8,29.4 , 28.3,28.3an d29. 6micro nfo rfiber diameter ,respectively .Crossbre dgroup sar e significantly superiort opur e Turkish groupi nrespec t of greasy fleece weight and staplelengt h and, with

110 Table3. Meanbody weight of does in different genotype groups.

Genotype Body weight after shearing(kg) Body weight atmatin g (kg) groups n mean s.e n mean s.e. Turkish 1955 31.003 0.102 1502 36.73a 0.119 Fl 1122 30.24b 0.108 940 35.15c 0.126 F2 41 30.26ab 0.499 33 36.28ac 0.585 ABl 53 30.01b 0.441 33 36.58ad 0.583 TBI 268 30.38b 0.244 183 35.5l cd 0.308 a,b,c,dDifference s between themean s with different superscripts are statistically significant.

Table 4. Meanvalues for mohairtraits ofdoes in different genotype groups.

Genotype Greasy fleece weight (kg) Staplelengt h (cm) groups n mean s.e. n mean s.e. Turkish 1980 2.40a 0.016 880 n.n* 0.106 Fl 1153 2.81c 0.017 537 17.50b 0.102 F2 41 2.58M 0.080 23 18.02b 0.412 ABl 57 2.74cd 0.069 34 18.13b 0.351 TBI 266 2.59b 0.039 164 17.67b 0.212

Genotype Fiberdiamete r (micron) groups n mean s.e. Turkish 880 29.83a 0.137 Fl 537 29.37c 0.132 F2 23 28.33b 0.532 ABl 34 28.29b 0.453 TBI 164 29.60ac 0.274 a'b'c>dDifference s between themean s with different superscripts are statistically significant. theexceptio n ofTB 1group ,i nrespec to f fiber fineness. Superioritiesi n greasy fleece weight ofF l andA B1 groups overpur eTurkis h group are 17% and 14%,respectively . Theseresult sindicat ethat ,b ycrossin gTurkis hAngor agoat swit hAmerica n stock, signifi­ cantly higher mohair production of better quality can be obtained at Fl and ABl stages as comparedt othos ei npur eTurkis h goats,withou tchangin gth egrowt han dsurviva lrat ei nth e latter.Cross-breedin gbetwee nthes etw oline so fAngor agoat si sals olikel yt oincreas egeneti c variation in theimportan tproductio n traits in the subsequent generations.

Ill Acknowledgements Thanks are due to DFG, BMZ and GTZ agencies of the German Government and to the authorities of Anadolu State Production Farm belonging to Ministry of Agriculture of the Turkish Govern- mentfo r supportingthi s project.

References Aritiirk,E., B.C. Yalgin,F. Imeryiiz, S. Müfiüoglu & N. Sincer, 1979. Geneti can denvironmenta l aspects ofAngor a goatproduction . I.Genera lperformanc e levels andth eeffect s of some measurable environmental factors on theproductio n traits.Istanbu lÜniv .Vet .Fak .Derg. , 5:1-17. Bassett,J.W., 1966.Change si nmohai rfleec e characteristics asinfluence d byag ean dseason . TexasAgricultura l Experiment Station Research Report (PR-2402):27-28 . Harvey, WH.,1960. Least-square sanalysi so fdat awit hunequa lsubclas snumbers .Agric .Res . Serv.USDA ,ARS : 20-8. Marincowitz, G., 1959.Fleec e Sortiments over emphasized at expense of conformation and production.Farmin gi n South Africa, 34(1):38^U. Müftüglu, S. & M. Örkiz, 1982.A stud y onmohai rproductio n andmohai rqualit y in Turkish Angora goats.Lalahä nZoot .Ara/t . Enst.Derg. ,22:3-20 . Shelton, M., 1965. The relation of size to breeding performance of Angora does. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Research Reports (PR-2339): 18-19. Shelton,M. & J.W. Bassett,1970. Estimate of certain genetic parameters relating to Angora goats.Texa sAgricultura lExperimen t Station ResearchReport(PR-2750) : 38-41. Uys,D.S., 1963.Characteristic s of the South African mohair clip. Angora Goat and Mohair Journal,6(1) . Van der Westhuysen, J.M., D. Wentzel &M.C. Grobler, 1981.Angor a goats and mohair in South Africa, Nasionale Koerante Beperk,Por tElizabeth . Yalgin,B.C., E. Aritiirk, F. Imeryiiz, N. Sincer & I. Müftüglu, 1979. Genetican denvironmenta l aspectso fAngor a goatproduction .2 .Phenotypi can dgeneti cparameter sfo rth eimportan t production traits, ystanbulÜniv .Vet . Fak. Derg.,5:19-34 . Yalgin, B.C., P. Horst,S. Gerstmayr &T. Öztan, 1989. Researc h on the breeding of Angora goatsi n Turkey.Anim .Res .Devel. ,30:25-35 .

112 Session4

Angoraan d cashmeregoat s

Chairman: R.Sönme z Co-chairman: H.Alik o Wool and mohair production in Türkey

A. Eliçin,N. Akman and SM. Yener Universityof Ankara, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Diskapi, Ankara, Turkey

Abstract Thenativ e sheepbreed s ofTurkey ,th emajorit y beingfat-tailed , haveal lmixe dcoars ewool . Onlyth eMerin oan dit scrosse swhic hconstitut eabou t5% o fth epopulatio n arefine-wooled . InTurke yth eaverag ewoo lyiel dpe rshee pi sbetwee n 1.6-1.8kg .an dther eha sbee nn osig ­ nificant progress in increasing the quality and quantity. To meet the needs of the country approximately 3000 0 tons of wool isimporte d peryear , a smallportio n being mixed coarse wool. Turkey is oneo f the three leading mohairproducin g countries of the world and isknow n asth ehomelan do fth eAngor agoat .Despit eo fthi sther ehav ebee nmarke ddecrease si nbot h thenumbe r of goatsan dmohai rproductio n particularly after 1980.A sth enumbe ro f Angora goatsdroppe dunde rtw omillions ,mohai rproductio n wasa tabou t3 00 0tons .Whil ea consi ­ derableportio no fth emohai rproductio ni sexported ,i nrecen tyear simportations ,eve nthoug h inver y smallconsignments ,hav e takenplace . /

Woolproductio n

Very largepar t of the world animal fiber production comes from sheep which is the species exhibiting the greatest diversity withrespec t to wool.Toda y animal fibers in different forms rangingfro m thehai rt oth efin e wooleasil yuse db yth etextil eindustr yca nb eproduce d from sheep.Furthermor eth efiber sobtaine dfro m themsho wconsiderabl evariatio ni ncolor .Turke y ison eo fth ecountrie si nwhic hlarg edifference s inwoo lar eobserve di nsuc himportan tqualit y characteristics ascolo r and fineness. Contributing to this diversity in the woolproduce d in Turkey are both the various native breeds and types in thecountr y and also the great number of crossbred genotypes. Someo f the crossbreds mentioned were obtained by crossbreeding among native breeds. In addition to this, the importation in the first place of Merinos and various culture breeds and their use incrossbreedin g havecontribute d tothi s diversely. InTurke y therear econsiderabl edifference s inwoo lyield ,fineness , staplelengt h anduni ­ formity withinbreed seve nthoug hno ta tth esam emagnitud ea samon gth ebreeds .Th efactor s contributing toth e emergence andcontinuatio n of this situation are the differences in place, system andutilizatio n of theproductio n inadditio n totha twoo li sno t animportan t sourceo f revenue inth e country. Some characteristics of various genotypes raised in Turkey show that wool yields of the nativebreed s arever y low,thei rmajo r similarity beingt oproduc e mixedcoars ewool .Whil e somepar t of thisproductio n is utilized in carpet-weaving amajo r portion isuse d in meeting thehom e needs such asbed s andquilts . The sheep population of Turkey is about 45-50 millions and 4-5% of this are Merino crosses.Th eproductio n of 70-80 thousand tonso f wooli sfa r from meeting the needs of the country. Particularly almost all of the fine uniform wool required by the textile industry is imported. The past of the intensive efforts directed to meet the needs from the country is about 60 yearsi fth eperio dbefor e theRepubli ci sno ttake nint oaccount .Howeve ri ti sno tpossibl et o

115 say thata significan t progressha s beenmad edurin gthi speriod . Variousreason s canb eliste d for this. The most important of these is that theproductio n conditions in regions of Turkey where seep are raised are not suitable for fine-wooled sheep such as Merinos to be raised economically.I nfact , whenth esubsidie sfo rwoo lprice swer elifte d theeffort s ofth eproducer s to work with these animals have ended. Consequently the native breeds and their crosses producing wool of the sameo reve n lowercas h valuehav ebee npreferred . In thischoic eth e fact that working with native breeds hasles sris kha splaye d an importantrole . InTurke yth eendeavor st oproduc ebette rqualit ywoo lthroug hcro ssbreedin gwer einitiate d in Southern Marmara Region.Thes e works werecarrie d outb y applying grading-up andth e German Mutton Merino was used as the improver breed. When sufficient production could notb eproduce dfro m thisregio n theproject s were shifted toth eCentra lan dpartl y toEaster n Anatolia. Sincen oimprovement si nth eenvironmen twer eaffecte d paralleling theincreas ei n the proportion of Merino genotype the rate of mortality in lambs increased. Both this un­ favorable result and alsoth enecessit y of usingartificia l insemination duet oal lbreed sbein g fat-tailed except Kivircik; in addition to the prices of wool remaining below the level to compensate for the losses have prevented the production of wool of desired quantity and quality.A sa resul t theproportio n ofMerin oan dit scrosse si n theshee ppopulatio n could be raised toth e level of 3-4% through theeffort s of nothingbu t grading-up. Althoughther ear edifferen t figures aboutth eproduction so fvariou stype so fwoo li nTurke y indifferen t references, theamoun to fwoo lobtaine dfro m Merinoan dit scrosse si s estimated atonl y 5%o f thetota l woolproduction . The studies towards acquiringne w typesb yutilizin gMerino s have beencarrie dou t atth e research institutes;bu ti tcoul dno tb ea ssuccessfu l toexten dth eharveste dresult st oth e field. Indeed, despite the fact that there are new types and breeds whose wool quality meet the demands of theindustr y iti sno tpossibl e to saytha t theyar eraise d extensively. In recent years works on theproductio n of quality wool have decreased very much. Both this situation and also the developments in textile industry have led to increased imports of Turkey which is a woolimportin gcountry .Fo rexampl ewhil eth eimpor to f fleece andwoo l was 17thousan d tons in 1985,i t hasraise d over 31thousan d tons in 1990.Durin g the same period the import of wool yarn (tops) has increased from 800ton s to 277 5 tons. There has alsobee nchange si nth equalitie so fth ewoo limporte db yTurkey .Fo rinstance ,i n 1985impor t ofwoo lothe rtha nMerin owoo lwa sabou t1 500tons ,wherea sth ecomparabl efigure fo r 1990 hasreache dapproximatel y to 1000 0tons .Thu sTurke yha sstarte dt oimpor tnon-merin owoo l inlarg evolume s in addition toth eMerin owoo lo f varioustypes . Compared to the quite high volumes of import, the quantities of export remained rather low.Durin g theyear so f 1985-1990 underdiscussio n thehighes t amounto f fleece andwoo l export hasmaterialize d in 1989wit h about 200 0tons .

Mohair production

Mohairi sa nanima lfibe rwhic hi sdurable ,lustrous ,elastic ,hygroscopi can dmor esoi lresistan t than others. Mohair is among thenatura l fibers sought byth e textile industry because of its quitegoo dqualitie si nreflectin g dyesan dkeepin gdyes .I nth e textileindustr y mohairca nb e used aloneo ri ncombinatio n with cotton,woo l andsyntheti c fibers. Mohair and Angora goat from which it is produced have importance for Turkey in three points. The first of these is that mohair is an easily saleableexpor t item. The second is that Angora goat constitutes an important source of food and revenue for itskeepers . As for the third,mohai rproductio n meets the needo f theTurkis h textileindustry . As it is known Angora goat has spread to theWorl d from the Central Anatolian Plateua which is within the boundaries of Turkey. Angora goat breeding in other areas of the world

116 has apas t of approximately 150years .Despit e this today,Turke y ranks third among theim ­ portant mohairproducin g countries of theworld . The most important increases in the wealth of Angora goat of Turkey have taken place between the years 1950 and 1960.Th e highest value in the last 150year s is six millions in 1960. In the following years adecreas e is observed in the number of Angora goats. At the beginningth erat eo fdecreas ei sno tver ymuch ;bu tafte r 1980i tha sincrease dquit ea lo tan d inrecen tyear si tha sdroppe d undertw omillion san dbecam eth elowes tfigur e ofth ecentury . There have been fluctuations in the mohair production of Turkey similar to those in the number of goats. Unfortunately this situation, which is quite natural for short periods, con­ tinues.I nothe rword s thereha sno tbee na nimportan tdevelopmen t inth edirectio n ofincrea ­ sing yield per goat.Th e yieldpe r goati s about 1.6-1.8k g which ishal f of the and even less thanhal f ofth eyiel di ntw oleadin gmohai rproducin gcountries .Th enatura lan deco-nomica l conditions of the Angora goat breeding regions are quite effective in the formation of this situation. In fact the Central Anatolian ranges,whic h has ahig h density of Angora goats,ar e poori nvegetation .I nthi sregion ,productio n isalmos timpossibl eonl yb yutilizin gth eranges . Onth eothe rhan dther ear econsiderabl eproblem si ntransitio n toth eintensiv eo rsemi-inten ­ sive systems. Thefirs to fthes eproblem si stha tAngor agoat sunde rintensiv eo rsemi-intensiv econdition s can not compete with other lines of production in thoseregions .I n fact iti sobserve d thato f thosegoin gou to fAngor agoa thusbandr ya grea tmajorit y undertakeproductio ni nothe rareas , sheep husbandry being atth elead . The low and unstable prices of mohair have an important contribution to therecessio n of Angora goathusbandry .Whil eth esubsid yprice sfo r mohairar equit eabov eth eexpor tprice s inothe r leadingproduce r countries,i ti s generally loweri nTurkey .I n addition tothes e unfa­ vorable factors, decrease in the acreage andqualit y of theranges ;preventio n of the entrance of goatst oth efores t areas,an ddifficultie s infinding shepher d accelerateth erat eo f decrease inth e number of goats. Mohair production of Turkey is around 300 0 tons and a great part of it isexported . The amounts of exported mohair change depending on the demands of the world markets. For examplei n 1985a tota lo f about2 25 0ton so fmohai rwa sexported ,wherea s thecomparabl e figure in 1987ha sreache d to 3 890ton s anddroppe d to 1 340 tons in 1989.I nth epas t year amounto fexpor tdecrease dt over ylo wleve lan dth eexporte dquantit yha sbecom eabou t25 0 tons. One of the interesting developments in recent years is that despite being a traditional exporting country Turkey hasimporte d mohaireve n if ina smallquantity . InTurke y goats areclippe d once ayea ran dth eproduc e ismarkete d without subjecting to grading.Gradin g isdon eb y thebuye ro rusuall y by the exporter. In contrast to other countries the Angora goats raised in Southeastern Turkey produces colored mohair.Thi smohai ri susuall yutilize di nth eregio ni nmakin gblanket , stockingsetc . It is hardly possible to talk about extensive and effective efforts in the improvement of mohair quality in Turkey. Nevertheless not to beignore d is that the presence of potential to make it possible to easily reach the desired quality level after quite a short period of work. Angora goat should be regarded as the cultural wealth of the country and considering that survival of it is dependent on mohair prices, efforts should be directed towards increasing incomepe r goat.

117 Originalité del a production française demohair : la valorisation destoison spa r lavent e directe

A. Billant, M.Joly Missècle,81100 Burlats, tél.: 63 35 87 82, fax: 6351 00 61

Abstract This paper deals with the present situation of Angora goat industry in France. The french production ofAngor afibre s reaches2% o fth eworl dproduction .Feedin gsystem srang e from wholeextensiv e grazingt o zero-grazing. Thebreedin gstoc ki scompose do fanimal simporte dfro mTexa san dAustralia .A nimprove ­ mentscheme ,base do nth econtro lo fquantit y andqualit yo f thefleeces , hasbee n setup .Th e first results showtha t 50%o f thefibre s havea diamete rsmalle rtha n32(x . French breeders are organized in order to master every step of mohair processing and to sell theirproductio n directly. They may sell it on the farm, in handicraft fairs, bymai l orb y canvassing.

Introduction

EnFrance ,l'élevag ede schèvre sAngor ae tl aproductio nd epoi lmohai rson ttrè srécents .Le s premièresimportation sd'animau xon te ulie ue n 1978mai sl edémarrag erée ls esitu ee n 1982 /83 puis 1987/89. Cette filière présente des caractéristiques originales, malgré des volumes produits limités. Nousprésenteron sl asituatio n actuelled el aproductio n enFrance ,e ninsistan t successive­ mentsu rl etroupea uactuel ,se sperformance sd eproductio ne tle squalité sd emohai rproduites , etenfi n surl esystèm ed evalorisatio nd el aproduction .E neffet , ils'agi td'u n systèmeoriginal , dansleque lle séleveur ss eson torganisé spou rcontrôle rtoute sle sétape sd ela transformation du mohair etrécupére r ainsi lemaximu md evaleu r ajoutée.

Unélevag ee nplei n développement enFranc e

Au cours des dix dernières années, l'engouement pour la production de mohair a provoqué une croissance quasi exponentielle du troupeau français de chèvres Angora (Figure 1).Plu s de 170producteur s possèdent,e n 1991,enviro n 900 0animaux .L amoyenn e detroupea u est de5 0animau xpa rélevage ,mai so nrencontr eplusieur stroupeau xd eplu sd e 100mères . Avec uneproductio nmoyenn ed e4 k gd epoil spa ra n( 2tonte stou sle s6 mois) ,la quantit éproduit e atteint les 35tonnes ,soi tenviro n 2%d el aproductio n mondiale. Les conditions d'alimentation dans lesélevage s sont trèsvariable s selon la situation géo­ graphique,mai s aussila tailled u troupeau etl aplac ed ecett eproductio ndan sl'exploitation . En conséquence, les systèmes varient du pâturage extensif intégral jusqu'au zéro pâturage (Tableau 1).L achèvr eAngor aa un ecapacit éd'adaptatio nremarquable ,mai save cde sniveau x deproductio n etd equalit é très variables selon les systèmes d'élevage. Lesimportation sd'animau xinscrit se tsélectionné se nprovenanc ed uTexa so ud'Australi e constituentla bas egénétiqu ed utroupeau .Dè sl edépart ,le séleveur son tcherch éà évalue rle s performances de l'ensemble du troupeau. Le suivi defiliatio n aét é mis en placee n 1983,l e contrôleindividue l deperformance s en 1986.C econtrôl eport eessentiellemen t surle squan -

118 Nbre d'éleveurs Animaux Taille moyenne du 1{ 9000» -9000 1 troi

200- animaux /

7000/ y /

eiBvsurs 150 •6000 -60

53 13'^ ^7 //*5000

45^ taille moyenne \os/ / 100- 36/"^ 28/__-—

2900 -3000 30

1 1 1 H- *• 1988 1989 1990 1991

Figure 1. Evolution dela structure del'élevage français de chèvres Angora.

Tableau 1. Taille destroupeaux etsystèmes d'élevageen 1990 (sur 150 éleveurs).

Proportion detrou ­ peaux concernés(% )

Taillede s troupeaux Moins de5 0chèvre s 50 De 50à 7 0 chèvres 30 Plus de7 5c hèvre s 20 Systèmed'élevag e Pâturage semi-intensif (pâturage enculture s fourragères) 50 Pâturage semi-extensif (pâturagee t broussailles) 30 Zéro-pâturage 10 Autre 10

tités etqualité s des toisons (finesse et absence dejarre ; lejarr e est unefibr e cassante, sapré ­ senceconstituan tu ncaractèr eéliminatoir emajeu r dansl'évaluatio nd el atoison) .U n schéma collectif d'améliorationgénétiqu edevrai tpermettr ed'augmente rle s quantitésproduites ,tou t en conservant une qualité largement supérieure aux niveaux moyens mondiaux observés (Tableau2) .

119 Tableau2. Performancesmoyennes des animaux de 18 mois, évolution etobjectif.

1988 1990 Objectif Poidsd el atoiso n (kg/an) mâle 5.6 5.6 6.0 femelle 4.8 4.6 4.8 Diamètre defibres (|J. ) mâle 36.2 35.7 34.0 femelle 32 31.5 31.0

<28y De28à32M (7tonnes) (10 tonnes) / 29% 20% J; \ Toisons <^9% \ jarreuses (de0, 5à 2% ~j dejarre ) / (3,2tonnes) 22% 20% j De32à34|j \ (7,7tonnes) De34à42p (7 tonnes)

Figure2. Qualités dumohair produit en France (diamètre desfibres en \i).

Répartiepa rqualité sd efinesse , laproductio n française estremarquabl epa rla proportio n de fibres inférieures à32 ^d ediamètr e(Figur e2) :prè sd e50% ,contr emoin sd e25 %e n l'Afrique du Sud.

Unevalorisatio n destoison spa rl avent edirect e

Face à un marché mondial du mohair très fluctuant et des prix moyens largement inférieurs auxseuil sd erentabilit édan s lescondition sd'élevag efrançaises , leséleveur son td ûcherche r une valorisation supérieure de leur production. La solution est venue à la fois grâce à une collaboration efficace avecle sindustrie stextile se tà la possibilit é detouche rdirectemen tu n potentiel d'acheteursd eproduit sfini s en mohair. Lemohair ,produi td ehau td egamme ,avai tdéj à unrésea u trèsétabl id'industrie sd etrans ­ formation et dedistributeur s spécialisés.Import éd'Afriqu e du Sud,d uTexa so ud eTurquie , onestim equ el aconsommatio n demohai re nFranc eserait ,a ustad econsommateur ,d'enviro n 400tonnes . L'analysed ela chaîn ede spri x (Figure3 )depui sl estad e 'toisonsbrutes'jusqu'a u produit fini (exemple dufi l àtricoter ) nousmontr ele svalorisation s successives.Elle s correspondent àchaqu efoi s àde stravau xbie n déterminés (transformation textile,création sd emodèles ,pu ­ blicité de marque, distribution,...) qui possèdent des coûts et des marges de profit. Chaque étapees tnéanmoin s indispensable pourprocure r auconsommateu r unprodui t fini achetable.

120 TOISONS"KID "BRUTE S 50F

TRANSFORMATION Réaliséepa rle sgroupement s d'achatd eservice s et desin ­ dustriels"façonneurs "

FILA TRICOTE R PURKI D 240F

CREATION DEMODELE S Parle sgroupement s PUBLICITE d'éleveurse tle séleveur s

DISTRIBUTEUR -BOUTIQU E 400F

DISTRIBUTION Parle séleveur seux-même s

CONSOMMATEURS 800F

Figure3. Lesprix (parkg) et les acteurs dansla filière mohair.

Le pari des éleveurs français est de contrôler toutes les étapes de la filière afin de récupérer lesvaleur s ajoutées. Ceci n'estpossibl equ epa run ecollaboratio n étroiteave cde sindustriel s textilespossédan tà l afoi sl amachineri ee tl esavoir-faire ,pou rprendr ee ncharg ele s différentes opérations detraitemen tde sfibres :lavage ,cardage ,peignage ,filature , teinture,conditionne ­ ment.Pa rde srelation sd e 'façonnage', leséleveur sresten tpropriétaire sd eleur sproduit stou t aulon gd el achaîne .I lfau tcependan tqu ele squantité sd ematière spremière ssoien t suffisantes et de qualité homogène. Les éleveurs français se sont donc constitués en deux principaux groupementsd'acha td eservices .L'opératio nd etr ide stoison se nfonctio n dela qualit éperme t de valoriser aumieu x chaque lot (Tableau 3). La partie essentielle demeure évidemment lavent ed u produitfini. Plusieur s systèmes de vente sontpratiqué spa r leséleveurs ,pou r atteindre, sansintermédiaires , le consommateur: • venteà l a ferme • ventesu rde sfoire s et salons artisanaux • ventepa r correspondance • ventepa rdémarchage . L'éleveurdoi tdon cégalemen tconjugue r destalent sd ecommerçant .L aFranc ees tsan sdout e le seulpay s aavoi r adoptéc e systèmed ecommercialisatio n du mohair.I lperme t unevalori ­ sationmaximale .

121 Tableau3. Différentsproduits finis selon lesdifférentes qualitées de mohair.

Finesse del atoiso n Produits (diamètre del afibre)

23à27|0. Ruban peignéd e2 6( i - Fil 100%Supe rKi d - Echarpes,étole s 25à 3 4 \i Rubanpeign éd e 31m - Fil àtricote r— 95% Kid Mohair - Fil àtricote r— 75% KidMohai r +2 5 %soi e 34à42 (i Ruban peignéd e 35m - Couvertures 100% mohair - Plaids,tissu s Toison contenant Ruban cardé unpe ud ejarr e - Filà tricoter—80 % mohair+ 2 0% lain e

Conclusion Cetyp ed'organisatio nd el afilièr e portee nlu is alimit ed ecroissance ,ca ri lsuppos eu ndoubl e savoir-faire del apar t del'éleveur :producteu r etcommerçant . Or,le squantité s commerciali- sables par chaque éleveur sont limitées. Au-delà de certaines quantités à commercialiser, il doit faire appel à des grossistes etde s distributeurs qui vont diminuer d'autant le revenu de cette production.

122 Cashmere production in China

M.L. Ryder 4 Osprey Close, Southampton, SOI 8EX, UK

Abstract China produces 60% of the 500 0 t world cashmere production. Chinese fibre is only on average thefinest , but iti s mostly white andindividua lproductio n is high,reachin g 500gi n theLiaonin g breed. Whitemale s selectively-bred for improvedproductio n aredistribute d to peasant goat keepers in a government cross-breeding programme. Cross-bred offspring of black native goats growing 100go f fibre produce 300go f white fibre, which is harvested by combing. Key words:cashmere ,China ,combing ,fibr e diameter, goat fibre.

Introduction Goats were domesticated c. 9 000 BC probably where modern Turkey borders on Iraq and Iran.Th ebezoa r wildgoa t (Copra aegagrus) wasth emai n ancestoro f the domestic goat (C. hircus). Therei sn oevidenc e thatth emarkho rwil dgoa t(C.falconeri) o f Afghanistan contri­ butedt odomesti c goats, buti ti spossibl e that the ibex (C.ibex) contribute d toth e cashmere typesinc ei tha smor eunderwoo ltha nth eothe rwil dgoat san dit sAsiati crang ecoincide swit h thato f cashmere goats wherewil dibe x males areencourage d tomat ewit hdomesti c females (Ryder, 1990a). The three basic goat fibres are:ordinar y goat hair, in which the outer hairrathe r than the underwooli sused ,cashmere ,whic hi sth eunderwool ,an dmohair ,whic hlack shai ran di slik e thefleec e ofa sheep .Ane wfibre , cashgoraoriginate dfro m the 'grading-up'wit hth eAngor a ofordinar y goatst omohai r (Ryder, 1990b).I ti sappropriat e tob espeakin gabou ta goa t fibre in Adana because this area was famous for goat hair weavingi n antiquity, and Turkey isth e country inwhic hmohai r originated. Mostdomesti cgoat shav ea hair youte rcoat ,whic hobscure sshort fine, underwool .Thi sstruc ­ tureha schange d littlefro m thato f thewil dancesto r (Ryder, 1985).Th ethic k 'guard'hair so f theoute rcoa tprovid ephysica lprotection , while theunderwoo l ('down') gives thermal insu­ lation. Cashmere fibre isth e soft underwool of adouble-coate d typeo f domestic goat native toth emountainou sregio no fcentra lAsia .Th enam ecome sfro m theol dspellin go fKashmir , which is where in the 18th century Europeans first encountered the fibre in woven shawls. Therei sn ospecifi c breed, butcashmer egoat s aregenerall y whitewit h spiralhorns .The y are distributedfro m northernChin athroug hInne rMongoli aan dXinjian g intoTibe tan dMongo ­ lia,t oKirghizi ai nth eUSSR .Othe rdown-producin g goatsar ekep ti nth eUSSR , Afghanistan andIra n (Mason, 1981).

Chinesecashmer e Cashmerefibre ha sa simila rdiamete rt oth eunderwoo lo f'ordinary 'goats .Th emea ndiamete r of commercial Chinesefibre, whic h isnote dfo rfineness, i s 15.5microns ,ye t thato f British dairy goats is frequently less than 14 microns (Ryder, 1985).Eve n the softness of Chinese cashmerei s notuniqu e sinceth efiner an y animalfibre becomes ,th e softer it feels.

123 Chinese cashmere goats have thedistinctio n of growing more underwool than otherdouble - coated goat.The y alsohav emor ewhit e animals.Gre yfibr e fetches only 80%o f thepric eo f thedesire dwhit eproduc t andta nfibr e only 66%,therefor e goatswit h awhit ecoa thav ebee n selectively bred.Th eoute rhair saverag e 15cmi nlengt h andca n becoloured . Manufacturers prefer the underwool tob ea tleas t4 cmi n length. Anywoo l pigmentation ispale rtha n that ofth ehair .Th eamoun to fhai rremainin gi nth edow nafte rharvestin gcome sthir dafte r fineness andcolou ri n the grading of thera wmaterial . 40millio n ofth e7 0millio n goatsi nChin agro wcashmere ;3 000 1o fth eestimate d world productiono f5 000 1cashmer ei sproduce db yChin aan dit sloca lindustr yuse s 1 0001.Abou t 15%o fth egoa tpopulatio n arekep ti nth emixe dfarmin gare abetwee nth eYangtz eKian gan d Yellowrivers ,an d24 % arekep ti nth epastora l area toth enort h of theYello wriver .Thi sha s hotsummer san dcoul dwinter san di swher emos to fth ecashmer egoat sar ekep ta ta naltitud e of over 1 000m . Nearly half thetota lproductio n comes from InnerMongolia .Th e Chinese saytha ti ti simpossibl et oproduc ecashmer ea taltitude slowe rtha n 1 000m o rsout ho flatitud e 360, whereas genetic factors areimportant . Although every areaha sit sloca lvariet yo fgoat ,fro m which cashmerei sobtained , several breeds are known for their fibre (Jiang, 1986).Thes e are the Mongolian breed of the north, and the Xinjiang of theregio n with the samenam ei n the west, and the Tibetan breed of the south-west. The Liaoning breed is kept in the north-east and the Chengde Polled andWua n breeds arekep t inHebe iprovince , south of Beijing. The adjacent province toth e south-east, Shandong,ha sth efining Green . Eventhoug hthes ebreed sproduc emor efibr etha nth eunimprove dbreed so fothe rcountries , their production is very variable. The weight of cashmere grown by females ranges from 25-50g in thefining Gree n breed, i.e. similar to the weightproduce d by Britishdair y goats, through the 120-140gproductio n of theChengd e andWua n breeds and the200-300 g of the Mongolian, Tibetan and Xinjiang, to the weight of 500 g grown by the Liaoning. This im­ pressiveindividua lCashmer eproduction ,whil emaintainin gfibr efineness ,i sdoubl eth enatio ­ nal average of 250 g, and has been achieved by selective breeding. The Mongolian breed is also being selectively bred for increased production, and theLiaonin g in particular is being used incross-breedin g to increase the amounto f cashmere grown bynativ ebreeds . Goats tend to bekep t in areas withpoo r land that willno t support moreproductiv e cattle and sheep,an ddespit e thehig h pricepe rkg ,th eincom efro m cashmerepe r goati slow .Suc h areashav ebecom e economically backward becauseth eexistin g native goats grow verylittl e cashmere.Ther ei sa Government-inspire d improvementprogramm ei nwhic hmale sfro mim ­ proved breeds andi nparticula r theLiaoning ,ar emate dwit h females of local breedsi norde r to increase individual production. One such area I visited in 1988 was the Yanan area of ShaanxiProvinc ei nth eYe nShu ivalley .

Breeding Avisi twa smad et oth eloca l goatbreedin gcentr eru n byth eYana nInstitut e ofAnima lHus ­ bandrynea r Kanchuan.Th eimprovemen tprogramm e began in 1979an d although startedb y theGovernment , unlikeothe rCommunis tcountries ,i ti sadministere dlocally .Her eimprove d animals of the Liaoning breed with at least 500 g production are being multiplied. Frozen semen aswel l as superior males aredistribute d toloca lpeasant-owne d herds.A s yet embryo transfer has not been used owing to a shortage of practitioners. However, by 1988, 6000 0 females hadbee n 'overed'b yth ecentr ean d10 000 0improve danimal sproduced .Eac hcount y has asimila rcentr ean d sorapi d andwidesprea dprogres s isbein gmade . Liaoning goats arelarge ,th efemale s weighing4 5k gan d themale s over 50k g compared with only 30k gi n nativefemales . Theloca lZh iW uLin gbree di sblac k andgrow sonl y 100 go ffibre , whereasfirst-cross animal swit hth eLiaonin gar ewhit ean dgro w 300g t o40 0g o f

124 Table 1. Fibrediameter measurements ofChinese cashmeregoats.

Fibre Range Means Mode Med. Pig. diameter ±s.d. % % Identity (microns)

Wildgoa t (C. aegagrus) 9-17 12.3 11 (C.falconeri) 7-23 12.5 9 (C.ibex) 8-26 15.2 14 Shah-tush 4-16 11.0 12 NativeChines ebreed s 27/5(a) 10-20 14.0+2.8 14 0 35 22-32 26.1+3.1 28 0 100

27/5(b) 8-18 12.8+2.4 12 0 4 22-42 33.7±4.1 34 7 100 27/5(c) 8-18 11.1+2.4 10 0 54

2775(d) 8-20 13.1+2.8 14 0 43 46&56 '50 50 Liaoning 7/5 am 14-20 26-30 18.4±2.1 16 0 0 34-58 20 27/5p m 12-30 14.9±3.2 14 0 0 34-50 60 0 NativeX Liaoning 27/5(a) 10-22 13.7±2.3 14 0 0 56 100 0 28/5(a) 10-20 24 15.3±2.6 14 0 0 38-72 20 10 28/5(b) 10-18 14.0±2.4 12 0 0 28/5(c) 10-16 24-28 13.0+.3.8 12 0 0 34-56 100 0

Combing 10-20 14.3±2.4 14 0 0 30&64 100 Fibrediameter s outside the mainrang e areliste d separately on thenex tline , andwher ethe ­ sear ehair s are notinclude di n themean .

cashmere.I nthi s typeo f improvement, thecommercia l herds areals oexperimental .I n some herdsth efirs t crosses werebein gcrosse dbac kt oth eLiaonin gt ogiv ethree-quarte r Liaoning goats andi nother sth e first-cross animals werebein g inter-bred. Fibrediamete rmeasurement s madeo n samples taken in China are shown in Table 1 with somemeasurement sfro m wildgoat sfo rcomparison .The ywer efro m goatsi nth eYana nare a ofth eShaanx iProvinc e takeno n27/2 8Ma y someweek s after thesprin gmoul tan dcombin g on 10April .Th efibre swer eplucke dfro mdifferen t partso fth ebod yan ds ower eno tstandard .

125 Separatemean sfo rth efine hair swer ecalculate dfo rth efirs ttw osamples ,whic hth euninitiate d observer is likely to have regarded as a single population of underwool fibres. I was led to interpret these asregrowin g hairs,however , by the big contrast in pigmentation-the coarser onesbein gblack ,whic hi sfeatur eo fhairs .A notabl efeatur eo fal lthes esample si sth enarro w rangeo fdiameter .Th esimilarit y ofth emode s toth emean sindicate sa desirabl e symmetrical distribution.Th eonl y samplewit h amea n diameter outsideth e acceptablerang ei son e from a Liaoning, but the crossbreds are all good, having thefine diamete r of thenativ e breed and thewhitenes s of theLiaoning . Chinesefibre diamete rfigures fo r theLiaonin gindicat e amea n of 17microns , compared with 15an d 18i n Table 1.Ther e were no Chinesefigures fo r the native breed, which range from 11 to 14microns . Theproportio no fpigmente dfibres range dfro m 54%dow nt o4% ,showin gtha teve nblac k goats can have nearlywhit eunderwool . The diameter values from theLiaonin g cross native goats hada n acceptablerang efro m 13 to 15 microns.

Goat husbandry

Each 15km-lon g side valley has 30-40 herds of about 40 goats, and they are grazed on the scrubabov eth ecultivatio n terraces on the sideso f thevalley .Th elac k offences necessitates continous herding and the goats are brought back to the villageeac h night. They still goou t inwinter ,bu tar ethe n givenha yan dmaiz estalk sa ssupplementar yfeed . Inth egoat-breedin g centresalfalfa/lucern e isgrow na sfeed .Th egoat sspen dth enigh ti ncave stunnelle dint oth e loesso f thealmos tvertica l valley sides. Thisefficien t systemprovide swarmt hi nth eextrem e cold of winter andcoolnes s in the greathea to f summer.

Fibre harvesting

I also saw the way in which the goats are combed to harvest thefibre, whic h has also been described and illustrated by Li (1988).Th e combs used aremad e of eight metal rods,whic h are folded to make a handle and sixteen teeth, the ends of which are curved and sharpened. Changei nth etoot hga pi spossibl ewit ha meta lslid etha tmove sth erod seithe rclose rtogethe r orfurthe r apart.Th egoat sar efirst tethere di na standin gpositio n sotha tth elengt ho fth eoute r hairca nb eshortene db yclipping .Th eanimal sar ethe ntethere dlyin gdow nfo rcombin gwit h short,pullin g strokes, first with acoars e comb and then with a fine one.Th e great length of theteet hallow sth efibr e topas su pth ecomb ,whic hmean sles sfrequen t clearingo fth ecom b incontras tt oth eshorter-toothe dcomb suse di nth eWest .Th ewhol eproces stake s3 0minutes , andi sjustifie d by thequalit y andvalu eo f the fibre. Inthi swa yth efibr e iscombe dou to fth ehai ri na efficien t system.Bu ti ti simportan tt ohav e hairtha ti slonge rtha n thedown .I tma ywel lb eimpossibl et ocom bcashmer egoat stha thav e beenbre dwit hdow n thati slonge rtha n thehair .Afte r combing,th eremainin ghai ri scu t off, the two crops of hair providing another commodity for sale. This indicates that the hair is replacedbefor e thedow ndurin gth emoult .Th ecombin gmus tb ecarrie dou tdurin gth esprin g moult (April-May) after thefibres hav ebee nrelease d from theskin .Sinc eth eannua l growth cycle is controlled by day-length and to some extent by nutrition, which stimulates thene w growth, somevariatio n inlatitud ei st ob eexpected . Around Yanan, which is towards the south of the cashmere-growing region, combing is carried outdurin g the last three weeks of April intoMay , andi t was saidtha tmos t animals were ready for combing about the same time. Early June used to be quoted as the combing datei nChina ,whic hma yrefe r toInne rMongoli at oth enorth .Thi scompare swit hsom edair y

126 goats studiedi n Scotland (Ryder, 1966),bu t isi n contrast todee r and sheep,whic h begin to regrow theircoa ti n Aprilafte r the spring equinox. Goatsar ecombe di nSiberi aa searl ya sFebruar y andar ecombe da secon dtim e2- 3 weeks later.Thes ecoul dwel lb egoat so fa differen t strainwit ha longe rgrowt hperiod .Trial scarrie d out from 1984t o 1987whil e Iwa sa tth e MacaulayLan dUs e Research Institute in Scotland showed no advantage in combing a second time.There , barren females and males might be readyfo rcombin gi nApril ,bu tlactatin gfemale sno tunti lJune ,whic hindicate sth eimportanc e of nutritional status.Nutritio n takesu sbac kt oChin awher egoat sar estarve dfo r ada y before combing, which is interesting because (a) nutritional stress isknow n tob e onecaus e of hair loss,an d(b )th eRoman s usedt o starveanimal sbefor e combingfo rfibre. I nAfghanista n and Irana swel la si nmoder nAustrali ath egoat sar eshorn .Thi smake sth ede-hairin gdurin gtextil e processing more difficult.

Marketing

At the time of my visit during 1988 aspar t of the liberalisation of the economic system the government hadgive ngreate rindependenc et opeasan tfarmers ,permittin gthe mt osel ldirec t to their customers. Although this gave higher prices to the peasants, it became difficult for buyers toobtai n suitablelot so f fibre through lacko f acentra lcollectin g and grading agency. An unforeseen result was adeterioratio n in the standard of presentation of the fibre. Central control wasresume d in 1991t oprovid e strict quality control with realistic priées,whic h are expected to bringbac k stability to theworl d cashmere market.

References JiangYing, 1986.Goa tbreed so f China.FA OWorl d Animal Review, 1986,(58), 31-41. Li Jian-ping,1988. Cashmere combing in Shaanxi Province. FAO World Animal Review, 65:57-59. Mason,I.L., 1981.Breeds .In :C .Gal l (Ed.),Goa tProduction . Academic Press,London . Ryder, ML., 1966. Coat structure and seasonal shedding in goats. Animal Production, 8:289-302. Ryder, ML., 1985. Cashmere production in Scotland. Proc. 7th Int. Wool Textile Research Conference. Tokyo, 11:215-222. Ryder, ML., 1990a.Th e production of goatfibres. Proc .2n d Int. Symposium on Speciality AnimalFibres .Aachen , 1989.p . 175-194. Ryder,ML., 1990b. Goatfibre an dit sproduction .Proc .8t hInt .Woo lTextil eResearc h Conf. New Zealand,11:241-266 .

127 Opportunities for cashmere production

R.C.Couehman* andE. Tuncel** * WoolHouse 369 Royal Parkville, Victoria3052, Melbourne, 3001 Australia ** Universityof Uludag, Facultyof Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Bursa, Turkey

Abstract Turkeyha splaye da nimportan tpar ti nth edevelopmen t ofgoa tfibre industries .I ti sth ehom e of the Angora goat which has played a significant role in the improvement of down fibre production in theUSSR , theMediterranea n Basin,th eMiddl eEas t and theNe w World.Thi s paperreview s theinfluenc e of theAngor a goato ndow n (Cashmere)productio n andpossibl e development ofdow nfibr e production ofnativ egoat s asa supplementar y form ofincom et o milk andmeat .Detail sar eprovide d onth edow nfibr eproductio n ofnativ eTurkis h goatsan d lowcos tmethod sfo r selectiono fhighe rperformanc e forcashmer eproduction .I toutline sde­ tailso fexperiment si nAustrali awhic hincrease ddow nproductio n by57 %b yth eus eo fcross ­ breedingwit hAngor agoats . Keywords:Cashmere , CrossBreeding , Selection,Turke y

Introduction Turkeyha splaye da nimportan tpar ti nth edevelopmen to fgoa tfibr e industries.I ti sth ehom e of theAngor a goat which has ahistor y oldertha n thewritte nrecord s ofma n (Tuncel, 1987). Virtuallyal lth efibre-producin g goatsi nEurop ean dAsi aar efoun di na narearoughl ybordere d by35 0-55°latitud enort han d50°-120 °longitud eeast .Fro mwes tt oeast ,th edow nproductio n of thenativ egoat sdecrease sprogressivel y asdow nm.f.d .Goat sneighbourin gTurkey ,wher e Angoras originated, have thehighes t fleece weights and arecoarsest . The gradual spreado f Angora influence in an easterly direction explains the down production and m.f.d. gradient alongwit hth ereporte dhig hproductio no fdow nth enativ eDo nan dOrenbur ggoats .Certainl y ofrecen tyears ,th eRussian shav edeliberatel yuse dAngora si nprogram st oincreas etota lfibr e production.However ,th ebreedin gaim swit hregar dt ofibr e diameterwer eno tclearl y stated.

Cashmere There is considerable debate and problems in defining cashmere fibre (Couehman, 1984a; Teasdale, 1988;Tucke r et. al., 1988;Phan , 1988).Ther e are alsoproblem s defining a breed type for Cashmere goats. This leads us to state that there is no such animal as a 'Cashmere Goat'bu tman y typeso fgoa twhic h growcashmere .Thi si sa subtl ebu timportan t difference. Manyanimal sar etwo-coated ,producin ga guar dhai rfro mprimar yski nfollicle s anddow n fibres from the secondary follicles. Most goats are included in this category. Angoras have highly developed secondary fibre goats (mohair), produced from secondary follicles with guard hair remnants (kemp) from theprimar y follicles (Duerden and Spencer, 1930;Hardy , 1927). Some goats,particularl y those from Central Asia, produce sufficient down fibres to make harvesting economical. Theseforme d the basisfo r supplieso f fine fibre, acceptable to manufacturers as 'cashmere'.

128 Table 1. Reportedfibre diameter profiles by author and origin.

Author Type 5-10 10.1-15 15.1-20 20.1-25 25.1-30 (im um (im um |j.m mfd

Burns Chinese 5 55 34 5 1 15.1 et al., 1962 Afghani 1 34 33 11 1 16.5

VonBerge n Chinese 3 92 5 14.8 et al., 1948 Iranian 61 37 19.5

Utkanlar Turkish 76 24 17.6 etal., 1963 Indian - 93 7 15.4 Pakistani 99 4 14.7 Iranian 96 4 15.2

Altinbas, 1976 Turkish - 81 18 16.3

Mean fibre diameter has traditionally been the most recognised methods of separating fibre types and this is particularly so with Cashmere with individual animals ranging in diameter from 11|i m to 26 |0.m.Commercia l quantities of cashmererang e from 15-21 (imdependin g on definition, use andautho r (Couchman, 1984a). Fibrediamete rprofile s havebee nuse db yvariou sauther si ndescrib ecashmer efor m diffe­ rentorigins .Burn se tal .(1962 )reporte d fibre distribution profiles for commercial shipments of Chinesean dAfgha n cashmere,ove ra 15 yearperio d upt o 1959, inwhic hth epercen -tag e fibresfallin gi nmicro nrange swer estudied .Utkanlar ,Imeryüz ,öznaca ran dMUftiiogl u (1963) given work by von Bergen and Mauersberger (1948) when studying Iranian down and also comparedprofile s ofTurkish ,Indian ,Irania nan dPakistan idown .Altinba s(1976 )als orepor ­ tedmf d profiles. TheTurkis hprofil eprovide db yUtkanla re tal .suggest sa nAngor ainfluenc ei nthos egoats . Themea nfibr ediamete rfoun di nth eIrania nsampl eb yUtkanla re tal .i sfine rtha ntha treporte d elsewhere and that normally expected from Iranian cashmere; i.e. 19.5 |im, has adding cre­ dencet oWildman' s argumenttha tIrania ndow n has,i nfact , beendevide dfro m animalswit h an outside influence. This influence may be from the Angora, due to the close proximity to Turkey, thehom eo f theAngora . Selection and crossbreeding over the last 50 years in Russia has resulted in increases in down production and m.f.d. In virtually all the goat strains studied the increases arerelativ e toth einitia lproductio nlevel san di ncrossbreedin gt osir etypes .Th euppe rlimi to facceptabl e mfd. for down hasbee n 25\xm andn oattempt s areapparen tt olimi tmfd . toa rang e accepted ascashmer e bywester nprocessors ,i.e . 19 |J.m. Couchman (1987) warned about translations and terminology when referring toreporte d production levels of cashmere goats. This warning is still very relevant. Method of harvest and definition of yield is extremely important in thisregard . There are huge differences be­ tweentota lfleec e weightobtaine d bycombin g (traditionalmethods ) andtha tb yshearing .T o illustratethi spoint , Couchman (1984a)combe dhal f thebod yan dsheare dth eothe rhalf ,wit h sheep shearing equipment. The fibre harvested weighed 132g and 217 g, giving percentage yieldsb yweigh to f67 %an d47% ,an dtota lgreas ydow nweight so f8 8g an d10 2g respectively . The low greasy down weight for the combed side indicates the quantity of down remaining on the animal, as the down fibres are not all shed simultaneously. These relationships were confirmed inlate r studies.

129 Crossbreeding studies

Couchman (1984a,b)reporte d on cross breedingi n Australia between Angora and cashmere bearing goats. This led to the development of Cashgora and use of that technique in New Zealand.Thes e methods wereno tdramaticall y different from thoseemploye d by Poloncean nearly 170year spreviously .H ecrosse dKinghi rgoat swit hTurkis hAngora' si nFrance .Som e of thosegoat sultimatel y found theirwa yt oAustrali a (Riley, 1982). Couchman (1984a,b) suggested that ajudiciou s infusion of Angora genes into cashmere goatscoul d substantiallyimprov ecashmer eproduction .H eshowe dtha tb ycrossin gAngora s withfera l (ornativ etype )goat sthe nbackcrossin gF l 'st oferais ,increase so fdow nproductio n of57 %(P<0.001 )fo rth e 1/4Angor aanimal sa scompare dt oth eselecte dfera l stockoccurred . Thiswa sassociate dwit honl ya nincreas eo f0. 6[u ni nmfd .Thes eincrease swer ea spredicted , with increasesi nfibre lengt h andyield .I t wasconclude d that asth eleve lo f Angora infusion increasess oals odi dal lth era wfibre characteristics ;tota fibre,l yield ,dow nmfd ,dow nlength , andgreas econtent .Increase s inmf d areobserve di n crossbredprogen y however differences in comeback (1/4 Angora) progeny were substantially less than in the first cross and fell betweenth eF l andth enative/fera l strains.Increase si nmfd . aredocumente ddu et oincrease d age,th eincreas ebein g greateri ncrossbred si npur enatives . This has been seen in Australia but under verydifferen t climatic conditions.I n temperate climates where body weight increases significantly in thefirs t year,diamete r also increases up to2 \im to subtropical climates with high moisture contentpastures , animals take longer toreac h the same body weight and asa consequenc e takelonge r toreac h similarmea n fibre diameters.Thi s may beexplaine d by work by McGregor (1988).H e showed that energyde ­ prived goats preferentially diverted nutrients towards cashmere growth although they grew less andfiner cashmere . Couchman (1988) alsoreporte d oncros s breeding studies with Australian cashmere goats andSout hAfrica n Boergoat sa mea tbree dcrossbreedin gincrease dth edow nproducin gabilit y ofth emea tgoa tan dcoul dprovid esupplementar yincom et oth emajo r goatenterpris e without detriment.Boe rfemales ,closse da slo wdow nproducer sha d 13g ,o f 17.7|0. mdow nharvested . Progeny of thesean d selectedcashmer emale sproduce d4 3g o f 16.2^. mdown . It seems,therefore , that it ispossibl e to increase down production by using either highly developed down producers ora judicious-Angor a infusion toincreas ecashmer e production.

Turkish goatfibre productio n

Turkish goatfibr e export statistics (Table2 )fo r 3year sar eshow n withcorrespondin gprice s received in $US.Whils t themohai r prices appear tob e similar to world quotations thevalu e for cashmere appearslow .

Table 2. Turkish GoatFibre Exports Value (1987-90).

Quantity (tonnes) Price/kg ($US)

Description 1987 1988 1990 1987 1988 1990

CoarseHai r 222.3 344.8 338.1 1.19 1.08 1.22 FineHai r 29.4 57.9 196.7 9.09 15.70 11.17 Cashmere - 0.25 1.5 - 28.50 16.33 Mohair 3781.5 1335.0 193.0 5.23 4.06 3.77

130 Table3. Bodymeasurements, down-yieldand diameter from Turkish goats.

Animal Body Measurements Cashmere

Girth LWT Area Yield MFD s.d. (cm) (kg) (%) (m) 1 77 34.0 34998 1 4.4 16.31 3.50 2 67 22.6 32580 1 8.1 15.32 3.50 3 81 39.1 45779 6 2.7 16.68 3.69 4 61 17.0 21993 0 10.3 14.18 3.51 5 79 36.5 386252 11.3 17.17 3.32 6 90 57.3 441514 24.6 19.01 4.08 7 71 26.9 33928 3 4.7 16.65 3.52 8 78 35.3 42699 5 7.2 14.53 3.11 9 72 28.0 35991 6 3.4 17.30 3.48 10 68 23.6 25839 4 7.6 15.12 3.10 11 83 41.7 49377 2 2.2 17.80 3.68 12 71 26.9 39639 6 1.8 15.84 4.50 13 78 35.3 35807 0 6.8 15.45 2.98 14 74 30.3 40481 3 4.1 18.77 3.94

mean 75.4 32.5 37440 0 7.1 16.44 3.57 s.d. 8.26 9.93 7372 2 5.83 1.47 0.40

Downproductio n from Turkish goatsi s similart otha to fothe rnon-selecte dpopulation s with animals producing between 50-100g combed fibre which is usually harvested in mid spring (April-May).Australia n studiessho wapprox ,67 %yiel dfro mcombe dfleece ,whic htranslate s toa cashmer e production of about 33.6g/head . Altinbas (1976) reported down weights ranging from 36-107 gm (mean 55±13.5) from totalfleec e weightsaveragin g42 3g m(i.e . 13%yield) . That studyo f adultfemal e Kilisgoat s ranging in colour from light grey to black showed no association between down production andcolou rno rwit hfibr elengt ho rdiameter ,Tunce l(1982 )foun d low,bu tsignificant , correla­ tionsfo r down length and diameter. Shorn fleece samples were collected from 14 females each of these animals had body measurements taken in the manner reported by Couchman and McGregor (1983) and these together with cashmere yield and diameter are shown in Table 3. Two other animals were combed and the combed fleece tested for yield (49.9%an d 62.8%) and diameter (16.45 |im and 16.55|am) .Bod yweight swer eestimate dusin gth ehear tgirt hmeasuremen t anda formul a developed from studies by Couchman and McGregor (1983). The correlation between mfd and yield waslo w (r=0.22 ) withth elinea rmode lbein gY =0.8 5mf d- 0.698.Th e low yield wasinfluence d considerablyb yth epresenc eo fextremel ylon gguar dhair .Th eapparentl ylo w downproduc -tio ncoul db einfluence d bylactatio nan dlo wdietar yenerg ybot ho fwhic hhav e beenshow nt ob esignifican t inAustralia ngoats .I naddition ,selectio nfo rcashmer eproductio n is likely to improve down weights significantly. Higher down weights arepossibl e as some fibre is undoubtable shed before combing.Tw oothe r samples,fro m these goats have shown a mfd of 14.01an d 16.40|a mwit h both showing a CVo f 24.5%. Thenumbe ro f fibres >27 |im was0.9 % in both cases which indicate highqualit y of fibre.

131 Table4. Goatnumbers and production in agricultural regions ofTurkey.

Region Goats Hair/ Milk Meat Mohair (tonnes) (tonnes) type number (tonnes) (103)

Mid-North (I) Hair 419.7 180 11.8 1840 Angora 1 072.4 1310 12.2 1400 Egean (II) Hair 2 055.4 685 61.7 431 0 Angora 9.6 - 90.0 - Marmara (in) Hair 364.4 225 16.1 1065 Angora 260.0 - - 10 Medit'ean (IV) Hair 2 577.3 665 76.3 477 5 Angora 1.1 - - 50 N.E. (V) Hair 479.2 195 19.3 620 Angora 900.0 - - 5 S.E. (VI) Hair 2 681.7 1325 87.6 494 5 Angora 71.6 65 605.0 210 Black Sea (VII) Hair 190.9 85 5.7 670 Angora 101.2 95 590.0 75 Mid.Eas t (VIII) Hair 923.7 465 33.3 328 0 Angora 2.1 - - - Mid. South (IX) Hair 635.9 295 13.6 805 Angora 354.8 305 3.3 210

Total Hairgoat s 10328. 2 4 120 325.6 2231 0 Angora 1 613.9 1775 16.7 1955

Goatproductio ni sa nimportan t agricultural enterprisei nTurkey .Ther ear eregiona l differen­ ces in both goatnumbers ,type s andfibr e production (Table4) .Coars efibr e is not harvested in all areas because of low value or difficulty of harvest in herding operations. Commercial dehairingo fth efibre, t oseparat eth ecashmer efro m thecoars eguar dhair ,shoul dno tb e diffi­ culta sth ediamete rdifferentia l isexcellent , with theguar dhai rbein gi nth evicinit yo f 70-75 \xman d 116m mi n length (Tuncel, 1982). Differences inth estatistic sfro mTable s2- 4 appeardifficul t toreconcile ,howeve ri tshoul d bepointe dou ttha tdat ai ntabl e2 refer s toaxports .Average scalculate dfro m repliesreceive d from asurve y of theDepartmen t of Agriculture in 70provinces ,indicat e thecoars ehai r and downproductio n tob e9 200 an d5 3tonne srespectively .Th e5 3tonne so fdow na ta nACW C yields of 67% would equate to 35.5 tonnes.A t worldprice s this wouldb evalue d at$U S 3.1 m.Thes efigures , clearlyhighligh t theopportunit y for Turkey toear nvaluabl eexpor treturn s from cashmere and with selection within thegoa t population for those types which nodoub t havesom eAngor ainfluenc e toimprov eproductio n levelsconsiderably . Selection methodsd ono thav et orel yo nexpensiv e testmethods .A sa resul to fresearc ht o investigate heritability of production traits and selection programmes, it is now possible to selectwit h areasonabl edegré so f cost effectiveness on thebasi so f totalfleec e weight alone. CouchmanWilkinso n(1988 )reporte do nth erelativ eeconomi cgai nwit hth eus eo fa serie s of selection indices including totalfleec e weight alone.Compare d toa selectio n index which includedth emajo r production traitso ftota lfleece , greasyyield ,dow n weightan dmea n fibre diameter, greasy yield and diameterrequirin g relatively expensive technology.

132 The selection of animals on the basis of total fleece weight alone had 81% of the relative economicvalu ean dtherefor e littlegai ni slos ti fthi strai talon ei sused .Us eo fthi smetho do f selection reduces therelianc eo n technology andreduce s selection cases significantly. Luxford, Scheurmannan dCouchma n (1988) showedtha teve n with theus eo f technology itwa spossibl et oreduc eth ecos to fselectio nsignificantly . Thisca noccu rwithou ta significan t lossi n genetic gainb y aserie so f selectionprocedures .Thes einclud e subjective assesements of females at weaning, measurement of fibre length on animals and total fleece weight with very limited testingo f young siresfo r mean fibre diameter. Thecorrelation s offibr e lengthan ddow nweigh tan dmf d andyiel dwit ha limite dnumbe r of animals in both thepresen t andAltinbas 'stud y were not good and more work is required for thisrelationshi p with Turkish goats.

Conclusion There is ampleevidenc e that theus eo f crossbreeding native breeds of goats, maintained for bothmea tan dmil kproduction ,wit himprove dcashmer eproducin g goats.O fbackcrossin gt o Angora/native goats will increase cashmere production substantially. It must be recognised howevertha ta grea tdea lo fattentio nha st ob epai dt oensur emea nfibr ediamete ri sconstraine d toacceptabl e limits, setb y the specialty animalfibr e processors.Ther ei showever , consider­ abledebat eo nth edefinitio n ofcashmer e andcommercia l vestedinterest spla y alarg epar ti n thatdebate . As is common with all fleece producing animals, it is relatively easy to increase fibre weights,i ti sno ts oeas yt oachiev ethi swhils tresthictin gfibre diameter .Technique sdevelope d in Australia and the USSR clearly indicate that significant supplementary income can be derived from goats, maintained for meat and milk production, through the production of cashmeredow n with little detriment toth eprimar y income source.

References Altinbas,LI., 1976.Ank .Univ .Fak .Yilligi .26:598-610 . Burns,R.H., vonBergen, W. &Young, S.S.,1962. J.Text .Inst .53(2) :145-68 . Couchman,R.C., 1984a. Th ecashmer edow nproductio no fgoats .M.Ag.Sc .Thesis ,Melbour ­ neUniv . Couchman, R.C.,1984b.Proc .4t hAAAB GConf .Adelaid e273-274 . Couchman,R.C., 1987. Proc.IV .Worl dGoa tConf .Brazilia . Couchman,R.C., 1988.Smal l Ruminant Res. 1:123-126. Couchman, R.C. & McGregor, B.A.,1983. J. AnimalProd .36:317 . Couchman,R.C.& Wilkinson, JL., 1988. Proc.Aust .Assoc .Anim .Breed.Genetic s 7:517 Duerden, J.E. &dSpencer, M.,1930. S.Afr . Dept. Agric.Bull . 83. Luxford, B.G., Scheurmann, EA., &Couchman, R.C, 1988. Proc.Aust . Assn. Anim.Bree d andGenetic s 7:525. Mauersberger, H.R., 1947."Mathew s Textile Fibres". 5th ed publ. J. Wiley and Sons'Ne w York. McGregor,B.A., 1988. Aust.J .Exp .Agric .28:467-475 . Phan,KM., 1988.Proc.Is tInt .Symp .o nSpecialt yAnima lFibres .DW IAache n 103:137-162. Riley,W.E., 1982.Reprin tb yAust .Cashmer eGoa tSoc . 1984. Teasdale,D., 1988. Proc . 1stInt .Symp .o nSpecialt yAnima lFibres .DW IAache n 103:23-38. Tucker, DJ., Hudson,A.H.F., Ozolins, G.V., Rivett, D.E., & Jones,L.N., 1988.Proc . 1stInt . Symp.Specialt y AnimalFibres ,DW IAache n 103:71-103. Tuncel, E., 1982. Ank.Univ .Fak .o f Agric.Publ .No . 831.

133 Tuncel, E., 1987. Proc.4 Worl dGoa tConf .Brasilia . 169-175. Utkanlar,N., Imeryüz, F., Öznacar,K. & Müftüoglu, S., 1963. (transi.) ,Lalaha nZootek .Arast . Enst.Derg .3:(2)8-25 . VonBergen, W., & Manersberger, HM.,1948. 2n dEd .publ .Textil eBook sInc. ,Ne wYork .

134 Breeding objectivesfo r Australian cashmeregoat s

R.W. Ponzoni*and DU. Gifford** * Departmentof Agriculture, Animal Research Branch, Box 1671, GPO,Adelaide, SouthAustralia 5001 ** Departmentof Agriculture, TurretfieldResearch Centre,Rosedale, SouthAustralia 5350

Abstract Inthi spape rw edescribe d allth estep sinvolve di nth edevelopmen to fbreedin gobjective s for AustralianCashmer egoats .W eals oassesse dth econsequence so fselectio nfo ra fe wscenario s thatma yb eencountere d inpractice .Th emode ldevelope denable sth eincorporatio n ofaddi ­ tional traits that may become important, aswel l as theinvestigatio n of several aspects of in­ terest,suc ha sth eeffec t ofvariation si nher dcomposition ,produc tvalue san dcosts ,an dpheno - typic and genetic parameters. The objectives developed under different assumptions can be compared,thu senablin gu st oprovid ebette rinforme d answerst oquestion sraise db ybreeders . TheAustralia nCashmer egoa tindustr yi srelativel ynew .Th einitiativ ean dvigou rdisplaye d by its leaders augurs well for itsfuture . It is in auniqu eposition , being able to benefit from the experience and knowledge accumulated by other Australian livestock industries, and without any of the constraints sometimes imposed by tradition. The adoption of a scientific approach, such astha tpresente dhere ,fo r theresolutio n of theproble m of defining breeding objectives couldhav ehighl ydesirabl eeffect s inth eoveral lefficienc y ofAustralia n Cashmere goatbreedin gprogrammes .

Introduction

The development of the breeding objective is acrucia l step in the design of aprogramm e of genetic improvement. The breeding objective is the combination of traits which we wish to improvebecaus eo fthei rinfluenc e onth eprofitabilit y orth eeconomi cefficienc y ofth eCash ­ meregoa tenterprise .I ti simportan tt orecognis etha tdefinin g thebreedin gobjectiv ei sa ques ­ tiono feconomics ,no to fgenetic s(James ,1987) .Th eeconomi cvalu eo fa trai ti nth ebreedin g objectivedoe sno tdepen do nho weasil yi tmigh tb eimprove do rmeasured ,bu trather ,o nwha t effect achang ei n thetrait ,i fi t couldb emade ,woul d haveo n profitability oreconomi c effi­ ciency.B ycontrast , geneticconsideration s arerelevan t in the choiceo f selection criteria, the characters measured or assessed on individuals or theirrelatives , and used in the estimation of breedingvalue so fpotentia lreplacements .Trait si nth ebreedin g objective mayo rma yno t beuse da sselectio n criteria,dependin go nth ecost ,feasibilit y andtechnica ldifficult y of their recording.Th e selection criteriama yinclud echaracter s notpresen ti nth ebreedin g objective. An exact correspondence between the set of traits in the breeding objective and the set of characters used as selection criteriai sver yrar e indeed. Breeding objectives for Cashmere goatshav ebee npropose d by anumbe r of authors (e.g. Gifford, 1988;MacLeod , 1988;Nicoll , 1987;Patti ean dRestall , 1984,1987a,b).I nthi spape r wepresen t aprofi t equation for Australian Cashmere goats.Economi c values were derived expressing this equation asa functio n of biological traits.Base d onprocedure s described by Jones (1982) andPonzon i (1986a,b, 1988a,b) anumbe r ofrefinement s were used, namely: 1. Application of thediscountin g technique ofMcClintoc k and Cunningham (1984); 2. Separation of traitsexpresse di n non-breeding animals (young goats,u p to 12m oo fage) , and breeding does (1.5t o5. 5yrs) ;

135 Total number of breeding does - 1000 (assume 4% mortality per year)

Age (years) 3 4 5 Number 255 245 235

1089 kids weaned (3 months old)

1035 young goats (10 months old)

265 young does needed as replacements

770 surplus young goats

235 cull for age does

Sale

Figure 1. Herdcomposition.

136 3. Accounting for allvariabl ecost sassociate dwit hproduction , harvesting, andmarketin go f down and surplus offspring; 4. Maintaining stockingpressur e (i.e.tota lfee d intake)constant .Th elikel yconsequence so f somepossibl e selection strategies arediscussed .

Development ofth ebreedin g objective

Anyfutur e large-scaleCashmer egoa tindustr yi slikel yt ohav ea hierarcha lstructur ei nwhic h breeding herds (breeding their own male and female replacements) and commercial herds (purchasing replacement males from breeding herds) can be distinguished. With such a structure the commercial herds would produce virtually all the fibre and surplus goats for slaughter, but would be entirely dependent on the breeding herds for long-term genetic improvement. Decisions on breeding objectives made by buck breeders would influence the magnitude and direction of genetic change occurring in commercial Cashmere herds.Thus , theob jective sfo rbuc kbreeder sshoul db edevelope dfro m aconsideratio no fthei rclient s' (th e commercial producers) goals.Th edevelopmen t of thebreedin g objective involves the follo­ wingfou r phases (Ponzoni 1986a): 1. Specification of thebreeding ,productio n andmarketin g systems 2. Identification of sources of incomean dexpens ei ncommercia l herds 3. Determination of biological traitsinfluencin g income andexpens e 4. Derivation of theeconomi c valueo f each trait. '

Specification ofth ebreeding ,productio nan d marketing system

Australian Cashmere goats originate from selected samples of feral goats.I n some instances crosses with Angora goats have taken place in an attempt to increase fleece production. However,suc hcrosse sar esimpl ypar to fa nupgradin gprogramm eaime da ta mor eproductiv e Cashmere goat. The nature and requirements of specialised down production are similar to thoseo fwoo lproduction .Th einterest so fth eAustralia nWoo lIndustr y arewel lserve db yon e breed(th eMerino) ,whic hi suse dalmos texclusivel yi npurebreedin g (forth epurpos eo fwoo l production).I ti sreasonabl et opostulat ethat ,similarly ,th einterest so fth eAustralia nCashmer e industry would be well served by a specialised breed (the Australian Cashmere goat) used almostexclusivel y in purebreeding. Specification of the production and marketing system involves consideration of how animals are fed and managed, the age composition of the herd, the replacement policy and age(s) of the slaughter animals. We assume an established and stabilised Cashmere goat industry, such that all surplus animalsfro m commercial herds are slaughtered for meat. The feeding regime is that of grazing animals,wit h the constraint that thetota l amount of forage isfixed . Thisi sa justifiabl e constraintfo r aproduce rwh owishe st omaintai n thetota lgrazin g pressure on his farm constant (e.g. because an increase could lead to pasture degradation, whereasa decreas ewoul dresul ti nfee d under-utilisation)(James , 1986).I twa sals oassume d that standard management practices (e.g. drenching, lice treatment, vaccination, veterinary assistance, etc.) wereundertaken . Figure 1show s the herdcomposition . Defining herd com­ position aidsi nidentifyin g agean dnumerica ldistributio n of theherd ,th enumbe ro freplace ­ mentsrequire d eachyear ,th enumbe ro f animals ofal lclasse s availablefo rmarke teac hyear , and is required in thecalculatio n of the economic values,a s not all traits are expressed with the same frequency, or at the same time.Th e commercial Cashmere goat herd was assumed toconsis t of breedingdoes ,wit h all surplusoffsprin g being solda tapproximatel y 10month s of age.Doe s arefirs t mated when theyar e 18month s old,an d areculle d for agea t5. 5 years.

137 Identification ofsource so fincom ean dexpens ei ncommercia lherd s

The identification of sources of income and expense in commercial herds enables the developmento fa profi t equation,wher eprofi t (P)i sa functio n ofincom e(I )an dexpens e(E) : P =I + E , which can beexpande d as: Income (I) =youn g goat'sfibr e x valuepe rk g +breedin g doe's fibre x valuepe rk g + surplusoffsprin g x valuepe rindividua l +cul ldo e x valuepe rindividua l and: Expense (E) =offsprin g (birth toyoun ggoat ) feed intakex feed costpe rk g + breeding doe's feed intakex feed costpe rk g +ki dhusbandr y costs +youn g goathusbandr y costs +breedin gdo ehusbandr y costs + young goat's fibre x costo f harvesting and marketing perk g +breedin g doe's fibre x costo fharvestin g andmarketin gpe rk g + surplusoffsprin g x costo f marketingpe r individual +cul lfo r agedoe sx costo f marketingpe r individual +fixe d costs Fixed costs are those incurred by the producer (e.g. rates, interest charges, business costs) independent of theleve l of herd production. All other costs areknow n as variable costs and varywit h theleve lo fher dproduction .Note ,however , thati nth epresen t casew eassum etha t totalfee d intake (i.e.offsprin g plus breeding does) is constant and that bothclasse s of goats have access tofee d of the samequality . Priceso fdow nan dslaughte ranimals ,a swel la shusbandry ,harvestin gan dmarketin gcost s are shown in Table 1. Down prices were taken from the market report of the Australian CashmereMarketin gCorporation ,Decembe r 1988.Othe rproduc tvalue san dproductio ncost s were obtained from thepublication s "Farm budget guide 1989"(compile d by Stock Journal Publishers Pty Ltd) and Mowatt (1989).

Determination ofbiologica ltrait sinfluencin g incomean dexpens e

Now theprofi t equation isexpresse d asa functio n of biological traits thatimpac t on income, expense,o rboth .Suc h biological traits areliste di nTabl e2 . Incomederive d from down wasassume d tob eaffecte d by theweigh to f fibre sold andit s fibre diameter. Because of the differences between young goats and breeding does in the quantity andqualit yo fdow nproduce d (e.g.Giffor d etal . 1989),an dbase do nevidenc e from sheep (Lewere t al., 1983; Atkins andMortime r 1987)i twa sdecide d toconside rth eexpres ­ sions in the two goatclasse s as separate traits (i.e.yD Wan dyD Dfo r young goats,dD Wan d dDDfo rbreedin gdoes) .Thi sseparatio nals ofacilitate s accountingfo rth ecost so fharvestin g and marketing the fibre. It was assumed that the colour of the fibre was white.Thi s seems a reasonable assumption for long-term planning,give n thewidesprea d acceptance amongpro ­ cessors thatwhit efibres (thi s applies towool ,mohai r anddown ) arepreferabl e becausethe y posen olimitatio n toth erang eo fcolour st owhic hthe yca nb edyed .Th einheritanc eo fcolou r in goats is not completely elucidated (Nicoll, 1987), but nevertheless some breeders have succeededi ncombinin gacceptabl elevel so fdow nproductio nwit hwhit ecolour .Othe rqualit y traits such as fibre length and fibre diameter variability were not included in the breeding objective because atpresen t theireconomi c significance isunclear .

138 Table la. Pricesof down and slaughter animals.

Product Class of goat Value

Down Younggoa t (10m oold ) 136.481 ($/kg) Breedingdo e 92.792 ($/kg) Surplus offspring Younggoa t (10m oold , 16.6k gliv eweight ) 18.00 ($/head) Cullfo r age animals Breeding doe (34.0k gliv eweight ) 12.00 ($/head)

Table lb. Husbandry, harvesting andmarketing costs.

Activity Classo f goat Cost ($/head) Husbandry Younggoa t 1.25 Breedingdo e 0.80 Fibre harvesting and marketing Younggoa t 2.803 Breedingdo e 3.333 Marketing of surplus goats for slaughter Younggoa t 4.773 Breedingdo e 4.473 Weighted average (if the average fibre diameter is 15.8 microns (|i.) andth estandar ddeviatio n is0.9 4 |i, thenth eproportio n offleece s of < 16.0 \i, 16.0 to 16.5 n and > 16.5 |i is 0.58, 0.19 and 0.23, with pricespe rk gequa l to$ 149.50,$ 142.30an d$ 98.10 ,respectively) . Weighted average (if the average fibre diameter is 17.5 (0.an d the standarddeviatio ni s 1.28 m,the nth eproportio n offleece s < 16.0m , 16.0t o 16.5 m, 16.5 to 18.5m an d > 18.5m i s 0.12,0.10, 0.56 and 0.22, with prices per kg equal to $ 149.50, $ 142.30, $ 98.10 and $ 25.50,respectively) . Someo f thecomponent s ofthes ecost sar ecalculate do n ape rk go r pervalu e ($)o f theproduc trathe r than ona pe rhea dbasis .Thi swa s taken intoconsideratio n in thederivatio n ofeconomi c values.

Incomederive dfro m surplusoffsprin g isinfluence d byth enumbe ravailabl e(NKW )an dthen - weight (yLW).Th e same traits affect the costs of husbandry andmarketin g of animals. The number of cull for age does was assumed to beconstant , soincom e and expense from their salei s affected by theirliv eweigh t (dLW)only . Feedingrepresent s amajo r cost of the goat enterprise.Fee d intake of offspring (oFI) and of breeding does (dFI) were considered as separate traits, in a format equivalent to that in Ponzoni (1986b) for Merinosheep .

Derivation ofth eeconomi cvalu eo feac h trait

Here we define the economic value of a trait as the change in profit (P, as defined earlier) resulting from a unit change in that trait, assuming all other traits remain constant. The constraint of maintaining constant stocking pressure (oFI plus dFI) was imposed. This constraint affected the economic values of NKW, oFI and dFI, but not of other traits. All

139 Table2. Biologicaltraits includedin the breeding objective of Australian Cashmere goats.

Effect on Product or Classo f Traits profit activity goat

Income Fibre Younggoat s Younggoa tdow n weight (yDW), younggoa tdow n diameter (yDD), numbero fkid sweane d (NKW) Does Doedow n weight (dDW), doedow ndiamete r (dDD)

Surplus offspring Younggoat s NKW,youn g goatliv e weight (yLW)

Culldoe s Does Doeliv eweigh t (dLW)

Expenses Feeding Offspring (birth to Offspring feed intake (oFI),NK W young goatage ) Does Doefee d intake(dFI )

Husbandry Offspring (birth to NKW young goatage )

Fibre harvesting Younggoat s yDW,yDD ,NK W & marketing Does dDW, dDD

Marketingo f Younggoat s NKW, yLW surplus goats for slaughter Does dLW

Table 3. Characters chosenas possible selection criteria.

Source ofinformatio n (relative) Characters1

Young goat (individual) Down weight (yDW) Down diameter (yDD) Down staple lenght (yDL) Liveweigh t (yLW) Breedingdo e (dam) Numbero fkid sweane d— onerecor d (dNKW) 1 Often onlya sub-seto f thecharacter s listedher ewoul db erecorded . The sub-set involved is given for thecase s studiedhere . economicvalue swer ecalculate db yevaluatin gP numericall ya tth eaverag evalu efo ral ltraits , thenevaluatin gi tafte r incrementing byon euni tth etrai ti nquestio n (thusobtainin gP*) ,an d taking thedifferenc e P*-P .

140 Not alltrait s in thebreedin g objective areexpresse d with the samefrequency , ora t thesam e time in commercial herds. To account for this we used the 'discounted gene flow' method (McClintock andCunningham , 1974).A discoun trat e of 5pe rcen twa sapplie d anda perio d of 15year s and all generations in which there was trait expression were considered. Details of allth ecalculation s are givenelsewher e (Ponzoni andGifford , 1990).

Choiceo fselectio n criteria

Thedevelopmen to fth ebreedin gobjectiv einvolve smakin gdecision so fa neconomi cnature . It is not until we begin making considerations about the evaluation of animals that genetic considerations are strictly relevant. Some traits in the breeding objective may be difficult or expensivet omeasure ,wherea sther ema yb echaracter shighl ycorrelate dgeneticall ywit htrait s in the objective, but that are not themselves included in it. This is the reason why only very rarely therewil lb ea nexac tcorrespondenc ebetwee n these to ftrait si nth ebreedin g objective and the seto f characters used asselectio n criteria. Table3 show sth echaracter schose n asselectio ncriteri aan dth einformatio n from relatives assumed available for theexaminatio n ofth econsequence s of selection. Thecharacter s were chosen because their recording is feasible on-farm and because of their genetic correlations withth etrait si nth ebreedin gobjective .Th eheritabilities ,geneti can dphenotypi ccorrelation s assumed (appendix, Table Al) among all traits (breeding objective) and characters (criteria) inou rcalculation s werechose n after asearc h of theliteratur e (Gifford etal. , 19^89; Pattiean d Restall,1989 ;Restal landPattie , 1989;Wickha mandParratt ,1988) .I nsom einstance s(notabl y for feed intake) information wasver ylimite d and some guesses hadt o bemade .

Resultsan d discussion

Economicvalues and contribution of each trait to overall gain in economic units

Table 4 shows the traits included in the breeding objective and their economic value, the absolute valueo f theproduc t of economic valuean d additive genetic standard deviation, and thepercentag e gaini neconomi cunit s accountedfo r bygai ni neac htrait .Selectio nwa so na n index combining information on yDW, yDD, yLW and dNKW (see Table 3). A positive (negative) economic value indicates that'greate r (smaller) values of the trait are associated with increased profitability. However, the magnitude of the economic values expressed in actual units of the traits is nota goo dindicato ro f theirrelativ eimportanc e sincei ti s affected by the units chosen for expression.Fo rinstance ,yD Wi sexpresse d in grams (g),an d thusit s economicvalu ei sth echang ei nprofi t resultingfro m anincreas eo f 1 gi nyD Wwhil eal lothe r traits remain unchanged. The economic value would, of course, be much greater if we expressed yDWi n kg.I norde r toobviat e to someexten t thisproble m weals o expressed the economic values in units of additive genetic standard deviations. This way of expressing the economic values gives us an indication of the 'economic-genetic' variation that is available for selection, andi t isindependen t of theunit s in which thetrait s are expressed. Responset oselectio ndepend sno tonl yo navailabl e 'economic-genetic'variation ,bu tals o on our ability to accurately predict the breeding valueo f each traiti n thebreedin g objective. In thepresen t case,fo r example, weca nmeasur e yDWan dyDD ,bu t notoF I anddF Iwhic h are extremely difficult torecor d in a grazing system. Thus, the accuracy with which we are ablet oestimat eth ebreedin gvalu efo rth eforme r traitsi slikel yt ob egreate rtha nfo r thelatter . Ingeneral ,trait swit ha hig heconomi cvalu ean dfo rwhic hth ebreedin gvalu eca nb eestimate d more accurately will make the greatest contribution to overall genetic gain expressed in economic units (%G).Tabl e 4 shows that collectively down traits (yDW,dDW , yDD, dDD)

141 Table4. Economicvalue (EV), additive geneticvariation (aa) ineconomic units (/EV/ x oj andpercentage genetic gain in economicunits accountedfor by gain in each trait (%G) following index selection'.

Trait EV($) IEVIx aa %G Down weight (g) Younggoa t (yDW) 104.55 2 413.50 35.9 Breedingdo e (dDW) 55.31 2 098.87 25.8 Down diameter((J. ) Young goat (yDD) -1 310.37 870.98 10.6 Breedingdo e (dDD) -3 088.82 2 795.68 28.7 Number of kidsweane d (%)(NKW ) 96.63 1 894.54 0.5 Liveweigh t (kg) Younggoa t (yLW) 641.66 948.92 -2.1 Breeding doe (dLW) 47.61 109.52 -0.3 Feedintak e (kgo f dry matter) Young goat(oFI ) -53.40 658.09 0.3 Breedingdo e (dFI) -52.45 1 904.67 0.6 Theselectio n index combinedyDW ,yDD ,yL Wan ddNK W as selection criteria.

Table5. Two-stage selection— all records takenat 10 to 12mo of age: percentage oftotal genetic gain in economic unitsachieved selecting differentproportions ofbucks at thetwo stages.

Proportion selected (xlO2) Gain (%)

First Second stage1 stage2 6 .3 27 10 60 56 20 30 76 30 20 85 40 15 90 50 12 93 60 10 95 70 8.6 97 80 7.5 98 90 6.7 99 .3 6 100 Selection criteria:lengt h and liveweigh t at 10t o 12m o of age, anddam' s number of kidsweane d (onerecord) . Selection criteria:a sfo r first stageplu s down weight anddiamete r at 10t o 12m oo f age. No selection atthi sstage .

142 contribute virtually all the economic gain resulting from one round of selection on index, whereasothe rtrait scontribut ever ylittle .Thi sresul ti sconsisten twit hth eperceive dbreeders ' view that among Australian Cashmere goats the improvement of down quantity and quality has thehighes tpriority ,wherea s othertrait s mayremai n atth ecurren t level. Nevertheless, this does not necessarily mean those 'other' traits should be ignored in the designo fbreedin gprogrammes .Quit eth econtrary ,the yshoul db etake nint oaccoun tbecaus e ofthei reconomi cimportance ,despit eth esmal lcontributio n theymak ewit hcurren t selection procedures. Completely neglecting suchtrait scoul dlea dt othei rgradua ldeterioration . Inth e exampledevelope dher eth econtributio no fNK Wt o% Gwa spositiv ebu tnegligible .However , wefoun d thatignorin gNK Wi nth ebreedin gobjectiv e (i.e.settin git sE V atzero )coul dlea d toa sligh tdeterioratio n of thattrait .

Two-stageselection

Performance recording is laborious and costly. The laboratory analyses required for the determinationo fdow nweigh tan ddow ndiamete rar eparticularl yexpensive .MacLeo d(1988 ) andPatti e andRestal l (1987a) indicate that somefor m of two-stage selection could assisti n reducing performance recording costs. The idea behind two-stage selection is to record all candidates in a first stage of selection based on characters that are cheap to measure, thus leaving therecordin g of moreexpensiv e charactersfo r thesecon d stage. Weassume d that information ondow n staplelengt h (yDL),liv e weight (yLW) and dam's number of kids weaned (dNKW) was available for the first stage, whereas information on down weight (yDW) anddow n diameter (yDD)woul db eavailabl eonl y in aselecte d sample atth esecon dstage .Tabl e5 show sth econsequence so f selectingvaryin gproportion so fbuck s atth efirs t andsecon dstages ,assumin gth efina lproportio nselecte dwa s6 pe rcent .Th eresult s aretota l genetic gains ineconomi c units (gain %)expresse d asa percentag e of that achieved bysingle-stag e selectionbase do nal lth echaracter srecorded .Single-stag e selectionbase do n thecharacter s recorded in thefirs t stagewa s only 27 percen t aseffectiv e as selection based on thecomplet e seto f characters.Th eeffectivenes s oftwo-stag e selection increased withth e proportion of individuals selected atth efirs t stage. Selection of 40pe rcen t ormor e animals atth efirs t stageresulte d in9 0pe rcen to rmor eo fth epotentia l gain. Thismean s that alarg e reduction of the proportion of animals from which fleece samples are sent for laboratory analyses could be made without seriously reducing total genetic gain in economic units. Halving thepopulatio n size atth efirs t stagereduce d gain by7 pe r cent. The results presented in Table 5 are encouraging. They are based on the predicted total genetic gain in economic units, which is a useful statistic combining genetic and economic information. Notehowever ,tha ta give ntota lgai ni neconomi cunit sma yb eachieve di nman y ways by different changes in the traits in the breeding objective. Table 6 shows the genetic gainpe rgeneratio ni neac htrai ti nth ebreedin gobjectiv eusin gsingle-stag e(yDW ,yDD ,yL W anddNKW )an dtwo-stag e (1.yDL ,yL Wan ddNKW ;2 .a si n 1.plu syD Wan dyDD )indices . Itwa s assumed that the final proportion of bucks selected was 6pe r cent and that there was noselectio n amongdoes .Wit h two-stage selection 50 and 12percen t ofbuck swer e selected at the first and second stages,respectively . Two-stage selection resulted in greater emphasis indow nweigh t (yDWan ddDW )a tth eexpens eo fles semphasi si ndow ndiamete r (yDDan d dDD).Wit hsingle-stag eselectio ndow nweigh tan ddow ndiamete rcontribute d61. 7an d39. 3 of the total gain in economic units,respectivel y (Table 4),wherea s with two-stage selection theircontributio nwa s70. 8an d30.9 ,respectively .Thi schang ei nemphasi sma yb econsidere d intuitivelyobviou ssinc ewit htwo-stag eselectio nth efirst roun dwil lfavou rheav ycuttin gbu t coarsertha n averagefleeces , andi ti sonl y inth e secondroun d thatpressur e tokee pdiamete r downca nb eexperienced . Smalla sthe yma yseem ,difference s sucha sthos eobserve di ntabl e 6hav e to beexamine dcarefull y in termso f thelikel y long-term consequences of alternative selection strategies.

143 Table 6. Geneticgain per generation usingsingle-stage andtwo-stage indicesassuming the final proportionof bucks selected was 6per centand there wasno selection amongdoes.

Trait Single-stage1 Two-stage2

Down weight (g) Younggoa t(yDW ) 9.1 9.8 Breedingdo e (dDW) 12.3 12.8 Down diameter(|i. ) Younggoa t (yDD) -0.21 -0.15 Breedingdo e (dDD) -0.25 -0.18 Number of kidsweane d (%) (NKW) 0.13 0.14 Live weight (kg) Younggoa t (yLW) -0.08 -0.19 Breedingdo e (dLW) -0.18 -0.29 Feedintak e (kgo f drymatter ) Young goat (oFI) -0.1 -0.5 Breedingdo e (dFI) -0.3 -1.1 1 Selection criteria:yDW ,yDD ,yL Wan ddNKW . 2 Selection criteria:firs t stage (50%selected) ,dow n staplelength ,yL W anddNKW ; second stage (12%selected) ,a sfo rfirst stag eplu s yDWan dyDD .

Appendix

Table Al. Phenotypic and genetic parametersfor Australian Cashmere goats(phenotypic correlationsabove diagonal, genetic below).

yDW yDD yDL dDW dDD NKW yLW dLW oFI dFI

Mean 96.7 15.8 58.0 170 17.5 109 16.6 34.0 150 414 h2 ! 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 °P 2 36.5 0.94 16.2 60 1.28 62 2.7 4.2 22.5 66.3 yDW(g)3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.3 0 0.1 0 0 0 yDD (microns) 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.7 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 yDL(mm ) 0.5 0.3 0.35 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 dDW(g) 0.8 0.3 0.35 0.4 -0.2 0 0.1 0 0 dDD (microns) 0.3 0.8 0.2 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 NKW(%) 0 0 0 -0.1 0 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.35 yLW (kg) -0.15 -0.1 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.15 0.7 0.6 0.5 dLW(kg ) -0.1 0 -0.1 -0.15 -0.1 0.15 0.8 0.5 0.6 oFI (kgDM) 4 0 0 0 0 0 0.15 0.6 0.5 0.6 dFI(k gDM ) 0 0 0 0 0 0.35 0.5 0.6 0.6 1 = heritability 2 =phenotypi c standard deviation 3 Seetable s2 and3 fo r meaningo f symbols 4 DM= dr y matter

144 Rerences Atkins,KD. &Mortimer, S.I.,1987. Therelationshi p betweenhogge t andadul twoo ltrait si n Merinosheep .Proc .Aust .Assoc .Anim .Bdng .& Genet . 6:79-82. Gifford, D.R., 1988. Development ofpractica lbreedin gobjective s for Australian fibre goats. Proc.Aust .Assoc .Anim .Bdng .& Genet .7:116-125 . Gifford, DJR., Ponzoni,R.W., Ellis, N.J.S.,Levinge, F.CJl.& Milne,ML., 1991.Phenotypi c andgeneti cparameter sfo rproductio ncharacteristic so fCashmer egoat si nSout hAustrali a (theseProceedings) . James,J.W., 1986.Economi cevaluatio no fbreedin gobjective si nshee pan dgoat s— genera l considerations. Proc. 3rd Wld. Congr. Genet. Appl. Livest. Prod., Lincoln, Nebraska, U.S.A., vol.IX ,pp .470-478 . James,J.W., 1987.Breedin g objectives for theMerin oindustry :a n academicperspective . In "Merinoimprovemen tprogram si nAustralia" ,pp . 19-24,edito rB.J .McGuirk , Australian WoolCorporation , Australia. Jones,L.P., 1982. Economi c aspects of developing breeding objectives: a specific example; breedingobjective sfo rMerin osheep .I n"Futur edevelopment si nth egeneti cimprovemen t of animals",pp . 119-136,editor sJ.S.F .Barker ,K .Hammon d &A.E .McClintock ,Acade ­ micPress ,Australia . Lewer, R.P., Rae, A.L. <& Wiclcham, G.A.,1983. Analysi so f records of aPerendal e flock. V. Repeatabilitiesan dgeneti ccorrelation sbetwee nages .Ne wZeal .J .Agric .Res .26:315-319 . MacLeod,I.M., 1988.Th egeneti cimprovemen to fCashmer egoat si nScotland .1vl.Sc .Thesis , Dept. Genet.,Univ .o fEdinburgh , Scotland. McClintock, A.E. & Cunningham, E.P., 1974.Selectio n in dual purpose cattle populations: defining thebreedin gobjective . Anim.Prod . 18:237-247. Mowatt, PJ., 1989.Gros s margins, South East Region.Tech . Rep.No . 144,February , Dept. Agric, South Australia. Nicoll, G.B., 1987. Geneticparameter s andselectio npolicie sfo rfibr e characteristicsi ngoats . Proc. 17thSemina ro fth eShee p& Bee fSociet yo fth eNe wZealan dVeterinar yAssoc. ,pp . 38-50. Pattie,WA. & Restall,B.J., 1984.Selectio n objectives for Australian feral goats.Proc .Aust . Assoc.Anim .Bdng .& Genet . 4:269-272. Pattie, WA. &Restall, B.J., 1987a. Breeding cashmere in Australian feral goats.Proc . 2nd Internat. Cashm.Conf. ,Ne w Zealand,pp . 51-67. Pattie,WA. &Restall, B.J., 1987b. Geneticso fnon-milc h goatsi nAustralia . StandingCttee . Agric.Worksho p onth eRol eo f non-milch Goats in Agric.Prod ,i n Aust.,pape r no.9,1 6 pp. Pattie,WA. &Restall, BJ., 1989. Theinheritanc eo fCashmer ei nAustralia n goats.2 .Geneti c parameters and breeding values.Livest .Prod . Sei. 21:251-261. Ponzoni, R.W., 1986a. Economic evaluation of breeding objectives in sheep and goats — summary and commentary. Proc. 3rd Wld. Congr. Gent. Appl. Livest. Prod., Lincoln, Nebraska,U.S.A. ,vol .DC , pp. 465^69. Ponzoni, R.W., 1986b. A profit equation for the definition of the breeding objective of AustralianMerin o sheep.J . Anim.Bdng .& Genet . 103:342-357. Ponzoni,R.W., 1988a. The derivation ofeconomi c values combining income andexpens ei n different ways: An example with Australian Merino sheep. J. Anim. Bdng. & Genet. 105:143-153. Ponzoni, R.W., 1988b. Accounting for both income and expense in the development of breedingobjectives .Proc .Aust .Assoc .Anim .Bdng .& Genet .7:55-66 . Ponzoni,R.W. & Gifford,DJR., 1990. Developin gbreedin gobjective sfo rAustralia nCashmer e Goats.J .Anim .Bdng .Genet . 107:351-370.

145 Restall, BJ. & Patrie, W.A., 1989. The inheritance of Cashmere in Australian goats. 1. Characteristicso fth ebas epopulatio nan dth eeffect s ofenvironmenta lfactors .Livest .Prod . Sei.21:157-172 . Wickham, G.A. &Parratt, A.C., 1988.Method s of estimating breeding values for fibre-pro­ ducing goats.Proc .Aust .Assoc .Anim .Bdng .& Genet . 7:199-208.

146 Phenotypic and genetic parameters for production characteristics of Australian cashmere goats

D.R. Gifford!,R.W. Ponzoni2,NJ. Simon Ellis3,F.CR. Levinge4and ML. Milne5 1 Departmentof Agriculture, TurretfieldResearch Centre,Rosedale, SouthAustralia, 5350 2 Departmentof Agriculture, Animal Research Branch, Box 1671 GPO, Adelaide, SouthAustralia, 5001 3 Departmentof Agriculture, Mt Barker, SouthAustralia, 5251 4 "Messamurray", Naracoorte, SouthAustralia, 5271 5 Departmentof Agriculture, Naracoorte, SouthAustralia, 5271

Abstract Presentlyther ear efe w soundlybase dbreedin gprogram si nth eAustralia ncashmer eindustry . Resultsarisin gfro m ourstud yan dtha to fPatti ean dRestal l(1989 )provid eth enecessar ybasi s for the design of efficient selection programs for the industry. Ponzoni and Gifford (1990) provided acomprehensiv e definition of abreedin g objective for Australian Cashmere goats. Thetw o Australian sets of phenotypic and genetic parameters now available aUow theesti ­ mation of breeding values for production characteristics and the construction of selection indices.Thi si sa mos t appropriate scenariofo r theestablishmen t of aperformanc e recording scheme. Thedevelopin gcashmer eindustr yno wha sth eidea lopportunit y todevelo pa co-ordinate d strategyfo rgeneti cimprovement ,base do ndocumente dresearc hfindings .Ever yeffor t should be made to maintain aclos e liaison between stud breeders,commercia l producers and gene­ ticists.

Introduction TheAustralia n cashmere industry continuest oexpand , butit slong-ter m viability willb ede ­ pendent on the successful establishment of a commercial sector and on an increase in the productivityo f theAustralia n Cashmeregoat .Ultimatel y thecommercia l sectorwil lproduc e themajorit y ofth efibr ean dmea tfro m theindustry ,wit hth ebreedin gsecto rrepresentin gonl y asmal lproportio no fth etota lpopulatio no fth ebreed .However ,th ebreedin gherd swil lcontro l therat eo fgeneti cimprovemen ti nth ecommercia lherd svi ath esuppl yo freplacemen tbucks . The design of efficient selection programs in cashmere breeding herds requires accurate estimateso fheritabilitie san dgeneti can dphenotypi ccorrelation sfo rth echaracteristic schose n as selection criteria ando f genetic correlations between the selection criteria and thetrait si n thebreedin gobjective . Also,a knowledg eo fth eeffect s ofenvironmenta l factors, sucha sag e of dam and type of birth, on the selection criteria is required prior to selecting replacement animals. There is very little documented information on the inheritance of cashmere production throughout theworl d (Millar, 1986).Finding s of thefirs t comprehensive study ofth egeneti c basis of cashmere production in Australian goats were reported recently (Pattie and Restall, 1989;Restal lan dPattie .1989) .I nthi spape rw erepor tth eresult so fa stud yi na Sout hAustra ­ lianher dincludin g theeffec t ofag eo fdo eo nfleec echaracteristic s andliveweight ,th e effects ofenvironmenta lfactor s onfleec e characteristicsan dliveweigh to f goatsa t 10month so fage ,

147 estimates of phenotypic and geneticparameter s for production characteristics of goats at 10 monthso f agean dlevel s ofreproductiv e performance.

Methods The study was conducted on a private property, "Messamurray", near Naracoorte in south­ eastern South Australia. Foundation breeding females were obtained from feral populations inth eCoba rare ao fwester nNe wSout hWale san dth eFlinder sRange sare ao fSout hAustrali a in 1982.Fou r dropso fprogeny , 1984t o 1987inclusive ,wer einvolve di n the study.Progen y werefro m single-sirematings ,wit hdoe srandoml yallocate dt osires .Thirt yon esire sproduce d 1485progeny . Kiddingtoo kplac edurin gth emont ho fOctobe reac hyear . Kidswer eweane dprio rt othen - first shearing at 4 months of age, in late January, with the second shearing occurring at 10 monthso fag ei nlat eJuly .Al ldoe swer esubsequentl y shorni nlat eJul yeac hyear .A tth efirs t

Table1. Least-squares meansfor fleece characteristics and liveweight of does ofdifferent ages.

Characteristic l "\geo f doe (months)

4 10 22 34 46

Fleeceweigh t (g) No.1 740 721 512 318 127 Mean2 97.7a 228.2b 415.4C 434.5d 454.5e S.E.3 3.27 3.24 3.86 4.69 6.97 Yield(% ) No. 723 702 502 303 125 Mean 24.2a 42.6b 39.4C 40.8C 40.4e S.E. 0.56 0.56 0.66 0.82 1.21 DownWeigh t (g) No. 719 678 492 300 123 Mean 28.3a 99.l b 168.8C 183.1d 182.6d S.E. 2.16 2.17 2.55 3.12 4.59 Down diameter (um) No. - 738 516 317 125 Mean - 15.8a 17.3b 17.5C 18.0d S.E. - 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.12 Standard deviation of down diameter(|j.m ) No. - 735 502 317 125 Mean - 3.8a 3.2b 3.3b 3.4e S.E. - 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 Liveweight (kg) No. 740 729 512 319 127 Mean 15.3a 15.5a 26.8b 32.6C 33.6d S.E. 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.32 1 No.= Numbe r ofdoe sobserve d 2 Withineac h characteristic,mean sfollowe d bya commo n letterd ono tdiffe r significantly (P>0.05) 3 S.E. =Standar derro ro f least-squares mean.

148 shearing, all progeny were recorded for fleece weight (FW), yield of down (YLD), down weight (DW) and liveweight (LW).A t the second and subsequent doe shearings, down dia­ meter (DD) and standard deviation of down diameter (SD of DD) were alsorecorded . The measurements of down yield and down diameter of fleece samples taken from the side of animals werecarrie d out byth eAustrali aWoo lTestin gAuthority , Sydney,N.S.W . Theexperimenta l does born inth eperio d 1984-1987 inclusive weresingle-sir emate d for 6 weeks each yearcommencin g onMa y 1,th efirst tim e atapproximatel y 18month s of age, andthei rreproductiv eperformanc e wasrecorded . Statistical analyseswer eno tconducte d on anyo f thereproductiv e variables,bu tmean sfo r 2,3,4 and 5yea rol ddoe s arepresente d for: number of does kidding per doejoine d and present atkiddin g (fertility, DK/DJ), numbero f kids born per doekiddin g (fecundity, KB/DK),numbe r ofkid s born per doejoine d (kidding rate, KB/DJ) and number of kids weaned per doe joined (weaning rate, KW/DJ). The distribution oflitte r size (ie.percentag e ofdoe swit h singles,twin s and triplets)i sals ogiven . The effects of environmental factors, including year of birth, age of dam, type of birth and sex, on production characteristics were examined by least-squares analysis of variance.Al l factors weretreate d asfixe d effects, with dayo f birthinclude d asa linea rcovariate .A mode l was fitted to estimate sire and error components of variance and covariance for the charac­ teristics described earlier. Themode l included theeffect s of siregrou p (this classification is theyea ro f birth of the sire),sir eneste d within sire group,yea ro f birth,perio d ofbirt h inth e kidding season, age of dam, type of birth and sex. Except for sire nested within sire group, whichwa streate d asrandom ,al lothe reffect s inth emode lwer etreate da sfixed . Variancean d covariance components wereestimate d byrestricte d maximum likelihood. Heritabilities and the phenotypic and genetic correlations between production characteristics were estimated from paternal half-sib correlations. Estimates were based on 29 sires. The total number of observations variedfro m onecharacteristi c toanothe rfro m 1 320t o 1 421.Averag e sirepro ­ genygrou psiz ewa sa tleas t45.5 ,wit hgrou psiz erangin gfro m4 t o95 .Som eo fth eheritabilit y estimates mayb ebiase ddownward s toa smal lexten t becauseth e siresuse dwer eno tchose n completely atrandom , butrathe rwer eselecte d byth ebreede rprimaril y onth ebasi s ofdow n weight, down diameter and liveweight.

Resultsan d discussion Productionlevels and age effects

The fleece characteristics and liveweight of does varying in mean age from 4 to 46 months aregive n inTabl e 1.Significan t annualincrease s in liveweight ofdoe soccurre d between the ages of 10an d 46 months. The liveweights of these does were slightly greater than thoseo f thegoat sobserve da tequivalen tage sb yRestal lan dPatti e(1989) .Significan t annualincrease s in somefleec e characteristicswer eals oobserved ;fo rfleec e weightfro m 10t o4 6months ,fo r down weight form 10 to 34 months and for down diameter from 10 to 46 months. Similar trends in these characteristics were observed by Restall and Pattie (1989). The mean fleece weights, down weights and down diameters of the South Australian does at the various ages were higher than those of the corresponding goats run at Wollongbar, N.S.W.Th e observed differences infleec e characteristics andliveweigh t between the twogroup s of goatscoul db e due to the fact that the foundation goats of the two groups came from different feral goat populations ordu et odifference s inth eenvironmenta l conditions under which thegoat swer e run.

149 Effectsof environmental factors

The effects of some environmental factors, including type of birth, sex, age of dam and day of birth,o n fleece characteristics andliveweigh to fgoat sa ta mea n ageo f 10month s arepre ­ sentedi nTabl e2 .Fo r the analysiso f theeffect s of typeo f birth,al lkid sbor n astriplet swer e treated astwin-bor n animals.Typ eo fbirt hha da significan t effect onal lcharacteristic srecor ­ dedexcep t down yield. Single-born animals were heavier, grew moredow n and had coarser downtha ntwin-bor nanimals ,thes efinding sbein gsimila rt othos eo fRestal landPatti e(1989) . Thevariabilit y of downdiameter , measured asth e standard deviation of downdiameter , was significantly greateri n fleeces of twin-born goatstha n infleece s of single-born goats. Male goats wereheavie r andproduce dmor efleec e than females, but theyiel do f downi n their fleeces was lower. The down diameters of males and females were similar, again con­ sistentwit hth efindings o fRestal lan dPatti e(1989) .I nou rstudy ,th emale san dfemale s were separated soon after weaning, with thetw ogroup s beingsubjecte d toa ssimila r management conditions aspossible . Ageo f dam had a significant effect onliveweight , fleece weight, down weight and varia­ bility of down diameter. Goats from young dams (1 or 2 years old) and from old dams (6+ years) tended tob elighte r at 10month so f agetha nthos efro m three-andfour-year-ol d dams. Downdiamete rvariabilit ywa ssignificantl y lessi nfleece so fprogen yfro m maturedam stha n inth eprogen yo fyoun gdams .Ther ewer en osignifican t differences duet oag eo fda mi nyiel d and down diameter.

Table 2. Least-squares meansfor fleece characteristics andliveweight of bucks and does at theirsecond shearing, adjustedfor dayof birth.

Environmental Characteristic1 factor FW2 YLD DW DD SDofDD LW (g) (%) (g) (Um) (Um) (kg) Typeo f birth Single 252.6a 40.9 105.03 15.9a 3.7a 17.8a Twin 236.0b 41.9 100.2b 15.7b 3.8b 16.3b Sex Female 231.6a 42.8a 100.7 15.8 3.8a 15.5a Male 257.0b 40.l b 104.5 15.8 3.7b 18.6b Ageo fda m(yr ) ac a ab 1 249.9 46.0 118.3 15.7 3.9 17-0abc 2 223.l b 41.6 90.6b 15.8 3.8b 16.2a 3 241.6a 41.5 100.2C 15.9 3.8b 17.3^ 4 252.9C 40.5 104.6ac 15.9 3.7a 17.6C 5 254.4C 39.2 102.9ac 15.8 3.6a 17.4te 6+ 243.8ac 39.7 98.9C 15.8 3.7a 16.9b Regr.coeff. on *** ### day of birth -0.13 0.01 -0.02 -0.01 0.001 -0.05 1 FW,fleec e weight;YLD ,yiel do f down;DW ,dow n weight;DD ,dow n diameter;S Do f DD, standard deviation of downdiameter ;LW ,liveweigh t 2 Within eachcharacteristic ,mean s notfollowe d bya lette ro rfollowe d by acommo n letterd ono tdiffe r significantly (P>0.05) ***P>0.00 1

150 Day of birth significantly influenced liveweight anddow n diametero fprogen y at 10month s of age.Kid sbor nearlie ri nth ekiddin g season wereheavie ran dha dcoarse rdow n than those born later.I n contrast to thefinding s of Restall andPatti e (1989),th eearl y born kids didno t have greaterdow nweights . Theenvironmenta lfactor sabov ear eimportan tsource so fvariatio ni nfleec e characteristics andliveweigh to fcashmer egoat sa t 10month so fage .Whe n selectingbreedin gher dreplace ­ ment animals at 10month s of ageallowance s shouldb emad efo r : • twin-born animals • progenyo f maiden andver yol ddoe s • animals born lateri n thekiddin g season. Adjustments for sexeffect s areusuall y notnecessar y because selection normally takesplac e within sex groups.

Phenotypicand genetic parameters

Heritability estimatesfo r fleece characteristics andliveweigh to fmal ean dfemal e goats at1 0 months of agear epresente d in Table3 . Theestimate srange dfro m 0.23( ±0.11 ,standar derror )fo rdow nyiel dt o0.7 0 (±0.19 )fo r down diameter. Down yield and liveweight could be classed as moderately heritable, while fleece weight,dow nweight ,dow ndiamete ran dvariabilit yo fdow ndiamete rcoul db eclasse d as highly heritable. Pattie and Restall (1989) also found down weight and down diameter to be highly heritable, and liveweight to be moderately heritable. Our heritability estimate for down yield (0.23) variedfro m theN.S.W .estimat e of 0.90. Ourresult s and thoseo fPatti ean dRestal l (1989)indicat etha tther ei sconsiderabl e scope for the genetic improvement of down weight, quality of down and liveweight in cashmere goats.Al lcharacteristic s measured wouldrespon dreadil y tomas s selection. Mosto f thephenotypi c correlations areo fmoderat e magnitude (Table3) .Th ephenotypi c correlations between fleece weightan ddow n weight,dow n diameter andliveweigh t indicate that selection of an animal with above-average fleece weight relative to its contemporaries willals oresul ti nth eselectio n ofa nanima lwit habove-averag e down weight,dow ndiamete r andliveweight . Similarly,animal swit habove-averag edow ndiamete rar elikel y tob eheavie r andproduc e moredown . Thestron ggeneti crelationshi pbetwee nfleec e weightan ddow nweigh ti nou rstud y(Tabl e 3)suggest stha tfleec eweigh tcoul db euse da sa selectio ncriterio nfo rth egeneti cimprovemen t of down weight. Fleece weight is easier and cheaper to measure on the animal than down weight.Ou rfindin gcontrast swit htha to fPatti ean dRestal l(1989 )i nthi srespect .Unfavorabl e genetic associations existbetwee n somecharacteristic s measured inou rgoa tpopulation , and haveals obee nreporte db yPatti ean dRestal l(1989) .Th enegativ egeneti crelationshi pbetwee n down weight and liveweight is anexample .However , the genetic correlation estimates from both studies areno tlarg eenoug h topreclud e the simultaneous improvement of down weight andliveweight .Detaile d scrutiny ofbot hdat aset sha s shown thatther ear esire s thatproduc e offspring with above-average down weight and liveweight. Use of an appropriate selection index would combineth e simultaneous geneticimprovemen t ofdow n weight andliveweigh t in anoptimu mway . Thegeneti ccorrelatio n estimatesbetwee ndow nweigh tan ddow n diameterobtaine d from ourstud yan db yPatti ean dRestal l(1989 )differ , being0.0 4an d0.6 2respectively .Ou restimat e has a very large standard error (± 0.23) so we can place only limited confidence in it. The estimate ofPatti e andRestal l (1989)ha sa lowe r standarderro r (+0.10) .I f thetw ocashmer e goatestimate swer econsidere dtogethe rw ecoul dreaso ntha tth e'true 'valu ei ncashmer egoat s might approximate +0.3.I f this were the case, the relationship would be in an unfavorable direction, but noto f sufficient magnitude topreclud e the simultaneous genetic improvement of down weight and down diameter. Sires existed in the twopopulation s studied that would

151 Table 3. Phenotypic variance, heritability (± standard error) and phenotypic and genetic correlation estimates for production characteristics of down-producing goats.

FW1 YLD DW DD SD of DD LW (g) (%) (g) (H-m) (Um) (kg)

Phenotypic 2 568.7 129.6) 1 333.9) 0.89) 0.36) 7.37) variance

Heritability 0.42 0.23) 0.36) 0.70) 0.38) 0.26) (+SE) (0.16) (0.11) (0.13) (0.19) (0.14) (0.11)

FW2 - 0.14) 0.67) 0.36) -0.07) 0.36) YLD 0.39 -) 0.79) 0.25) 0.29) -0.12) (0.25) DW 0.83 0.85) -) 0.39) 0.15) 0.12) (0.08) (0.08) DD 0.12 0) 0.04) -) 0.25) 0.23) (0.23) (0.23) SD of DD -0.14 0.46) 0.14) 0.06) -) -0.12) (0.26) (0.23) (0.26) (0.23) LW 0.17 -0.39) -0.13) -0.16) -0.48) -) (0.27) (0.26) (0.27) (0.23) (0.30) 1 FW, fleece weight; YLD, yield of down; DW, down weight; DD, down diameter; SD of DD, standard deviation of down diameter; LW, liveweight 2 Phenotypic correlations above the diagonal, genetic correlations (standard error) below the diagonal.

Table 4. Reproductive performance of cashmere goats.

Characteristic Age of doe atkiddin g (years)

2 3 4 5

Number of does joined 696 437 252 75 Fertility (DK/DJ)1 0.73 0.83 0.89 0.83 Fecundity (KB/DK) 1.59 1.76 1.77 1.87 Kidding rate (KB/DJ) 1.16 1.46 1.57 1.55 Weaning rate (KW/DJ) 0.98 1.29 1.40 1.28 Litter size distribution (%) singles 42 27 29 22 twins 57 70 66 68 triplets 1 3 5 10 1 DK, does kidding; DJ, does joined; KB,kid s born; KW, kids weaned.

152 have improved down production in their offspring while maintaining or decreasing down diameter. Our genetic correlation estimate between down diameter and liveweight (-0.16) is weak buti n afavorabl e direction.

Reproductiveperformance

Thefertility , fecundity, kiddingrat ean dweanin grat elevel so fth eadul tdoe swer ehighe rtha n for the maiden does (Table4) . In broad terms ourfigures ar econsisten t with the generalised industry perception that Australian Cashmere goats have ahig h reproductive rate. Note that these results were achieved under single-sire mating, and that, everything else being equal, multiple sirematin gcoul dhav eresulte d inimprove d performance. Distribution of litter size varied between the age groups of does, with the three-and four- year-old does having agreate r proportion of twins than the maiden does.Not e thatfe w does ofan yag egrou pproduce dtriplets .Reason sfo r thepreponderanc e oftwins ,whethe ri tb edu e toa hig hincidenc eo ftwi novulation s ort oa ninabilit y ofth euteru st osuppor tmor etha ntw o kids,hav e sincebee n investigated (Kleemann et al.,thes eProceedings) .

Acknowledgements Thisprojec twa sfinance db yth eAustralia nSpecia lRura lResearc hCouncil ,th eKinros sCash ­ mereCompany ,th eSout hAustralia nRegio no fth eAustralia n CashmereGrower sAssociatio n andth e StateGovernmen t of South Australia. The assistance of Mr.RM.C . Ancell, Mr. RJ. Lampe and Mr. J.E. Stafford, of the South AustralianDepartmen to fAgriculture ,an do fth efar m staff of"Messamurray "i nth ecollectio n ofresearc h datai s gratefully acknowledged.

References Kleemann, D.O.,Gifford, D.R., Grosser, T.I., Trengove, CL. & Levinge, F.CR., 1991.(thes e Proceedings). Millar, P., 1986.Anim .Breed .Abstr .54:181-199 . Pattie,WA. & Restall, B.J., 1989. Livest.Prod . Sei. 21:251-261. Ponzoni,R.W. &Gifford, D.R., 1990. J.Anim .Breed . Genet. 107:351-370. Restall, BJ. & Pattie,W.A., 1989. Livest.Prod . Sei.21:157-172 .

153 Session5

Woolan dfleece characteristic s

Chairman: T.Treache r Co-chairman: E.Tunce l Wool associated to other sheep products in different production systems and breeding programmes in Europe

S.Jankowski — for EAAPWool and Hair Expert Working Group WarsawAgricultural University, Warsaw,Poland

Summary Aquestionnair e on domestic wool production elaborated for EAAPwa s sent out in 1988 to the EAAP Member Organisations. It requested information about production volume and quality of wool, its use, economic importance in national economy, and interest of sheep farmers in woolproductio n indifferen t sheep husbandry systems. Apreliminar y comparison of wool production and its conditions based on the responses received from 3 main regions of Europe i.e. North-West, Mediterranean, and Central-East, couldb econclude da s follows: 1. Net self-sufficiency in woolvarie dwidel yfro m country tocountr y in thesam eregio n and seemed notcharacteristi c traito f anyregion . 2. Therelativ e economic importance of incomefro m woolsale s when compared toth e total income from sheep farming occured to becharacteristic . It was the biggesti n C-E region (20-60%). Inrecen t years in thisregio n the situation haschanged . Introducing themarke t economy,coinciden tt odramati cdro po fwoo lprice si nth eworl dmarket ,resulte di ndeclin e of demand for domestic wool,wha t in turn cause adee p decrease in national sheep popu­ lations. 3. In some of the responding countries even the decrease of the volume and quality of wool producedcoul db eaccepte do nfarm s specializedi neithe rmea to rmil k+ mea tproduction . 4. Programmes of genetic improvement of wool productivity exist now in a few countries only. 5. In N-W region, the intensive production of slaughter lambs predominates over other systems. C-E countries in general will alsofollo w this model. In Mediterranean countries and along Balkan-Carpatian mountain chain sheep milk + lambs production, based on summer mountain grazingi sth emos tcharacteristi c system. Keywords:woo lproduction ,region so fEurope , sheepfarmin g systems

Introduction Wool isno t atpresen t themai nproduc t of sheepfarmin g inmos t of European countries,bu t inman yi ti sa muc h appreciatedby-produc t oflam band/o r sheepmil kproduction .Fo rman y years, however, domestic wool is only aver y marginal matter of concern of European inter­ nationalbodies ,intereste di n sheepproduction . Itwa sonl yi n 1987tha tth eEAA PShee pan dGoa tCommissio n createdth eWoo lan dHai r Expert Working Group,whic h wascharge d withth eorganizatio n of asurve y onwool ,goat's hair andothe rhai rfibr e production inEurope .A questionnair e waselaborate d and sentt oal l memberorganizations .I tconsiste do f 4mai nparts : 1. Volumean dqualit y offibre s produced and their use, 2. Interest in the concerned country in wool/hairproductio n and its economic importance,3 .Existin gprogramme san dactivitie sleadin gt oincrease/improvemen to fdomes ­ tic wool/hair production and its better use,4 . Sheep/goat production systems adopted in the country,wit h specialreferenc e to wool orhai rproduced .

157 Thefigures an dconclusion spresente di nTabl e 1 summarizeth eresult so fa surve yconducte d in 1988-1991 by the EAAP Sheep Wool experts in 3 main regions of Europe: North-West, Central-East and Mediterranean. The SovietUnio n and Turkey were surveyed separately,a s bicontinental countries,adjacen t toth e Central-East andMediterranea nregions ,respectively .

Resultsan d discussion Thisinformatio n basedentirel yo nFA Odat acollecte dfro m allcountrie sbelongin gt oregion s orgroups ,show sdifference s betweenregions ,wher ewoo li sconcerned .Th eUSS R andothe r Central-East European countries are the best in wool production, but the poorest lamb and mutton producers.Th eEas tEuropea n countries,namel yBulgari a and Rumania arenearl ya s good in sheep milkproduction asneighbourin g Mediterranean countries. Countries of theN- Wregio n areb y far the best in lamban dmutto n production and quite goodwoo lproducers ,especiall y when clean fleece weighti scompared .Thi sregio n doesno t produce any significant quantity of sheep milk. Thepoores t woolproducer s areth e Mediter­ ranean countries, but they are the best in sheep milkproductio n and fairly goodi n meatpro ­ duction . Table 1 showsth equantitativ eimag eo fshee pproductivit yi nth e3 mai nregion so fEurop e andadjacen t areas,bu ti tgive sonl ya littl einformatio n onth eaverag equalit yo fwoo lproduce d there.Th ehighes tclea nwoo lyield/rendement /appeare di nth eN- Wregio no fEurope .I tma y meantha twoo lproduce di ntha tregio ni sstronge rtha ni nothe rpart so fEurope .Indeed ,ver y few merino sheep arebre dther ean d theirinfluenc e onwoo l traits isnegligible .O n theothe r hand, theshee phousin gperio di nmos tcountrie so fthi sregio ni sshorte ri ncompariso n toth e CentralEas tregion .I nth elatte rregio nsom e50-6 0year sag oman ynative ,coars ewoo lbreed s of sheep were improved by means of crossbreeding: with merino rams in a more dry environment, or withWes tEuropea n breedsi nmor ehumi d areas.I n lateryear s (1960-1980) crossbred wool producing sheep (Corriedale type) were widely introduced in the whole area of the region to improve fleece weight and staple length as well as body conformation and

Table 1. Sheepproductivity in3 regions inEurope, inTurkey, andin the USSR (source:FAO Production Yearbook, 1989).

Region or country

North­ Mediter­ Turkey Central- USSR west3 ranean2 East1

1. Total sheep number (103) 47 300 6630 0 3485 0 3770 0 13950 0 2. Total greasy woolprod . (MT) 113 900 8670 0 4900 0 11890 0 47400 0 3. Averageclea n woolyiel d(% ) 69.7 54.3 55.0 54.8 60.0 4. Average greasy fleece wt. (kg) 2.41 1.31 1.41 3.15 3.40 5. Averageclea n fleece wt. (kg) 1.68 0.71 0.77 1.73 2.04 6. Averagemea t production 12.3 8.5 9.8 6.7 6.1 per 1 sheep (kg) 7. Averagemil k production 0.0 42.4 28.8 21.2 0.6 per 1 sheep (kg) 1 Bulgaria, Czecho-Slovakia, German Democratic Republic,Poland , Rumania 2 Albania, Southern France,Greece ,Italy ,Portugal , Spain, Yugoslavia 3 OtherEuropea n countries,no t mentioned above.

158 growth potential. Coarse wool breeds remain mainly in more difficult mountain and hill countries.Improvemen t of woolqualit y in the wholeregio n could be illustrated with figures publishedb yVasilie v (1964)fo r theUSSR .Durin ga perio do f 10year s (1954-1964) thetota l volumeo fwoo lproduce dincrease db y80 %an da tth esam etim eth econtributio n offin ewoo l increasedfro m 17%t o43% ,whil eth econtributio no fcoars ewoo ldroppe dfro m 61% to37% . In the Mediterranean area, which many centuries ago was the world centre of fine and semi-fine wool,wher eth emerin obree do fsheep ,famou sfo rit swoolproduction ,wa screated , wool seems less important now than anywhere elsei n Europe. Opinions of ourrespondents , summarized in Table 2, fully confirm this.Woo l produced in West-Mediterranean countries onth eaverag ei sfine r andshorte r(Ryder , 1978)tha ntha tproduce di nth eEas tMediterranean , wherei ti smainl y semicoarse andcoarse . Interest in woolproductio n existingi n the3 region so fEurop ecoul d beroughl y measured byth enumbe ro frespondin gcountrie scompare dt oth etota lnumbe ro fcountrie si nth eregion . The percentage figures were 22%, 17% and 50%, for the North-West, Mediterranean and Central-East regions,respectively . In Table 2 a summary of all responses to the questionnaire is shown. When comparing responses according to the region from which they came,i t can be stated that net self-suffi­ ciency in woolvarie d widely from country tocountr y in the sameregio n and seems tob eno t characteristic for anyregio n asa whol e On the contrary the economic importance of income from wool when compared to total incomefro m sheepfarmin gvarie dfro mregio nt oregion .I twa sth ehighes ti nth eCentral-Eas t region (20%—>60%)an d the lowest in the Mediterranean countries (4%).I f therankin g lists according to economic importance of sheep products were compared, in the C-E countries wool took 1st or 2nd place, while in N-WEurop e only 2nd place and in the Mediterranean area usually 3rdplace . As aconsequenc e of theeconomi c indices mentioned above,n o interest in increasing the volume of wool production occurred in the North-West and Mediterranean regions. On the contrary, anincreas e inwoo l production wasdesire d inmos to f theC- E countries.I t wasno t thecas ei nHungary , where in general woolproductio n remained stable. Interest inimprovin gwoo lqualit ygenerall y accompaniespositiv e trendsi nth evolum eo f woolproduction .I nthi srespec ta nexceptiona l situationcoul db eobserve di nIceland .Incom e from woolsale sreceive db yIcelandi c sheepfarmer s islow ,typica lfo r allN- Wcountries .Th e interesti ngoo dqualit y andgrowt ho fwoo li nthi scountr ycoul db elinke dwit hbette rsurviva l of lambs covered with arich fleec e when grazed during summero n mountain pastures. Insom eo fth erespondin gcountries ,mainl yN- Wan dMediterranean , evendecreas eo fth e volumeo fwoo lproduce d andit swors equalit ywer eaccepted ,o nfarm s specializing ineithe r meato rmil k +mea tproduction . Programmeso fgeneti cimprovemen to fwoo lproductivit ywer ewidel yadopte di nth eshee p industries ofth eC- Ecounties .Programme s oractivitie s aimeda tbette rfleec e evaluation and purchase operated in most of North-West and Central-East countries.The y seem not toexis t inth eMediterranea n region.Th eopposit e situation couldb eobserve d in theNorth-Wes t and Mediterranean regions as far as domestic wool or hair marketing programs are concerned. They usually exist in North-Western countries,bu t are absent in theMediterranea n region. Informe r ComeconC- Ecountrie swit hthei rnon-marke teconomy ,marketin gitsel fdi dno t existed. This was especially true where raw materials such as wool were concerned. As to production systems,i n theNorth-Wes t regionintensiv eproductio n of slaughterlamb spredo ­ minates,bu t inparticula r conditions,fo r examplei n Scandinavia, extensive summer grazing of ewes andlamb s could beinclude d into thisintensiv e system.I n theMediterranea n areaa s wella si n C-Ecountrie s themos timportan twer eeithe rintensiv e systems oflam bproductio n or systems of intensive production of milk + lambs. In some Mediterranean countries and alongth eBalkan-Carpatia n mountainchain ,th eshee pmilkin gperio d coincideswit h summer

159 Table2. Theeconomic importanceof wool production, interestin increasing itor improving the quality of wool,activities in thisfield, wool in differentsheep production systems in3 regionsof Europe.Summary from theresponses tothe questionnaire ofEAAP wool experts working group(received 1988/1989).

Region/Country: North- Méditer- Turkey Central- USSR West3 ranean2 East1 A.a . Placeo f wool among all sheepproduct s (ranking) 2 2-3 3 2-1 1 b. Contribution of woolt o totalincom efro m sheep farming (%) 5-7 4 9.1 20->60 >60 B. Interest in: a. increasing woolprod . - - - + + b. improving woolqualit y -/+ - - + + c. increasing milk/meet prod, andkeepin g wool prod, andit s qualityo n aconstan t level -/+ + -/+ + - d. likec .bu t accepting a decrease in wool prod. and quality -/+ - +/- -/+ - C.Programme s of: a. geneticimprovemen to f woolprod . -/+ - - + + b. better evaluation and purchase of wool +/- - - + + c. better marketingo f domestic wool +/- - - - - D.Productio n systems: a. extensive apparel wool production - - - -/+ + b. special woolprod ,i n family flocks - - + - - c. intensiveprod ,o f slaughter lambs + + + + +/- d. intensiveprod , ofmil k and lambs -/+ +/- -/+ e. anyothe r system -/+ - +/- - - 1 Bulgaria, Czecho-Slovakia, GermanDemocrati c Republic,Poland , Rumania 2 Albania, Southern France,Greece ,Italy ,Portugal , Spain,Yugoslavi a 3 OtherEuropea n countries,no tmentione d above.

grazing of ewes on extensive mountain pastures, while theweane d lambs are fattened in the valleys,mor e orles s intensively. Thespecializatio n ofshee pflock s inextensiv ewoo lproductio nwhic hexiste di nsom eC- E European (former Comecon) countries should be stressed. In former GDR in these flocks merino wethers were kept up to 4-5 years of age for wool production before they were slaughtered. They were grazed on stubble and during winter fed cheaply with agricultural

160 by-products. Suchflocks coul d beshepherde d by less skilled people.Th e lowpercentag eo f ewes in the GDR national sheeppopulatio n show that such wetherflocks wer e numerous in the GDR. All theseflocks disappeare d after reunification of Germany in 1990 because they becameunprofitabl ei nne wmarke teconom ycondition s(Strittmatter ,1991) .Anothe rexampl e ofextensiv ewoo lproductio ncoul db eobserve di nman yew eflock si nth eUSSR ,wher eyoun g ewes areusuall y mated for thefirst tim e at2, 5 yearso f age (Vasiliev, 1964). Theimag eo fwoo lproductio n inEurop eshow nabove ,wa stru eu pt oth eautum no f 1989. Politicalchange si nCentra lan dEaster nEurope ,whic hbega na ttha ttime ,resulte di nprogres s from acentrall yplanne dt oa marke teconomy .Woo lprices ,subsidie dearlier ,suddenl ybecam e dependent on world prices. According to Strittmatter (1991), the reunification of Germany caused adramati c change in the GDR in thewoo lt o lambmea tpric erati ofro m about 6:1 to 0.7:1. On the other hand the changes in C-EEurop e coincide with acomplet e breakdown of theSovie teconom y andseriou sproblem si nth eChines eeconomy .Bot hthes ecountrie s were huge importers of wool from the Southern hemisphere. These imports of wool abruptly de­ creased, which was the main cause of abreakdow n of wool prices on the world market. All theseevent sresulte di na considerabl edecreas eo fnationa l sheepflock s andwoo lproduction . In the former GDR, from 1989t o 1990,a 44.5 % drop in sheep population wasregistered . In Polandi nth esam eperiod ,a 5.7 %decreas ei nshee pnumbe rwa sobserved ,bu ti n 1991 amor e severedro pi s expected. Inth efutur e theeaster npar to fGermany ,Czecho-Slovakia ,Hungar yan dPolan dwil lfollo w more or less the development of sheep production in North-Western Europe. Bulgaria and Rumaniama ydevelo pthei rshee pproductio nsimilarl yt oneibourin gTurke yan dGreece .Onl y thesouther nterritorie so fth eUkrain ean dRussia ,havin gnatura lcondition s for extensive fine woolproduction , wouldkee p theirshee pindustr y nearlyunchanged .However ,eve n therea n intensification of slaughter lambproductio n seems necessary.

References Brooke,C. H. & M.L. Ryder, 1978. Declining Breeds of Mediterranean Sheep.FA OAnima l Production &Healt h Paper, 8,Rome .p .4-47 . FAO. Production Yearbook, 1989. FAO,Rome .p .237-268 . Hodowla Owiec i Kóz w Polsce w 1990 roku, 1991. Centralna Stacja Hodowli Zwierzat, Warszawa.p .7-8 . Jankowski,St., S. Kukovic, K. Strittmatter, E. Tuncel& O. Staniszkis, 1989. Woo l and hair production in Europe. In40t h Annual Meeting of theE AAP ,Summaries ,Vol .II .S 4 b. 1, Dublin,p . 133-134. Strittmatter,K., 1991. Entwicklungstendenzen der Schafhaltung auf dem Territorium der ehemaligen DDR.Typescrip ti nth edocumentatio n of 42ndAnnua l Meetingo fth eEAAP , Sheep &Goa t Commission, Session 4,Berlin ,p . 1-2. Vasiliev,N.A., 1964. Organizacija itechnik a tonkorunnogoi polutonkorunnog o ovcevodstva. "Kolos",Moskwa ,p . 8-28.

161 Objective measurements of wool: state of the art

C. Sergent ITFSud, 81200Mazamet, France

Abstracto Themai ncharacteristic so fkeratini cfibres ma yb eestimate db yobjectiv emeasurement sinter ­ nationally admitted. The first difficulty consistsi nth e guarantee ofth e test specimen repre- sentativity. Official procedures aredescribe dfo reac h stageo fth e sampling.Th eprincipl eo f standardized and experimental methods is given for fineness, length, strength, feltability, colour, coulouredfibres compressibility , yield.

Introduction There isa genera l trend inal lindustria l branches tooffe r theright qualit y toth eright price . TextileIndustry , and wool tradeparticularl y involvesi ntha t strategy.Toward s sheep,t ob ea marked increase in thedesignatio n of fabrics and knittings, yarns, fibres.So ,th egrowe ri s induced tooffe r onth emarke t perfectly described lots,wit h wellknown criteria. Objective measurements help him also tosurve y thequalit yo fhi sfloc k andclip .W eexamin e themai n methods usedi nwoo l trade and industry.

Method ofsamplin g rawwoo li nbul kfo rfibre diamete rand/o rlengt h measurement (IWTO13-64)

All methods oftes t wool fibre properties require selection ofa comparativel y small number offibres fro m alarg ebul ko rlo to ffibres . Thus thelo tma yconsis to fa tleas t40 0k g (e.g 8 x 109fibres ) whereasth esampl eteste di sunlikel yt oexcee da fe wgramme s(e. g4 x 104fibres) . The acto f selecting this small number from thelo ti scalle d sampling'. Iti susuall y assumed that theresult s of tests on the small sample of fibres also apply toth e whole lot.Fo rthi s assumption tob etru e iti snecessar y that the sampling method gives atrul y random sample from thelot , that is a sample in which each fibre in thelo tha sa n equal chance of being represented inth esample .I ngenera l there willb evariation s from place toplac e within alo t of raw wool.I ti sno tpossibl e togiv e generally applicablefigures fo rvariance s since these willdepen do n thehistor y andorigi n ofth elot .

Definitions

Lot:Th ewhol e bulko rpopulatio n offibre s availablefo rsampling .Zone: A plac ei n thebul k from whichfibres ar etaken .

Principlesof sampling

For atrul yrando m sample thedifferenc e between theestimat eo fth emeasure dpropert y (e.g. fibre length)obtaine d from the samplean dth e samepropert y measured on thewhol elo t will beth ewell-know n statisticalsamplin gerror ,whic hca nb ecalculated .I fth edifferenc e between

162 thepropert y of the sample and that of thelo t is significantly greater than that duet orando m sampling,th e samplingprocedur e is said tob e 'biassed'. Bias occursi n threeways : a. if thepropert y of the lot varies from place toplac e but the sample istake n from only one or twoplaces ,th e samplei slikel y tob e biassed. b. Nearly all methods depending on personal choice of fibres lead to biassed samples. For instance, fibres selected by eye are often the thickest, probably because they are easy to see. c. Iffibre s aretake nb ypullin g themfro m theoutsid eo f thelo tthe y arelikel y tob epartiall y length-biassed, since the chances of fibres crossing aparticula r place are greater for long fibres.

Samplingmethod

This procedure will often be required for lots of 500 kg and above, which will consist of a largenumbe ro ffleece so rpart so ffleeces .Th etota lvariabilit yma yb econsidere di ntw oparts : a. Thevariabilit y within afleec e orpar t fleece. This will beterme dwithin-zon evariatio n b. Thevariabilit y betweenfleece s orpar tfleeces . Thiswil lb eterme dbetween-zon e variation It cannot be assumed in general that the lot is homogeneous and it is thus necessary to sort through itt oobtai n anunbiasse d sample.Consequentl y iti sgenerall y convenientt ocarr you t thefollowin g samplingmetho d whileth elo ti sbein gtransferre d toa hopper ,bi no rlattic e for thenex t stageo f processing.

Choice ofnumber of zones

Let VI, beth eresidua l variance within zones of thepropert y to bemeasured . Let V2,b e the variance between zones.Le t nb e thenumbe ro f zones.Le tN b eth etota l number offibre s to betested , N/n will beth eaverag enumbe r of fibres tob etake n from each zone.Th e standard error of the mean value for the Nfibre s (length ordiameter ) will begive n by: 1

S.E. = N n Itma yb e seenfro m thistha tt oobtai n asmal l standard errorth enumbe ro f zonesn shoul db e aslarg e aspossible .

Selecting thezones

The procedure to bedescribe d uses the simplest apparatus. Mechanical handling equipment such as conveyor belts maypossibl y beuse d tomak e it quicker. Decide on the total number of fibres to be tested N and the number of zones n. Obtain acardboar d box which will hold about 0.5 kg of fibres. If the weight of the lot isW k g it will consist of 2W boxfuls, and of these n are required to be taken uniformly thoughout the lot. Calculate the nearest whole numbert o2W/n .Fil lth e boxrepeatedl y with fibres anddiscar dth efibre s untilbo xN o2W/ n is reached. Fill this box with handfuls of fibre, then reduce the number of fibres in the box by the proceduredescribe dabove .Agai nfil lth ebo xwit hfibre s anddiscar dunti lbo x4W/ ni sreache d and reduce this by the procedure described. Continue the procedure, reducing boxes 2W/n, 4W/n, 6W/n, 8W/n until the wholelo tha s been sorted through.

163 Ntota l 3ample

Alternativemethod for fibre diameter

Ifth ewoo li sbein gsample dfo rfibr ediamete ronl y(projectio nmicroscop emethod) ,th ezone s mayb eselecte db ycore-borin gth ebales .I nthi scas ecore sshoul db etake n atsevera l different positionsfro m eachbal ean dth etota lnumbe ro fzone stake nfro m thewhol elo tshoul dexcee d 100.

Reducing thefibres from the zones

Each boxful or core-boring is quickly divided into two halves by hand and the right half retained.Th eretaine d halfi sagai ndivide dint otw ohalve san dth elef t halfretained .Sinc eth e fibres are often naturally grouped in a parallel arrangement the division into two halves is madelengthwises ,i.e .i n adirectio n which avoids breakage and selection by fibre ends.Thi s process of reduction is continued until asjudge d by eye approximately the number of fibres required per zone (N/n) has been arrived at. These fibres are transferred to a velvet-covered board and covered with atransparen tplate .

Finalsample

Thefina l sample will consist of anumbe r of groups offibr e on the velvet board and toavoi d bias iti sessentia l that all thefibre s ineac h group betested .

Determination offibre diamete ri nwoo lan d otheranima lfibres b yth e microscopeprojectio n (IWTO8-89 )

Concerns the diameter and the medullation of wool and other animal fibres such as mohair, cashmere,alpaca ,camel' shair ,i nthei rvariou sforms ,b ymean so fmicroscop e measurements on individual fibres.

Outline ofthe method

Magnified imageso fth eprofile s ofshor tlength s (snippets)o ffibre s areprojecte d ona scree n andthei rwidth smeasure d byusin ga graduate d scale.Th eindividua l fibre measurements are recorded and when sufficient fibres have been measured the arithmetic mean, standard deviation,C Vo fth ef distributio n arecalculated .A histogra mma yb edrawn .A tth esam etim e thenumbe ro fmedullate dan dunmedullate dfibre s mayb ecounte d : thedegre eo fmedullatio n is the number of medullated fibres counted, exprimée!a sa percentag e of the total numbero f fibres counted.

164 Cutting

Forcuttin g thefibre s topredetermine d length thefibre holde r andpusher s describedmus tb e provided. Theholde ri s ashor tpiec eo f smooth steel.

Mountingmedia

Provide amountin g medium withfollowin g properties • arefractiv e index between 1.43 and 1.53 • suitable viscosity • does notabsor b water Cedarwoo d oil andliqui dparaffin e areexample s of suitablemedia .

Focusing

Whenth emicroscop eobjectiv ei sto onea rth eslid eth eedg eo fth eimag eshow sa whit eborder . When themicroscop e objective isto ofa r from the slide theedg eo f theimag e shows ablac k border. When in focus the edge of the image shows afin e line with no border. However in general both edgeso f theimag ewil lno tb ei nfocu s together, sincewoo lfibre s arei n general non-circulari ncros ssection .Whe nmeasurin ga nimag ewhos eedge sar eno ti nfocu s together, adjust thefocusin g sotha ton eedg ei si n focus andth eothe r shows awhit eline .Measur eth e width from the edgetha ti nfocu s toth einsid eo f the white line. ,

Use ofreference wools

Toassis ti nreducin g differences thatma yoccu r between operators andbetwee n laboratories, Interwoollabs suppliesthre eReferenc e slivers covering arang eo f mean diameter alongwit h their agreed values. These should be measured at intervals by operators engaged in routine measurements.

Exempleof calculation

The major source of variance in wool is the between-fibres component and is not correct if 400o rmor e snippets aremeasure d (usually 600snippet s aremeasured) :

95% Confidence limits

Wools Wools to2 6|i m above 26 |J.m 400fibre s 0.6 1.2 100 0fibre s 1

Themicroscopi cfineness i sth ereferenc e method.I ti stediou san dexpensive ,du et otim ean d technician immobilisation with a low productivity. For theses reasons other methods were investigated.

FibreDiameter Analyzer (FDA)

Needs a similar test specimen, but snippets areintroduce d in aflo w of ano n swelling agent (isopropylicalcohol )an dmeasure di na cel lb ya lase rradiation .Th eattenuatio no fthi sdepend s

165 on the snippetsdimensions ,i n few minutes 2000crossing s areoccured .Eac h is stored inth e systemwhic h calculates continuously theaverag ean ddistribution .Wit hth elarg enumbe ro f individualmeasure si ntim euni tth esubjectiv einfluenc e andfatigu eoperators ,focusing ,bias , are suppressed. The apparatus needs calibration with each type of fibres measured: wool, angora,cashemere .Nevertheles sth esyste mdoesn' t 'see'eac hqualit yan di sno tabl et odistin ­ guish otherels etha ndiameter .Th emetho d isi n experimental phasebefor e standardization.

Imageanalysis (ASTMD 3510-81)

Themeasuremen t ofmea nfibr e diameteran ddiamete rdistributio n offibr e snippets mounted betweentw oglas sslides ,i sperforme d usinga charg ecouple ddevic e(CCD )camer a interfaced to aP.C . Prior to any measurement, fibre snippets are collected using amicr o coring device and are mounted on amicroscop e slideusin g a spreadingdevic ewhic hrandoml y distributes snippetsi n asingl elaye r of even density overth ewhol e slide.Th ecamer aimag ei s captured using an analogue to digital converter which digitises the light intensity values to 128 grey levelsan dstore sthe mi ncompute rmemory .Eac hsnippe tca nb emeasure dsevera ltime salon g its length. The mean fibre diameter and diameter distribution information are calculated for the whole slide. A histogram can be produced showing the distribution of diameter. The instrument is initially calibrated using reference wools or etched graticule which contains a serieo fline so fknow nwidth srangin gfro m 8t o 132|im .Thi scalibratio ni sstore da sa look-u p tablei ncompute r memory.

Determination ofth emea nfibre diamete rb yair-flo w (IWTO28-89 )

When acurren t of airi spasse d through amas so ffibre s packed in achambe rwit h perforated ends therati oo f air-flow to differential pressure isprimaril y determined by the total surface areao f thefibres .Thi swa spredicte dfro m thehydrodynami c equations.Fo rfibre s of circular ornea rcircula r cross-section and constant density, such asnon-medullate d wool, the surface areao fa give nmas so ffibre si sinversel yproportiona lt oth emea nfibr ediameter .Thi sprincipl e can be utilised to construct an apparatus giving estimate of MFD. The Air-Flow Method is simple and rapid. Since the method is indirect, the apparatus must first be calibrated, using fibres of known mean diameter. It has been shown that the estimate of MFD given by the Air-FlowMetho di sd(l+c 2) whered i sth eMF Dgive nb yth emicroscop e andc th e fractional CV.Sinc ec normall y lies within comparatively small limits iti susua l tocalibrat edirectl yi n terms of d. Raw wool must be scoured, cleaned to remove vegetable matter, opened and randomised. At least two2, 5 gtes t specimens must bemeasured , with tworeading s on each oftw oAir-Flo wApparatu s (IWTO28-8 9 standard).Laborator y samplesmus tb econditione d to equilibrium with measurements made in this atmosphere 20°, 65%HR . The estimates of the9 5% confidence limits of theMF Dar e+ 0. 2^ m for MFD2 6[im an d± 0.3 |im forMF D 26 |im. The current of air may bereplace d by ultrasonic vibrations and the loss sound wave passing through aplu g of wool fibres converted togiv e amea n fibre diameter, the apparatus being calibrated with standard wools of known mean diameter. For all these methods the standard conditions for testing are20 ° C± 1°C an d 65% HR± 2 %.I f tests are carried out in a non standard atmosphere, the results in micrometers may be corrected by a factor. For example:wit h RHo f • 40% «factor =1.022 • 65 %« facto r =1 • 85% « factor =0.96 9

166 Determinationo fpercentag eo fmedullate dfibre s (IWTO8-89 )

Immersion liquids with a refractive Index close to that of wool are used to render the wool substanceinvisible .Th emedull a isexpose d byth ereflectio n light atth ekeratin/ai r interface. Advantage of this principle has been taken by several researchers who have developed instruments with anappropriat e optical arrangement basedo na ligh t source andphotodiode . These instruments can be calibrated against the direct methods of medullation measurement sucha sth eIWT O8 .Thi slate ri stedious ,relie sheavil yo noperato rdiligenc ean dbecaus eth e mass of the woolmounte d on aslid ei traise s thequestio n of representation. NIRAi sknow n to be sensitive toparticl e size differences as well ast o thepresenc e of chemical bonds.Th e instrument measuresth ereflectanc e atu pt o 19discret ewavelengths .Th emedullatio n results areregresse do nth eNI Rabsorbanc edat acorrespondin gt oselecte dwavelengthes ,thes emad e bypurel yo n statistical performance. The precision of the estimates using this technology is very strongly influenced by the reference methods used in the calibration. The standard error of prediction between NIRA estimates anddirec t projection microscoperesult s hasbee n calculatedo n NZwool s givinga 95% Confidence Limits of± 5.7% by number,th erang eo f woolteste d beingfro m 0t o 40%.

Determination ofth ekem p

There is, as yet, no standard or universally accepted definition and practical test method for measuringkemp .Fro minternationa l kemproun d trialsmad eb yCSI Ro f S. Africa itappears , for the mohair, and considering various instrument methods, that FDA and Medullameter reading hold themos tpromise .Th epercentag e of fibres coarser than 2 x diameteri s thebes t estimate of the relative kempiness of the sample, the absolute values matching the average percentage bynumbe r values,determine d visually fairly closely.

Woolfibre lengt hdistributio n (IWTO5-66 )

Noautomati c apparatus buta manua lone ,o nfibre s sampledfro m thelo to rfleece .Th ewhol e available bulk is spread on a large table and about 40 handfuls are taken, equally spaced throughout the bulk. One of each handful is carefuly divided in two , and half rejected. This procedurei scontinue dunti labou t2 0fibre s areleft .Eac ho fth ehandfu l isreduce di nthi sway , the4 0remainin g group of fibres being stored separately on alarg evelve t covered boardan d coveredwit hglas splate .Th egroup so f2 0o r3 0fibre s arethe ntransfere d separately toa smal l velvet-covered board; from wheretw omean s of measure can beused . • WIRAmachine :eac h fibre taken with forceps is introduced under controlled tension and thelength sclassifie d in 0.5 cm groups. • GILLS System:wit h 1 cminterva l (Zweigle comb sorter) where thewe b of fibres arepu t aligned, then extracted by group and weighed. Thelengt h distribution mayb eexpresse d in different following ways for example. • Afrequenc y polygon showing the percentage, in number or weight, in each 0.5 or 1c m length interval,plotte d against thefibr e length. • Acumulativ efrequenc y curveshowin gth enumbe r(o rweight )o ffibres greate rtha na give n length plotted against the fibre length. Confidence limits as Percentage of average fibre length: ± 10% wit h 60measure d fibres ± 5 %wit h 250measure dfibres ± 3% wit h 700measure d fibres

167 Bundlestrengt ho fwoo fibresl (IWT O32-82 )

Accordingt osom eexperiments ,ther ei sa fairl ygoo dcorrelatio nbetwee nth etenacit yo f fibre bundlesan dtha to fsingl efibres .I tshoul db enoted ,howeve rtha tth emea nstrengt ho fa bundl e of fibres depends not only on the tenacities of the individual fibres, but also on the mean extension of the individual fibres, its CVan d the slopeo f the meanrheologica l curve of the individual fibre in theplasti c zone.Thi si swh yth emea n strength of afibr e bundlei salway s lower than the sumo f thestrength s ofth eindividua l fibres constituting thebundle .Tenacit y is defined as therati o of breaking force to linear density; it depends on the type of strength tester used, the duration of breaking test. This is why theresult s obtained on different types of apparatus arenot enecessaril y identical. Principle: Abundl eo f severalhundre dparalle lfibres , cutt oequa llength ,i sdraw nfro m a representativesample ,inserte di nth especia lclamp swit ha unifor mpre-tension ,jus t sufficient to remove any crimp, and then broken on a strength tester. After breaking the fibres are weighed.I f L: Bundle length in |im, to which thefibre s arecut ,measure d under theinitia l tension G:Weigh ti nm g of thebundl eo f length L F: Breakingforc e of thebundl ei nC N Ti s thelinea r density inTe x= G/L.10 3.Tenacit y is= F/ Ti nCN/Te x Obviously samplingrequire sspecia lpreparation .A representativ e bundlema yb eobtaine db y mixingan dparallelisatio no nth eZweigl ecom bsorte rb yrepeatin gsevera ltime sth ealignmen t anddrawin g of fibres. Thenumbe ro f bundles tob eteste ddepend s onth eprecisio n required. TheC Vi s generally less than 3% andobtaine d with 10tests .

Determination ofth efeltin g properties (IWTO20-69 )

Principle:On egramm eo fwoo li sshake nfo ra specifie d timewit h5 0m lo fa feltin g medium, buffer solution , in a standard container on a shaking machine with three dimensional movement. The loose fibre is formed into a felt ball, the diameter of which is measured. A smalldiamete rfel tbal lindicate sgoo dfeltin gproperties ,an da larg ediamete rfel tbal lindicate s poor felting properties. Standardised procedure exists to:Prepar e samples— Set and adjust theshakin gmachin e (AachenerFil zTest )— Determin eth ediamete ro fth ebal l— Calculate and express theresult s

Measurement ofth ecolou ro fra wwoo l(IWT O- E .14-88 )

The eventual requirements for samplepreparatio n for colour measurement are that the wool shallb ecleane do fcontaminant s (grease,dirt ,vegetabl ematter )wel lblended ,an dcondition - ned.Th eprocedure s usedi n samplepreparatio n— scouring,remova l of vegetable contami­ nation, drying,conditionnin g in astandar d laboratory atmsophere of 20°C ± 2°, 65 %H R± 2%— shoul db esuc htha tmodificatio n ofth ecolou ro fth etes tspecime ni skep tt oa minimum . The prepared test specimen is measured to give the CIE tristimulus values X, Y and Z for illuminant C and the 2°observer . Between instrument variations arereduce d by the use of a referencewoo lt ocalibrat eth ecolorimeter .A workin gcalibratio ntil ewhic hha sbee nmeasure d against thereferenc e wool may beused .Fo r spectrophotometers, which cannot becalibrate d in this way,th e manufacturer's calibration is checked atleas t every four hours of operation. The systemo f co-ordinates CIELAB,where : L represents thebrigthness . a*represent s thegreen-re d axis, b*represent s theblue-yello w axis,

168 gives a more understandable expression of colour. Also a degree of whiteness may be calculated following formula: 2 2x± W = [(100-0.94Y) + (2.84X-2.35Z) J representing the colourdifferenc e from awhit e standardreference , loweri sW mor ewhit ei s thewool .

Colouredfibers (IWT O- E .13-88 )

Thedeterminatio n ofth eexistenc ean dleve lo fcoloure d fibre contamination isa complicate d problemfo r severalreasons .Th ediversit yo fth econtaminan t fibres found —th edifficult y of defining anddescribin gthe mprecisel y— thedifficult y for theoperator s towor kalon ga da y without ocularfatigu e and losso frepeatibilit y Today ,lon e ates tmetho d under examination is available before registration after interlaboratory trials succeed in achieving results.Prin­ ciple:Woo li sopened ,eithe rmechanicall yo rb yhan dt oa we bare adensit ywhereb ycoloure d fibre faults may be detected and counted. Illumination of the opened web is by uncoloured lightadjuste d sotha tuncoloure dar eno tvisible .A scal efo r gradingblac kan dbrow nfibre s is described.Fiv elevel s( 4— » 8)wit htristimul idat a(X,Y,Z )ar edefine d andals ody erecipe st o prepare these reference fibres, detection apparatus (CSIRODar k Fibre Detecfor) conditions of illumination, work site,condition s of contamination, counting, aregiven .

Bulkan d resistancet ocompressio n

There are various ways of quantifying the bulk of wool, the two most often-used methods being the measurement of theresistanc e to compression (Australian principle standard) and themeasuremen t of the space filling properties (NewZealan d principle standard).Generall y itconsist s of acylinde rint owhic h the wooli sintroduce d and apisto n which lowered onth e wool.Fo r one,th eforc e required tocompres s ates t specimen to afixe d volumei s measured andconverte dt okilopascals .Fo rth eother ,afte ra shor tcyclin groutine ,th eheigh to fth eoccu ­ pied spacei smeasure d andth ebul k of thewoo lca nb ethe n beexpresse di n cm3/g.Howeve r these two methods are not yet internationally accepted and almost more suitable for wool growers than for commercial objectives.

Determination ofwoo lbas ean d vegetablematte r base-yield (IWTO19-90)

Principle. Arepresentativ e sampleo fra wwoo li sobtaine dfro m eachbal ei nth elo tb ycorin g methods.Representativ e subsampleso f thecore sar eweighed , scoured, driedan dreweighed . Tests specimens are then taken from each scoured subsample for the separate determination of vegetable matter (which can beexprime d asVegetabl eMate rBase) ,as h and ethyl alcohol extractives. Thepercentage s of these non-wool constituents found are need todetermin e the drymas so fwoo lfibre s free from allimpuretie s which,whe nexpresse da sa percentag eo fth e masso fth esampl ei sth eWoo lBase .Method sfo r scouringth esubsamples ,determinin gmas s of scoured sub-sample. • TheOve n dry • TheAs h Content • TheEthy lAlcoho lextractabl e • TotalAlkal i Insolubleimpuretie s andVegetabl ematte r are standardised

169 Analyse colorométrique et détermination quantitative des mélanines dans lemantea u de chèvres avec différents genotypes de pigmentation.

C.Renieri*, L. Ramunno**, N. Montemurro**, V.M. Moretti***, M.Trabalza Marinucci*. * Istitutodi Produzioni Animali, Perugia,Italie ** Dipartimento délia ProduzioneAnimale, Portici(NA), Italie *** Istitutodi Zootecnia Generale, Milano,Italie

Abstract A colorimetric analysis (Munsell method) and chemical determination of mélanines were carriedou tusin g 15sample so fpigmente dgoa thai ro f longcoate d goatsfro m Southern Italy. The quantity of mélanine was determined by permanganate oxidation of eumelanines in 2,3,5-tricarboxilicpyrroli c acidan db yhydrioti c acidhydrolys eo fphaeomelanine s inamino - hydroxyphenilanine.Liqui dchromatograph y athig hpressur ewa suse dfo rth edetermination . The black and white samples are achromatic; the others vary between 'red' 2.5 YR 4/6 and 'reddish yellow'7. 5 YR6/8 .Eumelanine s aswel la sphaeomelanine s werepresen t inal lsam ­ ples;th erati ovarie d between224. 3an d0.54 .Th eblac kphenotyp ei scharacterize d by strong activity of the eumelanine synthesis. Theexistenc e of a small activity of biosynthesis seems toprov etha tmotle ycolour sar eth eresul to fth eloca linhibitio no fth eactivit yo fmelanocytes . It seems that a distinction between red and brown phenotypes cannot be made when using these twomethods ;thei rgeneti cdefinitio n remains uncertain.

Introduction L'espècecaprin e secaractéris epa run evariatio nd ephénotype sd ecoloratio n notable.Jusqu' à présent presque une dizaine de patrons pigmentaires (noir, rouge, badger face, noir et feu, mantelé,mantel éinverse ,oei lrouge ,gris ,sauvaae) ,différent s typesd'altération s del apigmen ­ tation de base (blanc uniforme, grisonnement) et quelques types de panachure (irrégulière, cinture)on tét éinventorié s (Lauvergne& Howell , 1978;Lauvergne , 1983;Millar ,1986) .Dan s son dernier rapport le Cogovica (1989) a recensé 4 loci (Agouti, Brown, Frosting et Roan) tous bialleliques sauf l'Agouti quipresent etroi s alleles bienidentifié s (badgerface blackan d tane tnonagouti ) etun e sériequ i nécessiteencor ed'analys e de ségrégation.C enotabl epoly ­ morphisme aét éd'abor d utilisépou r l'étude despopulation s caprines traditionnelles selonl a definition donnéepa rLauvergn e(1982 ,Renier ie tal. ,1986 ;Lauvergn ee tal. ,1986 ;Lauvergn e et al., 1987;Matassin o et al., 1984).L'autr e domained erecherch e estreprésent é par lesani ­ maux spécialiséspou rl aproductio n defibre s etfourrures , notemmentle srace squ i appartien­ nenta ugroup e 'cachemire'e tl'angor a pourle slignée s naturellement colorées.I les tPossibl e à present d'associer pour l'étude de la coloration des mammifères le simple examen colori- métrique avec une série d'analyses chimiques, physiques et microscopiques, indispensables pour une définition correcte de l'aspect biologique et génétique des phénotypes colorés (Renieri, 1990).Un epremièr e ébauche aét éréalisé e surle srace sAngor a et Toggenburg des Etats Unis par Sponenberg et al. (1988). Cet articlereprésent e une contribution ultérieure à l'interprétation de la coloration deschèvre s àtraver s l'étude de la correspondance existante entre un examen colorimétrique réalisé avec un atlas et la détermination chimique des mélanines présentes dans différents patrons Piqmentaires.

170 Matériele tméthode s

L' analyse a été réalisée sur 15femelle s àpoi l long échantillonées dans deux élevanes de la régionCampanie ,dan sl'Itali ed uSud ,e tclassée se n4 groupe :noirs ,blancs ,rouge se tmarrons . Les échantillons de poil ont toujour été prélevés dans la region des flancs. Pour l'examen colorimétrique, uneméthod ed erepérag evisue lde scoleur s àparti r del'atla s Munsell (1975) aét éutilisé .Dan scett eméthode ,basé e surun ecomparaiso n visuelledirect ede scouleur spa r l'oeilhumain ,chaqu eteint ees tdécrit epa rtroi svariables :l ateinte ,'Hue' ,qu idéfin i lacouleu r etvari eentr e0 e t 10e nfonctio n del'augmentatio n dujaun ee tl aréductio nd urouge ;l avaleur , Value',qu iperme t dedistingue r unecouleu r claired'un ecouleu r foncée etqu ivari eentr e0 , noirabsol ue t 10,blan c absolu;l asaturatio n 'Chroma'qu iperme td edifférencie r lescouleur s ternes des couleurs vives et qui varie entre 0 et 20.L'ada s se présente comme une suite de planches colorées etperme t de donner àchaqu e teinte une-ualeur ou un degréd e saturation. Lanomenclatur e del acouleu res tdon cconstitué epa rl eno me tPa rl anotatio n Munsell.Le s tablesutilisée spou rle smammifère s variententr eHu e5 Re tHu e5 Y .L adéfinitio n del acouleu r est faite directement par l'observateur sur un échantillon de poils déposés sur fond blanc et éclairépa rl alumièr eartificiell e d'unelamp ed e6 0wat tqu is etrouv ea 2 0c md edistance .L e noir, le blanc et les variations absolues du gris sont des couleurs achromatiques (no Hue, Chroma =0 )pou r lesquelles une notation spécifique existe (N).L a détermination des méla­ nines aét é obtenue avec laméthod eproposé epa rIt o etFujit a (1985).Ell e secaractéris epa r l'oxidation permanganatiquede seumélanine se nacid epyrrole-2,3,5,-tricarboxiliqu e (PTCA) etpa rl'hydrolys eiodhydriqu ede sphaeomélanine se naminohydroxiphenilalanfh e (AHP).Le s rendements sont, respectivement, du 2% et du 20%. Les standards utilisés ont été l'acide 5-hydroxi 2-indocarboxiliquepou rle seumélanine se tl a5-S-cysteinildop apou rle sphaeomé ­ lanines. La détermination a été réalisée avec la Chromatographie liquide à haute pression (HPLC).

Résultatse tdiscussio n Lesrésultat sd el'exame n colorimétriqueson tprésenté sdan sl eTablea u 1.Quatr eéchantillons , deux noirs etdeu x blancs, sont achromatiques.Tou s les autres sont classés àl'intérieu r del a variation deteint e2.5-7. 5 YR.Le svaleur s obtenuepou rl ePTC Ae tpou rl'AH Pson tprésen ­ téesdan s leTablea u 2;ce svaleurs ,transformée s en eumélanines (PTCAx 50)e tphaeoméla ­ nines (AHPx 5), sont mises en relation avec la nomenclature Munsell.des couleurs, dans le Tableau3 . Toutd'abor d ilfau t notél apuissanc epigmentair ede séchantillon snoir se nc equ iconcern e les eumélanines; le taux de ces piqments est énormémentplu s grand de ceux qu'on observe dans tous les autres patrons et les rapports eu/phaeo sont les plus hauts. Au contraire, les échantillonsblanc sprésenten tl aplu sfaibl equantit éd epigments ;d etoute sfaçons , l'existance mêmede spigment squ ipeuven têtr erelevé snou sexpliqu equ el apanachur ee nquestio n aét é produite par une inhibition localed e l'activité desmelanocyte s qui ontp u donc migrer del a crêteneurale .Le srapport seu/phae on enou spermetten tpa sd'interpréte rl acoloratio n debas e éfasée par la panachure. A l'intérieur de la variation de teinte 2.5-7.5 YR des situations biochimiques très différentes existent. Dans 4 cas, la quantité des phaeomélanines dépasse celle des eumélanines. Ceci arrive avec des situations de teinte très différentes, 2 étant des échantillons 'yellowish red' 5 YR qui varient seulement pour value et chroma et 2 des échantillons 'reddish yellow' 7.5 YR qui varient seulement pour la valeur de chroma. Dans tous les autres cas,l e rapport eu/phaeo est trèsproch e àl'unit é (variation entre 1.05 et 3.77) et la quantité de melanisation semble être semblable. La seule exception est donnée par un échantillon 'reddish yellow'7. 5 YR 6/8qu iprésent e uneénorm e supériorité quantitative des eumélanines (eu/phaeo= 33.35) .

171 Tableau 1. Analysecolorimétrique. Pourla nomenclature on utilise la notation anglaise.

Nom iue Value/Chroma

1 Black 2 Black 3 Red 2.5 YR 4/8 4 Yellowish red 5 YR 3/6 5 Yellowish red 5 YR 4/6 6 Yellowish red 5 YR 4/6 7 Yellowish red 5 YR 4/6 8 Reddish yellow 5 YR 6/8 9 Strong brown 7.5 YR 5/6 10 Strongbrow n 7.5 YR 5/6 11 Reddish yellow 7.5 YR 6/6 12 Reddish yellow 7.5 YR 6/8 13 Reddish yellow 7.5 YR 6/8 14 Whithe 15 Withe

Tableau2. Les valeursde PCTA etAHP.

Phénotype PTCA AHP ng/mg ng/mg 1 Black 783.5 31 2 Black 647.6 31 3 Red2. 5Y R4/ 8 65.1 509 4 Yellowishre d 5Y R 3/6 57.5 597 5 Yellowish red 5Y R4/ 6 57.15 545 6 Yellowish red 5Y R4/ 6 86 1175 7 Yellowish red5 Y R4/ 6 52 394 8 Reddish yellow 5Y R 6/8 52.6 139.5 9 Strong brown7. 5 YR 5/6 28.25 138 10 Strong brown7. 5 YR 5/6 33 279.5 11 Reddish yellow 7.5 YR 6/6 58 1068. 5 12 Reddish yellow 7.5 YR 6/8 99.75 1 158.5 13 Reddish yellow7. 5 YR 6/8 170.1 51 14 White 32 34 15 White 24.75 33

L'interprétation dece srésultat s est trèsdifficile . Leséchantillon s quipossèden t une majorité de phaeomélanines pourraient représenter les phénotypes 'jaunes-rouges' génétiquement déterminés,mai sl aquantit é deseumélanine s resteencor etrè sélevées .Dan s les mammifères ou il aét é démontré (souris,homme) ,l ephénotyp e 'jaune-rouge' secaractéris etoujour s par un rapport nettement favorable aux phaeomélanines. Il faut considérer à part l'échantillon 'reddish brown'7. 5Y R6/ 8qu is ecaractéris epa ru npappor teu.phae od e33.3 5e tqu iprésent e

172 Tableau3. Les valeurs corespondence deseumélanines etdes phaeomélanines.

Phénotype élanines Phaeomélanines Eu/Phaeo ng/mg ng/mg

1 Black 3692 5 155 224.3 2 Black 3238 0 155 209 3 Red2. 5Y R4/ 8 3258. 7 254 5 1.3 4 Yellowishred 5 Y R 3/6 2 875 298 5 0.96 5 Yellowishred 5 Y R4/ 6 2 857.5 272 5 1.05 6 Yellowishred 5 Y R 4/6 4 300 5 875 0.73 7 Yellowish red5 Y R4/ 6 2 610 1970 1.32 8 Reddish yellow 5Y R 6/8 2 630 697.5 3.77 9 Strongbrow n 7.5Y R 5/6 1 412.5 690 2.05 10 Strongbrow n 7.5 YR 5/6 1650 1 397.5 1.18 11 Reddish yellow7. 5 YR 6/6 290 0 5 342.5 0.54 12 Reddish yellow7. 5Y R 6/8 4987. 5 5 790 0.86 13 Reddish yellow 7.5Y R 6/8 8 505 255 33.35 14 White 1600 177 9.4 15 Withe 1237. 5 165 7.5

unatrè sfaibl e quantité dephaeomélanine s (255ng/mg) ;i lpourrai treprésente r lepatro n brun lié à l'action des mutations au locus Brown. Lesrésultat s obtenus sont en accord avec ceux décrits par Sponenberg et al. (1988);l aplupar t des échantillons analisés par ces Auteurs (et classés subjectivement rougee tmarron )présenten t unrappor teu/phae oqu i sedispos e autour del'unité ; lesnoi r sonttre sfortemen t éumélaniques;l'échantillo nblan cpresent eun emelani - sationréduite .

Conclusions

Une série deconclusion s nous semblepossible .D'abord , lacaractérisatio n colorimétrique et biochimiqued uphénotyp enoi res tasse zclaire ,étan tdonné el'énorm equantit éd'eumélanine s qu'onpeu tretrouver .L acouleu rblanch ed el apanachur e necorrespon dpa sà l'absenc etotal e de pigments qui sont toujours relevables, même si en quantité très faible. Il est très difficile dedifférentie r lephénotyp eroug ed umarron ice sphénotype sson tdetermine spa rde ssystème s génétiques différents. Ac e propos, il faut observer que ni l'examen colorimétrique ni celui biochimique semblentêtr ecapable sd epermettr ecett edifferentiation , parcequ etou sle sdeu x présentent un polymorphisme puissant; la plupart des phénotypes classés jaune-rouge ou marrons ecaractérisen tpa ru nmélang ed ee ue tphaeomélanine spresqu eparitaire ,c equ icom ­ pliquel apossibilit éd'interprétatio ngénétique ;trè spe ud'échantillon save cun eprépondéranc e dephaeomélanine s (possiblephénotyp ephaeomélanique )e tseulemen tu nqu iapparai tmarro n avecun efort equantit éd'eumélanine s(possibl ephénotyp ebrun )on tét éobservés .E ngénéral , donc, la correspondance entre analyses colorimétrique et biochimique reste très faible et limitée seulement auxphénotype s noire t blanc.Leu r utilisation contemporaine semble donc inutile et, de toute façon, ladistinctio n entrejaune-roug e etmarro n peut êtrefait e seulement avecun e analysea umicroscop e électroniquepou rmettr ee névidenc e letyp ed emélanosom e plus représenté dans le melanocyte. En conclusion, donc, pour une approche correcte et complète àl'analys e biologique et génétique de lacoloratio n des mammifères il faut utiliser en mêmetemp s soitl'analys e biochimique soit l'analysemicroscopiqu e ou ultramicroscoip-

173 que, parce que la plupart des variations qu'on observe sembent erre liée aux modifications mélanosomialese tmélanocytair ee tno n aux variations biochimiques.

Bibliographie

Cogovica, 1989. Loci for coatcolou r of sheep and goats.Te c& Do cLavoisier ,Paris . Ito,S. &K. Fujita, 1985. Microanalysi so feumelanin eandpheomelani ni nhai ran dmelanoma s bychemica ldegradatio n andliqui dchromatography . Anal.Bioch . 144:527-536. Lauvergne, JJ., 1982.Genetic s in animal populations after domestication: the conseauences for breedconservation . Proc.2n dWorl dConf .Gen . APP1.Liv .Prod. ,Madrid , 6:77-87. Lauvergne,J.J., 1983. Utilisation du principe d'homoloqie interspécifique pour l'étude du déterminisme héréditaire de la couleur du pelage des Ruminants domestiques: l'exemple dulocu s Agouti.Bull . Soc.Zoologiqu eFranc e2:231-243 . Lauvergne,JJ. & W.E. Howell,1978. U n premier inventaire génétique de la chèvre Corse (gènesà effet s visibles).Ethnozootechni e 22:86-93. Lauvergne,JJ., C.Renieri & C. Pieramati, 1986. Le scénariod upeuplemen t caprin méditer­ ranéen ancien. Colloques INRAn .47 ,Pari s253-265 . Lauvergne, JJ., C. Renieri & A.Audiot, 1987. Estimating erosion of phenotypic variation in aFrenc h goatpopulation . J.Hered .78:307-314 . Matassino,D., JJ. Lauvergne,Carlo Renieri, L. Ramunno,N. Montemurro, R. Rubino, F. Valfre &E. Cosentino,1984. Ricerch e preliminari sul profilo genetico visibile di alcune popolazioni caprine autoctone allevatei n treregion i dell'Italia Meridionale. Prod.Anim. , 3:71-82. Millar, P., 1986.Loc ifo r coatcolou r of sheePan d goats.Te c& Do cLavoisier ,Paris . MunsellSoil Color Charts, 1975. Kollmorgen Corp.,Baltimore , Maryland. Renieri,C, 1980.Biologi ed el acouleu rde smammifères . Ethnozootechnie 45:11-22. Renieri,C, R. Rubino, D. La Tessa, F. Muscillo, G. Sarrica& G. Zarriello,1986. Profil s génétiques visibles del achèvr ed u Sudd e l'Italie. Colloques INRAn .47 ,Paris . Sponenberg, P., S.Ito, K. Wakamatsu & LA. Eng.Pigmen t types in sheep,goat s and Harmes.PIgm . Coll.Res . 1:414-418.

174 Carpet wool, production and requirements

RA. Guirgis DesertResearch Centre, Matareya, Cairo, Egypt

Summary

Indigenous breeds of sheep in the Mediterranean basin and MiddleEas t vary in theirfleece type, where somehig h quality carpet wooli sproduced . In carpet wool breeds, increasingfleece weigh t should be the main selection target, with improvemento fbul kan dwhitenes sa sth enex tmor eimportant .Kem pfibre s areobjectionabl e and should beeliminated . Thebirthcoa t of lambs, at an ageo f one month, might serve asa n aidfo r early selection of adultfleec e type. A regional plan for improvement of carpet wool would include the storage of potential breeds in reservoir flocks. Carpet wool stud ram flocks would be established and selection would be within and amongst breeds. Combination of local genetic resources of potential breeds (Awassi,Karaman , Karakul, Kurdi) mightcontribut e towards increasing productivity, whileretainin g adaptability. Anintegrate d marketing system,compose d ofharvesting ,cli ppreparatio n andpackaging , isrecommended .I ti ssuggeste dt oestablis ha carpe twoo lmarketin gorganizatio no na regiona l basis,tha twoul dmarke twoo lo nbehal f ofproducer s andmaintai nliasio nwit hal lprocessors . Saleb ysampl eo fcarpe t woolwoul db ebase do na certifie d testan dvisua l appraisalo f agra p sample. Marketing would be assisted through the introduction of objective measurement as well asreserv e price sheme by the organization. Keywords: fleece weight, kemp, birthcoat, carpet wool marketing organization, objective measurments, sale bysample .

Introduction

Sheepan dgoa traisin gform s animportan t economicactivit y inth eMediterrnea n basin.I n2 4 countries of the Mediterranean basin andMiddl e East, thetota l average greasy fleece weight of 1.594 kg produced was very low in comparison with the world total average of 2.712k g and those of 5.708 kg and 5.531 kg in Australia and New Zealand, respectively (F.A.O. Yearbook, 1990).Thi s wouldinvit eeffort s toimprov e woolproductivit y of theseindigenou s breeds.Th eare aunde r studyproduc e somehig hqualit ycarpe t woolwhic h isi nhig hdeman d on theworl d market. Iti stherefor e thatthi swor ki spresente d tooutlin einformatio n required for improving andpromotin g carpet wool in theregio n under study.

Carpetwoo l

Carpet woolbreed s have arelativel y low secondary toprimar y follicle (S/P)rati o and ahig h ratio ofprimar y to secondary follicle diameter. Carpetproductio ni son eo fth emos timportan ten duse so fwoo lan dmanufacturer s usually spin blends of different types of wool, in a ratio depending on availability, characteristics required in thecomplete d carpet andprice .I n thecarpe t woolblend , threecategorie s of wool areused :

175 1. Speciality carpet wool;usuall y highlymedullate d andfrequentl y very bulky. 2. Basico rgenera lpurpos ewool ;o fgoo dcolour ,strengt han dspinnabilit ya scoars ecrossbre d fleeces. 3. Filler wools; cheap types that are usually short, tender and are of ten pigmented such as crutchings,pieces ,bellie s andpoo roddments . In carpet wools fibre length is much more important to the manufacturer than that of mean fibre diameter. Medullation in carpet wool blends is more favourable in woollen processing than that of the semi-worsted. Wickham (1978) associated medullation in speciality carpet wools with resilience that allows recovery of the pilefollowin g treading.Resilienc e andth e ability to withstand hard wear are the two specialrequirment s for carpet wool.Bul k isasso ­ ciatedwit hresilienc e andgive sbette rcove rt oth ecarpe t andwit hhelica lcrim pan dmedulla ­ tion.

Marketing system

It isrecommende d to use an integrated marketing system composed of harvesting, clippre ­ paration andpackaging . Harvesting would use anefficien t wayo f shearing in which mobile electric shearing machines areused . Todevelo pefficien t woolcli ppreparation ,on eha st oconside rth eimportan tcharacteristics , their sources of variability and the ability of growers, classers and buyers to influence this variability. Work on clip preparation emphasies the role of raw wool characteristics onpro ­ cessing. Iti s necessary toestsablis h 'a carpet wool organization', on aregiona l basis,i n theMedi ­ terranean basin and Middle East. The organization should be independent and aware of the international atmosphere. It would market wool on behalf of producers and maintain liasion withal lprocessors .I twoul dinfro mproducers ,processor san dth ecommunit yo fdevelopment s in thecarpe t wool industry. Itwoul dhav ea responsibilit y tosel lan d setdow nprinciple s for growth, and preparation and have power over the fibre once it moved from the farm intoit s orbit. It would organize extension to carpet woolproducer s on clippreparation . It isrecom ­ mendedt oproduc ea fe w standardgrade swhic hcoul db ereliabl y standardised.Guirgi s(1973 ) devised a simple grading system for coarse wool Barki,compose d of three grades, basedo n staple length and kemp content, and that produced lines different in length, diameter, their variability andfibr e typepercentages . Themajo r taskahea di stha to fdevelopin ga nintegrate dtota lspecificatio n systemtha tfull y exploits all available information to reduce marketing costs and simultaneously provide a productwhos eperformanc e ishighl ypredictable .Th eintroductio no fobjectiv e measurements intogreas y woolmarketin g andth eintroductio n of areserv epric e schemea tabou tth esam e timerepresen t twoo f themos t significant changes inwoo l marketing. Trading would be carried out on the basis of specification of characteristics of raw wool thatar edirectl yrelate dt oit sprocessin gpotential .Wor ki nNe wZealan d (Edmunds, 1990)le d toth eestablishmen to fsi xessentia lparameter sfo rspecifyin g ablen dfo rmakin ga satisfactor y carpet yarn meeting specific processing performance criteria at optimum raw material cost. Parameters are,mea nfibre diameter , colour,length-aftercarding , bulk,vegetabl ematte rbase , andmedullatio n content. In the area under study, where wool is sold on agreas y basis,clea n yield would be added to a test certificate, performed by an independent authority, and visual appraisal of a grab sample.Parameter srequire dfo rspecifyin gcarpe twoo lwoul db e"mea nfibr ediameter ,colour , % clean yield, staple length, staple strength, bulk, vegetable matter base and medullation content".

176 Potential breeds

Potentialbreed so fth eregio ncoul db euse dt oimprov eproductivit yo fth eloca lstock(Guirgis , 1988).Th eestablishmen to fbreedin gstu dflock swoul dproduc esuperio rsires ,fo rdistributio n tofloc k owners.Th e storageo fpotentia lbreed s (Awassi,Karaman ,Karakul ,Kurdi ,Baluchi , Churra)i nreservoi rflock so na regiona lbasi sunde rth eauspice so fsom eregiona lorganizatio n issuggested .Thi swoul db efinanciall y supportedb ymembe rcountries ,fro m certainperceta - geso nthei rsal eo fcarpe t wool,an dth e sireswoul db emad eavailabl efo r breeding purposes throughoutth eregion .Wel lorganize dresearc hprogramme scoordinate dthroug hregional ,an d internationalorganizations ,woul dexpan dth econtributio n ofpotentia lbreed so fth eMediter ­ raneanbasi nan dMiddl eEas to na nintra-regiona lbasis .Turne r(1987 )postulate da 2 0percen t increasei nclea n woolweigh t in 10years ,throug h selection.

Breedingobjective st oimporv ecarpe twoo l

In carpet woolbreeds ,Ros s etal . (1980)reporte d thatincreasin g fleece weight should beth e main selection target, with improvement of bulk and whiteness, as the next more important. Kemp should be largely eliminated and the proportion of very heavily medullated fibres reduced. However, formation of breeding schemes requires knowledge of the estimates of economicimportanc e andgeneti cparameter so fman ycarpe twoo ltraits .I nNe wZealand ,th e mainselectio ntrait si nth ebreedin go fth especialit ycarpe twoo lDr ysdal ebree dar eth enumbe r of lambs born (orreared) , fleece weightan d fleece grade. Guirgis (1988) drew attention toth erol eo f fleece in thermoregulation and recommended selectionfo rincrease dwoo lproductio nbase do ngreas yfleec e weightthroug hincrease d fibre length.Thi swoul db efavourabl e totha tbase do nincrease dfleec e density,th elatte rwoul db e undesirable in hot humidclimate s asi t wouldencourag e thefault y canary yellowing.Herita - bilities andrepeatabilitie s of fibre lengthrang efro m medium tohigh . Acharya (1986)recommende d theselectio n for first sixmonthl y greasy fleece weightan d against medullation percentage in extremely hairy breeds.Thi s would improve greasy wool production and quality towards better carpet wool. The organization of sheep breeders into cooperativeswhic hwoul dundertak egeneti cimprovemen tprogrammes ,improv efee dresour ­ ces,provid ehealt hcar ean dmarketin gexpertis ema yb ea neffectiv e systemfo rraisin gproduc ­ tivity,Achary aadded . Kemps are short,heavil y medullated shedfibre s andRos s (1978) suggested that4 percen t by weight is themaximu m that shouldb epresent .However , Guirgis and Galal (1972) found thatkem pshowe d highly significant positive correlations withbirt h and weaning weights,a s indicating theanima l vigour, and wasnegativel y correlated with fleece weight. Guirgis et al. (1982)reporte da hig hheritabilit yestimat eo fkem pscore ,o f0.43 ,i nBark icoars ewoo lbreed . Thus,th epossibilit y ofgeneti cimprovement , through selection againstkemp ,coul db eeasil y obtained, buton eha s toconside r itspositiv e correlation with body weights.

Requirements

Ross (1978) summarized specifications required by the industry and producers, tomaximis e financial returns.T oth ecarpe tmill :stapl elengt ho f about 10cm ;fibr e diameter,hig hprefera ­ bly36|J. mo rmore ;medullation , asmedullate d aspossible ,provide dfibre strengt h andelasti ­ city are satisfactory; nokemps ; reasonably sound; high spinnability; high settability; helical crimpa shig ha spossibl efo rbul kan dresilience ;fre efro mvegetabl ematte ran dothe rcontami ­ nants;maximu mfleec eopenness ,wit hn ocotts .T oth efarmer , highfleec eweight ,hig hfertilit y ofth eshee pan dconsisten t acceptablepric epremium .

177 An important requirement for almost all styles of carpet would be high yarn bulk (covering power),leadin gt ogoo dapparen tvalu ei nth ecarpet ,tha tgive sth efeelin g asi fther ei splent y of wooli n thepile . Ince andRyde r (1984) found a good correlation between wool bulk and yarn set figures. Thebulk yo rcrimp ywools ,whic hproduce dth ebetter-se tyarns ,i ntur nproduce dcarpet swit h a preferred appearance. Settability (fixation of yarn twist) affects the important aspect of appearanceretentio n which isconsidere d a significant determinanto f good appearance. Ross and Carnaby (1978) looked at the behaviour of arang e of carpet wool fibres when spun into awoolle n carpet yarn andreporte d adistinc t effect of fibre type anddiameter . The fine componentso fth eWels hMountai nfleec ewer emuc hclose rt oth ecentr eo fth eyar ntha n the medullated fibres and those again than the kemps. These findings were significant in relation toth eappearanc ean dhandl eo fth eyarn ;kemp so rmedullate dfibres i nth eblen den d upo n theoutsid e of theyar n andgiv e adistinc t hairy appearance anda hars h handle. In astud y of thecortica l structure of coarsewoo l Barki (BB),Merin o(MM ) and someo f theircrosse s(3/8M , 1/2M, 5/8M),Guirgi s(unpublished )foun d thatpercentage so ffibre swit h radial corticaldispositio n comprised 34-35% of totalfibre s inBB ,3/8M , 1/2M afterwhich a drop to 20 and 3% occurred in 5/8M andMM ,respectively . Radial fibres were coarser than thosewit h bilateral structure.Diamete ro f bilateral fibres corresponded to70 , 63,71, 68an d 94% of thato f radial fibres inBB ,3/ 8 M, 1/2 M,5/ 8 Man dMM ,respectively . Therefore the ortho-para-cortical distribution might be expected to affect yarn setting, where hairy fibres, mostlyradial ,woul db emostl ydistribute do nth eoutsid eo fth eyar nan dtha tfin efibres ,mostl y bilateral,woul db eclos et oth ecentr eo fth eyarn .Whe nformin g therigh tcarpe twoo lblend , one would consider the cortical structure differentiation and distribution of the component wooltypes . Early selection Lambsbor ni n adverse conditions,mountain s anddeserts ,a smos to f thebreed sunde rstudy , require a hairy birthcoat for survival, especially during their early post-natal life. Usually in coarse wool breeds, hairy birthcoats develop into kempy adult fleeces; kemp fibres are objectionable toth ecarpe tindustry .Kem pconten tshowe da hig hheritabilit yo f0.4 3i ncoars e wool Barki (Guirgis et al., 1982) andcoul d beeasil y bredout . The birthcoat of lambs, ata n age of 4 weeks, might serve as an aid for early selection, against kemp in the adult fleece (Guirgise tal. , 1979a,b )an dfo r somecarpe twoo lcharacteristic s (Guirgis, 1979),i npotentia l breeds.

Recommendations for research

Forloca lcarpe t wools,i ti srequire d toconduc t work on: 1. Spinning trials toevaluat edifferen t blendso f local carpet wools with imported speciality carpet wools,i n an effert toachiev eth eoptimu m blendfo r different types of carpets. 2. Commercial objective tests for: a. Medullation, theestimat e of amedullatio n index (Guirgis, 1978) to quantify medulla- tion, as it varies from kemp to medullated fibres with different volumes of medulla whether continuous orinterrupted . The important item iscorte x tomedull a ratio.Ver y coarse fibres with little fibre cortex in thecros s section can have adverseeffect s when fibre strength andelasticit y arerequired . b. Kemp,a scor eo f4 grade s(0 ,n okem pt o3 ,excessive )woul db eusefu l toevaluat ekemp . Kemp should bekep t ata ver y lowlevel . c. Bulk characteristics (resistance tocompression) . 3. Estimateo fgeneti cparameter sfo rdifferen t characteristics asmedullation ,bulk ,kem pan d variability of fibre diameter.

178 4. Developmento fsuitabl eselectio ncriteri afo rimprovin gimportan tindigenou scarpe twool . Heritabilityestimate so fbirthcoa tan dtha to fsurviva lrate .Effec to fselectio nfo ran dagains t hairy birthcoats on growth rate,fleec e characteristics and survivalrate . 5. Processing trials to evaluate therol eo f thedifferen t characteristics in carpet performance asmedullation ,fibr ediamete ran ddistribution ,crimp ,cortex/medull aratio an dortho/para - cortical distribution in the carpet woolblend . 6. Studiesfo rearl yidentification , atth ebirthcoa tlevel ,o fadul tfleec echaracteristc srequire d in thecarpe t industry. 7. Small scale industries (carpets andrugs ) using local material (wool and natural dye stuff from localplants )fo rrura l development.

References Acharya,R.M., 1986.Smal lruminan tproductio n inari dan d semi-arid Asia.In :Smal lRumi ­ nantProductio n in theDevelopin g Countries,FAO ,Anima lProductio n andHealth , Paper 58:148-169. Edmunds, A.R., 1990. Arevie wo fNe wZealan dR & D o nra w woolspecificatio n formarke ­ ting. Proceedings of the 8th International Wool Textile Research Conference, WRONZ, 7-14 February, 2,p p 18-27. F.A.0.1990. Yearbook, Production,Rome ,vol . 43. Guirgis,R.A. & E.S.E.Galal, 1972.Th eassociatio n betweenkem pan dsom evigou ran dwoo l characteristicsi nBark ian dMerin oBark icross .Journa lo fAgricultura lScience ,Cambridg e 78:345-349. Guirgis,R.A.,1973. Staplelengt han dkem pa sa basi so fgradin gBark iwool .Alexandri aJour ­ nalo f AgriculturalResearc h21:235-240 . Guirgis,RA., 1978. Astud yo fsom ewoo ltrait si ntw ocoars ewoo lbreed san dthei rreciproca l crosses.Journa lo f Agricultural Science, Cambridge90:495-501 . Guirgis, R.A.,1979. Birthcoat fibre type arrays oflamb s and some adultfleec e traits.Journa l of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 93:195-201. Guirgis,RA., H.M.H. Elgabbas,E.S.E. Galal& K.E. Ghoneim, 1979a. Birthcoat-adult fleece relationship: a study of kemp succession in a coarse wool breed of sheep. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 92:427-436. Guirgis,R.A., N.T. Kazzal & AM. Zaghloul, 1979b.Th estud yo fkem psuccessio ni nth eadul t fleeceo ftw ocoarse-woo lbreed so fshee pi nrelatio nt oth ebirthcoat .Journa lo fAgricultura l Science, Cambridge 93:531-540. Guirgis,RA., EA. Aflfi& E.S.E. Galal, 1982.Estimate so fgeneti can dphenotypi cparameter s of some weight and fleece traits in acoarse-woo l breed of sheep. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge99:277-285 . Guirgis, RA., 1988.Potentia l sheep and goat breeds in theNea r East. In:A.M . AboulNag a (Editor),Smal lRuminant s Research AndDevelopmen t InTh eNea rEast ,IDRC ,Proceed ­ ingso f aworkshop ,Cairo ,Egypt ,November ,p p54-66 . Ince,J. &ML. Ryder, 1984.Th eevaluatio no fcarpet smad efro mexperimenta lwools .Journa l of Textile Institute, 1:47-59. Ross,DA. 1978.Revie w of information onth eimportanc eo fwoo lcharacterstic si nrelatio n toprocessin g andproducts . In:L.S . Story (Editor),Carpe t Wools— Carpet Manufacture ProceedingsWRONZ , 10-11April ,p p 119-125. Ross,D.A.& GA. Carnaby, 1978. Carpetwool san dcarpets ,a summar yo fWRON Zresearch . In:L.S .Stor y (Editor),Carpe tWool s— Carpe tManufactur e ProceedingsWRONZ , 10-11 April,p p 41-52.

179 "•

Ross,DA., GA. Wickham &KB. Elliott, 1980. Breedingobjective s toimprov ewoo luse di n carpets.In :R . Barton and W.Smit h (Editors),Proceeding s of the 1stWorl d CongressO n SheepAn dBee f CattleBreeding ,Palmersto n North,Ne w Zealand, pp37-45 . Turner,H.N. 1987.Som easpect so f sheepbreedin gi nth etropics .In :Smal lRuminant s inth e NearEast .F.A.O. ,Anima lProductio n AndHealth ,Pape r55:3-9 . Wickham,G A. 1978.Developmen t of breeds for carpet wool production in New Zealand. WorldRevie w of AnimalProduction , 14:33-40.

180 Investigations on the suitability of wool,fo r textile product and carpets, obtained from improved sheep in Western T\irkey

N.Erdem*, M.Kaymakçi** andR.Sönmez*** * Facultyof Engineering, UniversityofEge, Izmir, Turkey ** Facultyof Agriculture, UniversityofEge, Izmir, Turkey *** Chamberof Agricultural Engineers, Izmir, Turkey

Abstract Bythi sstudy ,th esuitabilit yo fwool so fnewl ydevelope dshee ptype slik eTahirova ,Acipaya m and Sönmez for textileproduct s andcarpet s have been investigated. Accordingt oth eobtaine dresults ;Tahirov awoo li ssuitabl efo rwoolle n andsemiwortsted , Acipayam and Sönmez wools are suitablefo r standard carpet production. On the otherhan d the wools of these types can be used for hand knitted yarn production by mixing them with other fibres. Keywords :Tahirova , Acipayam andSönmez , sheeptypes,woo l characteristics.

Introduction InWester nTurke yth epastur ean dmeado warea shav ebee ndeclinin gs oth enee dfo rimprove d sheep types and advancedmanagemen t techniques is growing. Sheep improvement studies have been carried out in Western Anatolia by the Faculty of Agriculture,Departmen to fAnima lScience ,Universit y ofEge .Th emai nne w sheeptype so f thesear eTahirova , Sönmez andAcipayam .Tahirov atyp ewa sproduce d bycrossin g Kivircik ewes with EastFriesia n rams inTahirov a StateFar m whichi slocate d in the South Marmara. Sönmez typewa s improved bycrossin g Sakizx Tahirovabreed s in theexperimenta l farm of theUniversit y ofEge which islocate d inEg eregion . Acipayam type was improved by crossing East Friesian x Awassi x Dagliç in Acipayam State Farm which islocate d in innerpart s ofEge (Sönmez et al., 1981; Sönmez et al., 1987; Kaymakçie tal. , 1989).Althoug h thestudie swer edon eo nmeat ,mil k andother syield so fth e new types,ther ei s noresearc h on thecharacteristic s of wool.B y this study,th e suitability of the wools of these newly developed sheep types for textile products and carpets have been investigated. Thus,th ewoo l characteristics of thesetype s are defined.

Materialan dmethod s The materials of the study are wool samples of Tahirova, Sönmez and Acipayam types. Maximum 30sample s ofwoo lwer etake nfro m every type.Th ephysica l characteristics have been analyzed such as fineness (micron), length (cm), breaking strength (g) and elongation (%).Th emeasuremen to ffinenes shav ebee nmad eb yth eshor tsectio nmetho dwit hlanametre . Inorde rt odetermin efibe rdiamete rw emeasure d30 0fibre sfo reac hsample .Th emeasuremen t of stablelengt h andrea llengt hhav ebee nmad eb ytw opincer smethod .Fo rth emeasuremen t 100fibre s fromeac hsampl ehav ebee nchosen .Th emeasuremen to fth ebreakin gstrengt han d elongation have been made byFafegrap h Strength TestingGear .W eteste d 25fibre s for one samplet odetermin e strength andelongatio n (Harmancioglu, 1974;Sönmez , 1985).

181 'T'

Resultsan d discussion Fineness

Thefiber diamete r valueso f Tahirova,Acipaya m and Sönmezshee ptype sar egive n inTabl e 1. As shown in Table 1, the average fiber diameter of Tahirova is 34.37+0.50 micron. And fineness changes between 28.40 micron and 42.00 micron. Similar results are reported by Erdem (1990).Th e variation coefficient of fiber diameter values of Tahirova is 8.09%.Thi s result shows us that thefineness o f Tahirova wool is uniform. The averagefiber diamete ro f Acipayam is 37.63±0.54 micron and it changes between 43.54 micron and 32.20 micron. Accordingt oth eresult sth efineness o fAcipaya mwoo li si nth esam egrou pwit hDagli çshee p breedwhic h gives standardcarpe twool .I nou rresearc h iti sdetermine dtha tth eaverag e fiber diameterfo rSönme zwoo li s39.08±1.1 3micro nan dchange sbetwee n50.3 6micro nan d34.1 8

Table 1. Thefiber diameter values of newly improved sheep typesin Western Turkey (micron).

Types N X±Sx S Max. Min. V%

Tahirova 30 34.37 ±0.50 2.78 42.00 28.40 8.09 Acipayam 30 37.63+ 0.54 2.69 43.54 32.22 7.87 Sönmez 15 39.08 ±1.13 4.37 50.36 34.18 11.18

Table2. Theaverage length values (staple and real) of newly improved sheep types in Western Turkey (cm).

Types N Characte- X+ Sx S Max. Min. V% ristics

Tahirova 30 Staple 11.18±0.3 9 2.18 15.88 7.06 19.50 Real 16.76+ 0.3 5 1.92 21.02 12.83 11.46 Acipayam 30 Staple 18.70±0.9 1 4.96 32.20 6.38 26.52 Real 19.92±0.5 6 3.09 27.54 13.68 15.51 Sönmez 15 Staple 9.89 ±0.59 2.29 14.43 6.73 23.16

Table3. The mean values of breaking strength (B.S.) and elongation (E.) (%) for newly improvedsheep types in Western Turkey.

Types N Character- X±Sx S Max. Min. V% ristics

Tahirova 30 B.S. 25.36±0.7 7 4.29 37.50 20.40 16.92 E.(%) 43.59±0.3 7 2.03 47.60 38.90 4.66 Acipayam 30 B.S. 30.74±0.9 4 5.16 40.17 19.29 16.79 E.(%) 45.88±0.5 7 3.12 50.77 39.20 6.80 Sönmez 15 B.S. 21.14± 1.65 6.40 33.15 13.68 30.27 E.(%) 42.21±1.4 1 5.46 48.60 28.70 12.94

182 micron.Th evariatio n coefficients of Acipayaman d Sönmez(7.87% , 11.18%)d ono texcee d thelimi twhic hi sinforme d forcarpe twool .Bu ti nfac tAcipaya man dSönme zwool sgenerall y have fine fibres, they also contain some medullated fibre, heterotype fibres and few kemp fibres.

Length

Theaverag elengt h values (staplean dreal )o fnewl yimprove d sheeptype si nWester nTurke y aregive ni nTabl e2 .A sshow n inTabl e2 th estapl elengt ho fTahirov awoo lchange sbetwee n 7.06 cm and 15.88 cm and the average is 11.18+0.39 cm. Also the real length of Tahirova changes between 12.83cm . and 21.02 cm. and the average is 16.76+0.35 cm.Th e variation coefficients of staple andrea l lengths are 19.50% an d 11.46% ,respectively . Inou rstud yi ti sdetermine dtha tth eaverag estapl elengt hfo rAcipaya mi s 18.70+0.91 cm., real length is 19.92±0.56 cm. and the variation coefficients of these values are 26.52% and 15.51%,respectively . The staple length of Sönmez woolrange s between 6.73-14.43 cm.(V . 23.16%) and themea n staplelengt h is9.89±0.5 9 cm.

Breakingstrength and elongation (%)

The mean values of breaking strength and elongation for Tahirova, Acipayam and Sönmez types are shown in Table 3.A s can besee n in Table3 ,breakin g strength and elongation (%) of Tahirova wool are 25.36±0.77 g. and 43.59%respectively , ahinkaya (1957)*uggests that breaking strength is 9.90±0.99 g. and elongation (%) is 46.20+.2.76 %i n the wool which is obtained from Kivircik herd. When compared with Kivircik wool breaking strength of Tahirova is extremely high, but elongation (%) is low. The breaking strength of Acipayam wooli s 30.74±0.94 g. and elongation (%) is 45.88+0.57%.I n Sönmez wool these values are determined as 21.14±1.65 g. and 43.21+1.41%,respectively . The mean values of breaking strength for Acipayam and Sönmez wool which are determined in our study are extremely neart oDagli çwoo l (Utkanlare t al., 1965).

Conclusions Theresult s which areobtaine d in our study can besummarize d as follows; 1. Tahirova wool which wasproduce d by crossing East Friesian rams with Kivircik ewes is in the samequalit y of Kivircik wool,i ti sextremel y uniform thepoin t of view of fineness and length and because of these characteristics Tahirova wool is suitable for woolen and semiwortsted production likei nKivirci k wool.Als oi tdoe sno t contain medullated fibres. 2. The staple lengths of Acipayam and Sönmez wools exceed the limit of staple length of minimum 10cm . which is declared for carpet industry and they are in the same groupo f Dagliçwoo lvalues .Th evariatio ncoefficient s ofstapl elengt hexcee dth elimi to f20 %ver y littlewhic h isdesire d for staple length of goodqualit y carpetwool . 3. The mean values of fiber diameter for Acipayam and Sönmez are in the average limits which is desired for the ideal carpet wools. The variation coefficients do not exceed the maximum limito f 15% which is declared for carpet industry. 4. AlsoTahirova ,Acipaya m andSönme z woolsca n beuse dfo r handknitte dyar nproductio n by mixing them withothe r fibres.

183 References Erdem, N., 1990.A stud y on Tahirova and it's wool characteristics:Improved anewl y sheep typei nEg eRegion . V. Textile Simp.,Textil e andMachinary , 11,90, 32-35 . Harmancioglu, M., 1974. Fiber technology,Facult y of Agriculture,Universit y ofEg eNum. , 224. Kaymakçi,M., L. Türkmut., R. Sönmez &R. Lischka, 1989. Investigation onth eimprovemen t of milk and meat yields in Western Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 13(2):307-316. Sönmez,R., 1985. Sheep production and wool. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ege, Num., 108. Sönmez,R., M. Kaymakçi, L. Türkmut& E.Kizilay, 1981.Investigation s onth etyp efixin g of Tahirova milk sheep (The Physiological and morphological characteristics of the Basic Genetic Material).Turkis hJourna l ofVeterinar y andAnima l Sciences, 5:191-196. Sönmez, R.,M. Kaymakçi, L. Türkmut, C.Sarican andE. Demirören, 1987. ThePossibilitie s ofdevelopin gda man dsir eline sfo rlam bproduction .Th eScientifi can dTechnica lResearc h Council ofTurkey ,Report . Shinkaya, R., 1957. Body measurements and wool characteristics of pure Kivircik and Merino-Kivircikcrosse sraise di nBursa-Balikesir-Çanakkal eRegio no fTurkey .Facult yo f Agriculture,Universit y ofAnkara ,Num. , 112. Utkanlar, N., F. Imeryüz,S. Müftüoglu& K. Öznacar, 1965.Studie s on some characters of Dagliçwool .Lalaha n Zoot. Arast.Enst .Derg. ,5 (3-4) , 70-88.

184 Etude bibliographique concernant lepoi l et la peau du dromadaire

J.L. Tisserand Laboratoire associéde recherches zootechniquesINRA-ENSSAA 26, Bd. Dr. Petitjean, 21000Dijon, France

Summary Therei sbu tlittl einformatio n ondromedaries 'woo lproductio ni nbibliographies .Mos tstudie s dealwit hth ebactria ncame lan do fcours eSout hAmerica ncamelids ,th eAlpac ai nparticular . This certainly results from twomai ncauses : • thecommercia l value of camel woolis ,excep t inrar ecases ,neglecte d byproducers , • the hot and arid climate in which dromedaries live does not favour wool production as opposed tobactria n camels whoar ewel l adapted to cold weather. Most authors report that the dromedary provides 0.5 to 1k g of wool per year whereas the bactrian camel's production can bea shig h as3 t o4 k gpe r animal andpe r year. Clipped when two years old thedromedar y provides 2 to 3k g of wool whereas around 7 or8 it scoa tma yweig h5 o r6 kg .Yet ,th equalit yo fth ewoo ldiminishe swhe nth eanima lget s older, asmuc h asfa r as woolpercentag ei s concerned, asconcernin g itsfineness : 85% ofth e coato f aon e year old animal is madeu p of veryfine woo l with adiamete r of 16-18 m. The quality of thewoo lals odepend so nth ese xo f theanimal .Wherea smal eproductio n ishighe r by 30%, afemale' s wool is finer. Moreover, the quality of the wool depends on the partso f thebod y andth efines t wooli st ob efoun d atth eleve lo fth eanimal' s shoulder.Som eauthor s observe arelationshi p between theanimal' s diet andth eproductio n anddensit yo f thewool . Thevariatio n factor which seemsth emos t important is breed but no systematic study has been made ontha tpoint . Dromedary'shai ri sparticularl yinsulating ,i seasil ywove nan di straditionall yuse dt ocove r family needs to make tents,rug s and clothes.I t is not usually sold except under the form of craft products. The hidegenerall y is ofpoo r quality and used toproduc e harnesses or whips and, in some cases,sandal s locally. Toconclude ,th e wool andt o alesse rexten t the hideo f dromedaries areno tuse d asmuc h asthe yshoul db ea tth emomen tan dstudie sshoul db econducte di norde rt oenhanc eth evalue s of theseproduct s which arefa r from being negligible.

Introduction Laproductio n depoi ld edromadair ereste ,à c ejour ,ma lconnue .Bie nqu ele srécente sbiblio ­ graphies (T.Wilso ne tal. , 1990;G .Saint-Marti n etal. , 1990)fassen t étatd'un ecinquan -tain e deréférence s surl epoi ld edromadaire ,u nexame nplu s approfondi montreque ,trè s souvent, elles concernent soit une mention des poils à l'occasion d'uneprésentatio n de l'élevage ca- mélindan sun erégio no uu npay s(exemple :Be nAïssa ,1989) ,soi tde sobservation s manquant parfois deprécisions . Celaexpliqu e quel arevu ed u CIPEA(E .Mukasa -Mugerwa , 1981)n e consacre que moins d'une page sur cent au poil et que Richard (1985) dans son livre bien documenté sur le dromadaire n'évoque lepoi l qu'en une demi-page parmi les autreproduc ­ tions. Cette situation sembleimputabl e àdeu x causes principales:

185 - lavaleu rmarchand ed el alain ed edromadair ees tnégligé epa rle séleveur s(Knœss , 1977) etl acommercialisatio n neconcern equ'un e trèsfaibl e partd el aproductio n àl'exceptio n de l'Inde qui exporte 50 p.10 0 des 360 tonnes de poil produites annuellement (Krishna- murthii, 1970); —l eclima tchau de tarid equ icaractéris el azon enaturell ed'élevag ed udromadair en efavoris e pasla productio n depoil scontrairemen t auca sd uchamea u quies tadapt éa ufroi d ouau x camélidés sud-américains notamment lesalpacas . Enc equ iconcern el apeau ,tou sle sauteur ss'accorden tpou rsouligne rs aqualit étrè smoyenne .

Production depoil s Quantité

Ilexist ed etrè s grandes variationsdan sl'estimatio nd el arécolt ed epoil sche zl e dromadaire comme le montre le Tableau 1établ i par Richard (1985).E n général chez le dromadaire, la production annuellevari eent e0. 5e t4 k gpa rtonte ,qu is efai ttraditionnellemen t auprintemps , alors que Leupold (1968) signale une production de 5 à 12k g par tête chez le chameau. La productiones tvariabl eave cl'âge .Ell eaugment eche zl edromadair ejusqu' à7 à 1 0an s(Don g Wai,1980 )e tdiminu eaprès .Che z1'Alpaca ,Bustinz a(1980 )présent eun ecourb ed el aproduc ­ tiond elaine ,e nfonctio n del'âg e(Figur e 1).Velazc o(1976 )signal eche zcett eespèc e l'influ­ enced el'âg e del a mère surl aproductio n dujeun e (Figure2) . La production des mâles est supérieure d'environ 30% à celle des femelles. Elle peut, à l'extrême, êtrel edoubl e (Doncenko, 1956). L'alimentation et les conditions climatiques peuvent très vraisemblablement influer surl a production depoils ,mai s nous nedisposon s d'aucuneétud e systématique.I le n est demêm e del arac e quiconstitu e lefacteu r leplu simportan t devariatio n del aproductio n delaine .

Tableau 1. Productions annuelles depoils de dromadaire (selonRichard, 1985).

Afrique Soudan 'trèsrare ' Cauvet 1925 0.5-1 kg Elamin 1980 Mauritanie 1-3 kg Diagana 1977 Tunisie 3-4k g ElFourg i 1980 3 kg (jeunes) Burgemeister 1975 1-2 kg (adultes) Burgemeister 1975 Algérie 3-4k g Cauvet 1925 Libye 1.5-2 kg (adultes) Karame tcoll . 1981 Asie Inde 0.9-1.35(max . 5.4kg ) Krishnamurthi 1970 Pakistan 1kg Yasin -Wahi d 1957 Arabie Saoudite 1kg Cauvet 1925 1.5 kg Italconsult 1969 Syrie 2-3k g Hirsch 1932 3-4k g Sakkal 1945 U.R.S.S. 4k g(maies ) Doncenko 1956 2k g (femelles)

186 Figure1. Poidsde la toison de l' alpaca enfonction de l'âge.

4. 5 S 7 Aflss dis miras (ans)

Figure2. Effetde l'âge de la mère surle poids dela toison desjeunes alpacas.

Qualité

Lalain ed edromadair ees tréputé e debonn equalité ,e nparticulie r àcaus ed es afiness e etd e son fort pouvoir isolant (Dong Wai, 1980),mai s elle neconstitu e qu'une partie del a toison; les fibres représentant 85%d e la toison et la laine 70%de s fibres. Si laproductio n de poils augmente avec l'âge, laqualit éd ecett e toison diminue aecl'âge ; ellees t supérieure chezle s femelles parrappor t auxmâle s (Tableau2) . Chez 1'Alpaca,Bustinz a (1980) signale que la finesse de la laine évolue de 17micron s à l'âged'u n anà 2 7micron sà 6 ans .L aqualit éd el alain ediminu ed uhau tver sl eba sd el'animal , etd el atêt eà l aqueue ,l alain el aplu sfine s etrouv e aunivea u del'épaule (DongWai , 1980).

187 Tableau2. Caractéristiques dupoil dechameau (Dong Wai, 1980)

Mâles Femelles Mâles Jeunes adultes adultes castrés Pourcentage delain e 76.2 79.8 83.6 88.3 Finesse (micron) 18.3 14.7 14.9 14.9 Densitéd upoi l (parcm 2) 2730 320 5 320 1 452 2

Après la tonte, il faut prendre des précautions et garder les animaux fraîchement tondus à l'ombre pour éviter d'éventuelles boursoufflures. Le traitement de la peau avec du pétrole suivi deuxjour s plus tard de boue,retiré e 3jour s après,perme t d'éviter les infestations de parasites (Nanda, 1957;Singh , 1966).

Utilisationde la laine

Lalain ed edromadair ees tutilisé epou rl aconfectio n d'unegrand evariét éd'objet s :vêtement s enparticulie r burnous,tentes ,couvertures , sacs (ElAmin , 1980),e tpou r cequ iconcern e les fibres longuesde scordage s (BenAïssa , 1989).I ly a auss iun eproductio n detapis . Toutefois, àpar tce sdonnées ,l aproductio n artisanalees te ngrand eparti eutilisé epou rl'usag e familiale deséleveurs .

Lapeau

Del'avi sd etou sle sauteurs ,l apea ud edromadaire ,beaucou pplu sépaiss equ ecell ede sbovins , (Ben Aïssa, 1989)es t dequalit é médiocre (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1980),ell e est utiliséelocale ­ mentpou rconfectionne r despièce sd'harnachemen t et dessandale s (Diallo, 1989).

Conclusion Cette brève revue montre que les éleveurs accordent peu de prix aux poils et à lapea u des dromadaires. Sansalle rjusqu' à préconiser une sélection surl aqualit éd el alain ee tl a finesse de la peau, il serait peut être intéressant de promouvoir une étude pour avoir une meilleure connaissance des caractéristiques du poile t del apea u desdifférente s races dedromadair ee t desfacteur s susceptibles dele s améliorer.I lfaudrai t peutêtr emettr ee noeuvr ede s structures permettant de valoriser mieux ces productions secondaires, certes, mais loin d'être néglige­ ables chezl edromadaire .

Bibliographie

Ben Aïssa, 1989. Le dromadaire en Algérie. Options Méditerranéennes. Série Séminaire, 2:19-28. Burgemeister,R., 1975.Elevag e dechameau xe nAfriqu e duNord .G.T.Z. ,Eschborn ,no . 21, 86p . Bustinza,V.C., 1980.Sout h American camelids.I nLES. ,Camel .LES. ,Stockholm ,73-108 . Cauvet (CDT), 1925.L e chameau. Tome I. Anatomie, physiologie, race, extérieur, vie et moeurs,élevage ,alimentation ,maladies ,rôl eéconomique , J.B.Baillièr ee tfils ,Paris ,78 4 P-

188 Diagana,D., 1977.Contributio n àl'étud e del'élevag e du dromadaire en Mauritanie. Thèse Doct. Vét.,Ecol e Inter-états Sei. Méd. Vét.,Dakar , 1976,no . 1, 148p . Diallo,D.C., 1989. L'élevag ed udromadair ee nMauritanie .Option sMéditerranéennes .Séri e séminaire, 2:29-32. Doncenko,V.V., 1956. Theone-humpe dcame li nTurmenista nan dth emethod sfo rimprovin g thebreed .Trad . Inst.Zivotn .Adak .Nau kTuSS R 1:292-308. Dong-Wai, 1980. Chinesecamel san dthei rproductivities .I nI.F.S. ,Camel .I.F.S. ,Stockholm , 55-72. ElAmin, F.M., 1980. Thedromedar ycame lo fth eSudan .I nI.F.S. ,Camels .I.F.S. ,Stockholm , 35-53. Karam,H.A. &Al-Ansari, M„ 1981. Preliminar ystud yo ncame lproductio ni nth eYamahiriya . Secretariate of agricultural reclamation and land development. Directorate general for research andagricultura l education. Animal Prod. Res. Unit.,Libye ,W/P4020 . Knoess, K.H., 1977. Le chameau producteur de viande et de lait. Revue Mondiale de Zootechnie 22:39-44. Krishnamurthii, SA., 1970.Th e wealth of India. Adictionar y of Indian raw materials and industrial products. Public. Informat. Directorate, C.S.I.R., New Delhi, 1970, vol. VI, suppl., 147-153. Leupold, J., 1968.L e chameau, important animal domestique des pays subtropicaux. Cah. Bleus Vét., 15:1-6. Mukasa-Mugerwa,E., 1981. The camel (Camelus dromedarius). A bibliographical revue. ILCAmonograph , AddisAbbeba , 147p . , Nanda,P.N., 1957. Camelsa nthei rmanagement .Delhi ,ICA R(India nCounci lo fAgricultura l Research), 1963,17p . Richard,D., 1985. Le dromadairee t sonélevage .Etude s et synthèse de 1T.E.M.V.T., 162 p. Sakkal,F BZ., 1945.L echameau ,anima ld eboucherie .Thès eDoct .Vét. ,E.N .V Alfort,Paris , nl5,155 p. Saint-Martin, G., Nitcheman, M.F., Richard, D. & Richard, MA., 1990.Bibliographi e surl e dromadaire etl echameau .Etude se t synthèsed e 1T.E.M.VT., 617p . Singh,H., 1966.Came lcare .Intensiv e Agric. 9-12. Velazco,J., 1976.In :Bustinza ,V.C .Wilson ,T. ,Araya ,A .an dMelaku ,A. ,1990 .Th eon ehum ­ pedcamel .I n Analytical andAnnotate d bibliogra UNSO.Technica lPublication , 301p . Yasin, S.A. & Wahid, A., 1957. Pakistan camels, a preliminary survey. Agric. Pakistan, 8:289-297.

189 Fleececharacteristic s ofMorocca n breedso fshee p

M.Bourfia, A.Abdelali, M.S.Laidouni, andMM. ElHmamsi HassanII Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine Institute, POB6202, Rabat, Morocco

Summary

Thestud yi sbase do n2 873fleeces collecte dfro m eweso fsi xMorocca nbreed so fsheep .Th e Beni Ahsen breed had theheavies t fleece (2.64kg ) andth eD'Ma n breed, thelightes t fleece (0.98kg) .Th ecoarses twoo lwa stha to f Timahditbree dwit h aspinnin gcoun to f 48's anda n averagefiber diamete ro f31. 6micron ,whil eth eothe rbreed sha da fibe rdiamete ro nth eorde r of 26micron . The BeniGuil , Sardi,an dBoujaa d breeds had theleas tkemp yfleece s andth e D'Man breed had the mostkemp y fleeces. Thepercentag e of medullated fibers ranged from 1.3 (Beni Guil) to 4.8 (Boujaad). The Timahdit breed had the largest staple length (9.6 cm) and the Boujaad breed, the smallest staple length (6.1cm) .Fleec e yieldrange d from 62.5% (Timahdit) to 57.3% (Beni Ahsen). This variation between breeds offers a wide range of possibilities for fleece utilization inMorocco .

Introduction Thevariou s sheepbreed si nMorocc ofal lint oth ecategor yo f 'woole dthin-taile dsheep' ;the y are mainly dual-purpose animals with meat being the most essential product, and wool a secondary product. Asurve y done by the Ministry of Agriculture indicated that 39% of the woolproduce d inMorocc o isuse di n cottageindustries ,makin g blankets,rugs ,an d clothing such asth e commonly useddjellaba . The 61% that goesint ocommercia l channels is soldt o thetextil eindustr y(22%) ,an dt owholesaler s(39%) ;th elas tpar twa smainl yuse dfo rmattres s andpillo w stuffing. It is interesting to study wool traits of Moroccan breeds of sheep in view of the fact that littlei s known of the wool characteristics of these breeds and that wooli s important forMo ­ roccancarpets ,whic h arei nfairl y highdeman d bothi nnationa l andi ninternationa lmarkets .

Material and methods Thepresen t studyi sbase do n2 873fleece s collectedfro mewe so fMorocca nbreed so f sheep at two experiment stations (the Gharb with 5 breeds and 1913fleeces , and theTadl a with 2 breeds and 843fleeces) , and from someflock s having a breed (the Boujaad) that wasraise d atneithe r station. The breed distribution of thefleece s was 339,192, 877,363,985 , and 117 for Timahdit,Ben iAhsen ,D'Man , BeniGuil ,Sardi ,an dBoujaad , respectively.Th e shearing timerange dfro m June toJuly . Seventrait swer estudied :(1 )Greas yfleec e weight.Afte r shearingfleec eweigh twa srecor ­ dedt oth eneares t 10g .(2 )Spinnin gcount .A washe dmid-sid e samplewa sgrade db ycompa ­ rison to samples of known British spinning counts; the higher the count, the finer the wool andth emor eyar n couldb espun .(3 )Fibe rdiameter .Sinc eMorocca n breeds havei n general coarsewool ,th ediamete ro f30 0fiber s wasmeasure dusin ga projectio n microscope (laname- ter)accordin gt oth estandard so fth eInternationa lWoo lTextil eOrganizatio n (IWTO)an dth e American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM);kemp y fibers were not measured. (4) Kemp. Asampl e was taken just before shearing from the left mid-side of each animal. The amount of kemp was assessed by using a six grade scale with 0 being nokem p and six the

190 most kemp. (5) Percentage of medullated fibers. In a sample of 300 fibers, non-medullated fibers (fine wool) and medullated fibers with the exception of kemp (coarse wool) were counted under theprojectio n microscope; thepercentag e ofmedullate dfiber s wasestimated . (6) Staple length. The length of 100 fibers was measured by stretching the fibers against a ruler. (7) Wool yield was determined according to the procedure described by Ryder and Stephenson (1968,p .725-726) .Th edat awer eanalyze d byth eleas tsquare smetho do f fitting constants.

Resultsan d discussion Breed had significant effects on the seven wool traits studied. Means, standard errors, and numbers of observations arepresente d inTable s 1 and2 . There were large breed differences in the average fleece weight. The six breeds of ewes differed noticeably in litter size; theD'Ma n ewes were the most prolific. Multiple births are highly demanding and could cause alos s of wool by shedding prior to shearing. The fleece weights shown in Table 1ar e the reflection of wool growth differences as well as shedding differences betweenth ebreed sinvolved .Th efac ttha tth eprolifi cD'Ma newe sha dth elightes t fleeces is in agreement with the finding of Wiener (1967) that litter size was associated with shedding; that is, the larger the number of lambs born, the greater the amount of wool shed prior to shearing.A s pointed out byWiene r (1967),i t should beemphasize d that prolificacy can only bea n additional causeo f variation of breeddifference s in shedding. The importance of individual quality characteristics of wool is dependent on the end use for which aparticula r fleece isintended . With regard to wool manufacturing, fiber diameter is generally considered asth emos timportan t characteristic; finer wools enable abette r spin­ ningperformanc e andgiv ea softe rhandl et oth eproduct .Fo rcarpe twool ,wher efibe rdiamete r is of little importance, fiber thickness can bepredicte d by using the spinning count method. In Morocco, the latter technique can be accurately, quickly, and cheaply utilized by trained observers under practical field conditions, where ease and speed of assessment are the key toolsi n theearl y stepso f awoo l selection program. The variability in fiber diameter could bepartiall y explained by thepercentag e of medul­ lated fibers. In addition to true wool, heterotypes, or fibers possessing both medullated and non-medullatedregion salon gthei rlength ,wer einclude di nth epresen tstud yo ffibe rdiameter . Thepercentag e of medullatedfiber s is at asatisfactor y leveli n thebreed s studied, given that theen d useo f wooli scarpe t production. Incoars ewoo lbreeds ,fibe r diametercoul dchang ea sa correlate drespons et oselectio n for color. In the case of Morocco, Ryder and Stephenson (1968)reporte d that in Berber breeds, black,white ,an dvariegate dshee prepresente d20,20 ,an d6 0percent ,respectively .Th eSirou a breed,fro m thefleec e ofwhic h theru go f Tazenakht isproduced , is believed tohav ederive d from the Berber sheep by selection based on black wool in particular (Bourfia, 1989). The associated correlated response in fleece fineness would be of little consequence in a such a carpet wool breed. Interm so fyar nstrength ,longe rfiber s arepreferabl e becauseo fth emor epoint so fcontac t theyhav ewit hothe rfiber s (Ryder& Stephenson , 1968).Whil emeasurement so fstapl elengt h may be of assistance inrecordin g thefleec e characteristics, the useo f this trait asa selection criterion is not necessary in view of its positive genetic correlation with fleece weight (McGuirk, 1983). Yield iso f greatimportanc e inpricin gra w wool,give n that theprocesso r of wool isonl y interested in thepercentag e by weighto f cleanfibers i n afleece. Th efac t that in the present study animalswer emanage di na commo nenvironmen timplie s thatth eobserve d differences inyiel dma yb edu et ogeneti cvariation . Asa genera l rule,breed s with coarsefleece s tendt o yieldmor etha nbreed swit hfine rfleeces , andbreed swit hlon gstaple sten dt oyiel dmor etha n

191 Table1. Least squares meansand standard errors of breedeffects ongreasy fleece weight, spinningcount, andfiber diameter.

Breed Fleeceweigh t Spinningcoun t Fiber diameter

n mean (kg) n mean n mean(|a. )

Timahdit 320 2.13+ 0.03 303 49.41± 0.25 116 31.64 ±0.30 BeniAshe n 176 2.64+ 0.05 167 54.28 ±0.33 - - D'Man 817 0.98+ 0.02 749 50.79+ 0.16 155 25.42 ±0.26 BeniGui l 330 1.83+ 0.03 342 53.85 ±0.23 110 26.59 ±0.31 Sardi 961 1.84 ±0.02 872 56.17 ±0.14 195 25.29+ 0.23 Boujaad 81 2.04+ 0.07 116 58.05± 0.39 72 26.18 ±0.38 Total 2 685 1.91 + 0.02 2 549 53.76 ±0.10 648 27.03 ±0.14

Table2. Least squaresmeans and standarderrors of breedeffects on Kemp score (0-6), percentageof medullated fibers (%), staplelength (cm),and wool yield (%).

Breed Kemp score Medullated fibers Staple length 'SYoo lyiel d

n mean n mean n mean n mean

Timahdit 303 1.82 ±0.08 116 3.8± 0.5 75 9.6±0. 2 103 62.5± 0.8 BeniAhse n 167 1.99 ±0.11 - - - - 55 57.3±1. 1 D'Man 749 3.60 ±0.05 155 4.1±0. 4 214 6.7±0. 1 72 58.2 ±1.0 Beni Guil 342 1.49 ±0.07 110 1.3 ±0.5 54 7.1±0. 3 87 57.9± 0.9 Sardi 872 1.49 ±0.05 195 2.9 ±0.4 166 6.4±0. 1 125 60.5± 0.7 Boujaad 117 1.40 ±0.13 72 4.8 ±0.6 117 6.1±0. 2 - - Total 2 550 1.96 ±0.03 648 3.4±0. 2 626 7.2±0. 1 442 59.3± 0.4

breeds with shorter staples (Botkin et al., 1988, p. 432). Accordingly, the Timahdit breed, which had thecoarses t wool andth elonges t staples,presente d thehighes t yield. Indua lpurpos e sheep,th ecrucia lquestio n thatmus tb eface di s therelativ ecas hvalue so f meatan dwoo lproducts .I nMorocco ,ther ei sa lac ko feconomi cincentive s for woolproduc ­ tion.Return so fU S$ 2pe rfleec e makeswoo lles sattractiv et oproducers .Bourfi a (unpublished data) compared theprice si nMorocc oo flam bmea twit hwoo love rth elas tthre edecade san d foundtha tth eoveral ltren dwa sfo rwoo lprice st odecreas econsistentl yrelativ et olam bprices . Therei sreaso n tobeliev e that thistren d will continue atleas tfo r thecurren t decade.Return s from woolwer ehighe rwhe nMorocc owa sexportin gscoure dwoo ldurin gth e 1940's, 1950's, and 1960's.A tth epresen t time,Morocc oi sexportin gcarpets , but thecarpe t industry cannot find suitablewoo li nquantitie slarg eenoug ht omee tit sneeds ,eve nthoug hMorocc oha ssom e fourteen million heado f sheep distributed overmor e than twenty breeds (Bourfia, 1989). InMorocco ,ther ei sa larg evariatio ni nru gproductio nan duse .Morocca nrug sar egenerall y madeb yhan dusin gth etechniqu eo fknotte dpil eweavin gwhic hi sbelieve dt ohav eoriginate d inAsia .Th eamendmen t(Dahir )o fApri l23,197 4define d thestandard stha ta carpe to fa give n quality shouldfulfill . Oneo fthos estandard si swoo lquality .Accordin gt oth estatistic so fth e Ministryo fHandcrafts ,th eproductio no fcarpet sfulfillin g therequirement so fth eStat eStam p is approximately 1.7 million squaremete rpe ryear .

192 There has been considerable discussion over the usefulness of medullated fibers for carpet production. Whileth epresenc e of medullated fibers seems tob ecritica l toth e appearanceo f a carpet, if the proportion of medullated fibers is too high the uptake of dye and thefinal appearance can be adversely affected (McGuirk, 1983).Ros s (1978), cited by Guirgis et al. (1982), summarized the technical aspects of wool requirements for the carpet industry as a kemp free wool with staple length ranging from 7 to 17.5cm . According to Epstein (1987), anidea lcarpe t woolshoul dhav ea naverag efibe r diametero f30|i , amea n staplelengt h of 10 cm with a 20percen t variation in length, and kemp should not exceed 4 percent by weight. Moroccanwool scompl yi ngenera lwit hthes erequirements ,bu tth estapl elengt hi ssomewha t shorter andkem pcontent s arehigher . Theoccurrenc eo fkem pwa sassesse d byweightin g thefleece s according toth eincidenc e of kempyfibers jus t before shearing. However, kempy fibers are known to break easily, so thatan ybree ddifferenc e inth esheddin go fkemp yfibers coul dintroduc ea bia swhe ncompa ­ ringth ebreed swit hregar dt okem p score.I nspit eo fthi spotentia lbias ,th epresen t estimates ofkem pcoul dgiv ea fairl y goodindicatio no fth eleve lo fkem pi nth esi xbreed sinvestigated . Theheritabilit y estimates of kemp scorereporte d in theliteratur e were found to beo nth e ordero f0. 4 (Guirgise tal. , 1982),indicatin gtha tth eamoun to fkem pi nfleec e canb ereduce d through selection to meet the requirements of carpet wool in particular. Using a measure of wool fiber medullation in young lambs, and selecting either for increased medullation score (Hairyline )o rdecrease d medullation score(Fin eline) ,Cu e(1983 )reporte dtha tselectio n for medullation had no correlated response in lamb mortality and found little evidence for the difference inlam bmortalit y betweenHair y andFin elines . ' Themea nkem pscor eo fth eD 'Ma n breedwa sth elargest .Thi shighl yprolifi c breed,whic h possesses theabilit y tolam bal lyea raround ,i sraise di nth esouther noase so fMorocc owher e theanimal sca nb eexpose d tohig hdegree s of sunlights andtemperatures .Hea ttolerance ,i.e . ability for an animal to maintain deep body temperature during severe heat exposure, is an important characteristic in hot areas.Oasi s sheep,suc h asth eD'Man , havepresumabl y been subjected to some natural selection for heat tolerance, and as a result they perform more efficiently in such anenvironment . Whileinformatio n isneede d aboutth einsulativ e valueo f kemp and other medullated fibers under oasis conditions, it ispossibl e to assume thatkem p in thefleec e would play aprotectiv e role and help pregnant ewes and new-born lambs resist heat stress. In spiteo f traditional complaints aboutkemp ,i ti sfel t thatth e geneticimprovemen t of the D'Man sheepi n theoasi s context should secure thecharacteristic s related tohea t adaptation. Itca nb econclude dtha talthoug hi ti spossibl et oge tri do fkem pthroug hselection ,i ti sperhap s better to keep a small amount of kemp in D'Man fleeces. Indeed, with such a high level of kempscor ei nD'Ma nfleeces ,i ti sto oearl yt ob econcerne dabou tth ecomplet edisappearanc e of kemp from theD'Ma n wool; it can bereasonabl y assumed that it is possible to carry out selection against kemp fibers for few generations without affecting the level of hardiness of theD'Ma n breed.

Conclusions

Thepresen t studyha sbee nmad eprio rt oan yorganize dselectio nprogram ;nevertheless ,ther e isreaso n tobeliev etha t theobserve d breed differences infinenes s could wellb eth eresul to f aselectio n thatwa sapplie d byfarmer s tomee tthei rneed so nclothes .Th eresult so fthi spape r aret ob einterprete d asbroa dguideline sfo r stimulatingfurthe r worko nfleec e characterization andimplementin g apolic y toimprov e woolproductio n of Moroccan breeds of sheep. On the basis of existing evidence, it seems that greasy fleece weight is the major factor influencing grossreturn s from thesal eo f wool.A tleas tfo r thepresent , therei s noeconomi c reason to base selection on other criteria. The available information from the literature sub-

193 stantiatesth echoic emad ei nvie wo fth efac ttha tfleec eweigh twa sfoun dt ob ea tleas tmodera ­ telyheritabl ei na wid erang eo fbreed san dtha tselectio nfo rincrease dfleec eweigh ti sexpecte d tolea dt oincrease si nstapl elengt han dfollicl e density ascorrelate dresponses .Fibe rdiamete r variabilityi slikel yt oincreas ea sa consequenc eo fselectio no nfleec eweight ,bu tth eproble m iso flittl erelevanc ei nth ecas eo fMorocc owher eth emai nen dus eo fwoo li scarpe tproduction . Selection for increased fleece weight is also expected to boost the national economy since wool production atpresen t does not exceed 1800 0 tons of greasy wool peryear , in spiteo f therelativel ylarg enumbe ro fth eshee ppopulation .Th erational ebehin dth econsideratio no f the traits investigated is merely for contribution to breed characterization; extensive fleece measurements othertha n greasyweigh tma yno tb ejustifiabl e atthi s stageo f selection onth e ground of cost. Theavailabl eevidenc esuggest stherefor e thata goo dstar ti nMorocc owoul db et oincreas e fleece weightb ymas s selection andremov eanimal s withexcessiv eamoun to fkem pb yinde ­ pendent culling levels.I tca n besai dwit hconfidenc e thatth eimplementatio n of such abree ­ dingprogra mi salread yi nproces sa tth enationa llevel .I ti shope dtha ti twil lb esustaine dan d resulti n amor eprofitabl e wool production.

References Botkin, M.P., RA. Field & C.LeRoy Johnson, 1988. Shee p and wool: Science, production, andmanagement . PrenticeHall ,Englewoo d Cliffs, NewJersey . Bourfia,M., 1989. Sheepbreed si nMorocco .In :FA O(Ed. )Smal lruminant si nth eNea rEast . Volume III:Nort h Africa. AnimalProductio n andHealt h paper number74 ,p .47-64 . Cue,RJ., 1983.Correlate dresponse s inlam bmortalit y duet olon gter m selection for cannon bonelengt h andfleec e medullation in sheep.Anim .Prod . 37:293-299. Epstein, H., 1987.Awass isheep .In :FA O(Ed. )Smal lruminant s inth eNea rEast . VolumeII . Animal Production andHealt h paper number 55,p .29-38 . Guirgis,RA., EA. Afifi& E.S.E. Galal, 1982.Estimate so fgeneti can dphenotypi cparameter s of some weight and fleece traits in a coarse-wool breed of sheep. J. Agric. Sei., Camb. 99:277-285. McGuirk, BJ., 1983.Geneti c selection for wool production. In: W. Haresign (Ed.): Sheep production. Butterworths.London ,p .545-566 . Ryder, ML. &S.K. Stephenson,1968. Woo l growth. Academic Press.London . Wiener, G., 1967.Acompariso no fth ebod ysize ,fleec eweigh tan dmaterna lperformanc eo ffiv ebreed s of sheepkep ti n oneenvironment . Anim.Prod . 9:177-195.

194 Session6

Carpetan dru g production

Chairman: B.Markoti c Co-chairman: H.Ipek . The history and present situation of Turkish carpet industry

O.Aslanapa University ofIstanbul, Facultyof Letters, P.T.T. Fen,34459, Istanbul, Turkey

Summary It seemsquit eapparen t withth ediscove ro fth ecarpet sdurin gth eexcavation s ofth ePazyry k tombs in the foothills of the Altai mountains in Siberia that the Turks were acquainted with theTurkis h knot carpet technique during the time of theHuns ,tha t is the 3rd or2n d century BC.Th enex tdiscover yo fearl ycarpet swa smad eb y SirMar cAure lStei ni n 1906-08i nEas t Turkestaneas to fLak eLo pa tLou-Lan .Tha nLate rA .vo nL eCo qi n 1913foun d smallwove n pieceso fcarpet sdatin gfro m the3r dt o6t hcentur yA Da ta shrin ei nQyzi lnea rKutsh adurin g excavationsi nth eTari mbasi nals oi nTurkestan .Thes elatte rwer ewove nwit ha simpl eknot ­ tingtechniqu eo n asingl ewef t andindicat etha tperhap sdurin gthi slon gperio d theadvance d techniqueo f thePazyry kcarpe tma yhav ebee nforgotte n orlost . The simple knotting technique of East Turkestan next appears in some carpets found in Fosfat (an ancientsit enea rCairo) ,carpet so fth eAbbasi dperio dreflectin g Islamic influences with their geometric designs. / Iti sa pit ytha tther ear en oexample so fcarpet sfro m Irandurin g theSelçu kSultanate .Th e oldest carpets which we can examine carefully from the Anatolian Selçuk period are those withTurkis h knots of the 13th century woven in Konya. Theanimal-figure d Anatoliancarpet spredominantl y appearedi nth e 14thcentur yan dhav e theirorigin s alsoi nth eSelçu kPeriod .I norde rt ohav eachieve d thefam e andpopularit y they seemt ohav e gainedi nEurop ebase do nth efrequenc y of theirrepresentatio n inth epainting s of thisperiod , the carpets must have beenintroduce d intoEurop edurin g Selçuktimes . Beginning in 1451wit h thereig n of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror and through the 16th century, these in paintings executed first by Italian and later by Flemish and Dutch painter. They most frequently were used by Holbein in his works and there by as a group, bear his name. Alongside the development of the geometric typecarpet s of the 16thcentur y therewa sa t thesam etim eth ebeginnin go fa ne wan dexcitin gperio di nth ear to fTurkis hcarpe tweaving . This started in Usak and grew out of an interest of classic Ottoman art.Th e development of Turkish carpet weaving continued until theen do f the 19th century. In the Konya, Kayseri, Sivas and Kirsehir regions, and in Isparta, Fethiye, Dösemealti, Balikesir, Yagcibedir,Usak , Bergama, Kula,Giirdes ,Milas , Çanakkalean dEzin e in western Anatolia and in Kars and Erzurum in Eastern Anatolia there are creative endeavors at revitalizing the arto f Turkish carpet weaving.

Introduction Itseem squit eapparen twit hth ediscover yo fth ecarpet sdurin gth eexcavation so fth ePazyry k tombs in the foothills of the Altai mountains in Siberia that the Turks were acquainted with theTurkis h knot carpet technique during the time of theHuns ,tha t is the 3rd or 2nd century BC.Th enex tdiscover yo fearl ycarpet swa smad eb ySi rMar cAure lStei ni n 1906-08i nEas t Turkestan easto fLak eLo p atLoulan .The n laterA .vo nL e Coqi n 1913foun d smallwove n pieceso fcarpet sdatin gfro m the3r dt o6t hcentur yA Da ta shrin ei nQyzi lnea rKutsh adurin g excavationsi nth eTari mbasi nals oi nTurkestan .Thes elatte rwer ewove nwit ha simpl eknot -

197 tingtechniqu e ona singl ewef t andindicat e thatperhap sdurin gthi slon gperio d theadvance d technique ofth ePazyry kcarpe tma yhav ebee nforgotte n orlost . The simple knotting technique of East Turkestan next appears in some carpets found in Fostat (anancien t sitenea rCairo) ,carpet so fth eAbbasi dperio dreflectin g Islamic influences with theirgeometri cdesigns .

Theearl y carpetmaker Iti sknow nfro mhistorica lsource stha tcarpet sdurin gth e10t hcentur ywer ewove ni nBukhar a and other places in West Turkestan and that they were exported to other countries. This continued until theperio d of destruction by theMongol s in the 13thcentury . There is in the Islamic Art Museum, Cairo a wool carpet (from Fosfat), one woven with palmettes ona re dfield an dtie dwit hth eTurkis hkno twhic hJ .Zick-Nisse n after careful exa­ mination has suggested is among the first of the knotted carpets to have been woven in the Islamic worlddurin gth eMiddl e Ages.Thi scarpe t has aban do f Kufic writingi n the border. Further speculation istha ti twa simporte di nth e7t ht o9t hcentur ydurin gth eAbbasi dPerio d from west Turkestan (Maveraiinnehir).Thi s indicates thatBukhara , notEas t Turkestan was thefirs t weaving center. Another fragment, this time with intricate designs and different border motifs which isi n the National State Museum, Berlin, was acquired by Kiihnel and is believed to have been imported toEgyp t from WestTurkesta n (Transoxiana) andBukhara . Sincether e are noothe r extantexample sfro m thisare aothe rdesig n variations cannot becited . Therear ehoweve rothe rearl ycarpe tfragment s which werefoun d inEgypt .Thes eemplo y thekno t on a single weft as used in thecarpet s of theEas t Turkestan group and usually they havea dar kblu efield .Tw ofragment s fromFosfa t arei nth eBenak iMuseum ,Athen san dhav e been carefully examined by J. Zick-Nissen. Another recently found in the town Tulunlu el-Katai (near Cairo) and now in the Cairo University Collection carries the same charac­ teristics, Kufic borders and pearl-lined connecting motifs. It seems apparent that when the Tulunids under Humaraveyh spread out from Egypt into Syria and the Adana region then- weaving andcarpe t artdeveloped . Howeveri ti s apit y that therear e noexample s of carpets from Iran during the Selçuk Sultanate. The oldest carpets which we can examine carefully from theAnatolia n Selçuk period are those with Turkish knots of the 13thcentur y woveni n Konya. After F.R. Martin's discovery of eight Selçuk carpets in the Alaeddin Mosque, Konya in 1905,R.M .Riefstah l found threemor ei n 1930,an di n 1935an d 1936seve nother swer efoun d inFosfa t bringing the total of this collection to eighteen. The art of carpet weaving which the Turks brought to the Islamic world extended the techniqueo f singleknotte dweft s asfa r westa sSpain .Thes epiece swer e greatlyadmire db y theEuropean s as can beatteste d by the frequency of theirrepresentatio n in thepainting s by artists of theperiod . Iranian carpets as such only appear after the 15thcentur yfo r in the 14th and 15th century miniatures we find representations of carpets with borders of the Kufic design and motifs in commonwit hthos euse do nth e 13thcentur ySelçu kcarpets .I ti sobviou stha tth edevelopmen t in Iran was influenced by the Turks. Original Iranian carpets only started to beproduce d in the 16th century. The Kufic borders of the Selçuk carpets which later developed into inter­ twining andfloriat e borders becamea nenrichin gelemen to f Spanish andCaucasia ncarpets . Theanimal-figure d Anatoliancarpet spredominantl yappeare di nth e14t hcentur yan dhav e theirorigin s alsoi nth eSelçu kPeriod .I norde rt ohav eachieve d thefam e andpopularit y they seemt ohav egaine di nEurop ebase do nth efrequenc y ofthei rrepresentation si nth epainting s of thisperiod , the carpets must have been introduced intoEurop e during Selçuk times. One of these original carpets was brought to the Berlin Museum by W. von Bode from Romei n

198 1890.I tha sa dragon-phoeni xcomba tcompositio n (Ming).Anothe rwit hbir dfigure s flanking a tree was found in 1925 in a village church in Marby, Sweden. Later more examples of animal-figured carpets havecom e toligh ti nFosfat , Istanbul and Konya.

The 'Holbein'grou po fcarpet s

After finding thethre eSelçu kcarpet si nBeysehir ,R.M .Rie fstah lfoun d afourt h carpeto fth e 15thcentur y which canb edesignate d asth ebeginnin gprototyp e ofth elate rfamou s Holbein groupo fcarpets .Thes ecarpet swit hgeometri can dintertwinin gfloriat edesign sandKufic-lik e borders originated during the Ottoman Period. Beginning in 1451 with the reign of Sultan Mehmet theConquero r and through the 16thcentury ,thes eappea ri npainting s executed first byItalia nan dlate rb yFlemis han dDutc hpainters .The ymos tfrequentl y wereuse db yHolbei n inhi swork san dthereb ya sa group ,bea rhi sname .Thoug hno tal lar etypica lo fHolbei nrepre ­ sentations, these carpets have been classified into four groups. The oldest and most charac­ teristic groupha s smallpattern so foctagon s anddiamond swit h submergedcontour s alterna­ ting in offset diagonal raws on a background of rami palmettes. The second type, which in factwa sno tuse db yHolbein ,consist so fdiamond san dcruciform-lik e deviceso ffloriat emo ­ tifs andoctagon s without contours. Since these are seenfrequentl y inLorenz o Lotto's pain­ tingsthe yar eals ocalle d 'Lotto'carpets .Thes etw ogroup swer eespeciall yimportan telement s in the development of thelate rUsa k carpets. / The third and fourth groups of Holbein carpets have simple designs consisting of squares andrectangle swit hfilling s ofoctagons .Thes edesign swhic har erelate dt oth eanima l figured carpetsbecam eperfecte d duringth e 15thcentur yan dhav econtinue di nus eunti lrecen tyears . The Holbein carpets consisting of squares and rectangles with two small octagonal devices abovean d below,relat ebac kt oth ecarpet swit h bordermotif s of theSelçu k times.Th elarge - patternHolbein s are atransitiona l development leading toth eBergam a carpets.I n these,th e geometric and sometimes strongly stylized floriate designspredominate .Th eoldes t groupo f thesecarpet sdate st oth e16t hcentury .I nth e18t hcentur yanima lfigure swer eagai nintroduce d asfille r motifs thusestablishin g alin kt othei rpredecessors ,th eanimal-figure d carpets.

ClassicOttoma n art

Alongside thedevelopmen t of thegeometri c typecarpet so f the 16thcentur y therewa sa tth e same time the beginning of a new and exciting period in the art of Turkish carpet weaving. Thisstarte di nUsa kan dgre wou to fa ninteres tan dresurgenc eo fothe raspect so fclassi cOtto ­ man art,particularl y thato f architecture.Thi sric h andvarie d groupo fUsa k carpetsha sbee n collected andthoroughl y studied.Fro m thetw otypica l classic forms, the Staran d Medallion Usaks,variation s withric h motifs mark thebeginnin go f ane wperiod .Thes einclud ecarpet s ofth emedallio ntyp eo fu pt ote nmeter si nlengt hi nwhic hth ecentra lmedallion s are flanked on each sideb ycut-of f medallions thussignifyin g anendles s expanseo f composition. The Tabriz medallion carpets are inspired by the decorative motifs on book bindings and covers.Bu tth econfined , staticqualit yo f thisdesig nha sbee n given ane wexpansivenes sb y the use of these motifs on Turkish carpets. The Turks, not confined to the art of the book, preserved in this endless continuum the essence of the plasticity of the textile medium. The creation ofUsa kcarpet s continuedfro m the 16thcentur y through the middle of the 18th. The eight-pointed star motif alternating with diamond-shaped medallions in offset rows, thecompositio no fth eSta rUsa kcarpets ,i sth ebes texpressio no fthi sfeature .Excellen texam ­ ples of small carpets of this typefro m theearl y 16thcentur y can be seen, but later examples areno tavailabl e since theycease d toexis tb y theen do f the 17th century.

199

•ÉM. Simultaneously withth edevelopmen to f traditionalAnatolia ncarpet s acompletel y newtyp e of carpet using naturalistic motifs emerged in the 16th century, the Ottoman Palace carpets. Using the Persian (Sine)kno t insteado f the traditional Turkish (Gördes)kno t these weavers wereabl et oproduc ea close-wove npil ewhic hha da textur esimila rt otha to f softvelvet .Thi s was the beginning of a naturalistic style which pervaded all phases of Ottoman art. The ornamentation using all forms — tulips, hyacinths, roses,carnations , budding flower stems, graceful twistingleave s— continue dt oa nincreasin gdegre eunti lth een do fth e 18thcentury . The conquests by the Ottomans of Tabriz in 1514an d later Cairo in 1517 are important datesi nTurkis hcarpe thistory .Unde rth einfluenc e ofth eMameluk eus eo fcolo r andtechni ­ quesi nthei rcarpets ,th enaturalisti c andflowe r motifsbecam emor eeviden tan dgav ewa yt o a newfor m of expression. It was first thought that these carpets were produced on Mameluke looms and shipped to the court in Istanbul but from examination of sample carpets sentfro m Istanbul,E . Kühnel later modified his theory acknowledging that becauseo f technique it wasquit epossibl e that someo f these carpets wereproduce d in Istanbul and in thefamou s silk center, Bursa. There isdat at osuppor tthis . SultanMura dII Ib yImperia lEdic ti n 1585ha dordere deleve nEgyptia n weavers (onewa s Turkish, Arslan by name) to come to Istanbul together with their silk-like fine wool for weaving. This included the beautiful red, yellow, deep blue and fresh-green yarns used in Mamelukecarpets .Customaril yth ewar pan dwef to fthes ecarpet swer eo fnatura lwhit ewoo l orth ewar pwa ssometime so fre dwool ,wherea sth eOttoma nPalac ecarpet swove ni nIstanbu l andBurs ause d silki nth ewar p and weft. Exceptfo rtw orathe rdamage dlarg ecarpet s(8. 8x 4.6 5m an d4.2 8x 4. 8m )an don epraye r rugi nth eMuseu mo fTurkis han dIslami cArts ,Istanbul ,an danothe rpraye rru gi nth eTopkap i Palace Museum, Istanbul no other examples are left in Turkey. These carpets having been generally exported are now in museums and private collections around the world. The two museum carpets werefoun d in the Seyyid Battal GaziTürbe ,Eskisehi r andwer e brought to the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts, Istanbul in January 1911 (10 Kanunu-sâni 1329) wherethe ywer einventorie d asNos .76 8an d 153.Th elarg eone ,No .76 8ha s acompositio n of five rows ofdiamon d devices alternating incolo rfro m yellow todar k blue.Th ediamond s areconnecte dt oeac hothe rb ytw owinge dextensions .Thi sbaroqu ecompositio no fconnecte d diamondsi s very common inOttoma n Palacecarpet s andca nb efoun d in anothercarpet , for example,i nth eVictori aan dAlber tMuseum ,Londo nwit hexactl yth esam efiel d composition asth eon eabov eexcep t thatmedallion shav ebee n added. From the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th century these Ottoman Palace carpets continuedt ob ewove nthoug hthe ywer econstantl ydeclinin gi nquality .Th etraditiona lcom ­ positionswer ecarrie do ni narathe rpoo rgrou po fUsa kcarpets ,a grou pwhic hbecam eknow n inth e 19thcentur y asth e Izmircarpets . On theothe r hand the vigorous character of theOttoma n Palacepraye r rugs continued to live on in the 18th century in the wide variety of prayer rugs from Gördes,Kula , Ladik and Usak.Ther ei sa nexcellen texampl eo fa norigina lpalac epraye rrug ,on ebelongin gt oSulta n AhmetI whic hi sno wi nth eTopkap iMuseum ,Istanbul .I nspit eo fth efac ttha ti twa sprobabl y usedunde ra brazie ran dha ssom eburne darea si nth ecenter ,i tstil li sfi tfo rth eus eo fa sultan . One other palace prayer rug is in theBerli n Museum. On the upper border the date of H 1019(1610 )ha sbee nwove na sa chronogra mwhic hhelp sbot ht oestablis hth efac t thatthes e rugsma y havebegu n tob eexporte d atth e beginning of the 17thcentur y and alsot odat eth e SultanAhme tpiece . Theoldes tknow n groupo fpraye rrug suniqu ei nTurkis hcarpe t weavingi sfro m the15t h century. The three rugs of completely distinctive composition now found in the Museum of Turkish andIslami c Arts,Istanbu l attest to the lively creativity shown by this group, Other examples of this period can be seen in the Renaissance paintings of the Bellinis, Carpaccio and L. Lotto. In the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin is apraye r rug which is identical to one

200 found spreadunde rth etabl ei nGiovanni' s 1507paintin go fth eVenetio nDoge ,Loredan .On e of the earliest representations is in a painting by Gentile Bellini in the National Gallery, London. Therei sa nexquisit eUsa kpraye rru go fth eearl y 16thcentur yi nth eBerli nMuseu mwhic h has in thedepresse d area atth e bottoma ver y largepalmett e deviceno t unsimilar to theon e inth eBellin ipraye rrug .I n theBod e Collection anUsa kpraye rru go fth e 1600si son eo fth e exampleso fthos ewove nwit h aver ywid eborde ran da singl emedallio ni nth emiddl eo fth e field which contains o double mihrab. It is unfortunate that we have sofe w examples of the 15than d 16thcentur ypraye rrugs . Inth e 17thcentur yther ewa sa sudde nresurgenc ebot hi nnumbe ran di nvariet yo fpraye r rugs, most notably being those from Gördes with finely stepped mihrabs and undulating contours which atth e same timereflec t acontinuatio n of the OttomanPalac e style.Nort ho f Gördesi nKul asimila rrug swit h similarmihra bniche san dborder scontainin g upt oa sman y aste n thin stripesshoul d benoted .Kul aals oproduce d landscape-patterned rugswhic hinclu ­ ded a composition of small houses and trees.Thir d in importance came the prayer rugs of Ladik. These were striking because of their soft texture and vivid colors and characteristic rows of long-stemmed tulips above and below themihrab . There arerug s with two-or three-contoured mihrabs in twoo r three colors of red that are productso fKirsehi ran dnearb yMucur . Milaspraye rrug so nth eothe rhan dusin gmotif s from the Gördes rugs are bright and many colored and have been influenced by the Usak and Bergamatraditions . The Transylvanian church carpets found in museums and collections around the world mostlydat efro m the 17thcentury .Thes e singlean ddouble-niche d mihrabrug s arerelate dt o theUsa k and Bergama groups. Besides these,ther e are numerous other types of prayerrug s which,thoug h uniquei n theirow nway ,reflec t various influences.

Thelate ryear so fcarpe t making

The development of Turkish carpet weaving continued until the end of the 19th century. In 1891Abdülhami dI I added ahundre d carpetlooms toth efabric-loom s which were setu pi n 1844b yAbdiilmeci di nHereke ,an dstarte dth eproductio no fth ewell-know nHerek ecarpets . Today in the same place, carpets are produced in the same style under SiimerbankManage ­ ment. In the Konya, Kayseri, Sivas and Kirsehir regions, and in Isparta, Fethiye, Dösemealti, Balikesir, Yagcibedir,Usak , Bergama,Kula , Giirdes,Milas , Çanakkalean dEzin e in western Anatolia and in Kars andErzuru m in eastern Anatolia there are other creative endeavors at revitalizing the arto f Turkish carpet weaving. Theepitom y of theuniqu econtributio n ofTurkis hcarpe tweavin g liesi n acontinuity ,on e which builds anddiscard s asi tdevelops . In theproces s of giving andtakin g the uniqueness ismatche d by afir m graspo f thetraditional .Thi sfreedo m of expression hasgive nrise t oth e vastvariet y whichi s theessenc eo f arta tit s finest.

201 The carpet production and possibilitieso fimprovin g production inEaster n Anatolia

N.S. Tellioglu UniversityofAtatiirk, Faculty of Agriculture, Departmentof Animal Science, Erzurum, Turkey

Summary

The Eastern Anatolia has 1/4 of sheep population of Turkey. The dominant sheep breed is Morkaraman.Th ewoo lcolou ri nMorkarama n sheepchange sfro m lightbrow nt odar kbrown . In a Morkaraman flock there is also black, dark-yellow and violet (purple) coloured sheep. TheMorkarama nwoo li scarpe ttyp eo fwoo lan duse di nmanufacturin g touristicgoods .Ther e are alsoi n small number of Akkaraman and Tuj sheepi n thisregio n of Turkey.Th e woolo f theseshee par eals ouse di ncarpe t textileindustry . Thewoo li s whitei n thistyp eo f sheep. Morkaraman wool is used in natural carpet manufacturing. Akkaraman and Tuj wool is dyed with natural dyes and used in making knitting handcrafts such as sweaters, cardigns, folkloric sacks etc. Natural colour Morkaraman wool is also used in making ehram (ihram) whichi sspecia ltyp eo fAfgha n madeb yhan dan dcarpe ttextile .Th efine typ eo fMorkarama n woolca n beuse di n manufacturing natural (Scottish type)cloth .

Introduction The Eastern Anatolia is among the greatest parts of Turkey with its 1662.16 square miles (Tellioglu, 1983).Thi spar to fTurke y iscovere d withmountains .It' s hoti nsumme ran dcol d snowy in winter. Thenatura l structureo f theregio n is suitable torais eprimitiv e sheep breed. Karaman which is amai n primitive sheep breed,ha s been adapted to thisregio n after alon g selection.Karama nha swhit ean dre dvarieties .Re dKarama nfleece sconsis to fth eunde rcoa t withfine an dshor tfiber s andth eoute rcoa twit hcoars ean dlon gfibers .Besid ethes etw otype s offibers, medullate dan dheterotyp efiber s areals opresen ti nth efleec e (Telliogluan dEmsen , 1976). TheEaster n Anatolia has2 5percen t ofTurkey' s sheeppopulatio n (Anon, 1970). Theincom e obtainedfro m Karaman is7 1 percentmeat ,2 2percen t milk andth eremainin g7 percen twoo l (Karatas, 1973).Becaus eo f thisreaso n it takes agrea tpar ti n agricultural economy of there ­ gion.Whit eKarama n is better thanRe dKaraman .It s woolfleec e islonge r androughe r than theothers .Th ecoa tfiber s of fleece isfine an dheli xfor m (Tellioglu, 1983).

Fibresan d colours Therear emedull aan dkel pfibre s inadditio n tothes efibre s (Tellioglu andEmsen , 1976). The colouri nRe dKarama n sheepchange sfro mligh tbrow nt odar kbrow n(Tellioglu , 1983).Ther e is alsoviolet , brown, yellowish and dark sheep in a flock. The black onei s called as 'Black sheep'(Batu , 1953).Re dKarama n wooli sdye dwit hdar kcolou rbecaus ei ti sno tsuitabl e for light colour (Zakhary, 1973).I n addition, color bleaching can not be done in Red Karaman wool because of this wool property. The 25percen t of Red Karaman wool is added to tops, ayaki sa typeo f wool manufactured from thesetops .

202 Classification The carpets are classified according to the production techniques into two groups such as hand-made and machine-made carpets. The production techniques of hand-made carpet is primitivean dthi sindustr ydoe sno tnee da grea tdea lo finvestment .Th emanufacturin g ofthi s carpeti sth eresul to fknottin go f theeac h loopb yhan d (Tellioglu, 1983). Hand-made carpet, kilim and ehram are woven traditionally in Bayburt, Giimiishane, Erzincan and Erzurum, the Eastern part of Turkey. This kind of weaving technique has not beenchange dmuc hmor etha n before.I norde rt oimprov ethi sweavin gindustr y belongingt o theEaster n Anatoliawit h theparti - cularconsideratio n of both technology and art, "Woolen Handcrafts Institute"wa sestablishe di n 1962,Atatiir kUniversit y (Girisken, 1974).Th eabov e mentioned organization makesresearche s onol dcarpet s andals oteache syoun ggirl sho wt o makecarpet ,kili man dothe rtouristi cgoods .Thi senable sthe mt oear n money andcontribut e to their family income. In order to improve hand-made carpet in this region, weaving tech­ niques of carpet, kilim and touristic goods have tob e taught theunemploye d people and the governmentmus tmak einvestmen tt oencourag ethem .The yals ohav et oorganiz eco-operativ e business to support themselves.

References Anonymous, 1970.Dog u Anadolu Bölgesinin hayvancilik durumu hakkindarapor . Tiirkiye TicaretOdalar iv eBorsalar iBirlig i Ankara. Batu,S., 1953. Dog u illerihayvanciligi .Veterine rFakiiltes iYayinlar iNo .5 2Ankar aÜniver - sitesiBasimev iAnkara . Girisken,N„ 1974. 50. Yilarmaganî .Atatiir kÜniversitesi . Karatas, S., 1973.Merino s Morkaraman melezlerinin verimözellikler i bakimindan karsilas- tirlimasiIV .Bili mKongresi , Ankara. Tellioglu, S. &E. Emsen, 1976. Morkarama n koyunlarnida gebeligin sekiz haftasi laktasyon boyunca enerji veprotei n ihtiyaçlarininyapag ikalites i iizerinetesirleri . AtatiirkÜniversi ­ tesi ZiraatFakiiltes i ZiraatDergisi . Tellioglu, S., 1983.Dog u Anadolu koyunu ve yapagilarinin sanayide (hali, kumas ve keçe) kullanilirlik yönündenözellikleri .2 0Mart ,Yapag iTifti k A.S.Ankara . Tellioglu,S., 1983. Internationa lSymposiu mo nproductio no fshee pan dgoa ti nMediterranea n Area. 17-21October ,Ankara ,Turkey . Zakhary.A.,1975. Kizil ,siya hvemaku ikoyunlarini nYapag iözellikler iüzerindebi rarastirma . Atatiirk Üniversitesi ZiraatFakiiltes i Zootekni Bölümü (Doktora) Erzurum.

203 The preservation ofth etraditiona l characteristicso f hand-woven Turkish carpets and the importance ofnatura l dyes

G. Paksoy PaksoyHali-Kilim, AtiyeSok. 61A 80200 Tesvikiye, Istanbul

Abstract Thispape rconsist so ftw oparts .Th efirs tpar tinclude sa nexpositio no f thetraditiona lcharac ­ teristicso fhand-wove nTurkis hcarpet si nthei rhistorica ldevelopment .Th esecon dpar tdeal s with oneo f the mostimportan t characteristics of thosecarpets ,tha t isth e useo f natural dyes anddyein g methods andothe rcharacteristic srelate d todyeing . Key words: Hand-woven Turkish carpets, traditional characteristics, natural dyes, dyeing methods.

Introduction A short summary of the historical development of Turkish flatweaves will be useful in ex­ plaining theimportanc e of Turkish carpets. Carpets arefirs t included in thehistor y of artb y Robinson, but the development of research on this subject has began by Erdman. Thesere ­ searches have proved that the art of carpet weaving had been developed by the Turks and introduced to the world civilization by them (Aslanapa andDurul , 1973).Th ebeginning s of thear to f carpet weaving can betrace d backint othre esources : 1. Thepazyry kcarpe t which was found by Rudenkodurin g 1947-1949 isth eoldes tknow n example.It s technical characteristics are still amatte ro f discussion, butthe y are accepted asa naccomplishmen to fTurkis hHun san da sa produc to fgrea tmaster yye tt ob eoutshine d (Yetkin, 1991). 2. The carpets which were found by Sir Aurel Stein during 1906-1908 inLo u Lan kurgans inEaster n Turkestan andi n astup ai nLop-No r aredate d backt oth efirs t century BC. 3. Two fragments of rugs found by Lomm in Fustat are accepted as products of Abbasids. They bear some technical resemblance to those found in Eastern Turkestan and are dated backt oth esecon dpar to f thenint h century. From theelevent h century on, underth ereig n of Anatolian Seljuks, thear to fcarpe t weaving has begun to spread westward from Central Asia. Some examples of thoserug s which show anincredibl erichness o fcolou ran ddesig nar ei nmuseum si nTurke y aswel la si nothe rpart s of the world. Later on, other examples of Seljuk carpets were also produced in Konya and Beyshehir until thefourteent h century. The pictorial representations by European painters show that animal designs had been introducedint ofourteent h centuryTurkis hcarpet san dthes efigure sha dbee nenriche dtoward s theen do fth efifteent h century.Thes ecarpet sar ecalle d"Holbein "afte rth enam eo fth epainte r whodepicte d them. TheAnatolia ncarpet swhic hwer eproduce dthroughou ta perio do f20 0year swer eth ebasi s ofTurkoma n andyoru kcarpets .Th ecarpet sdepicte db yth epainte rLorenz oLott oar eknow n as"Lotto" .Th eHolbei nan dth eLott oprovide da transitio nint oanothe rtyp eo fcarpet sname d "Ushak" after the name of the region. Ushak carpets marked the beginning of the second brilliant period of Turkish carpets during the sixteenth century.Thes e wereproduce d during theseventeent hcentur yan dbega nt odeclin ei nth eeighteent hcentury .Othe rimportan tTurkis h

204 carpets were the sixteenth century Ottoman court carpets where different techniques and designswer euse d aswel la sth eseventeent h centurypraye rrugs . Thegeographica l andgeologica lcondition so fTurke y andth erol eo fTurke y asth ecradl e of various cultures through the ages areth emai nfactor s thatconstitut eth etechnica l variety andth erichnes s ofdesig n andcolou ro f theTurkis hrug s andcarpets . Wehav e givena slic eo finformatio n aboutth ehistor y ofth eTurkis hhand-wove n carpets above.Th e sourceo f their welldeserve d fame is their traditional characteristics. Below is a briefenumeratio n of thesecharacteristics .

Material

Turkishcarpet swer ewove nwit ha specifi cwoo ltake nfro mcertai npart so fth eshee pi ncertai n seasons.Thi s is known as the kirmen (wooden spindle) wool.Th e way wool is spun is very important indeterminin g thequalit y ofth e carpet.

Dyesan d dyeing methods

Before the introduction of the first synthetic colouring matter by the famous chemistPerki n in 1860, natural dyes were used in carpet making. Various sources explain that natural colouringha dbee nsprea dfro m Anatoliat oth eWest .Thi s wasimportan tfo r theTurkis heco ­ nomy.I ti s awel lknow n fact thatTurke y was once aproduce r and exported of naturaldyes . Themai n colouringplant s exportedfro m Turkey wererubi atinctoru m whichi sknow n asth e oldest source ofcolourin g matterfo r red andviole t andcartamu s tinctoria for yellow.

Therichnes so fcolou ran d designan d weavingtechnique s

Another superiorcharacteristi co fTurkis hflatweave s isth etraditiona lrichness o fdesig nwit h an exquisite knowledge of colourwhic h canb e taken asa reflectio n ofth eimpac to f oldcul ­ tures. The knot-techniques and the amount of knots in a square centimeter are the compo­ nentso fthes etraditiona lcharacteristics .Th eensuin gpar to fthi spape rdeal swit hnatura ldye s anddyein gmethod swhic h areimportan t traditional characteristics. The research on natural dyes began with the transition of mankind from covering their bodiesint odressin gthemselve san dcontinue di na neve rgrowin gspeed .Althoug hth ehistor y of textile colouring is considerably old, the textilemateria li s not solid enough to stand un­ impairedthroug hth eage s andw eca nonl y tracethi shistor y asfa r backa s250 0BC . Theeffort s thatbega nwit hth eintroductio no fth efirs tchemica ldy ean dth erecentl y found dyeshav ediminishe d agrea tdea lth eeffort s toresearc h ofnatura ldye san dthei ruse .Turke y whouse dt oexpor tnatura ldye si nth epast ,cease dth egrowin go fth eplant sfro m whichthes e dyeswer eproduced . Recentlydevelope ddye sar eeasie rt ous ean dtherefor e they superseded thenatura lones .Othe rimportan tfactor s thatforc epeopl et oqui tnatura ldye sar eth ecollaps e of some traditions under the impact of changing social and economic conditions and the damages inflicted on the ecological balance by using natural resources irresponsibly. Some examples of this development were the use of synthetic indigoinstea d of indigoferro which was the most important source of blue; the introduction of alizarin in 1864instea d of rubia tinctoruman dth eintroductio no f syntheticcarme ni n 1894instea do fcochinea lan dkermess . Withth ebeginnin go fth eus eo fsyntheti cdyes ,som eproblem s arosei nloo pcolourin gan d thetraditiona lcolour shav edecayed .Th emai nreaso n for thisdevelopmen t wasth efault y use ofdyein gmethod sdu et olac ko fexperience .I nsmal lworkshop san dhouses ,traditiona lnatura l dyeingmethod shav emistakenl y beenapplie dt osyntheti cdye san dth eresul t wasunintende d

205 colours.I naddition ,ne wtechnique shav ebee ndevelope di norde rt omak ethes espoil tcolour s resemblet oth enatura lones .Althoug hdetrimenta lfo rth ewoo lfibre s andhenc efo rth equalit y ofth ecarpet ,the ybecam ever ypopular .Anothe rimportan tmatte rt ob ediscusse di stha tthes e primitivemethod so fcolourin gan do fmakin gthe msee mfade d andage dar ever yharmfu l for the health of people.Bu t since the synthetic dyes are derivatives of tarwhic h isknow n asa factor causing cancer, it is not difficult to see how dangerous those dyeing methods applied under unhealthy conditions are. These mistakes have continued until the beginning of the attemptst oreviv enatura lmethod so fdyein gi nth elas t5-1 0 years.Th ebeginnin go fth ereviva l of naturaldyein gi n many regions and theincreasin g numbero fresearche s conducted byth e universities arehopefu l developments.Lac ko finformatio n and shortcomingsdu et oa ninter ­ ruptioni nth etransfe ro fsource sar et oovercom ethroug hresearches .I woul dlik et ogiv esom e exampleso fthes eresearche sconducte db yÇukurov aUniversity ,Facult yo f Science,Depart ­ mento f Chemistry: • Research for new sources of natural colouring matter and development of new ways of colouring (Paksoy, 1983). • Research for new mordants andne wmethod so f treatment with mordants (Paksoy, 1983). • Research for determining whether thecolourin g methods havean y impact onth e wearing away of the black looms that generally begin towea r awayi n 50year s in Turkish carpets (Paksoy andDüzemli , 1989). • Specification of coloursobtaine d bynatura ldyes . • Research for emphasizing theimportanc e of thepurit yo fcolours . Themos timportan tproble mfo rth eTurkis hcarpe tweavin gindustr ytoda yi sth eimpossibilit y ofmaintainin g astandar d ofqualit y andth estabilit yo fprice si n supplyingth erapidl yincrea ­ singdomesti cdemand .Suc h arapi dproductio n createsa pressur eo nra wmateria lsuppl yan d results in theproductio n of expensive carpets of lowquality .

Conclusions Thelac ko f sourceswhic hi sth emos timportan tproble mo fnatura ldye so f theda yca n bere ­ latedt oth einterruptio n inth etransfe r ofsources .A failur e inmaintainin gnationa lvalue san d thesecretl ykep tdyein gmethod sa sa famil y tradition areth emai nreason so fth einter -ruptio n in the transfer of sources.Relyin g on thepresen t sources andresearches , weca nreac h some conclusions and suggest thefollowin g solutions: 1. Iti spossibl et oge tman ycolour sfro m aplan tb ychangin gth ewa yt oobtai nth ecolourin g matter and dyeing methods, mordants, their concentration and ways of treatment with mordants.Th econdition s ofreactio n influences thequalit y of thecolour . 2. Theblac k woolwhic h isuse da scontou ri nTurkis h carpetsi scoloure d bytanni n (Paksoy, 1985).Thi sferro-tanni n compositei scalle dtanni n blackan dth ewa yi tcoloure dth e fibre changes according toth emetho do f treatment withmordants . 3. Woolscoloure db ytanni n blackwea rawa yeasil yan dth ecorrosiv einfluenc eo fferr ooxid e isno tth eonl yreaso n for that.Th eduratio n necessary for thetraditiona l dyeingmethod si s rather long andthi si s afacto r that makes thefibe r lessfir m andeasil y breakable (Paksoy, 1986). 4. Thecontinuatio n ofnatura ldyein gdepend so nth epreservatio n ofnatura ldyein gresource s and the use of material without exhausting the ecological system (Paksoy and Düzemli, 1989). 5. Lacko fa specificatio n ofnatura ldye sreduce sth eresource san dcause slos so flabour ,tim e and money. That is why the obtained colours should be specified according to one of the international colour scaleslik eMunsel l system. 6. Thepurit y of theobtaine d colours should beteste d andth e colouringmatte r that doesno t fit the standards of TS62 6 should not beused .

206 Allthes econclusion s arederive dfro m experimental data.Th epreservatio n of the traditional characteristics of Turkish carpets and rugs is possible only through the survival of natural dyeing andb ysecurin gth estandard so fquality .Toda yth emai n shortagei slac ko fa researc h institution onTurkis hrug s andcarpets .

References Aslanapa,O. & Y. Durul,1973. Selçukl u halilari (Seljuk Carpets), AkYayinlari ,Istanbul ,p . 95. Erdman, K., 1964. TürkischeTeppich e (Turkish Carpets) 3,4,Heimte x (39-50). Paksoy,G„ 1983. A researc h on the possibilities of using some natural plants as sources of natural colouring matter.Çukurov aUniversity , Institute of Science,Adana ,p . 41. Paksoy,G„ 1985. Th e depiction of natural black dye used in Milas carpets. The paper and posterspresente d atth eSecon dChemistr y Symposiuman dsummaries . Ankara,p . 241. Paksoy, G„ 1986. Aresearc ho nth erelationshi pbetwee nth ewearin gawa yo fth eloop swhic h arecoloure d by natural black dye and the colouring methods and conditions. The papers presented atth eFourt h International Textile Symposium.Izmir ,p .825 . Paksoy,G. & A. Diizemli,1989. Th e use of natural plants in colouring without harming the balance of the ecological systems. The papers presented at the Fifth Environmental Congress, 1989,Adana ,p .426 . Yetkin, S.,1991. Tur khal isanati u (TurkishAr to fCarpe tWeaving) ,Tiirkiy eI sBank .Cultura l Publications, 150,p .2 .

207 Research and development of the natural dyes used for traditional carpets in the Aegean region "Dobag project"

M.Aslier Universityof Marmara, Facultyof Fine Arts, Istanbul, Turkey

Summary Dobag project is designed to promote the Turkish carpet and kilim tradition and has been founded by theFacult y ofFin eArt s of theMarmar aUniversity ,Istanbul .Th ewor dDOBA G is the abbreviated from of the "Dogal Boya Arastirma Gelistirme"natura l dye research and development. Objectives: 1. Toreviv e the tradition of carpet andkili m weaving in theareas ,wher e thesear e forgotten and with very low agricultural income. 2. Togiv eth evillager sartisti can dscientifi c supportwhil eproducin gne wcarpet swit hmostl y natural coloured hand spun woolwit h the traditionalpattern s of thatregion . 3. Toresearc h and identify thenatura l dyes andtraditiona lpattern s of different regions. 4. Tocontrol ,supervis ean dexpertis eth eproductio n inth evillage si norde rt oru nth eprojec t true toit s objectives. 5. To give a guarantee certificate for those carpets and kilims, which have been produced according to DOBAG's objectives. To makepublication s about the scientific and artistic qualities,t o exhibit and givelecture s aboutth eproduct . CooperationWit hTh eVillag eCooperatives :Th eDOBA Gprojec ti scarrie dou ti ntw oregions ; in Çanakkale under the name 'Sleymanky and Surrounding Villages Development Coopera­ tion' and in Manisa-Yuntda 'Production and Marketing Cooperation of the Weaving with Natural Dyes'. Thecooperatio n in anakkale with 221 members from 26village s is occupied onlyi nproducin gDOBA Gcarpets .Yuntd aCooperatio n whichi sfounde d byvillag e women, has 72membe r weavers from 6villages . The finished carpets are evaluated by the tutorial staff of the Faculty of Fine Arts. The evaluation andclassificatio n iscarrie dou ta tth e Cooperation Centersi nAyvac k andYuntda , according to the quality of the natural dyes patterns and weaving. After this expertise the carpets arebein g tagged andth eone swhic h aregoin gt ob esol dabroa d aregive n aguarante e certificate by theFacult yo f Fine Artso f theMarmar a University. Scientific Research: Research on natural dyes isdon e in the natural dyelaborator y of the faculty by aforeig n colourexpert , adozent , an assistant dozent anda researc h assistant. The researcho ntraditiona lpattern si sru nb ymember so ftutoria lstaf f orothe rpersonnel ,appointe d to that region. The origin of plants and insects used in natural dyes are being researched all throughout Turkey.Th eresult s areworke d into natural dyeformula s toderv e thevillagers .

Introduction DOBAG Project aimst ogiv elif e again toth e traditionalTurkis h hand-maderugs . Thewor d DOBAG isuse d as the short form of Natural Dye-Research andProgress . Themai ndiscriminatio n between thetraditiona l rugs andth eundiscriminate d rugswove n without traditionalmethod si sth edyin gtechnolog y andth edye swhic h giveth ecolou rt oth e threado f therug .Eve n if thetechnique ,th edesig n andth era wmaterial s usedi nweavin gth e rug is appropriate to the tradition, the use of the synthetic chemical dyes is one of the most

208 important factor which caused the traditionalru gt olos eit svalue .Therefore , inorde r topro ­ duce aru go f atraditiona l value,th e threado f theru g should becoloure d with anatura ldye . TheAcadem yo fNationa lApplie dArt s(Devle tTatbik iGiize lSanatla rYiikse kOkulu )too k stepst oestablis h aresearc hlaborator yi n 1976o nnatura ldyes .(ANFA )Academ yo fNationa l Applied Arts, in cooperation with (Gesellschaft für Technical Zusammenarbeit GTZ) the technical cooperation of the Federal Republic of Germany succeeded in appointing Dr. Böhmer, to be on duty in Turkey.Dr . Böhmer, started working in the TextileDepartmen t of this association in March 1980 and thus established thecor e of the Natural Dyeresearches . The Chemistry engineers hand been appointed to help Dr. Böhmer parallel to natural dye researches carried out in the laboratories of the textile division, other researches carried on traditional kirkitli textiles of various districts and their designs were densified upon main districts. The first experiments were held in Toros Mountains in cooperation with the Karatepe Village Cooperative; the villagers received help in weaving traditional rugs. The rugs with traditional designs, coloured with natural dyes drew attention both in Turkey andi n foreign countries.Afte r this experiment, serious actions were taken toestablis h aResearc h Centero r atleas ta projec t toproduc etraditiona lTurkis hrugs .Nevertheless ,a Schoo lo fHighe rEduca ­ tiondi dno thav eth echanc et oestablis h aninstitut eo ra researc h center, therefore, theseacti ­ vitieswer eentitle da sth eprojec to fth etextil edepartment .I n short,th e(Natura lDy eResearc h andProgres sProject ) weretitle d asDOBA G in1981 .

Theai mo fth e project

1. Toenlive n andgiv elif et oth etradition si nvillage swit hinsufficien t incomeswher etraditi ­ onsi n weavingrug s andcarpet s arenearl y forgotten. 2. Toprovid ebot hartisti can dtechnologica lai dt opeasant si norde rt oenabl ethe mt oproduc e new rugs and carpets woven in traditional designs of their districts dyed in natural dyes with hand-twisted purewool . 3. To carry on researches and determination studies on natural dyes and traditional district designs. 4. Tocarr yo nwit h thenecessar y control,expertis eprocesse s andthu scontro l theproductio n ofth erug si norde rt ocarr yo nth eproductio n ofrug swit hoperation st ocontro l suitablet o the aimo f the project. 5. Togiv ea guarante ecertificat e tocertif y andprov etha tth ecarpet sproduce d servingt oth e aimso fth eprojec t andals oarrang epublication sbot hscientifi c andartistic ,fo rintroducin g theprojec t worldwide . Nine Pilot districts were chosen tocarr y out on the project. NineDistrict s chosen were:Ça - nakkale,Manisa , Bursa,Balikesir ,Bergama ,Izmir ,Gördes ,Usak ,Karatepe .Th efirs t experi­ ments were made in Çanakkale, Ayvacik, in cooperation with cooperative aiming to aid the Süleymanköy andnea rb y villages.Effort s andstudie s madeo n this area by theGoverno ro f Çanakkale,Mr .Nuretti n Turan andth eOrkö yadministration , gavebirt h toth eRu g weaving School in Ayvacik, and thus,thes e activities were overtaken by DOBAG tocarr y on further researches. The same year, the Governor of Manisa started the second project in the hereby villages of Yuntdagupo n theproposa l of ManisaYuntda g Cooperation in chargeo f Tourism development. Till the end of 1982's, DOBAG activities were carried by the limited availabilities of the Schoolo fFin eArts ,wit hgrea teffort s ofth eacademi cstaff ,withou tan ybudge to ra regulation . In July 20, 1982, after Devlet Tatbiki Güzel Sanatlar Yüksek Okulu (Faculty of National Applied Arts) became the Faculty of Marmara University, efforts to conduct the DOBAG project towardsa projec t tob eapplie da tleas twithi nth eregulation so f aresearc hcente rwer e

209 made.Th eFacult y took necessary stepst odevelo p aHandcraf t andIndustria lProduct sPlan ­ ning,Researchin g andDevelopin g Center andth eresul t proved tob ever y successful. Inth emeantime ,th eFacult yestablishe da DO BA GCentra lAdministrativ eCommitte ean d aWorkin gGrou pwhil eth eactivitie swer egoin gon .Sinc e1983 ,DO BA Gactivitie sar ecarrie d bythes eorgans .Th eHea do fth eCentra lAdministrativ eCommitte ei sth eDea no fth eFaculty . The experts and the faculty members participating in the organizations are pointed as the members of thesecommittee s sinceth edevelopmen t of the project. Theworkin g groupconsist so fthre enatura ldy eexport s andthre etextil edesigner s chosen among the faculty members. Astaf f member of the faculty resides continuously in Ayvacik DOBAG Center in order to make researches in the area and control the work done in the villages.I woul dlik et ounderlin eDr .Serif e Atlihan'snam eher ean dexpres sm yappreciatio n tohe rwh oi sth e symbol of agrea t self-sacrificing and loyal faculty member.

Workingtogethe r withth evillag ecooperatives :DOBA Gactivitie si n Ayvacikan dYuntda gVillage s

The DOBAG project isrealize d with thejoin t venture of Süleymanköy and Cooperative (in charge of developing nearby villages) and Manisa Yuntdag Cooperative (aiming to help Tourism).Th e Cooperative in Çanakkale has 340member s in 32village s andi s aimingonl y to produce DOBAG rugs. Eventhough the Manisa and Yuntdag now has aimed to produce DOBAG rugs only.I tha s 150member si n 16 villages. 1. The work done in this field has started with determining the traditional characteristics of theregiona lcarpets .Th ephotograph so fth erug spresen ti nth emosques ,tomb san dhouse s were taken to be closely examined. The designs were chosen out of the ones which were public andregiona l colours anddesign s were thus determined. 2. Inorde rt oprofi t ofth eabilit yan dkno wno wo fth epeasan twome nwh oalread ykne who w to weave traditional rugs, first lessons were on 'how to use natural dyes' and traditional designs were given to these women; and they also taught whet they have learnt to their neighbors.Becaus eth epeasant swer eunwillin gt osen dthei rdaughter st oth eRu gTeachin g Schoolwhic hstarte dworkin gi nAyvaci kb yth eGoverno ro fthi sdistrict ,th eattemp tprove d to be afailure . But thepresenc e of our faculty members who taught with adirec t method carriedint o the villages wasa rea l success andgav e itsresult s in aver y shorttime . 3. Theproductio n carried in thevillage s arecontinuousl y kept under control by the working group,th eDirector , group members andb yth efacult y members working on this area. 4. The completed rugs, after been expertized are classified in Ayvacik Dobag Center and Manisa Yuntdag Cooperative. The Group Director and the members, visit the nearby villages atleas t two times aweek . 5. After expertizing procedures are completed, the rugs are been labelled and a guarantee documenti slabelle do nthos esol doutsid eTurke yb yth eFin eArt sFacult yo fth eMarmar a University.Th elabel sindicat ewher eth eru gi swoven ,wh oha swove n therug ,th enumbe r ofloops ,dat ean dth enumber .Th eguarante edocumen t which isprinte do nleathe rcarrie s theDOBA Gamble mo nit .An dth echaracteristic so fth erug ,suc hinformatio na st owhethe r thecolour so f theru gi sobtaine d byindig oo rnatura ldye ,whethe rth edesig n istraditiona l or hand-made by pure wool thread is also indicated both in Turkish,Englis h and German on the guarantee document. 6. Indeterminin gth enatura ldy eplants ,ou rfacult yi si njoin tventur ewit hth efacult ymember s of other universities. I would like to underline the scientific contributions made byProf . Dr.Hüsn üDemiri zan dProf .Dr .Bayto pan dm ydee pappreciation .Accordin gt oth eplan t map of the Turkey, thecooperative s were aided as to where they could find the searched plant and it was also provided the production of some plants in Technical Agricultural

210 Sections and Plant Producing services and in some villages. Important part of dye plants areobtaine d from wildplant s easily. 7. It was aproble m to setu p amarke t for theDOBA Grug s atth e beginning. It was figured thatthes erug scoul dfin d theirvalu eoutsid eTurke y anda publicatio n campaign startedi n foreign countries.Th e scientific publications of our faculty members in foreign countries both in journals and bulletins, and with the aid of the foreign country rug sellers, the DOBAG products were exhibited in Federal Germany, Switzerland, Australia, Belgium, ArapConfederates ,England ,USA ,Japa n andNorway .Conference s weregive nb yexpert s andfacult y membersi nthes ecountries .Publications ,exhibition san dconference s enlarged andthes eactivitie s stilltak ethei rplace si nman yforeig n countries.Thes eactivitie swhic h arefo r the benefit of the foreign country sellers and theru g customers haveprove d very successful results.Today , allo f theDOBA G rugs are soldi nforeig n countries.

211 The state's role in the Turkish carpet sector

LH.Güngör Facultyof Architecture, University ofTrakya, Edirne, Turkey1

Abstract Thematerials ,th ecolors ,th edesigns ,th etexture , theproduction , themaintenance ,th eresto ­ ration,th epurchas ean dth esal eo fth ecarpet sar erelate dt omos to fth emai nfields o f scientific activity. These fields are Material Knowledge,Dyin g Chemistry, Basic Design, Art History, Textile Technology, Production, Restoration, Marketing and Economy. Thus, handwoven carpet making finds itself in this interdisciplinary area.Fo rthi sreason , it is obligatory toin ­ cludecarpe t makingwithi n theprogram so fth euniversities .O nth eothe rsid e 100%purenes s of thewoole n thread should bechecke d by theTurkis h Institute of Standards.Woole n thread production should besupported .Natura l carpetdye sshoul db eencourage d andafte r acertai n period,th eus eo fthi ssyste mmus tb eobligatory .Carpe tproductio nshoul db eoriente dtoward s larger workshops. For smaller carpet production enterprises, low interest credits should be issued bybanks . Keywords:Problems ; sizes;design ;kno t count.

Introduction Whenw etak ea loo k atth ecarpet s andrug swove n inAnatolia , weobserv etha tth eproblem s and deficiencies concerning thecarpet s woven at workshops arefewe r in number than those woven in villages. These carpets are generally small in size.Excep t those called side carpets which cover aroo m when placed side by side, areas of the carpets are usually 2.5 m2. Very few of them have an area of 6 m2.Som eregion s do not have any designs to cover the 6m 2 areao f acarpe tplain .Likewis ei n mosto f thesecarpet skno tcoun di sabou t3 0x 35pe rdm 2. The threefact s mentioned above show thepresen t situation of thecarpet s aswel l asindicat e their deficiencies.

Discussion Inm yopinion , thesedeficiencie s stemfro m thefollowin g facts: • There are very few large-size loomsi n villages. • There aren odesign s left in thehand s of weavers for largecarpets . • Weavers tend toweav eusin g theirmemorie s instead of looking atcartoons . • Eventhoug hth eweaver sdesir et oweav ea differen t carpeteac htim eha sbrough tvividnes s intodesig nan dcolo rarrangement s andthu sdiversity ,ther eha sbee na certai ndegeneratio n incolo r anddesign . • Thetendenc yt olowe rth ecos tvalu eo fth ecarpet sha sle dth eweaver st odecreas eth ekno t count ineac h unitplain . • Itha s not beenpossibl e toestablis h workshops where weavers can work all together. • Thehig h cost valueo flarg esiz ecarpet s is beyond theinvestmen t capacity ofproducers .

1 Presentaddress : AbideSitesi ,A Blok ,D.19 ,Mecidiyeköy ,Istanbul ,Turkey .

212 Thesereason san dthei rnegativ econsequence smak eu sthin ko fth egolde nag eo fth eTurkis h carpetmaking .Th ecarpe tworksho pi nHerek eha dbee nestablishe di n 1891 inorde rt opreven t the degeneration of carpets during the twopreviou s centuries but this measure had notbee n effective due to the fact that the Ottoman Empire had come to the point of disintegration. However,thi sinitiative ,th epositiv econsequence so fwhic hhav esurvive du ptil lnow ,shoul d beremembere d with appreciation. Thepresen t problems of the Turkish carpet sector can be summed up inthre e groups: 1. Problems in design andcolor ; 2. Problems in technology andproduction ; 3. Problems in finance. Theseproblem s have been relatively minimized and beautiful carpets are now being woven in workshops owned by Ssmerbank, StatePrivat eInstitutions , someuniversities ,prison s and private companies.Nevertheles s the state should deal with these threemai n problems, asth e abovementione dproductio n ofcarpet smake su ponl ya ver ysmal lpar to fth etota lproductio n capacity inTurkey .Th eweaver sworkin gi nthei rhome s aswel la si nworkshop s willthu sbe ­ nefit a great deal from state support. In this connection the Prime Ministry, the Ministry of Culture,th eMinistr y of NationalEducation , theMinistr y ofAgriculture ,th eUniversitie s and the State Banks all have acertai n responsibility in fulfilling their seperate tasks.Thes e tasks mayb eliste d as follows:

1. Taskst ob efulfille d by thePrim eMinistr y The following are the services in the carpet sector that could be rendered by the Prime Minister's office: 1.1. Toestablis h aresearc h institute onhand-weaving ; 1.2. To take measures towards ensuring the use of natural dyes throughout the country andt oappoin t theTurkis h Instituteo f Standards toimpos etha tafte r acertai nperio d itwil lb eobligator y tous enatura ldyes ; 1.3. Toexhibi tan dt oprotec tth eorigina l samplesb yestablishin gcarpe tmuseum si neac h city and town; 1.4. Totak emor e effective measures against smuggling thesecarpet s out; 1.5. To initiate the production of 100% pure wool thread and to encourage the private sectori n this field; 1.6. Toprovid e facilities in ordert oencourag e carpet production in workshops; 1.7. Toprovid elo winteres tcredit st oal lkind so fcarpe tproducer san dt oprovid e facilities in purchasing thread,dye s andlooms . 2. Tasks tob efulfille d by theMinistr y of Culture: 2.1. To compile a catalogue of Turkish hand-woven samples found in the museums in foreign countries; 2.2. To compile a catalogue of Turkish hand-woven samples found in the museums in Turkey; 2.3. Tocompil e acatalogu eo f Turkish hand-woven samplesfoun d in mosques; 2.4. Tocompil ea catalogu eo fTurkis h hand-wove n samplesfoun di nprivat ecollections ; 2.5. Toconpil e and sell thecartoon s of the hand-woven samples in the catalogues men­ tionedabove ; 2.6. Toorganiz e contestsi n ordert oencourag e the creation of new designs; 2.7. To introduce the hand-woven samples to the general public by organizing mobile exhibitions; 2.8. Toorganiz e seminars and/or symposiums on hand-weaving. 3. Taskst ob efulfille d by theMinistr y of National Education: That hand-woven products such ascarpets ,"kilim" , "cicim", "zili", and"sumak " arepar t of our national culture should beinclude d in the curricula of educational institutions and

213 thus a general information shouldb e given on this subject. In addition to the tasks above, thefollowin g should also be fulfilled: 3.1. Small-scale implementations on hand-weaving should be carried out in Arts and Crafts courses. 3.2. Optioal cources on this subject should be included in the curricula in secondary schools. 3.3. Carpet Departments shouldb eestablishe d in Vacational High Schools for girls; 3.4. Wooden andmetalli cloo mmanifactur e shouldb etaugh t atVocationa lHig h Schools for Industry; 3.5. Practical courses on carpet making should be opened in villages and cities by the Office ofPopula r Education. 4. Tasks tob efulfille d by theMinistr y ofAgriculture : 4.1. Theplant san dinsect suse di nobtainin gnatura ldye sma yb ereproduce di nstat epro ­ duction farms; 4.2. Thespecie s can beimprove d andth e seedsca n bedistribute d byth eMinistry ; 4.3. Natural dye production can be taught to the people by the Offices of theTechnica l Agriculture. 5. Taskst ob efulfille d by theuniversities : Thefoundation s mostclosel yrelate d toth ecarpe t sector areth euniversities . Thematerials , thecolors ,th edesigns ,th etexture , theproduction ,th emaintenance ,th ere ­ storation, the purchase and the sales of carpets are related to most of the main fields of scientific activity.Thes efield s areMeterial s Knowledge,Dyin gChemistry , BasicDesign , ArtHistory ,Textil eTechnology , Production, Restoration, Marketing andEconomy .Thus , hand-woven carpet making finds itself in this interdisciplinary area. This is why the de­ velopmento fthi scraf t cannotb elef t toth eexperienc ean dskill so fth eloca lweavers .Thus , iti sobligator yt oinclud ecarpe tmakin gwithi nth eprogram so funiversities .Althoug hsom e universities have included carpet making in their programs, it is still necessary to make these more effective and to expand them to cover the other universities. Hand-weaving should be included in the associate, undergraduate and graduate degree programs, which should bereinforce d with workshops ateac h level. When theHighe rEducatio n Authority wasfounde d in 1982, weha dpropose d establishing carpet-making departments at Higher Vocatioal Schools, which had been approved. First of these departments was established at éanakkale Higher Vocational School of Trakya University;th esecon da tKirklarel iHig hVocationa lSchoo lo fth esam euniversity ;th ethir d atIspart aHig h Vocational Schoolo f AkdenizUniversity ; andth efourt h atKarama nHig h Vocational School of Selçuk University. I personally observed the benefits gained from these schools because I taught at two of them, which had been established by my own efforts. Inth ecourse so fDesig nResearch ,classica ldesign swer estudied ;way so f transfor­ mingthes edesign sint omor eeffectiv e arrangements byusin gth eol dsample swer einvesti ­ gatedan dexperiment swer emad eo nobtainin gne wdesign sb ysimplifyin g traditionalones . I'd now like todemonstrat e someo f these samples.I believ e that such studies willreviv e thepas t of Turkish carpet making andcontribut e toit sfutur e success. 6. Taskst ob efulfille d by the statebanks : The state banks should issue low-investment credits for the productions of raw materials for carpets andrugs , such aswool ,cotto n and silk, andfo r theproductio n of thread using thesematerials ,an dfo rdyin gth ethread .Suc hcredit sshoul db eavailabl efo rth eindividua l weaverworkin go n hisown ,o rfo r theproducer s whohav eth ecarpet s woven inhome so r workshops, and for those who deal in purchasing and selling carpets. The state should supportsuc hbank st oissu eth ecredits .Som esuggestion so nth etyp eo fsuppor t tob egive n byth estat et oth ecarpe tmakin gsecto rhav ebee nmentione dabove .Man yothe rsuggestion s may be added for this authentic craft which originated in the steppes of Central Asia, to continue toyiel d everbeautifu l products.

214 Production et transformation artisanale de la laine locale en Algérie

A. Ayachi* etM .T. Benyoucef** * Fermeexpérimentale ovine, Ain-El-Hadjar (Saida) ** Départementdes productions animales, INA. El-Harrach (Alger),Algérie.

Summary

In this study the authors purpose an evaluation of the wool production and its utilization in Algeria. Theprincipa lpoint s developed concern ananalysi s of thewoo lcircuit , aqualitativ e approch,an da nestimatio n ofth ecommercia lvalu eo fth ewoo lan dit ssub-products .Th eme ­ thodology usedi sbase do n aseria lo f observations in situ,a survey andexaminatio n of some localwoo lresults .Th ewoo lproductio n isconcentre di nhig h lands.Howeve rth e transforma­ tioni s maked attw olevels : • familial level where alltraitment s arerealized ; • semi-industriel level constitued by specialised manufactures which transform different products. Theauthor str yt omak ea neconomi capproc habou tth ewoo lcomparativel y toproduct sgive n by the flock orelabore d in the woolcircuit .

Introduction

EnAlgéri el'élevag ed umouto nconstitu eun eactivit éimportant epou rl amajorit éde s familles qui vivent dans les régions steppiques et agro-pastorales. Dans cetterégio n de larive su dd e laméditérranée ,i ly a quelque sdécennies ,l emouto nétai tconsidér éà l afoi scomm eu nanima l fournisseur deviande ,d elain ee td elait .Cett etripl evocatio n étaitlié ea uparfai t équilibrequ i existaitentr ele stroi sprincipau xélément sd el'écosystèm e qui sontl avégétation ,l'animal ,e t l'homme.Grâc eà ce téquilibr el'ovi n garantissaitl asurvi ed upasteu re tcell ed es afamill e en fournissant laviand ee tl elai tpou r leuralimentatio n etl alain epou rl aconfectio n d'habits,d e tapis et decouvertures . Cependant, on assiste actuellement à un bouleversement du système pastoral qui se traduit par un antagonisme biologique (augmentation de lacharg e animalee t dégradationde sparcours )accentu épa rl apersistanc ed el asécheresse .Cett esituatio na engen ­ drél edéveloppemen t d'activités spéculatives surle sproduit sovins .L alain erest eu nprodui t très recherché sur le marché, mais qui est faiblement valorisé par l'éleveur. Dans le présent travail nous tenterons d'étudier l'importance de ce produit qui continue pourtant àjoue r un rôleappréciabl edan s lemaintie nd'un eactivit éd'élevag e trèsancienn ee td'u n artisanat local qui ase sparticularité s et sestradition s sociales.

Méthodologie L'analyseproposé eport eessentiellemen t surl alain elocal edestiné eà l'artisana t traditionnel. La démarche utilisée consiste en une série d'enquêtes d'une part au niveau des institutions nationales et des centres d'artisanat etd'autr e part au niveau des élevages et de quelques fa­ milles en zones pastorales. Par ailleurs nous avons procédé à une recherche bibliographique afin de rassembler les informations disponibles sur la filière de la laine. La réalisation des enquêteses tfait e del amanièr e suivante:Un eséri ed evisite sréalisée spa rnou smême s selon

215 Tableau la. Mensurations desprincipales races ovines algériennes (selonla littérature).

Races Longueur tronc Hauteur garrot Tourpoitrin e (cm) (cm) (cm)

OuledDjellal 90 75 85 Hamra 80 70 90 Rembi 85 75 90

Tableaulb. Caractéristiques des toisonsdes pricipales races ovines algériennes (selon la littérature).

Races Poids Longueur Lavée Finesse toison brin à fond (kg) (cm) (%) Qi) OuledDjellal 1.5 7-8 53 23-27 Hamra 2.0 5-6 43 25-30 Rembi 1.6 6-7 50 24-26

Laine locale Cniveau éleveur) lb _. , . La ine lb j Filatures importée lb Coop ste p pesEEhb"-»•-••••| • 1!—I—r i mp Imp Centres 4- •mp mp Ir Coopératives Gommer ç a nts d'artisanat d'artisanat lai ni ers tres de T pif i Centres de plf2 nat prommotiooi n |" f I lb lb réseau d'art isan s' "' % " ré réseau non organisés d' a rtisan s organisés Artisana t fam ilia i

pifi produits lainier s sous forme de tapis, couvertures et habits plfz produits lainier s sous forme de tapis et couvertures . lb laine brute mp matière première .

Figure1. Circuitde collecte etde transformationartisanale dela laine en Algérie.

216 desitinéraire squ icomprennen tle schef slieu xd ewilay ao ud ecommune ssuivantes :Nedroma , Tlemcen, Saida,Naama ,Méchéréa ,El-Bayadh ,Arbaouat , Aflou,Laghoua te tGhardaï a(su d ouest, et sud centre). Des enquêtes similaires ont été effectuées par nous-mêmes et avec la collaboration decollègue sopéran t àAlger ,Djelfa , M'sila,Ai nE lBeida ,Biskra ,Khenchela , Meskrana, Constantinee tAï nMlil a (centree tes td upays) .

Caractéristiquesd usystèm ed eproductio nd elain e Laproductio n delain ees tfourni e principalement par troisrace s qui sont laOule dDjella l (8 millions de têtes), laHamr a (4million s detêtes ) et la Rembi (2million s detêtes) . Ces trois Taceson tensembl ede strait scommun squ iconcernen tla faibless e dupoid s dela toiso n (1.5 à2. 5kg )e td urendemen t aprèslavag e (43à 53% );mai s aussiun e grandefiness e del alain e (23à 30^. )(Tablea u 1).Che zl arac eOuled-Djella lle stoison sson tblanche salor squ eche zle s racesHamr ae tRemb ielle sson tplutô ttachetée so upiquée schamoi se tparfoi s complètement roussâtres.Le szone sd eproductio nd el alain eson tle shaut splateau xsteppique se tcéréalier s quis ecaractérisen tpa ru nclima taride :chau de tse ce nété ,trè sfroi de nhiver .Le stempérature s peuvent descendre audessou s de0 °C e n hivere t dépasser les45 ° Ce n été.L apluviométri e varieentr e200 e t400 m mpa r ansu rle shaut splateau xcéréalier se tentr e 100e t20 0m msu r la steppe. En milieu steppiquele sressource s alimentaires duchepte l sontconstituée s pardeu xtype s devégétations : /- • Les plantes pérennes dont les plus importantes sont l'alfa (Stipa tenacissima), le chih (Artemesiaherba alba), le drin (Aristida pengens), le guettaf (Atriplex halimus) et le sennagh (Lygeum spartum), • etle s plantes annuelles qui sontreprésentée s par différentes espèces (céréales etlégumi ­ neuses) qui secaractérisen tpa rde scycle svégétatif srelativemen tcourts . Dans les zones céréalières lesressource s alimentaires des ovins sontconstituée s principale­ mentd efourrage s secs(associatio n céréales-légumineuses )d e grains,pailles ,chaume s etd e jachèrepâturée .Le sovin sson texpoité sselo nplusieur svariante sd'u nmêm esystèm eextensif : lesystèm etranshuman tes tdominan tdan sle szone sd ucentr ee td el'es td ela steppe .I ls'agi t d'unetraditio n qui sembles'explique rpa run eadaptatio n saisonnière auxcondition sclimati ­ quesd umilieu . Al'oues tl esystèm e secaractéris epa run etranshumanc ed efaibl e amplitude. Il a la particularité d'évoluer parfois vers une conduite totalement sédentarisée en hors-sol durantcertaine spériode sd el'anné e(fi nAutomn ee thiver) .Le sélément squ iconduisen tà un e tellepratiqu econcernen t souventl'insuffisanc e despâturage se npériod e difficile. L'alimen­ tationes talor sbasé esu rde sapport sd efourrage s secs,d epaill ee td'aliment sindustriels .Dan s leszone ssituée splu sa unor de tnotammen tle shaut splateau xcéréaliers ,l esystèm ed'élevag e pratiquées tdomin épa rl etyp ebienna larchétyp equ is ecaractéris ee ngénéra lpa run econduit e surchaume s decéréale se nét ée te n automnee t surjachèr ee n hivere t auprintemps .

Commercialisatione ttransformatio n del alain e Le circuit decollect e et de transformation artisanale de la laine est assez complexe. Aparti r des élémentsd e l'enquête nous avons tenté de visualiser les différentes situations observées (Figure1) .

217 Circuitde collecte

L'estimation du niveau deproductio n del alain ees tbasé e surle s hypothèses suivantes: • l'effectif estconsidér é del'ordr e de 16million sd e têtes (données statistiques); • lapar tde s animaux producteurs de lainees td e60% ; • etl epoid smoye nd etoiso npa r animales td el'ordr e de 1.5 kg (estimation faite àparti rd e mesuresréelle s suru néchantillo n de5 00 0toison sd'animau x derace slocales) . Surl abas e dece s hypothèses laproductio n lainièrees testimé e égale à 1440 0tonne s para n fournie par le troupeau àlaquell e s'ajoute unequantit é de3 50 0tonne sd elain erésultan td u traitement des peaux lainées issues des mégisseries, soit un volume global de 17900 tonnes para nà l'échell enational equ i sontdestiné sessentiellemen t versl'artisana t local. Ily a lie ud eprécise rqu el'approvisionnemen t descomplexe slainier sindustriel s seréalis e essentiellementà parti rd elaine sd'importation .L evolum emoye n annueld ece simportation s est estimé à 10000 0 tonnes.L a collecte de la laine produite localement est caractérisée par trois niveaux: • les commerçants quiviennen t enpremièr epositio n dans leramassag ed el alain emis e sur lemarché . • les ateliers familiaux qui s'approvisionnent soit auprès des éleveurs, soit au niveau des marchés locaux. • les coopsteppes qui participent dans la collecte de la laine en assurant également des services d'appui etd ecommercialisatio n d'autres produits. L'importance dechaqu enivea ud ucircui td ecollect ees tli ée n général aupri xoffer t auxpro ­ ducteursd elaine .Ains ile scommerçant slainiers ,grâc eà u nsystèm ed econcurrence ,arriven t àramasse rd e grandstonnage sd elain eproduite . Atitr eindicati f nousavon sconstat é lorsd e nosenquête squ el'offr e faitepa rce sdernier se nmatièr ed epri xd'acha td el alain eétai tsupéri ­ eured e3 0 à40 % aupri xpay épa r lacoosteppe .L e niveau éleveurd el afilièr e secaractéris e parl'absenc ed estockag ed el alaine .C equ ipourrai texplique rl ecourt epériod ed etransactio n dec eprodui t entrel eproducteu r etle sdifférent s acquéreurs.L'enquêt e arévél épa r exemple dans larégio n deMéchéri a et d'El-Bayadh queplu s de70 %d e lalain eproduit e estmis ee n venteduran t unepériod ed e6 semaines (entredébu tjui n etmi-Juillet) .Cett e situation profite en premier lieu aux commerçants qui tirent desrevenu s importants et qui forment unrésea u solided e transfert de lalain ede s zonesd el a steppe (MéchériaEl-Bayadh ,Aflou , Laghouat) versle s zonesd unor d(Tlemcen , Oran,Alger ,Annaba) .

Circuitde transformation

Lecircui td etransformatio n del alain e secaractéris e pardeu xvariantes : • la transformation artisanale familiale qui absorbe plus de 80%d e la laine locale mise sur lemarché ; • etl atransformatio n artisanalesemi-industriell equ ipren dl erest e(soi t20%) .Cett edernièr e estalimenté e aussipa r les filatures. En ce qui concerne la transformation de la laine locale au niveau familial, elle aboutit à la réalisationd erembourrag ed ematela s (50%), àl afabricatio n detapi s (35%)e tà l a confection de vêtements (15%).A c e niveau toutes les opérations detraitemen t et de transformation de lalain eson tréalisée s àl'aid ed ematérie ltypiquemen t traditionnel.Quan tà l a transformation semi-industrielle qui utilise à la fois la laine importée et la laine locale, on distingue deux niveaux: l'un concerne les filatures où la laine subit une série de traitementsjusqu'a u stade matière première, elle-même livrée sous différentes formes (laines lavées, laines cardées, lainesfilée s écrueso ucolorées) .L'autr e sesitu ea univea ud urésea u decentre sd'artisana to ù lamatièr epremièr e est transformée enproduit s divers (tapis,couvertures , habits).L'organi ­ sationd e cescentre s diffère selonqu eleu robjecti f estcommercia l ou promotionnel:

218 a. Lescentre sd'artisana trattaché sau xcoopsteppe squ ison tà caractèr ecommercial ,disposen t d'ateliers où sont fabriqués destapi se t d'autres articles lainiers.Ce s ateliers fonctionnent essentiellement aumoye n de lainesfilées fournie s parle s filatures. La commercialisation des produits sefai t soit surplac e aunivea u descentre s soit au niveau despoint s de vente dans lesgrande svilles . b. Lescentre s depromotio n del'artisana t lainier, subventionnés parl'Etat.son tchargé sd ela préservation des types et des motifs traditionnels. Ils utilisent lamatièr e première enpro ­ venancede sfilature s pourl afabricatio n dediver sproduit slainier sparm ilesquel sle stapi s d'appelation locale(Djebe lAmmour ,Melgout ,Beni-Isghen ,Maâdid) .Dan sl efonctionne ­ mentd ece scentre sd epromotio n deuxsystème sson trencontrés :u n systèmeo ùl amatièr e premièrees ttransformé e dansde satelier sd etissag ee tu nautr esystèm equ ifai t appelà de s femmes artisansqu iexercen tl emétie rche zelles .Chaqu ecentr eétabli tpou rcel au ncontra t de travail avec ces artisans par l'intermédiaire de monitrices qualifiées qui assurent aussi lacoordinatio ne tl esuiv itechniqu ee tlogistiqu ede sfoyer sd'artisanat .L amatièr epremièr e estd'abor d achetéepa rl ecentr ed epromotio n auprèsde sfilatures pui sell ees tremis e aux artisansqu il atransformen t entapi so ue ncouverture smoyennan tle scharge sd eréalisatio n desproduits .L aproductio n estcollecté e alorspa rl ecentr epou rêtr epa rl a suite commer­ cialisée.A titr ed'exempl e lecentr eEPGA Td eLaghoua t qui dispose dedeu x monitrices exercecett eactivit éave cplu sd e30 0femmes-artisan s quiproduisen t annuellementplu s1 500m 2 detapi svariés . c. Lescoopérative s d'artisanat lainierdon tl avocatio n principalees t latransformation . Elles fabriquent à leur niveau divers produits finaux de la laine. Pour atteindre ée but chaque coopérativeregroup e un certain nombre defamille s qui exercent le métier d'artisan, dans cecas ,dan su ncadr eorganisé .Chaqu efamill e adhérentereçoi t régulièrement unquot ad e matièrepremièr epou r laréalisatio n detravau x enfonctio n desorientation s del acoopéra ­ tive. C'est leca s del a C.A.T deGhardai a qui regroupe 350famille s adhérentes

Formation despri x

Margebrute de l'éleveur

Aucour sd uprocessu s decommercialisatio n etd etransformatio n lavaleu rd el alain eévolu e defaço n pluso u moins importante en fonction du niveau du circuit. En amont, àl'échell e du troupeau, l'éleveur obtient en général 1.5 kg de toison par tête d'ovin soit une valeur de 45 dinars algériens (DA).L a tontees t pratiquée couramment en Algérie selon un systèmetradi ­ tionnel qui secaractéris e parl'utilisatio n deforce s comme matériel detont ee t parl erecour s àun emai nd'oeuvr e occasionnellepou rl apréparatio n etl atont eeffectiv e desanimaux .Dan s un tel système appliqué àu n troupeau ovin de 300 têtes, lepri x derevien t d'un kilogramme detoiso n estd e l'ordre de 14.5D A(Tablea u2) . Mais du fait de la complexité du système d'élevage ovin et en l'absence de comptabilité analytiqued utroupeau ,i ln' a pasét éais éd efixer dan sc etravai lpréliminair e surl alaine ,un e estimation de tous les frais financiers et notamment ceux liés à l'entretien et aux soins des animaux dans l'élaboration du prix de revient de la laine brute. Néanmoins des valeurs approchées ontét éobtenues .L amarg ebrut equ irevien t àl'éleveu r estd el'ordr e de52 %de s recettes de la laine locale obtenuepa r animal etpa r an (Tableau 3).L a faible marge obtenue par l'éleveur de la steppe s'explique parl'importanc e descharge s de tonte qui sont liées àl a fois àl a technique de tonte utilisée et au faible poids de latoiso n d'unepar t et aux pratiques coutumières dans l'organisation de la tonte et du marché de la laine d'autre part. Àtitr e de comparaison la marge brute 'laine' estrelativemen t très faible (23.3DA )pa r rapport àcell e del aviand e (1 163 DA).

219 Tableau2. Charges detonte et valeur de la laine dansun système traditionel(cas d'un troupeaude300 têtes de race locale).

Frais detont e 450 0 DA Frais derepa s etd e transport 1500 DA Autres frais 520 DA Frais totaux 6 520 DA

Fraispa rtêt eovin e 21.7 DA Prix derevien t de 1 kgd e laine brute 14.5 DA IFF =3.5 DA(juille t 1991)

Tableau3. Formationdes marges brutes 'laine' et'viande'par brebis derace locale.

Critère Laine Viande (carcasse)

Production (kg) 1.5 11.2 Valeur (DA) 45 1568 Charged eproductio n 21.7 405 Marge (DA) 23.3 1 163 Margee n %d e valeur 52 74 Marge 'laine'e n %d el amarg e 'viande' 2 - DA =Dina r algérien IFF =3.50 DA(juille t 1991)

Tableau4. Valeurajoutée dela laine transformée entapis selon la modèleDjebel Ammour (données rapportées aumètre carréde tapis).

Critères ( (DA) Valeur(% ) Laine brute 163.6 19.6 Lavage 40 4.8 Filage 87.3 10.4 Teinture 37.3 4.6 Tissage-Finition 186.7 22.4 Taxe 154.6 18.5 Prix derevien t 670 - Marge fabricant 97 11.6 Marge détaillant 67 8.1

Prix devent e 834 100

220 Coûtde fabrication de tapis

Enava ld ucircui td etransformatio n del alain eo na tent éd'évalue rle scoût slié sà l afabricatio n desdifférent s produitslainiers .Mai sl'enquêt en ' apa srend upossibl el'obtentio n d'estimations détailléespou rtou sce sproduit se tpou rle sopération sd etraitemen tqu ileu rson tliées .Cepen ­ dantun e synthèse aét éréalisé e surl abas ed edonnée scollectée s auprèsd ucentr e d'artisanat d'El-Bayadh(spécialis édan sl afabricatio n dutapi styp eDjebe lAmmour )etrelative sà l'anné e 1982. Lesrésultat s duTablea u 4indiquen t quel epri xd ecessio n du tapisDjebe l Ammour surl e marchées td e 834D Al emètr ecarré .L'opératio n laplu scoûteus edan s leprocessu s detrans ­ formation est le tissage, soit 22.4%d u prix decession . Quant auxopération s delavag ee td e teinture,elle sreprésenten t respectivement 4.8% et4.6 %d upri xd ecessio n dumètr ecarr éd e tapis.L apar t de la laine brute nécessairepou r lafabricatio n d'un mètre carré de tapis est de l'ordre de 19.6%. L'examen del'évolutio n del avaleu rd el alain ed u stade 'laine brute'a u stade 'tapis'nou s permet de constater qu'une marge importante deprogrè s est à laporté e des éleveurs s'ils se donnentun eorganisatio napproprié epou rcouvri rl'ensembl ed el afilèr elainière .Cec isuppos e uneintensificatio n desopération sd eproduction ,d ecollect ee td etransformation . Celadevrai t conduire àun e amélioration desrendement s des troupeaux et àun eréductio n des chargesd e tonte. L'instauration d'un système efficace de collecte et de transformation de la laine est possible grâce auprocessu s associatif mise n oeuvreactuellemen t dans lepay s enfaveu r des produits d'origine agricole.Mai sl adynamiqu ed'u n telrésea udépen d desproducteur se tde s responsables élus à vouloir résoudre collectivement des problèmes liés à leurs activités de production et de transformation en prenant en considération la valorisation des circuits de formation et d'information.

Bibliographie AN.E.R, 1989. L'Algérie:guid eéconomiqu e et social.Editio n A.N.E.P., 1989, 120pp . Communal, R., 1957. Variation topographique de la finesse de la laine chez le mouton Ouled-Djellal. Revueelev.e tcuit . 102:36-39. Destouches,C, 1985. Lalaine ,vieill ehistoire , nouvelle aventure. Reveu Pâtre,328:39-39 . KHarfouche,Y., 1986.Déterminatio n du standard laine de larac e Hamra. Thèse ing. I.T.A., Mostaganem, 95pp. Nouas, F.,1980. Situation actuelle du standard laine de la race Hamra. Thèse ing. I.N.A., Mostaganem, 95pp . Salah Bey, M., 1985. Analyse de la production animale en Algérie. Thèse ing. I.N.A., Al-Harrach,24 0pp .

221 Discussion pannelan d conclusion

Chairman: J. Boyazoglu Co-chairman: K.Doga n Dansquell emesur e la production delaine ,poil ,cui r etpea u presente-t-elleu n intérêtéconomiqu epou r leséleveurs : uneintroductio n au debat

(Theexten tt owhic hwool ,hair ,hid ean d skinproductio n areprofitabl e forfarmers : anintro ­ duction toth ediscussion )

J.P. Boutonnet* etJ.C. Flamant** * Stationd'Economie etSociologie Rurales, CentreINRA de Montpellier, France ** Unitéde Recherches sur les Systèmes Agraires etle Développement, CentreINRA de Toulouse, France

Abstract

Industrial production today provides mass supplies of cheaper substitutes for the traditional products obtained from ruminants:hide ,fibre , manure andtraction .Mea titself , an important sub-product of therearin g of such animals,i s now mass-produced by poultry andpigs .Onl y cow's milk is now mass-produced in developed countries where production provides the richest urban areas. Other products from the rearing of ruminants have a smaller market, supported by high- income clientele seeking specific qualities: lambs and kids, sheep and goat's cheese, fabric and leather. These farms are therefore multi-purpose (producing meat, milk, hair and skin), requiring that their complexity be taken into account when analysing production costs and drawing upgeneti cimprovemen tpolicies . Onceobtaine dfro m theanimal ,al lthes eproduct s aresubjec t tosuccessiv etechnica ltrans ­ formations and commercial transactions.Th e authors will discuss under what conditions the farmer can carry outal l orpar to f theseprocedure s himself. Only ajoin t effort by all those in the chain to ensure the quality of products, theiridenti ­ fication and theirlega l protection will be abblet o guarantee this prospect specifically in the disadvantaged areas of theMediterranea n basin andth eMiddl e East.

Introduction

Acôt é de ses finalités principales l'activité d'élevage aboutit àde s co-produits qui peuvent faire l'objet de transactions commerciales importantes à l'échelle internationale alors que l'éleveur individuelpeu tfor t bien nepercevoi rqu'un e rémunération faible ou implicitepou r eux et donc nepa s les intégrer dans sa stratégie.Pourtan t son intérêt peut être attiré vers ces produits secondaires lorsque lavaleu r économique duprodui tprincipa l fléchit. S'agissantde sproduit stextile se tde scuir se tpeaux ,il ssubissen ttou tun egamm ed etrans ­ formation etd etransaction scommerciale s avantd'abouti r auprodui tfin i payépa rl econsom ­ mateur. L'analyse des filières montre que si l'éleveur désire en retirer un profit, il lui faut intégrerun eparti ed el avaleu rajoutée , notamment parl aréalisatio n defabrication s plusper ­ sonnalisées.Mai sdan sc eca si ls'agi td e 'petites séries'qu in epeuven tavoi rla prétentio n de toucher unelarg eclientèle .

225 Lessystème sd'élevag edan sleur srelation sau xmarché s

L'élevagede sruminant sprésente ,a univea umondia l etdan sl'histoire , unetripl ediversité : • diversité descondition s techniques:d uplei n airintégra l àl a stabulation permanente, • diversité descondition s économiques:d el'élevag ed ecas e auranching , • diversité desproduits :travail ,lait ,cuir ,poil ,laine ,viande , fumier. Cependant,l aspécificit é desruminants ,es td'êtr enourri sprincipalemen tà parti rd eressource s non cultivées, nonconcurrente s avec l'alimentation humainedirecte , sauf dans les très rares cas où leurprodui t est bien valorisé eto ù l'alimentation humaine est largement assurée (par uneagricultur eefficac e oupa rde simportations) .Malgr éleu rdiversité ,o npeu tdir equ etoute s lesforme s d'élevageressorten td etroi sgrand stypes : • Elevagepaysan: petit stroupeau x àmultiple s fins,don tle sproduit s sont auto-consommés ouvendu slocalement ,e tqu is'insèren tdan su nensembl etrè sdiversifi éd'activité sagricole s etdomestiques . • Elevageextensif spécialisé: grandstroupeau x exploitéspa rde séleveur s spécialisés.Dan s lesca sle splu s traditionnels,le sanimau x sontl eseu lmoye nd e survied eleur sdétenteurs , etl eprodui tprincipa les tl elait ,autoconsommé .Historiquement ,ce stroupeau x seson tdé ­ veloppés pour fournir àu n marché dynamique un de sesproduit s (laine,cuir , chevaux de guerre,boeuf sd etrait) ,appuy épa ru npouvoi rpolitiqu equ isai tlui garanti rl'accè sa upâtu ­ rage etqu irecueill e lesbénéfice s économiques de son activité.Plu s récemment, l'élevage debovin s (ranching) s'estdévelopp é surd e grands espacespe u peuplés (hémisphère sud) pour fournir de la viande au marché mondial en expansion, de même que l'élevage ovin pourl alaine . • Elevageintensif de masse: fond é sur une alimentation à base de céréales ou de fourrages cultivés intensivement, il ne sedévelopp e que pour satisfaire une demande abondante,e t dans uncontext ed egrand edisponibilit é encéréale s (production localeo uimportée) . Les deux premiers types d'élevage peuvent fournir au marché des produits à des coûts peu élevés,mai sl evolum ed eleu rproductio nes tlimit épa rle ssuperficie sdisponibles . Aujourd'hui l'internationalisation deséchanges ,e tle sprogrè sindustriels ,permetten td eproduir een masse des substituts àl aplupar tde sproduit sd el'élevag ede sruminants : • les moteurse t lepétrol eremplacen t letravai l desbovins ,camelin s etchevaux , • lesengrai schimique sremplacen tl e fumier, • lecaoutchou c etle s matières synthétiques remplacent lecuir , • les fibres synthétiques et le coton remplacent la laine et les poils:le s fibres animales de toutes origines nereprésentan t plusqu e 5%d el aconsommatio n mondiale detextile , Seull elai t n'a pas encored e substitutvégéta lo u synthétique:s aproductio n demass ea p us e développer en ateliers intensifs dans lesrégion s les plusriches d u globe.L'augmentatio n de lademand e mondiale en viande est couverteprincipalemen t parl edéveloppemen t del apro ­ duction demass e devolaill ee td eporc , surl a based'un e alimentation composéeprincipale ­ mentd ecéréales ,qu ece sespèce svalorisen tmieu xqu ele sruminants .L'engraissemen tintensi f dejeune s ruminants se développe sur la base d'approvisionnement enjeunes issus soit du troupeau laitier, soit d'élevages extensifs. En admettantqu ele sélevage sextensif s oupaysan strouven tde scondition sd edéveloppe ­ mentfavorable s encombinan tu naccè sà de sespace spâturable se tu nmarch éfavorabl e àl'u n dese sproduits ,l'accè sau xparcour ses td'autan tmoin snécessair equ eplusieur sproduit s (par exemplelai te tlaine ,o uviand ee tlait )trouven t unebonn evalorisation :l'éleveu rpourr adon c dépenser (autofourniture ou achat) de l'alimentation cultivée pour uneparti e des besoins de ses animaux.Mai sdan stou sle sca sce sproduit sdevron têtr evendu s beaucoup plusche rqu e leurs substituts industriels :il s nepourron t intéresserqu'un e clientèle aisée,don t les besoins de base (nourriture, logement, habillement) sont déjà satisfaits, et qui est sensible à l'attrait desproduit s traditionnels.I ls'agi t doncd emarché s trèsétroit se nquantité .Dan scertain s cas ilexist e des réussites certaines:de sproduit s très bien valorisés peuvent constituer le moteur

226 du développement d'unerégion :c'es tl eca sd u Roquefort enFranc eo u duPecorin o romano (Italie +USA) , ou dujambo n ibérique, ou dans unemoindr e mesure,d u feta grec,vend u en Europe de l'Ouest et en Amérique du Nord auxpopulation s d'origine grecque et turque. Il semblequ e larégio n d'origine soitu n élémentimportan tdan s l'attrait exercépa rl eproduit . Danstou sle scas ,l'élevag ed eruminant sabouti tà deu xproduits ,l aviand ee tla peau ,mêm e si très souvent leprodui t principal est autre.tel que laine ou lait. Il enrésult e que le coût de production del'u n dece sco-produit s estimpossibl e àcalcule r sansfair e d'hypothèse surle s prix devent e des autres.D e fait, selon les zones,le s systèmesd eproduction ,e tle smarchés , certainsde sproduit speuven têtr econsidéré scomm e 'gratuits':c'es tl eca sde speau x d'ovins etd ebovin se nEurop e del'Ouest , oude sveau xd el'élevag e laitiernéo-zélandais . Ilsn eson t payésqu el epri xqu el emarch éloca lveu tbie nleu rattribuer ,mai sleu rexistenc ees td etoute s façons induitepa rla finalit éprincipal ed el'élevage . Cesproduit sfon t trèssouven tl'obje t de transactions àl'échell e du marché international. Mais pour l'éleveur, et pour le développement d'une région, il peut être important de chercherà mieu x valoriserce s secondso utroisième sproduits , surtout sil emarch éd uprodui t principal s'oriente à la baisse: c'estl e casd e l'élevage laitier des pays méditerranéens del a CEEpa rexemple .I ldevien t doncessentie ld eteni rcompt ed ecett efi n multipled e l'élevage lorsqu'on raisonne lesobjectif s duprogrè s technique et notamment del'amélioratio n généti­ que: tel mode d'alimentation, tel croisement, préconisés en vue d'augmenter la production laitière, sont-ilscompatible s avecl aqualit éd el apeau , avec laproductio n delaine ?

L'implication deséleveur sdan sle sfilières d emis ee nvaleu r

Lesproduit sd el'élevag efon tl'objet , avantleu rconsommation ,d'un eséri ed e transformations techniques,don tl erésulta t estu n nouveauproduit : exemplelaine ,tissu ,vêtemen t (Figure 1). L'éleveur peut-ou non-effectuer lui-même cesopérations . Ilpeu t aussin'e n effectuer qu'une partieet ,tou te nconservan tl apropriét éd uproduit ,fair e fairecertaine sopération s àfaço n par desprofessionnel s (casd el atont epa rexemple) .I lpeu tauss ivendr el eprodui taprè su ncertai n nombred'opérations .S adécisio nn edépen dpa sseulemen td es acompétitivit étechniqu edan s l'une ou l'autre opération. Elle dépend aussi de sa position sur le marché de l'un ou l'autre desproduit s successifs del atransformation : vendra-t-ilmieu xd ufi l ouun eveste ? En effet, parallèlement aux transformations techniques, leprodui t subitauss i une séried e transactionscommerciale s quil'amènen t deslieu xd eproductio n versle slieu xd econsomma ­ tion. Si ceux-ci sont éloignés, ce qui est généralement le cas, il existe au moins trois trans­ actions: a. collectee nzon ed eproductio n etexpéditio n en zoned e consommation b. réception en zone de consommation en grande quantité (grossiste) et approvisionnement du commerced e détail c. distribution auxconsommateur s (détaillant) Lesopération stechnique speuven t avoirlie uà l'u n quelconquede sstade sd el afilière :l econ ­ sommateurachèt egénéralemen tl evêtemen ttou tfait ,mai si lpeu tauss iachete rl efi le tconfec ­ tionnerlui-mêm e son vêtement. Lecommerc einternational ,qu ia généralemen t lieu austad eb ci-dessu s àl'impor t comme à l'export, peut porter sur l'un quelconque des produits de l'élaboration technique: toison, lainelavée ,fil, tissu , vêtement. Touta ulon gd eso ncheminement , lavaleu rd uprodui taugmente ,pa run ecombinaiso nde s effets des transformations techniques, et des transactions commerciales,qu i toutes les deux ont un coût (Tableau 1). Le coût de chaque opération technique, ou de chaque transaction commerciale, peut être différent selon qui l'effectue (industriel ou artisan, professionnel ou occasionnel) et selon la région (coût d'approvisionnements en outillage et matériaux, coût d'implantation del'atelier , coûtd el amai nd'oeuvre , fiscalité).

227 Lait Marché __ Produits international industriels / ANIMAL ]-• Laine/Poil

Travail _ Produits ! Abattage ;. » familial artisanaux

• Viande

Fig. 1.Schéma d'implication desproduits animauxdans les filières économiques.

Tableau 1. Décompositiondu prix audétail d'un pull 'Mohair'en France (Francs français 1991).

Coût Opérateur Prixc % Opération Produit industriel commercial Eleveur Laine lavée 120a 40b 400 g. (300F/kg ) 4 Filature 40 Fil (100F/kg ) 80 8 Façonnier 100 36 Pull-usine 216 21 Grossiste 216 Pull-grossiste 432 42 Boutique 608 Pull-détail(TTC) 1040 100 a prix considérépa rle sproducteur s commenécessair e k prixà l'importation c surl abas ed e40 0 g/pull Source: Association deséleveur sd echèvr eAngor a etde sUtilisateur sd eMohair . Paris (communication personnelle).

En ce qui concerne lecoû t de la main d'oeuvre ilpeu t devenir un gain sic'es t l'éleveur lui- mêmequ i effectue les opérations techniques.C egai n doit être comparéno npa s aux salaires pratiqués dans la région ou dans l'industrie en général, mais au gain qu'il obtiendrait par d'autres activitésalternative s(s ielle sson tpossibles .Dan sl eca s contrairei ls'agi td'un eréell e création d'emplois). Ce raisonnement s'applique également aux autres intervenants de la filière:l'activit éd'u nmaillo npeu têtr edécidé es iell ecré ede s emplois,mêm es iell ees tmoin s efficiente que dansd'autre s lieux. Face à ces coûts, le marché attribue, à chaque étape technique un prix au produit quie n résulte,pri x variable selon l'époque (variations saisonnières,tendance sd umarché ,évolutio n

228 des modes)e tl e lieu (habitudes deconsommation ,présenc ed'un eindustrie ,fiscalité, ouver ­ turea umarch émondial) .Tou ta ulon gd el afilièr ede srapport sd epri xs'établissen tdon centr e les différents niveaux techniques et commerciaux. Surle sgrand smarché s (zoned efort epopulatio n urbaine)le spri xs'établissen tsouven te n fonction du prix de l'un des stades, par exemple, la laine cardée, qui devient alors le prix directeur. Aunivea ud'u n paysl echoi xde sopérateur ss'inscri tentr edeu xlimite s • àl'amon t le prix du principal produit faisant l'objet de commerce extérieur, par exemple enFranc el alain elavé ed'importation ,o u enTurqui el epoil d echèvr eMohair , • àl'ava ll epri x quel ademand e (nationaleo u d'exportation) attribue auprodui tfini. Entre cesdeu xprix ,su rlesquel sle spouvoir spublic speuven tjoue r (fiscalité, réglementation douanière) lesopérateur s nationaux sontobligé sd edétermine r leurs décisions.Le séleveurs , ou des artisans locaux, ou des coopératives, peuvent tenter de s'approprier une partie de la valeur ajoutée: par descoût sinférieurs' . proximité, savoir faire, installations moins coûteuses, parde spri x supérieurs: fabrications plussoignées , fabricationsplus personnalisées, petites séries mettant envaleu r l'hétérogénéitéd el a matièrepremière . Parexempl edan sl eca sd upul lmohai re nFranc e(Tablea u 1),l'éleveu rpeu tvalorise rs alain e à 300F/k g (laine lavée)alor squ'ell e estdisponibl e à 100F/k g àl'importation ^s'i l parvient à réduire de 80F/pul lle scoût scommerciau x qui s'élèventà 80 0F/pull , cequ ies tpossibl epa r descircuit splu scourt smai sn epeu treprésente rqu'un efaibl epar td umarché .L'autr esolutio n peutêtr ed evendr e80 Fplu sche rso nprodui ta uconsommateu r (soit+ 8% )pa run epromotio n appropriée fondée surun equalit éobjectiv e et/ou uneorigine . Eneffe t lesfilière s demis ee nvaleu rde sproduit sd el'élevage ,peau xe tpoils ,son td edeu x sortes. • Lesfilières industrielles travaillent surd e grandes quantités, mettent en oeuvrele s techni­ ques les plus performantes, jouent sur les différences de prix du marché mondial. Elles fournissent en grandes quantités des produits de bonne qualité moyenne mais ont besoin d'un approvisionnement homogène et nepeuven t valoriser depetite s quantités de qualité exceptionnelle. • Lesfilières artisanales, depetite s dimensions, fondées sur un énorme savoir-faire, gèrent l'hétérogénéité.Elle speuven toptimise rl avalorisatio n d'unelivraiso nhétérogène ,qu'elle s peuvent doncrémunére rplu s cherqu el afilièr e industrielle. Puisquele sbesoin sd ebas eautrefoi s satisfaitspa rle speau xe tpoil sson taujourd'hu i satisfaits laproductio n industrielle demasse ,le séleveur sn epeuven t valoriserce sproduit s quepa rde s filières artisanales soit en effectuant eux-mêmes les opérations (sil e marchées t proche) soit enle sconfian t àun eséri ed'artisan s aumétie rreconn u etefficace . Celacompren djusqu' àl a vente audétai l quin epeu t pas sefair e dans lecommerc e intégré despay s développés (cari l abesoi nd'homogénéité , dequantit ée td epri xpa stro pélevés )mai spa rde sboutique s spécia­ lisées. Autota lcett estratégi e vise uneclientèl eétroite ,fortunée ,e t attachée,pa r sanatur eo u par unepromotio n médiatique (mode), àc etyp ed eproduit . Mais si lemarch é sedéveloppe , sile spri x augmentent àcaus ed'un efort e demande,l erisqu ees t grandd e voir sedéveloppe r soitun eproductio n dece sproduit sdan sde szone sagricole splu sriches ,soi td eproduit ssimi ­ laires fabriqués industriellement (soie artificielle). D'où la nécessité d'une protection légale dece sproduit s (label,marque ,appellatio n d'origine).

229 Conclusions

Dans quelle mesure la faible productivité des couverts végétaux et du matériel animal des systèmesd'élevag e méditerranéens oud uMoyen-Orient , conduitse n sec,peut-ell eêtr ecom ­ penséepa rl ahaut evaleu rmarchand ed eproduit sd equalité .I lpeu ts'agi rd'un epréoccupatio n poursuiviepa rde séleveur sindividuel s (oue ngroupe) ,o ud'un eoptio nd epolitiqu e nationale ou régionale se traduisant par l'organisation d'une filière en vue du maintien d'une activité d'élevage etd e transformation dans descondition s difficiles. L'étude économique de situations concrètes montre que la valorisation des peaux et des poilspeu teffectivemen t apporterau xéleveur su nreven u additionnelà ceu xd el aviand ee td u lait, et donc globalement créer ou maintenir des emplois. Mais cela n'est possible que si la matièrepremièr eproduit en' an iconcurrenc esu rl emarch éinternational ,n isubstitu tindustriel . Lespouvoir spublic s peuvent favoriser unte ldéveloppemen t par: • la politique douanière (taxation des importations pour les ramener au prix souhaité à l'intérieur, ou subvention aux exportations), • la politique fiscale (action sur les coûts intérieurs de transformation etd e commercialisa­ tion) • lacréatio n descondition sd'un eactivit éartisanal edynamiqu e (transformation etcommer ­ ce):transparenc ede smarchés ,libr eaccès ,cotations ,bourses ,marché sphysiques ,marché s àterme , • laprotectio nlégal ed el aqualit ée td el'origin ede sproduits ,à l'intérieu rd upay se tà l'expor ­ tation. Les opérateurs économiques doivent mettre en oeuvre et contrôler la qualité des produits au long del afilière puiqu ec'es t sur elle que sefond e leuractivit é et leurdifférenc e parrappor t auxmarché s internationaux. L'action technique et lesprogramme s derecherch e peuvent être conçus selon deux types d'objectifs: • s'ils'agi td'u n coproduitpou rleque ll'éleveu r n'estqu efaiblemen t rénuméré,i lfau t s'assu­ rerqu el'actio n surl eprodui tprincipal ,notammen te nterme sd equantités ,n edétérior epa s laqualit é du coproduit, • s'il s'agitd u coproduit principal, l'accent doit être mis sur ladéterminatio n descritère se t des facteurs de qualitéqu i soutiennent lavaleu rd u produit.

230 Poster presentations

Coordinator: O.Biçe r Analyse génétique du poids de la laine en suint et de la croissance des agnelles de race Gentile di Puglia

C.Renieri*, C. Pieramati*, S.Dell'Aquila**, L. Taibi** * Istitutodi Produzioni Animali, Perugia,Italie ** IstitutoSperimentale per laZootecnia, Foggia, Italie.

Abstract The study was undertaken with datacollecte dfro m aflock o f themerinise d breed Gentiled i Puglia,raise da tth eExperimenta lInstitut efo rAnima lHusbandr yi nFoggia ,Italy .Th eweigh t ofth egreas ywoo l(k g3.32+0.01 )onl ydiminishe si n9. 5year sol danimals ;th eyea ro fshearin g has a significant effect; heritability is 0.22+0.06, repeatability is 0.24±0.03. The following analyseswer ecarrie d out:weigh to ffemal e lambs atbirth ,a t 30,60,90 and 120day so fage ; the lambing type has the strongest effect; thephenotypi c correlations between female lambs bornfro m singleo rtwi nbirth sar edifferent ; heritabilityo fweigh ta tbirt hi sver ywea k(0.02 8 ±0.135). Key-words:growth , wool,heritability , repeatability.

Introduction Larac eovin eGentil ed iPuglia ,cré edan s leX Vsiècl eave cl'utilisatio n debélier sespagnols , représentel arac emérinisé eitalienn eplu simportante .Dan sle sdernier stemp ,l acris enational e del aproductio n del alain ea provoqu éun ereductio nprogressiv ed unombr ede sanimau xex ­ ploités;u nessa id etransformatio n enrac ebouchièr ees te nplace .L acroissanc ee tl aproductio n lainièrede sfemelle s dela rac e sont analyséesdan sc etravail .

Matériele tméthode s

L'analyse àét é réalisée sur les données recueillies dans l'Institut Expérimental pour laZoo ­ technied e Foggia, Italie.Le s poids àl anaissanse , etceu x à 30,60 ,9 0e t 120jour s de 1 033 agnellesexploitée s entrel e 1971e tl e 1985e tl epoid sd e3 43 5toison s en suintd e99 1brebi s exploitées entre 1972e t 1986on tét éexaminées .Pou rle spoid s àl anaissanc ee tà 3 0jour su n modèletrifactorie l sansinteractio n àét éutilisé ;le seffet s considéréson tét él etyp ed emise-ba s etl'anné e denaissanc ed el abrebi s (effets fixes) etl epèr ed el abrebi s (effet aléatoire).Parm i les poids de la même agnelle âges différents le coefficient de corrélation a été calculé. Un modèle trifactoriel avec deux effets fixes (année de naissance de la brebis et année de tonte) etu neffe t aléatoire (pèred el abrebis )a ét éutilis épou rl'analys e dupoid sd el alain ee nsuint . Les moyennes estimées des productions selon l'année denaissanc e et selon l'année de tonte et l'héreditabilité ont été estimées. Aparti r des effets significatifs à l'analyse de la variance, les coefficients decorrelatio n entrele sdifférent s productions ontét éestimés .

Résultatse tdiscussio n Enc equ iconcern el epoid sde sagnelle sà différent s âges,l etyp ed emise-ba sa present é l'effet plus important; lepèr ed el'agnell e aprésent e uneffe t significatif seulment pour lepoi d à3 0

233 Tableau 1. Analysedes modèles utilisés pour l'étudedes poids.

Poids

naissance 30jour s 60jour s 90jour s

Moyenne (kg) 3.721 9.690 14.095 17.262 C.V. (%) 14.42 11.15 11.40 10.46 Effets (Pd eF ) père 0.2885 0.0090 0.4567 0.4547 typed emis e -bas 0.0001 0.0001 0.0344 0.1842 annéed e naissance 0.4466 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001

Tableau 2. Correlationsphénotypiques entre lespoids enfunction du typede mise-bas(au dessusde la diagonale: mise-bas gémellaires; audessous: mise-bas uniques).

naissance 30jour s 60jour s 90jour s 120jour s naissance 0.221* 0.134 0.087 0.413 30jour s 0.006 - 0.753*** 0.420*** 0.347 60jour s 0.056 0.815*** - 0.705*** 0.519 90jour s 0.061 0.530*** 0.706*** - 0.784** 120jour s 0.175 0.394* 0.670*** 0.752*** - * P<0.05 **P<0.01 *** P<0.001.

Tableau3. Moyennesestimées pour lalaine ensuint selon l'annéede naissance etcelui detonte (kg).

Année annéed e naissance annéed etont e

1971 3.09 ±0.10 1972 3.18 ±0.09 1973 3.18 ±0.07 3.53+ 0.11 1974 3.36+ 0.08 3.48 ±0.09 1975 3.24 ±0.07 3.43± 0.08 1976 3.49± 0.08 3.46 ± 0.08 1977 3.29± 0.08 1978 3.31 ±0.07 1979 3.56 ±0.11 3.43 ±0.07 1980 3.45 ±0.12 3.52 ±0.07 1981 3.35 ±0.14 3.62+ 0.07 1982 1983 3.97 ± 0.07 1984 4.03 ±0.56 3.23± 0.07 1985 3.19 ±0.08 1986 2.65 ±0.08

234 jours,tandi squ el'effe t del'anné ed enaissanc ea ét ésignificati f pourtou sle spoid sà l'excep ­ tion decelu ipri s àl anaissanc e (Tableau 1). Lescorrelation sphénotypique sentr eagnelle snée sunique so ùgémellaire son tét é différen­ tes;parm ile spremières ,l epoid sà l anaissanc en' aprésent éd ecorrelation s significatives avec aucuns des poids suivants, tandis quepou r lesjumelle s il estcorrel é avec celui à 30jours ; à partir des 30jours , les correlations ont été en général toutes significatives pour les agnelles nées uniques,e tpou rcell enée sjumelle s entre 30e t 60,3 0e t90,6 0 et9 0e t9 0e t 120jours . Le coefficient d'héritabilité du poids à la naissance a presenté une valeur tres faible (0.028+0.135).Bie nqu el epoid sà l anaissanc eai tét éinfluenc é surtoutpa rl etyp ed emise-bas , cet effet n'a détenu aucune influence sur les âges successifs. Le poids de la laine en suint (3.32+0.01d emoyenne ) asubi tun eréductio n seulement àparti r del'âg ed e9. 5 ans. Tous les effets considéréson t été significatifs. Le coefficient d'héritabilité a été de0.22 + 0.06,valeu r qui est depe u inferieure àcell eprésenté edan s un travail précédent (Pillaet .al. , 1976) etqu i seplac eparm i lesvaleur s plus basses existantes pour lesrace s mérinisées (Rae, 1982);l arépètabilit é aét éd e0.25±0.03 .

Bibliographie

Mason, 1.L. & P. Dassat, 1958. Lagenetic a déliaproduzion e dilatte ,lan ae carn enell arazz a ovina Sopravissana. Studi Sassaresi VI:188-206 . Pilla, A. M., S. Dell'Aquila &L. Taibi,1976. L a produzione di lana nelle pécore di razza Gentile diPuglia . I.Influenz a dell'età edell'annata . Ann.1st .Sper .Zootec . 9:25-34. Rae,A.L., 1982.Breeding .In :Worl dAnima lScience .C ,Productio n systemapproach ,I ,Shee p andGoa tProduction . Elsevier,Amsterdam . 15- 53.

235 Postnatal development ofwoo l follicles of Pramenka sheep breed

M. Vegara Facultyof Agriculture, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia

Summary Investigationso f woolfollicle s of Pramenkawer edon eo nski n samples inth eag eo f six, 12, 18an d2 4 months.Characteristic s ofdensit ydecreas efro m sixt o2 4months ;nP-21.18 ,nP + S-30.20an dS/P-13.58% .Diamete ro f fibres showsa nopposit etren dan di tgrows ;dP-6.44 , dS-31.12 and dP+S-22.89%, but dP/dS was lower by 19.14percen t in oldest, compared to youngest category which indicates that wool with the age increase becomes more uniform. Medullaappear si nP follicles ,primaril yi nPC ,whil eS fibres havelo wpercentag eo fmedulla . Sheddingincrease d with the ageincrease ,bein g 1,71,4.14,5,98 and23.0 8percen ti nP folli ­ cles.Multipl efibre s inP follicle s wererecorde d onlyi noldes tcategor ydu et ointerrelatio n to shedding. Multiple fibres in Sfollicle s appear in all ages.Formatio n of trio groups, couplet and solitary inP follicle s ispermanen ti nPramenk a after partition.Correlativ e analysiso fin ­ vestigated parametres showed various directions and values, aswel l as full connection only between small numbero f characteristics.Tota lresult s indicate thatful l development of wool follicles of Pramenka completes in the age of 12months . Recorded variabilities show large heterogeny amonginvestigate d animals,thu sacknowledgin g thatPramenk arepresent s aspe ­ cific leveli n theevolutio n of domestication of wild ancestors up topresen tpur ebreeds . Keywords:woo lfollicles , diameter of fibres, medulla percentage, shedding

Introduction Coarsewoo lPramenk ai sth emostl yrepresente d sheepbree di nYugoslavia .Du et olo wwoo l productivityo non ehan dan dit simportanc eo nth eother ,th eobjectiv eo fthi spape ri st odeter ­ mine and investigate all parametres of the postnatal development of wool follicles on the exampleo frelativel ynumerou spopulatio no fPramenk ai nth eag eo fsix ,12,1 8an d2 4month s through skin samples.Therefore , the scopeo f thispape ri st oprovid eanswer st oth equestio n inwhic hag ePramenk a sheepbree dcomplete sit sful l developmento fwoo lfollicles ,i.e .birth - coat.

Materialan dmethod s Investigations were done on skin samples taken by biopsy from the mid part of Pramenka's bodyi n theperio d ofregula r shearing. Atth emomen t of samples taking,animal s werei nth e ageo fsi x(N=25) ,1 2(N=21) ,1 8 (N=21)and2 4month s(N=48) .Afte r thebiops yski nsample s werelaborator yprepared ,cu tan dinvestigate d accordingt ostandar dmethods .Th e following features wereacknowledge do nski nsample si nth epositio no fsebaceou sglands : totalnumbe r of follicles (nP+S), number of primary follicles (nP),rati o of number of secondary (S) and primary (P)follicles , (S/P),diamete ro fprimar yfibre s (dP),diamete ro fsecondar yfibre s (dS), diameter of allfibre s (dP+S),rati oo f diameter of primary and secondary fibres (dP/dS),ap ­ pearance of medulla in fibres; percentage of primary fibres in medulla (MP),percentag e of secondary fibres withmedull a (MS)an dpercentag eo fal fibresl wit hmedull a (MP+S).Kem p fibres,appearanc eo fshedding ,multipl efibre s andth ewa yo ffollicle s groupingwer erecorde d inparicular . Correlative andregressiv e analyses on the basis of singlerelation s were donei n

236 Table 1. Meanvalues of investigated characteristics of wool follicles and fibres

Age kemp (M) N nP+S nP S/P dP dS dP+S dP/dS MP MS MP+S % 6 25 7.45 1.70 3.46 64.12 25.48 34.30 2.56 93.41 3.74 24.17 14.62 12 21 6.76 1.38 3.98 55.79 21.56 28.52 2.55 97.50 0.00 19.99 6.00 18 21 7.26 1.68 3.40 66.65 26.04 35.00 2.54 99.83 3.17 25.94 6.50 24 48 5.20 1.34 2.99 68.25 33.41 42.15 2.07 79.81 11.31 28.90 30.45 order to determine mutual relations of investigated characteristics of wool follicles and their fibres.Thes e investigations were done under equal conditions at the sheep farm in Central Bosnia, at 1 200m approx .fro m sealeve li n theperio d 1986/90.

Resultsan d discussion

Analysing histological skin samples, large number of relevant parametres of wool follicles andfibre s wasdetermined , inthi spaper ,expresse di nthei rmea nvalue s (Table 1).B y theag e increase from six to 24 months, all characteristics of density decrease so that-mea n values nP+S and nPdecreas e accordingly,excep t thegrou p with 18months ,whos e values arelarge r thani n thegrou p with 12, but stilllowe r thani n the sixmonth s agegroup .Mea nS/ Pvalu ei s largesti nth egrou pwit h 12months ,bu twit h theag eincrease ,i.e . growth of animals, aswel l as skindevelopmen t and exoansion, this valuedecreases .Averag ediamete r of fibres in folli­ cles, per investigated groups shows an opposite trend in respect of density (it grows), being dP-6.44, dS-31.12, and dP+S-22.89%, but ratio of dP/dS decreases by 19.14% in oldest, comparedt oth eyounges tcategory ,acknowledgin gtha twit hth eag eincreas ePramenka' swoo l becomesmor euniform . Appearanceo fmedull ai nth efibre si sprimaril yconnecte dwit hfibre s inP follicles ,firs t inP Cwhil eth epercentag eo f Sfibre s inmedull ai slo w(medull awa srecor ­ ded in none of the samples in the group with 12 months), except oldest group of animals (11.31%).Mea nvalue so f medullafibre s percentage (MP+S)sho w atendenc y ofgrowth ,ex ­ cept the group with 12months ,bein g aresult , orinterrelate d with the diameter (fineness) of all fibres (dP+S), showing the same trend. Therefore, with the age increase, the usability of Pramenka wooldecreases . Inthes einvestigations , kemp wasrecorde d only inP fibres whic h coincides with former investigations of breeds in the world. Largest percentage of P fibres with kemp wasrecorde d in oldest group with the ageo f 24month s (30.45%).Analysin g the resultsobtaine di nth eparticipatio no fP fibres wit hkemp ,pe rgroups ,an dmakin gcomparisso n peryear so f investigations, itcoul d bestate d thati n animals which hadimprove d breeding at farm conditions, the percentage of kemp fibres, compared to initial material, gradually, but significantly decreased.Initialmateria li nth eag eo f2 4month swa ssupplie db yprivat efarmers . Their offsprings are composed of animals, six, 12an d 18months . Changing — shedding of woolfollicle s wasrecorde d onlyi nP follicles , buti n Sfollicle s sheddingwa sno trecorde di n anyo f samples.Wit h the ageincreas e mean values of shedding considerably increase,bein g (1.71, 4.14, 5.98 and 23.08%). By skin samples analysis, the appearance of multiple fibres was wasrecorde d in follicles of Pramenka wool.Multipl e fibres in Pfollicle s wererecorde d only in oldest group (1.68%). This appearance is most probably, a result of an abundant shedding. Multiple fibres in S follicles were recorded in all age groups. Their values, from youngest to oldest group, were within the range of 2.01, 1.00, 0.61 and 0.83%. In these investigations, the formation of Pfollicle s in the formation of trio groups was 93.57,93.37 , 92.77, and 93.62%,bu t in the formation of couplet and solitary 6.43, 6.63,7.2 3 and 6.38%,

237 which indicates that they are constant in thepostnata l period.Thi s acknowledges former in­ vestigation results obtained in the world for other breeds,base do n the statement thatfina l P follicles development completes substantially earlier (intra uterine), compared to secondary follicles. Since it is not possible topresen t a detailed correlative and regressive analyses of investigatedcharacteristic shere ,s oi tcoul donl yb estate dtha tsingl ecorrelativ erelation shav e various signs andvalues ,complet e only among smallnumbe r (dPan ddP+S-0.90,0.91,0.9 2 and0.91 ,an dd San ddP+S-0.90,0.91,0.9 1an d0.90) .Th eanalysi so fsynthetize dresult san d observations presented in this paper, indicates a conclusion that full development of wool follicles, i.e.birthcoa to fPramenk a completesi nth eag eo f 12months ,thu sbein gidentica lt o the findings of investigations done for other breeds. Wide heterogeny of all investigated characteristicso fPramenk apopulatio nthu srequire sth eapplicatio n ofwel lplanne dbreedin g andselectio nwor kfo rimprovemen t ofyiel dan dwoo lquality .Observin gth eobtaine dresult s ingeneral ,i tcoul db estate dtha tinvestigate dparametre sar ever yimportan tfo rth eknowledg e of wool structure,evaluatio n ofyiel d andwoo lqualit y in thismos t widelyrepresente d sheep population inth ecountry .

References

Carter,H.B. 1955.Th ehai rfollicl e groupi nsheep .Anima lBreedin gAbstract .23,2.101-106 . Edinburg. Clarke,J.H.W., Donnelly, B.J., Lombardini, A. &Gonzales, R. 1981.Fleec e characteristics and the wool follicle population of the Merilin, a Urugwayan sheep breed. Animal Production. 32:251-256. Fraser, A.S. & Short,B.F., 1960. The biology of the fleece. Tech. Pap. Anim. Res. Labs. C.S.I.R.O.Aust. ,No.3:5-92 . Hardy,MN. &Lyne.A.G., 1956.Th eprenata ldevelopmen to fwoo lfollicle s inMerin osheep . Austral.J . of Biological Science, 9:423^41. Lyne,A.G., 1961.Th e postnatal development of wool follicles, shedding and skin thickness in inbred Merino and South-down Merino crossbreed sheep. Austral. J. of Biological Science, 14. AnimalBreedin g Abstract.29.4.2155 . Markotic, B., 1968.Supplemen t to the knowledge of woolfollicle s of Pramenka.Abstracts , Livestock Institute-Butmir, 4. Sarajevo. Markotic, B., Causevic, Z., Gackic, S.,Tahirovic, N. &Vukovic, S., 1969. Theimportanc eo f investigating wool (fleece) follicles and their groups on sheep skin. Veterinaria. 18,1, Sarajevo. Ryder, M.L.& Stephenson, S.K.1968. WoolGrowth .Academi c Press,London . Ryder,ML., 1974.Post-nata l follicles development andfleec e changes in two selection lines of ScottishBlackfac e sheep.Anima lProduction. , 18(2):168—177.

238 Heredity of wool fineness of different sheep breeds and their crosses

Z.Causevic, B. Markotic, M.Vegara, A.Smajic and H. Omanovic Facultyof Agriculture, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia

Summary Theprogra m ofestablishin g domestic meat sheepi sbase do n theapplicatio n of combinatory crossingprocedure .Investigation swer edon ea tth efarm , locateda t1 20 0m se alevel ,approx . Besides domestic Pramenka, combinedWurttenberg-Merinolandschaf , high prolific Roman­ offan dmea tIl ed eFranc ebreed swer euse da swell .Productio nan dmea tqualit ywer eobserve d forth eabov efou rbreed san dthre egeneration so fproduce dcrosse san dfinenes s ofwoo lfibre s onth esample stake nfro mlef tmi dbod ypositio nwa sanalyse da swell .Sample swer eanalyse d in the staple base by the method of short cut. Fibres diameter was measured on fibre gauge. Mean values areobtaine d by biométriepreparation , andafte r that statistically studied accor­ ding to breed groups of animals andpresente d in thispaper . Investigations showed that new meat and wool sheep type, suitable for hilly-mountain regions in Yugoslavia could be esta­ blished by aforestated procedure. ' Keywords:Diamete r of woolfibre s ofPramenka ,Merinolandschaf , Romanoff, Iled eFranc e breedsan dcrosses .

Introduction VariousMerin o breeds wereimporte d in Yugoslavia in thepas t in order toproduc e domestic fine wool sheep.Breedin g was based on crossing, mainly with Merinolandschaf breeds, but the obtained results did not meet the requirements. Method of housing, feed shortage and severecontinenta lclimat elargel yaffecte d lowproductivit yo fproduce dcrosses .The yparticu - lary affected low yield of relatively fine but non-uniform wool. Theexperimenta l investiga­ tionso nestablishin gdomesti c meatshee ptyp eha s startedrecently .Th eincreas eo fmea tpro ­ duction andqualit y wasobserve d andfinenes s of woolfibr e wasinvestigate d on purebreeds andproduce d crosses aswell , being asubjec t mattero f thispaper .

Materialan dmethod s Investigationswer edon ei nCentra lBosni aunde rsever econtinenta lclimate ,a t1 200m appro x from sea level. Combinatory crossing procedure was applied, where, besides domestic Pra­ menka(P) ,combine dWurttenberg-Merinolandscha f (M),hig hprolifi c Romanoff (R)an dmea t Iled eFranc e(I )breed swer eapplied .Finenes so fwoo lfibre s wasanalyse dfo rfou rpurebreed s and three generations ofproduce d crosses (Fl generation — two-breeds MP/2,I I generation — three-breeds MP2R/4 and III generation — four-breeds MP2R4I/8). Number and ageo f animals are shown in thetable .Woo l samples were taken before shearing (endo f June) from the mid left side in the position of last rib. Investigation of wool fineness was done by the method of shortcu ti n astapl ebase .Diamete ro f fibres wasmeasure d onfibre s gauge.Mea n values wereobtaine d by biométrie samplespreparatio n andthe n statistically prepared accor­ ding to breed groups of animals. Investigations were done in the period 1986/91 at a farm underalmos tequa lhousin gan dnutritio nconditions .Frequen tlambin gwa saccomplishe dwit h

239 the application ofhormones ,use dfo rinductio n andestru ssynchronization . Therefore, cross­ breeds from the generations II and III were sheared in the ageo f 14an d 8months ,whe n the wool samples were taken for analysis.

Resultsan d discussion

Statisticalparametre sobtaine dfo rwoo lfinenes s ofinvestigate dpurebreed s andvariou stype s of crosses show large non-uniformity not only in average mean values but also in standard disorder, variation coefficients andwid erang eo f variations (Table 1). Meanvalu eo fwoo lfinenes s ofautochtonou sPramenk abein grecorde d35.8 8micrometer s isclassifie d intoa mediu mcoars ewoo l (classC ,i.e .48-5 6 S).Althoug h itseem s suitable for textileproductio ni ti srathe rnon-uniform ,rangin gfro m 19.78t o65.8 7micrometers .I tshoul d beemphasise d inparticula r thati never y specific sample,i.e .hai ro f animalswoo l fibres,be ­ longing to various classifications were found. If, besides the above, various length is taken into consideration then it could be concluded that this wool is good only for production of coarse fabrics and other types of industrial production. The results show that well planned breeding and selection work for improvement of wool quality was not applied in the inves­ tigatedpopulatio n ofPramenka .Woo lfinenes s ofRomano fbree dram si sonl y2.7 0fine r than of Pramenka, but variations are much lower, ranging from 29.12 to 39.41 micrometer. This type of wool is characteristic for hair hides because of selection ratio of primary fibres to halo-hair. It should be emphasised that Romanoff breed was used for the increase of both prolificy andearl ymaturit y increase,a swel l aschangin go f insemination seasons.B y these ­ lection of combined Wurttenberg-Merinolandschaf and meat Ile de France breeds, in the procedureo fcombinator ycrossing ,w etrie dt oprovide ,beside smea tproductio nincreas ehig h quality wool for industrial production. Characteristic of the above breeds is a medium fine wool (25.48 and 25.92 m^i), as well as very low variations (21.36-30.20 and 24.36-28.49 m(i).Produce dtype so fcrosse ssho wtha tF j crosses,compare dt oPramenka ,hav efine r wool by24.58 ,I Ib y27.76 ,an dII Igeneratio n by 16.81% . Variationsals ower elowe ran ddecrease d according toth efollowin g order: • Pramenka:F l generation47.10 % • Pramenka:I Igeneratio n56.02 % • Pramenka: Illgeneration76.96 % Coefficients of variabilities in II and III, compared to Fl generation also decreased, which shows the influence of paragenetic factors on the wool fineness. Fining of wool in newly established types of crosses occured as aresul t of the application of rams havingfiner wool , inth eprocedur eo fcombinator ycrossing .I tals oshoul db eemphasise dtha tnumerou sphysica l factors affect thewoo l fineness. These are mainly climate, sex, age,physiologica l condition

Table 1. Woolfineness of purebreeds and various crosses.

Breeds &crosse s n Age x± sx s s% Variations

Pramenkaewe s 664 24 35.88+ 0.21 5.46 15.22 19.78-65.87 Merinoram s 8 18 25.48± 0.95 2.71 10.63 21.36-30.20 PV/2crossbree d ewes 206 18 27.06 ±0.30 4.34 16.05 15.04-39.42 Romanoff rams 11 18 34.91 ± 0.99 3.27 9.37 29.12-39.41 PV2R/4crossbree d ewes 109 14 25.92± 0.27 2.78 10.72 16.49-36.76 Iled eFranc eram s 5 18 25.90 ±0.72 1.62 6.25 24.36-28.49 PV2R4I/8crossbree d ewes 20 8 29.85 ±0.51 2.27 7.60 24.90-35.52

240 andnutritio no fanimals .Thi smatte rwa sstudie dan dpresente db yman yauthor spresen there . Theabov einvestigation sindicat eo nth econclusio ntha ti ti spossibl et osuccessfull y establish new meat and wool type of sheep, suitable for hilly-mountain regions in Yugoslavia by the procedure ofcombinator y crossingo f domestic Pramenka with combined, high prolific rams andmea t breeds.Thi s should beo f interest not only for sheep breeders,bu tmea tprocessin g plantsfro m aviewpoin to f slaughteringvalue san dqualit ya swell .However ,i ti so fparticula r interest for processors of woolfibre s in theproductio n of various fabrics.

References Belie,J., 1957. Überde nEinflus s desAlter s auf diewallfeinhei t Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung u zuchtungsbiologie. Band 69,Hamburg . Causevic,Z., 1972. Acontributio n to the knowledge of acclimatization influence on some woolqualitie so ffin ewoo lsheep .Work so fth eInstitut eo fAgricultura lresearch . Sarajevo. p. 191-242. Daly, RA.& HB. Carter, 1956.Fleec e growth of young Lincoln, Corriedale, Polwarth, and Fine Merino Maiden ewes grazed on an unimproved Paspalum pasture. Australian J. of Agric.Research . Vol.7 .N o 1,76-83. Frolich-Spottel-Tanzer, 1929. Woolkunde.Berlin . Henderson,A.E., 1953. FleeceDevelopmen t andwoo lgrowt ho nth eRomne yLamb .Journa l of Agricultural Sei.43,12-53 . Camb. 1953. ABA21:2,775/158 . Hugo,WJ., Th einfluenc eo fnutritiona lleve lo nth edevelopmen to fth ehai rfollicle si nMerin o Sheep.S .Afr . J.Agric .Sei. , 1:203-216,AB A27:1,270/64 . Mare,G.S. &V. Bosman,1935. The influence of feed on the Merino sheep.Anderstefoor t J. ofVet .Sei .A .A nInd . 3:1,Edinburgh . Mcedlisvili,K.G., 1969. Vozrastnaja izmencivost serstnoi produktivnostiv polutankorunnih ovec.Ovcedvostvo , 15.p .24-25 . Nikolic,N., 1952.O uticaju klimatskih faktora na finocu vune.Godisnjak , Polj. fakulteta br. 4, Beograd. Ogrizek, A., 1948.Ovcarstvo ,Zagreb . Sien,S.B. & E.C.Banky, 1961.Woo lan dBod y Growth inLamb s During thefirs t 14Month s of Life. Canad. J.Anim . Sei. 41. p.78-88 . Tkaceva,N.N., 1969. Tip kormlenija i nekatorie pokazateli kacestva sersti ovec. Zivotno- vodstvo, 31. p. 70-71. Zdanovski,N., 1957.0 utjecaju exogenihfaktor an afinoc u vune.Arhi vpoljoprivredni h nauka. Sv.27 ,Beograd .

241 The comparative study of wool follicles of Pramenka, Merinolandschaf and Romanoff sheep breeds and their crosses

B. Markotic, Z.Causevic, M. Vegara,A. SmajicandH. Omanovic Facultyof Agriculture, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia

Summary Sheepproductio n in Yugoslavia is based on the application of combinnatory crossingproce ­ dure.Beside sth eemphasi so nmea tproduction ,th ewoo lproductio n willb eobserve d aswell . Inorde rt ointroduc eth emos tactua lstandard sfo r theevaluatio no fproduction , theinvestiga ­ tions of wool follicles has started according to the standard methods. Only first results are presentedher e sincefurthe r investigations,beside s theabov ementione d breeds,include dth e Iled eFranc ebree dan dinvestigation sfo rit scrosse sha sno tbee ncomplete dyet .Th eincreas e offollicle s numberpe r asiz euni tan dth eimprovemen t ofwoo lfineness , i.e.th edecreas eo f both fibres diametar and medulla fibres percentage were recorded from Pramenka breed, through its crosses,t o Merinolandschaf breed.Th eresult s suggest anee d for further investi­ gationso nth echaracateristic s of secondary follicles andfibre s ofRomanof f breed,which ,i n respecto f quantitativefeatures , showscharacteristic s similart otha to f wildtype s of sheep.I t could be concluded that these investigations will contribute not only to the establishment of required andplanne d standards, but toth e specific basesfo r wool genetics aswell . Keywords:woo lfollicles , diameter of fibres, medullapercentage .

Introduction Theinvestigation s on wool production potential on skin samples were conducted in order to establish meat sheep type, suitable for hilly-mountain regions through theprocedur e of com­ binatory crossing.Woo l follicles were investigated on skin samples and the obtained results arepresente d inthi s paper.

Materialan dmethod s Skin samples are taken from mid body position of Pramenka rams and ewes as well as Pra­ menka and Merinolandschaf crosses (PV/Z) andPV/ 2ewe s with Romanoff rams (PV2R/4). At the moment of samples taking all animals were in the age of 18months ,an d number per breedsi sshow ni nth etable .Biops ytake nski nsample sar elaborator yprepared ,cu tan dstudie d according toth estandar dmethods .Th efollowin g wasrecorde d onth e samples:tota lnumbe r of follicles n(P+S), number of primary follicles (nP),rati o of number of secondary (S) and primary (P)follicle s (S/P),diamete ro fprimar y (P)fibre s (dP),an ddiamete ro fsecondar y (S) (dS),diamete ro fal lfibre s (d(P+S)),rati oo fdiamete ro fprimar yan dsecondar yfibre s(dP/dS) , appearanceo fmedull ai nfibres , and (MP)primar yfibre s withmedull a (MS)secondar y fibres with medulla andkemp .Kem p fibres, appearance of multiple fibres, and the wayo f follicles grouping wererecorde d in paricular.

242 Table 1. Meanvalues of investigated characteristics ofwool follicles.

Breed N nP+S nP S/P dP dS dP+S MP MSMP+S Type& se x

Pramenkaram s 6 4.52 1.15 3.03 73.54 34.45 44.18 85.52 5.94 27.37 Merinolandsch.ram s 8 15.91 2.26 5.98 30.17 23.93 24.83 20.32 5.46 5.55 Romanoff rams 12 13.04 1.79 6.70 56.35 18.90 24.01 86.71 0.25 11.93 Pramenka ewes 21 7.26 1.68 3.40 66.65 26.04 35.00 99.83 3.17 25.94 PV/2cross.ewe s 17 12.52 2.30 4.45 46.19 22.33 26.67 70.03 2.05 14.33 PV2R/4cross ,ewe s 23 16.12 2.16 6.47 52.91 21.07 25.34 69.58 0.70 9.96

Resultsan d discussion

Very large number of information was obtained by the analysis of histological samples, but onlybasi sindicators ,expresse da sth emea nvalues ,ar epresente di nthi spaper .Detaile dstatis ­ tical analyses are available with the authors and those interested in can get them. Since this paperi sonl ya nintroductio n toa serie so ffurthe r paperst ob epublishe d uponth ecompletio n of investigations, soth eresult spresente d anddiscusse d here areonl y preliminary. (Table 1). Besides thepresente d results, iti s necessary to emphasise the presence of kemp fibres as well. Similar to former investigations conducted on other breeds in the world, this type of fibres was recorded only in Pfollicle s in this paper as well. Highest percentage of primary fibres with kemp was recorded in Romanoff rams (40.3%) and Pramenka rams (31.7%).I n Pramenkaewe sthi spercentag ewa s6.5 ,Merinolandscha fram s2.32 ,an dcrosse sPV2R/ 4ver y high 16.51%.Kemp efibre s wereno trecorde d atal l only incrosse sPV/2 .Observin g theob ­ tainedresult s in general, itcoul d beconclude d that they are similar to thatobtaine d by other authors who investigated same orrelate d breeds. Such impression one may have if observes theresult s individually. But,observin g theresult s synthetically, aiming notonl y tocreat eth e standards based on morphological feature, it is possible to establish a base for investigation ofwoo lgenetic sa swell .Fina lobjectiv eo fthes einvestigation si st oproduc emor eproductiv e animals from the viewpoint of meat and wool production by the application of breeding me­ thods.Fro mth eviewpoin to fwoo lproduction ,expresse db ya tota lnumbe ro ffollicle s (nP+S) both breeds used for crossing are superior, compared to Pramenka breed, so the produced crossesPV/ 2showe dbette rresult si nthi sfeature ,an dthre ebreed scrosse sPV2R/ 4wer ebette r than two breeds.Th e trend is identical for the total wool fineness (dP+S).Compare d toPra ­ menka,thi scharacteristi ci sbette ri ncrosses .Tota lmedull apercentag e(MP+S )wa simprove d in crosses,i.e .i t decreased. Thus,observin g in general, the obtained results on woolcharac ­ teristics,studie do nwoo lfollicles , aconclusio n isthu sindicate dtha tth eincreas eo fwoo lpro ­ ductiono non ehand ,an dqualit yimprovemen to nth eothe rwer erecorde di ncrosses ,compare d to domestic Pramenka. However, observing specific structural elements of wool separately, i.e.primar y and secondary fibres, (toremin d that thisi spossibl e only through skinsamples) , thenth eabov econclusio no nth eimprovemen to fwoo lproductio nan dqualit yi sno tdisturbed . However, other discussions areimpose d as well. Namely, total diameter of fibres for breeds which have to improve this feature is almost samei n Pramenka, while for Merinolandschaf rams it was 24.83 and in Romanoff rams 24.01 micrometers. The value of P diameter and secondary fibres shows a small variation in Merinolandschaf (dP=30.17, dS=23.93), but in Romanoff it waslarger , being (dP=56.35,dS=18.90) .I t should beemphasise d that,o f allin ­ vestigatedgroups ,Romanof f breedha sth efines t secondaryfibres .Also ,Romanof f hashighes t percentageo fkem pfibres (40.33% )i nprimar yfibre s withmedulla .Althoug hRomanof f breed waswidel ystudie di nUSS Rfro mth eviewpoin to fwoo lproduction ,an dthroug hski nsample s

243 as well, not many papers on its evolution position in a series of wild ancestors to fine wool breedsar eavailable .Also ,geneti c argumentsfo r itswoo l inversion, i.e.dee p secondary and shallowprimar yfollicle s areno tavailable .Thes echaracteristics ,i.e .fin e secondaryfibre s and highpercentag eo fkem pi nprimar yfibre s indicatetha tRomanof f breedi sclos et owil dsheep , whose primary fibres are only of kemp type, but secon- dary of an extraordinary fineness. Such observations and results make a basis for aquestio n when to observe production and quality of woolwhether Romanoff, even besides generally good results in its crosses, shall make aregressio n in details to the values of wool follicles. Surely, it isnecessar y toloo k for types of crosses which will show rather considerable trans- gression of fineness curve of primary and secondary fibres, i.e. decrease of variation of theirmea n values. Also,i t willb e necessaryt othin ko fth eappearanc eo fkem pfibres , since,a salread y stated,thi styp eo f fibres was not recorded in crosses of Pramenka and Merinolandschaf, while offsprings, produced from thesecrosses ,inseminate dwit hRomanof f breedre -ceived ,t oa certai npercentage ,kem p fibresi nprimar yfollicle s (18.51%).Therefore ,th eob -taine dresult sprovid ewid epossibilitie s for theselectio n ofmor esuitabl etypes ,an dbeside s selectionamon gpur ebreeds ,o nth ebasi s of variations, rather large possibilities for the selec- tion of more suitable crosses are thus provided.

References

Carter,H.B., 1955. Th ehai rfollicl e groupi nsheep .Anima lBreedin gAbstract .23,2.101-106 , Edinburgh. Diomidova, NA., 1955.Novi edani eo sroka h obrazovania serstnih volokon uovec .Zivotno - vodstvo,No .8 . Dry,F.W., 1955.Multifactoria l Inheritance of helo-hair abundance in New Zealand Romnay Sheep.Austral .J .o f Agric.Re .6 ,Melbourne . Fraser, A.S., 1954.Developmen t of the skin follicle population in Merino sheep.Austral . J. of Agric.Re s5, 4 Melbourne. Markotic,B., 1968. Thesupplemen tt oth eknowledg eo fwoo lfollicle si nPramenka , Abstracts ofpaper ,Livestoc k Institute-Butmir,4 . Sarajevo. Ryder, ML., 1960. A study of the coat of muflon Ovis musimon with special reference to seasonalchange .Proceeding s of Zool. Soc.o fLondon . Ryder, ML., 1962.Th e histological examination of skin in the study of thedomesticatio n of sheep.Zeitschrif t fur tierzuchtungun dZuchtungsbiologie .Ben d77 ,Berli nun dHamburg .

244 Use and production of Angora rabbit hair in Italy

C.Lazzaroni, I.Zoccarato, G. Pagano Toscano, A.Bosticco andM.T. Auxilia Dipartimento diScienze Zootecniche, viaGenova 6,10126 Torino, Italy

Summary Italy is one of the most important countries manufacturing valuable animal textile fibres for production ofbot hunderwea ran dfashionabl e clothes.Amon gthes efibre s Angorarabbi thai r or angorawoo lplay s animportan trole . The estimated amount of angora wool utilized by Italian textile industry is about 2-3 millionsk gpe ryea r(th eworl dproductio ni sestimate db yMelcher sa s4- 5million sk gi n199 0 andth eEuropea n onea s20 000 0kg) .Nevertheles sAngor arabbi tbreedin gi sno t widespread inou rcountry , sotha tther eisn' t amarke tfo r thenationa lAngor arabbi thai ran dth enationa l production, located particularly in the North as well as the industry, covers only 1%o f the needs.Th eamoun tlef tove ri simporte dfro mothe rcountries ,mostl yfro mChin a(abou t80%) , Germany,Grea tBritain , Chile,France ,etc . Thequalit yo fimporte dAngor awoo li sgenerall ylo wan donl y5 %o f theamoun ti sclassi ­ fied asSuper , 1sto r2n dclass .I nItal y thebigges t handicap for Angorarabbi t breedingi sth e high productive cost, given especially by labour, to have a high quality product. It could be interesting however to evaluate the possibility of rearing rabbits with double productive aptitude,i nwhic hwoo li ssubordinate d tomea tproduction ,s ot oincreas eth ein -come so fth e breeders and to supply thelo wqualit y wool needed by themarket . Keywords:Angor arabbit , angorawool .

Introduction Italian textileindustr y is specialised inmanufacturin g nobletextil efibres , both of animalan d plantorigin ,fo rth eproductio no funderwea ran dfashionabl eclothes .Amon gth eanima lfibres , besidessil kan dspecia lwool s— sucha scashmer ean dmohair ,obtaine db ygoats ,an dalpac a and vicuna, obtained by camelids— iti s worthwhile mentioning the angora wool, obtained from the hair of the homonymous rabbit. Although it does not represent an important quan­ titativeproduction ,angor awoo lshow ssom equalitativ echaracteristics ,suc ha sfineness, light ­ ness andnonconductivity , thatmak ei tver yinterestin gfo r high qualityproducts .N oimpedi ­ ments can be found to Angora rabbit breeding in Mediterranean countries, atleas t from the environmental and climatic point of view, because domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), bred now all over the world, takes its origins from the Mediterranean basin, and the same is for its genetic mutation Angora (also found in goats and cats) responsible for the peculiar characteristics of the hair.

Productionan dtrad ei nth eworl d Statistical data show that in spite of apredicte d worldproductio n of angora wool,evaluate d byth eMelcher s& Co .o fBreme na sapproachin g4- 5million sk gfo rth eyea r 1990— mainl y producedb yChin a(3- 400 000 0kg) ,Chil e(350-36 000 0kg) ,Argentin e (15000 0kg )— th e European production amount to only 20000 0 kg (about 4-5%), mainly from Hungary, Czechoslovakia,Franc ean dGerman y(Gallico , 1990),whil eItal yplay sa nunsignifican tcom ­ mercialrole ,wit h itsproductio n corresponding to 1%o f theneede d quantity.

245 In 1989 our textile industry was therefor forced to importing 347 2 891 kg of angora wool, representing70-85 % ofth eworl dproductio n (ISTAT,1990) . After examiningth edat aregar ­ ding theItalia n import of angora wool in the ten-years period 1980-1989 (Castellani, 1990) itca n bepointe dou ttha tou r suppliers aremainl y China,fro m whichw eimpor tdirectl y 70- 90%o fth etota lneed s (242 790 0k gcorrespondin g to69.9 %i n 1989),German y with6-11 % (40580 0k gcorrespondin g to 11.7%i n 1989),Grea t Britain with 4-8% (285 100k gcorres ­ ponding to 8.2% in 1989), Chile with 2-3% (119 300 kg corresponding to 3.5% in 1989), Francewit h 1-2% (18 500k gcorrespondin gt o0.5 %i n 1989),Argentin ewit h 1%(2 960 0k g corresponding to0.9 %i n 1989). Itmus tb ementione d thatth emai n quantity of theimporte d angorawoo li so flo wquality : only 5%i sclassifie d asSuper ,I o rI Igrad ean dth eremainin g 95%,utilise dfo rproduct swit h lowangor awoo lpercentage ,i sclassifie d asIII ,I Vo rOf f grade(Gallico , 1990).Thi sbot h for economicalreaso n (asth e Super costs twice theOf f grade) and forrequiremen t of the textile andfashio n industries,whic h do not askfo r yarns withmarke d 'woolly' angora effect.

Italian situation

Startingfro m thesedat aw ewante dt overif y 1)th epresen tsituatio no fbreedin gunit san dthei r consequent production of hair in Italy, as the last official data date back to 1981,an d 2) the true amounto f national consumption. InItal yAngor arabbi tbreedin gi sno twidesprea d atth epresent ,an dindee di ti sdecreasing , sinceit stren dt oproduc ehig h quality angorawool ,scarcel ydemande db yth emarket , sotha t evenb yinterviewin gth eNationa lRabbi tBreeder sAssociatio n wecoul didentif y only 19bree ­ dingunits ,whic h arelocate di n theNort h and Centre-North regions (Piemonte7 ,Lombardi a 4,Venet o2 ,Emili aRomagn a3 ,Toscan a2 ,March e 1),a sth e4 0manifacturin g firms (Piemonte 21,Lombardi a3 ,Venet o2 ,EmiliaRomagn a 1,Toscana9 ,March e l,Umbria2,Lazio l).The identified breeding units aremainl y smallo rmedium-smal l ones andthe y are specialisedno t in hairproduction , butrathe ri n animal selection for highqualit y hair,contrastin g sowit hth e demand of thenationa l andworl d market. In order to obtain more information on Italian producers and on theorigi n and quality of theangor awoo lutilise db you rfirms ,w etrie dt ocontac tth ebreeder san dth efirms 'managers , but the results are frustrating, since only 3firms replie d to our letter, asking for general and non-economicalinformations . However,despit eth ediscoragin gresult sobtaine db you rinter ­ views, we can state that in Italy Angora rabbit breeding plays a critical role, but at the same timeth elarg edeman dfo rangor awoo lo fmedium-lo wqualit yi sputtin gpressur efo ra decisiv e change in this situation, even in a short time.I n fact aninversio n of trend from our breeders from a superior qualitative production with high and uncompetitive costs to a lower quality butmor echea pproduction , combined tomea t production too,coul drais e theleve l of Italian Angorabreeding , and on theothe rhan d give usth epossibilit y toreduc eou rimpor t from the FarEast . Similar observation could bemad e for allEuropea n and Mediterranean Countries, whichcoul dsuccessfull y enteri nth eworl dangor awoo lmarke tan dsuppl yth estron gdemand s of theItalia n textileindustry .

References Castellani,L., 1990. Analisidéli epossibilit àd i sviluppodell a produzioned ipel od iconigli o d'Angorai nItali a(i nPiemont ei n particolare)e d icollocazion edell ostess opress o1'indu - stria tessile. FinPiemonte S.p.A.,Torino ,Italy . Gallico,L., 1990. Produzionede lpel od'Angora :tecnic ae deconomia . Rivistad iConiglicol - tura,27(10):35-40 .

246 Mohair production districts and consumption of mohair in Türkey

Y. Yazicioglu* andZ. Yildirim** * GaziUniyersitesi, MeslekiEgitim Fakültesi, TeknolojiEgitimi Bölümü, Ankara, Turkey ** Ankara Üniversitesi,Ziraat Fakültesi, EvEkonomisi YiiksekOkulu, Ankara, Turkey

Abstract Outside theprovinc e of Ankara, Angora goats arebre di nth eprovince s of Eskisehir, Konya, Çankiri, Afyon, Kastamonu, Mardin, KUtahya, Bolu and Çorum. 60% of the total mohair productioni sexported .Th eres ti sbein gutilize dlocall yfo rhandcrafts : blanketweaving ;scar f weaving; soft products weaving; socks,bags , etc. Keywords :Mohai rAngor a goat,productio n regions

Introduction Untilth e17t hcentur yAngor agoat shav ebee nraise donl yi nth eAnkar aregion .Outsid eTurke y theyhav ebee nbre dfo r thefirst tim ei nFrance .Toda y theyar ekep tals oi n the South African Republic,Unite d States of America, Argentina andOceania .Turkey' sproductio n ranks third in the world. It is believed that Turkey has some 2 18000 0 Angora goats. An Angora goat produces 2.2 kg/year mohair approximately. The total amount of the mohair production of Turkeyi s3. 5 ton approximately.

Resultsan d discussion Theprovince s whereAngor a goatsar ekep t andth e amounto f themohai rproduct s are:

Product Numbero f Amounto f Amounto f Provinces rank Angora goats mohair totalproduc t (kg) (%) Ankara 1 59036 4 974 101 28.95 Eskisehir 2 31657 6 55235 0 16.40 Konya 3 181 128 298 861 8.88 Çankiri 4 18061 0 29800 8 8.85 Afyon 5 153 822 25374 1 7.51 Kastamonu 7 11930 4 19665 2 5.84 Mardin 6 130 946 216 062 6.42 Kutahya 9 9004 8 14857 9 4.41 Bolu 8 11861 0 19579 8 5.82 Çorum 10 7742 6 12775 4 3.79

247 Sixtypercen t of thetota lmohai rproductio n wasexported .Th eres twa sutilize d byth ehand ­ craft industry: 1. Blanket weaving 2. Scarf weaving 3. Soft products weaving 4. Socks,bags ,etc . Mohair blanket weaving is very important in Turkey.Th efamou s mohair blankets arecalle d Siirtblankets . Siirtblanket s aregainin gmor eimportanc ei n andou to fTurkey .

Conclusion Mohair has aver yimportan tplac ei n theTurkis h economy,it srelevan t valuecanno t be fully exploited. Iti s necessary togiv e area l importance tothi sproductio n inth e future.

248 Aresearc h on some physical properties and principal utilization of mohairs produced in Ankara and Bolu districts

Y. Yazicioglu* andZ. Yildirim** * GaziUniyersitesi, MeslekiEgitim Fakiiltesi, TeknolojiEgitimi Bölümü, Ankara, Turkey ** Ankara Üniversitesi, ZiraatFakiiltesi, EvEkonomisi Yiiksek Okulu, Ankara, Turkey

Abstract TheAnkar aan dBol uregion sar eth emos timportan t mohairproducin gdistrict so fTurkey . In thisresearc hsom ephysica lcharacteristic ssuc ha sfineness ,crim pdepth ,resistance ,elongatio n rate, kemp,medullate d andcoloure d fiber percentages were studied.Physica l characteristics of the principal mohairs produced in Ankara and Bolu districts were determined. Regional utilization of mohair was also studied. Key words:Mohair , fiber, physical properties, utilization of mohair.

Introduction Inou rcountr yth ehuma ngrowt hrati oi s0.2 8 %.I ti sthu snecessar y toincreas eth eproductio n in every field because of this very high ratio. The production in the weaving and clothing industry can be easily increased. It seems that mohair products have achanc e in the market: weaving andclothin gindustry .Th eprovinc e ofAnkar ai sth emos tconvenien tregio n tokee p Angora goats;bu t they are also bred in theprovinc e of Bolu that has aver ydifferen t climate from theprovinc eo f Ankara. Purpose of this research was to determine the physical characteristics and to show the differences of the mohairs thathav e beenproduce d in thesetw odifferen t regions.

Materialsan d methods 40animal sfro mBol udistrict san d3 0animal sfro m theAnkar adistrict swer euse da sa sample . Properties wereteste d for these samples according to therelevan t standards.

Resultsan d discussion In this research the following properties were determined on the mohairs from Ankara and Bolu districts;fibe r thickness,stapl elength ,singl efibe r length,numbe ro ffolds , crimpdept h offibers ,resistanc eo ffibers ,elongatio nrat eo ffibers ,kemp ,medullate dfiber s ratio,coloure d fiber percentage.Regiona l utilization of mohair was also determined.

249 Ankara (n =21) Bolu (n= 21)

Physical Properties x Sx %V X Sx %V

Fiber thickness (|i) 30.316 0.92 13.90 31.39 0.70 10.22 Staplelengt h 14.500 0.29 9.16 14.03 0.51 16.63 Singlefiber natural length (mm) 119.329 3.36 12.91 109.32 3.62 15.16 Singlefiber rea l length (mm) 166.552 4.14 11.39 153.23 4.24 12.66 Singlefiber natura l length after real length (mm) 125.627 3.50 12.75 115.75 3.82 15.10 Numbero f folds (100mm ) 5.449 0.18 15.41 6.05 0.22 16.79 Crimp grade 1.420 0.01 3.80 1.44 0.02 7.36 Crimpkep trat e(% ) 88.330 0.37 1.91 85.03 0.75 4.07 Crimprate(% ) 28.485 0.57 9.20 29.27 1.08 16.98 Resistance offiber s (gr) 17.974 1.30 33.04 15.39 0.60 17.75 Elongation rateo f fibers (%) 44.27 0.94 9.69 41.80 0.9 10.58 Crimp depth of fibers (mm) 1.922 0.06 14.12 2.02 0.05 10.54

References Aköz,K. &N. Sincer, 1961. Afyon, Beypazari,Bolu ,Çankiri ,Çorum ,Eskisehir , Kastamonu, Yozgat bölgeleri Ankara keçilerinin yetistirme, bakim ve besleme sartlariylaq beden ölcüleri ve tiftik karakterli üzerinde arastirmalar. Lalahan Zootekni Arastirma Enstitiisii Dergisi.Say i 8-9,AnkaraBasi mv eCiltevi .Ankara . Altinbas,E.T., N. Giirtanin & F. Kaya,1975. Lif teknolojisi dersnom .Li f Teknolojisi veKö y El SanatlariKiirsiisii .Basilmamis . Ertem,F., 1970. Tiftik ihracatinin murakebesine dair nizamname geregince siniflandirilan ve ihraç edilen tiftiklerimizin bazi teknolojik özellikleri ve diinya standartlarina intibak imkanlariüzerind earastirmalar . A.Ü.Z.F.Yayinlari ,394 .Bilimse l Arastirma veInceleme - ler,244 . (DoktoraTezi) .

250 Cashmerefibr e production from Australasian and Siberian (Gorno Altai)goat si na cros sbreedin g programme

L.C.Roger, A. Waterhouse, N.Wray, M. Gallagherand S. Scanlan TheScottish Agricultural College, Grasslandand Ruminant Science Department, Kirkton Farm, Crianlarich,Perthshire, Scotland

Abstract Theproductio n ofcashmer ei sa possibl emean so fdiversificatio n onhil l anduplan dfarm si n Scotland. There are nonativ e types of goati n Scotland bearing economic quantities of cash­ mere.However , the native feral goat and some of the dairy breeds have been found to have smallquantitie s (<50g)o fver yfin efibre (

Methods InNovembe r 1989,196doe sconsistin go f 126ferais , 10dair ydoe s and 60F l (Australasian xfera l ordairy ) wereinseminate dwit hfres h semen taken from 8Australasia n and8 Siberia n bucks.Th emea n fibre diameter of the Australasian and Siberian bucks spanned therang eo f diameters available in each genotype and were therefore taken to be representative of their respective breeds.Da m typewa s allocated equally across both sirebreeds . Australasian buckswer euse dt omat ean ydoe sno tconceivin gt oA Ifo rth efirs tcycl e after insemination only.A furthe r 329-month-ol dF l (Australasian x feral ordairy ) doekid s were inseminated with semen takenfro m twoSiberia n bucks.A tota lo f26 8kid sresulte dfro m this breedingprogramme .Number so f each cross aregive n below inTabl e 1. Kids werepatc h sampled at 10month s of age at three sites— neck, mid side and hip— and a combined equal weight sample was obtained for fibre testing. Allfibr e samples were analysed atth efibre laborator y ofWhatawhat a Research Centre,Ne wZealand .Fibr elength s were also measured at these three sites.Kid s were shorn at 10-11month s of age and fleeces weighed.

Results Siberian cross kids had down of significantly higher diameter, higher fleece weights, higher yields and, consequently, higher calculated down weights (Table 2.) Siberian cross kids had significantly longer cashmere than Australasian sired kids at all three sites of measurement (Table 3). Correlations between down lengths at all three sites and calculated down weights werepositiv ean d similarfo r thetw ogenotype s (Table4) .Mea ndow n diameters ofAustrala ­ sian and Siberian cross females were higher than that of their male contemporaries. Fleece weights did not differ between sexes within genotypes but down yield was lower for female Australasian kids compared to their male contemporaries (Table 5). Single and twin reared kidsdi dno tdiffe r significantly inan yo fth efleec e characteristics measuredapar tfro m fleece weight, which was4% greate rfo r singles.Singl ereare d kids were6 %heavie r atweaning .

251 Table 1. Numberof kids of each genotype.

Damtyp e Siretyp e

Siberian Australasian

Feral 75 99 Fl Australasian 43 51

Table2. Meancashmere diameter, fleece weight, yield, calculateddown weights and weaning weightsfor Siberian andAustralasian crosskids adjusted for sexand dam type.

Siretyp e SED Siberian Australasian

Mean down diameter(|J.m ) 16.6 16.1 O.ii*** Fleece weight (g) 307.1 232.4 9 7*** Down yield (%) 42.6 32.8 Y24** * Calculated down weight (g) 131.4 76.1 47*** Standard deviation of mean down diameter 3.96 3.81 0.04*** Weaningweigh t (kg) 15.7 14.9 0.3**

Table 3. Down lengthsmeasured at three sites in January adjusted for sexand dam type.

Down length (cm) Siretyp e SED

Siberian Australasian

Hip 5.3 3.4 019*** Mid side 6.5 4.5 0.21*** Neck 6.9 5.0 0.24***

Table4. Correlations between downlength measurements andcalculated down weights.

Measurement site Siretyp e

Siberian Australasian Hip 0.57 0.51 Mid side 0.71 0.65 Neck 0.74 0.64

252 Table5. Fibre characteristics and weaningweights of male andfemale kids ofdiffering genotypes adjustedfor damtype.

Siretyp e

Siberian Australasian

Male Female SED Male Female SED

Mean down diameter(|i,m ) 16.1 17.3 0.16 *** 15.6 16.4 0.13 *** Fleeceweigh t (g) 293.9 326.3 17.3 NS 237.3 227.4 11.3 NS Down yield(% ) 43.7 42.2 1.8 NS 35.3 30.1 1.7 ** Calculated down weight (g) 128.4 139.4 9.1 NS 81.4 68.9 4.7 *** Weaning weight (kg) 16.8 14.5 0.55 *** 15.6 14.0 0.42 ***

Conclusions Siberian cross kids were superior to Australasian sired kids in all the components of down weight measured inthi s experiment iedow n length,diameter , yield andfleece weight .How ­ ever,thei rhighe rmea ndow ndiamete rma ylimi tthei rus ei na breedin gprogramm e sincebot h Australasian and Siberian studieshav e shown thatcashmer ecoul d beexpecte d toincreas ei n diameter by at least 1.5|0.m from the yearling to the 2-year old stage; e.g. Pattie and Restall (1990),Giffor d etal .(1990 ) andN .Wra y(persona lcommunication) .Suc h anincreas e would bringa greate rproportio n of thesecrossbre d 50% Siberian animalsove r theuppe rlimi t(18. 5 |j.m)o f fibre diameterfo r cashmere.

References Gifford,D., Ponzoni, R.W., Ellis,NJ.S., Levinge, F.C.R & Milne, ML., 1990. Phenotypean d Genetic Parameters for production characteristics ofcashmer e goats in south Australia.I n proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Cashmere Production, Melbourne, Australia. Pattie,WA. & Restall, BJ., 1990. Breeding for Cashmere. In Scottish Cashmere, theViabl e Alternative.Ed .AJ FRüsse lp p 13-31. Russell,A J.F., 1987. "Th eBeginning so fScottis hCashmere" .I nScottis hCashmere .Ed .A.J.F . Russell &T.J .Maxwell .

253 Angora goats breeding in Italy: preliminary data

S.Misiti, M. Antonini, F. Carnevali, F. Castrignanand E. Stella. ENEACM.E. Casaccia,Area Energia eInnovazione, DipartimentoR&S Agroindustriali, Unita diZootecnia, PB. 2400 -00100 Rome AD., Italy

Summary This study aims to acquire know how on Angora goatspotentialit y in Italy, mainly to utilize thisspecie si nmargina lan dunproductiv eagricultura lareas .Productiv e[PP ] andreproductiv e [RP]performance s havebee n evaluated on 60Angor a Goats,bre d in semi-extensive wayi n Italy. For each animal fibre production quantity (average fleece weight [AFW]) and fibres quality (averagediamete r [AFD] and typeo ffibres) ha s been evaluated. Further evaluations (AFD,averag elengh t [AL]an drelate dcoefficien t ofvariatio n [CV],numbe ro fkem p[K ]an d numbero fpigmente dfibres [NPF] )hav ebee ncarrie dou to npoole dfleeces ,processe di ntops . Amatin g group has been established (43females , 1 male) for evaluating main reproductive performances (pregnancy rate [Pr] detected by ultra-sound real-time scanning, fertility [Fr] andprolificac y [Pf]).I nth eend ,ne wbor nki daverag eweigh t[BKW ] anddail yaverag eweigh t increase [DAW] have been evaluated. PP: fibre individual results are: AWF: Kg 2.1; AFD: 10.30,42+10.25;medullate dfibres: 6.3 7percentag e(%) .Top sperformances :th epoole d fleeces weredivide di ntw ocategories :Youn gGoa tQuality :AFD : p.31.7,AL :m m94. 1an dCV : 59%, K: 15,NPF : 187. RP: Pr: 88.4%,Fr : 84.2% and Pr: 118.8%.Ki d performances: BKW: Kg 2.07±0.43,DAW :g 84.53±21.08 .I nconclusion ,obtaine dresult ssho wtha tAngor aGoat sdi d nothav eadaptatio nproblem s toth eclimate-e nviromenta lconditio n ofcente ro fItaly .Furthe r studies will be performed to obtain a better fibre quality nearer to industrial requirements. Actually wear eperformin g morestudie sabou tnutrition ,qualit yo fki dfleece s andreproduc ­ tiveaspect so f theAngor aGoats .

Introduction This study aims to acquire know howo n Angora goatspotentialit y in Italy, mainly to utilize this species in marginal and unproductive agricultural areas.

Materialan dmethod s Fibreproductio n quantity(averag efleec eweight )an dfibr equalit y(averag ediamete ran dtyp e of fibres) have been evaluated on 60 Angora goats. Samples washed with petroleum ether, driedi nove nfo r 30'a t 100°C ,prepare d according toUN I standards 5423-64wer eobserve d at500 Xwit hmicroscop e(MP3 ,Polski eZaklad yOptyczne) .Averag elengt han drelate d coeffi­ ciento f variation, numbero fkem pan d number ofpigmente dfibre s havebee n carriedou to n pooledfleeces ,processe d in topsb yindustria l methodswit hDar kFibr eDetecto r(CSIRO) .A matinggrou pha sbee nestablishe d(4 3females , 1 male)fo revaluatin gpregnanc yrate ,detecte d byultra-soun dreal-tim e scanning (ToshibaSonolaye rSa l3 2A) ,fertilit y ratean d prolificacy. New bornki d average weight anddail y increase have alsobee n evaluated.

254 Table 1. Tops analyses.

YGQ AQ Diameter((j. ) 31.7 35.6 Averagelengt h (mm) 94.1 105.8 Coefficient of variability (%) 59 56.2 Black hair 57 61 Coloured hair 130 136 Kemp 15 17

Table2. Reproductiveperformance.

Pregnancy rate 88.40% Fertility rate 84.80% Twinrat e 18.80% Prolificacy rate 118.80%

Results Productiveperformances :fibre individua l results are: averagefleec e weight Kg 2.1; average diameter |j.30.42±10.25 ;medullate dfibre s 6.37%.Top sanalyses :th epoole dfleece s weredi ­ videdi ntw ocategories :Youn gGoa tQualit y (YGQ)an dAdul tqualit y (AQ)result sar erepor ­ tedi nTabl e 1. Reproductive performances: seeTabl e2 .Ki dperformances : new bornki daverag e weight Kg 2.0710.43,dail y increase g84.53121.08 .

Discussionan d conclusions

Theanimal sproduce dmediu man dgoo dqualit yfibres , butwit ha remarkabl eamoun to fkem p andcoloure dfibres .I nspit eo fthei rmovin gfro msouther nt onorther nhemisphere ,th eanimal s showedsexua lactivit ysynchronize dwit hthei rcountr yo forigin .Howeve rsexua lactivit ywa s shorter( 1 month)tha nnorma l(3- 4months )becaus eo fItalia nincreasin gphotoperiod .Angor a goats hadn oadaptatio n problemst oItalia nclimat ean denviromenta lconditions .Furthe r stu­ dies will beperforme d toobtai n abette rfibr e quality nearer toindustria l requirements.

References

Carnevali, F.,De Benedetti,A. &Lucaroni, A., 1987.Diagnos i di gravidanza nella capra: indagine ecografica dosaggi ormonali. Selezione Veterinaria, n. XXVIII, n. 10 bis, p. 1587-1596. Fleet,M.R. & Forrest, J.W., 1984. Th eoccurenc eo fpigmente dski nan dpigmente dwoo l fibres in adultmerin o sheep.Woo ltechnolog y and sheep breeding,June/July : p.83-90 . Fleet,M.R. & Foulds,RA., 1988.Isolate d pigmented fibres in fleeces and their tops.Woo l technology and sheepbreeding ,June/Jul y &September/October : p. 76-81.

255 Lupton,C.J., Pfeiffer, FA. & Blakeman,N.E., 1991.Medullatio n in mohair. Small Ruminant Research, 5:357-365. Ryder,ML. &Stephenson, S.K., 1968.Woo lgrowth .Accademi cPress ,Londo n— Ne wYork . Ryder,M.L., 1987. Cashmere, mohair and other luxury fibres for breeder and spinner. Van DiemenCashmer e Company 'Forest Park', Bracknell,Tasmani a7302 ,Australia ,p . 1-24. van de Westhuysen, J.M., Wentzel, D. & Grobler, M.C., 1981.Angor a goats and mohair in SouthAfrica . South Africa MohairGrower s Assn.

256 Ovulation rate of maiden and mature South Australian cashmere does

D.O.Kleemann*, DM. Gifford*, 77.Grosser*, C.L. Trengove** andF.CR. Levinge*** * Departmentof Agriculture, TurretfieldResearch Centre, Rosedale, SouthAustralia, 5350 ** Departmentof Agriculture, Naracoorte, SouthAustralia, 5271. *** "Messamurray",Naracoorte, SouthAustralia, 5271.

Abstract This paper reports thedistributio n of ovulation of South Australian Cashmere does andesta ­ blisheswhethe rth epreponderanc eo ftwi nbirth sobserve db yGiffor d etal .(1989) ,i nth esam e herdo f goats,wa sdu et oa hig hincidenc eo f twin ovulations ort oa ninabilit y of theuteru st o support more than two kids. Such basic information will be relevant in deliberations about increasing the reproductive performance of the Australian Cashmere goat, whether it be by genetico rothe rmeans .

Introduction Reproductive rate has a marked influence on income derived from a commercial Cashmere goat enterprise. Ponzoni and Gifford (1990) proposed reproduction rate, defined as number of kids weaned, asa trai ti n the breeding objective of aCashmer e goat herd. The successful exploitation of thereproductiv e potential of theCashmer e goat demands a knowledgeo fit sintrinsi creproductiv ephysiolog yan dmodulatio nb yenvironmenta lan dothe r factors (Restall 1987).Althoug h littleresearc h hasbee nconducte di nthi s area,i tappear s that theAustralia nCashmer egoa tha sreasonabl efertilit y (pregnancyrate )an dha sa moderat einci ­ denceo fmultipl ebirths ,o fwhic hth eoverwhelmin gmajorit y aretwin s(Ead yan dRose ,1988 ; Saithanoo et al., 1988;Giffor d et al., 1989;Gherard i and Johnson, 1990). In contrast to the distributiono flitte rsiz ei nth eAustralia nCashmer egoat ,man yhighl yprolifi c breedso fshee p andgoat sproduc e sometriplet s andquadruplet s (approximately 15 to20 %o fbirths) .Exam ­ ples include Javanese sheep and goats (Obst et al., 1980) and the Booroola Merino (Bindon, 1984).

Materialan dmethod s The study was conducted on aprivat e property "Messamurray", near Naracoorte, in south­ eastern South Australia. Maiden (18month s old) andmatur e (30t o6 6month s old) does were isolated from bucks and rams for at least four weeks prior to teasing. Teaser bucks (2%) were placed into five mixed-aged groupso fdoe so nda y0 .Teaser swer eremove d onda y5 an dreplace dwit h fertile bucks. Ovulation rate wasdetermine d on day 10b y laparoscopy, thedoe s having undergone anovernigh tfast .Th eeffec t ofag eo fdo eo nth edistributio n ofovulation swa sanalyse dusin g theChi-squar e test.

257 Table 1. Distributionof ovulation rate(%) andmean ovulation ratesof Cashmere does.

Ageo f doe No.o ffemale s (%) Mean with ovulation rate of: ovulation rate

Maiden 129 37 60 1.66 Mature 133 24 70 1.82

Resultsan d discussion

The distributions of ovulation rate (%)an d of mean ovulation rates for maiden and mature Cashmere does are given in Table 1.Th e ovulation distributions of maiden and mature does weresignificantl y different (P=0.05),wit hmatur edoe shavin ga greate rproportio no fmultipl e ovulations. The mean ovulation rates of the maiden and mature does were both moderately high, and in both groups of does twin ovulations were commonplace. Our data indicate that themoderat efecundit y ofth eAustralia n Cashmere goat,i nwhic hmultiple-bor nkid s arepre ­ dominantly twins (Eadyan dRose , 1988;Saithano oe tal. , 1988:Giffor d etal. , 1989;Gherard i and Johnson, 1990),probabl y results from a high incidence of twin rather than higher-order (>2)ovulations .Furthe rinformatio n onlitte r sizedistribution s atmid-pregnanc y anda tbirt h willb ecollecte d totes t theforegoin g proposition.

References Bindon,B.M., 1984.Aust .J .Biol .Sei .37:163-189 . Eady, SJ. & Rose,M., 1988. Proc.Aust .Soc .Anim .Prod . 17:182-185. Gherardi, S.G. & Johnson,TJ., 1990. Proc.Aust .Soc .Anim .Prod . 18:479. Gifford,DR., Ponzoni,R.W., Ellis, NJ.S., Levinge,F.C.R. &Milne, ML., 1989. Proc.3r dInt . CashmereConf. ,Adelaide . Obst, J.M.,Boyes, T. &Chaniago, T., 1980. Proc.Aust .Soc .Anim .Prod . 13:321-324. Ponzoni,R.W. &Gifford, D.R., 1990. J.Anim .Breed . Genet. 107:351-370. Restall,BJ., 1987. In: Role of Non-Milch Goats in Agricultural Production in Australia. Working papers of Workshop,Sunshin e Coast. Saithanoo, S., Restall,BJ. & Pattie, WA., 1988.Proc . Aust. Assoc. Anim. Breed. Genet. 7:528-531.

258 The relation between aptitude for transhumance and fleece characteristics in seven French sheep genetic types

J.F. Hocquette*, M. Vermorel* andJ. Bouix** InstitutNational de la Recherche Agronomique, Clermont-Ferrand/Theix* and Castanet-Tolosan**, France

Summary

Heatproductio n (HP)o f groupso ffou r ewesexpose dt oclimati ccondition s simulatingthos e meti n theAlp sdurin g transhumance wasdetermine d by indirect calorimetry. At anenviron ­ mental temperature (Ta)o f 15°C ,H Po f ewes averaged 15KJ/K gP°- 75/h.A reductio n ofT a by 5° C or an increase in air speed (to2- 4 m/s) induced 9% increases in HP.Wit h both rain andwind ,H Pincrease d in 1.5 hourb y71,10 1 and 120%i n the Communes des Alpes(CA) , Préalpes (P) and Mourérous (M)ewe s respectively; these breeds seemed to adapt rapidly to bad weather asH Pincrease d only about40 % on the second day.Th eMérino srelate d breeds increasedthei rH Pmor eslowl y(i n3- 4hours )an dt oa lowe rexten t (by22-78% ) whitoutan y adaptation.Th eMérino sd'Arle s (MA)an dEs tà Lain eMérino s (ELM)ewe sha d athic kan d dense fleece which covered the belly and the legs.Loca l alpine breeds (CA, P,M ) have the shortestfleec ewit hth elowes ttherma linsulation ,an dth ehighes tradiativ ehea tlosse sspeciall y onth ebelly .Raisin gT at o31 °C an drelativ ehumidit y (RH)t o85 %durin gsi xhour sinduce d increases of 20% in HP.Th e MAan dEL M ewes increased theirrecta l temperature by0.45 ° Can dthei rrespiratio n rate4. 2 and 5.8 timesrespectively . Inconclusion , theMérino s related genetictype s(speciall yEL Man dMA )seeme dt ob ebette radapte dt oba dwheathe rtha nalpin e breeds.I n contrast, theEL Mewe s are unfair toa mugg y wheather. Key words:sheep ,climati c conditions,energ y metabolism, thermoregulation.

Introduction

Sheepfro m south-east ofFranc ear eexpose d torai n and wind, andals o tohig h temperatures and storms during transhumance in the alpine mountains. The main breeds which move to mountain pastures areM Aan dloca lalpin e breeds:CA ,P an dM .Th eEL M andIl ed eFranc e (IF) breeds are interesting to improve meat production whereas crossbreed Fl Romanov x Mérinos d'Arles (ROxMA) ewes are used to increase prolificity. Therefore, an experiment was performed to study the relation between aptitude for transhumance and fleece charac­ teristics in the seven french sheep genetic types cited above.Group s of four ewesfro m each genetic type were exposed in calorimetric chambers to climatic conditions simulating those met in the Alps during transhumance. HP was determined by indirect calorimetry. Fleece characteristics (radiative heat losses (RHL), thermal fleece insulation) and blood parameters wereals o measured.

Resultsan d discussion Experiment1

Ewes were exposed toth e following treatment: calm air with Ta = 15°C (day 1),win d (2-4 m/s)an drai ndurin g sixhour s at 15°C an dwin dalon edurin gth enigh t (day 2),cal mai rwit h

259 Q (kcal/kg P0,75/h)

M 15°C

7-

6-

M 10°C

ELM 10°C ELM 15°C

I Temps (heures) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure1. Changes inHP with rain and wind for two groupsof ewes. M:Mourerous with Ta = 15°C (day2) (o,m) orTa = 10''C (day4) (A,A) ,ELM: Està laine Mérinoswith Ta = 15'C (day2) (a,m) or Ta = 10°C (day4) (0,*).Symbols are full whenHP becomesstable and fluctuates arounda mean value.

Table 1.Variation inHP with rain and wind and fleece characteristics ofthe ewes.

Increase inH Pwit h rain andwin d Fleece RHLwit h calm air thermal (W.m-2) 15° C 10° C insulation (C.nAW-1) A B A B back belly MA(M) 22 34 29 25 0.231d 43.9a 67.3a MA(F) 0.119ab 61.5f 94.0b ELM 32 21 18 21 0.168cd 29.6a 70.6a IF - 46 . 32 OM!** 54.7de 117.8C ROxMA 78 36 45 27 O.^1* 47.9b 82.3ab M 114 123 39 47 0.117abc 55.2de 118.6C CA 76 66 40 44 0.121abc 56.6e 142.8d P 104 - 39 - 0.098a 51.2cd 140.9d Increase in HPi s expressed in %o f HPwit h calm air. Aan d B: Values for ewes nine weeks (A)o rfourtee n weeks (B)afte r shearing.'-' :missin gvalues .A valu efollowe d bya superscrip t differs significantly from all other values in the same column not followed by the same superscript. MAewe s from Le Merle (M)ar euse d to transhumance whereas MAewe s from Fréjorgues (F) are always kept in the valley.H Po f MAewe s from Le Merleo rFréjorgue s is not different.

260 Ta = 10°C (day 3),win d andrai n during six hours at 10°C andwin d alonedurin g the night (day4) . At 15° C in calm air,H Po f ewes averaged 15KJ/Kg°- 75/h. HPo f ewes nine weeks after shearing (groupsA )i s 11% highe rtha nH Po f ewesfourtee n weeks after shearing (groupsB ) (P<0.01). Areductio n of Tab y 5°C o r an increase in air speed induced 9% increases in HP (P<0.01).Wit h both rain and wind,H Pincrease d in 1.5 hour by 71, 101,120% in the CA,P andM ewe srespectivel y (day2 )(P<0.05) ;thes ebreed sseeme dt oadap trapidl y toba dwhea - ther sinceH Pincrease d byonl y 40%o nda y 4despit ereductio n inT a(Tabl e 1 andFigur e 1). TheMérino s related breeds increased theirH Pmor e slowly (in 3-4 hours) and to alowe r extent (by 22-78%) whitout any adaptation except for ROxMA ewes (P<0.01) (Table 1 and Figure 1). TheMérino srelate d breeds arecharacterize d bya thic k anddens efleec e whichcover sth e belly and the legs,wherea s localalpin ebreed s have the shortest fleece which does not cover thewhol ebody .Fleec etherma linsulatio nwa sth elowes tfo rP ewe san dth ehighes tfo rMérino s related breeds (Table 1).RH L were highest for local alpine breeds than for Mérinos related breeds,an dthi sdifferenc e wasgreate ro nth e belly thano nth eback .Bloo dconcentration so f calorigenic hormonesincrease d for allgeneti c types betweenda y 1 andda y4 :+26 %fo r thy­ rotropin and +15% for thyroxine (P<0.01). Blood energetic substrate concentrations also increased: +8%fo r glucose and+56 %fo r non esterified fatty acid (NEFA) (P<0.01). In conclusion, resistance to inclement weather depended mainly on fleece thickness and characteristics:th eMérino srelate dgeneti ctype s(speciall yEL Man dMA )seeme dt ob ebette r adapted to badwheathe r than alpinebreed s becausethe y have themos tinsulatin g fleece.

Experiment2

MA,ROxM Aan dEL Mbreed swer eexpose d toth efollowin g treatment : 1)cal m airwit hT a = 15°C an dR Ho f 70% (day 1),2 )cal m airwit hT a= 31 °C an dR H= 85% during sixhour s followed by either 2a)T a= 15°C R H =70 % (day 2)o r 2b)T a= 10°CR H= 70 %(da y 3) or 2c)T a= 10°C wit hrai n andwin ddurin g sixhour ssimulatin g astor m after high temperatures (day4 exceptfo r ELMewes) . Raising Ta to 31° C and RH to 85%induce d increases of 20% in HP and decreases of 69-75% inRH L(P<0.05) .Th eM Aan dEL Mewe sincrease d theirrecta ltemperatur eb y0.45 ° C and their respiration rate 4.2 and 5.8 times,respectivel y (P<0.05).Th e ROxMA ewes did not increase their rectal temperature and increased their respiration rate 2.5 times on days 2 and3 an d5. 1 timeso nda y4 (P<0.05) .Th eplasm aNEF Alevel swer eno tsignificantl y altered, but glycaemiawa s decreased by 6t o 13%(P<0.005) .Plasm a T3 andT 4 levels decreased by 34 and 20%, respectively (P<0.05). Catecholamin plasma levels decreased in the MA and ROxMAewe s (-11t o-6 3 %)bu tincrease d in theEL Mewe s (+9 to+58% ) (P<0.05). Fallo fT afro m 31°C t o 15"C an do fR Hfro m 85t o70 %induce d decreases of 10-16%i n HP (P<0.05).Whe n the ewes were submitted tocol d (10° C),rai n and whirling wind after a sixhour sexposur ea t31 °C an dR H85 % (simulation of storm),pantin g stoppedimmediately . HPdecrease db y 14%durin gth efirs t hour (P<0.05). Theni tincrease dlinearl yu pt o80 %an d 47% above the values recorded at 10° C without wind for the MA and ROxMA ewes respectively (P<0.05).Fo r MAewes , this increase was higher than that observed in the first experimentwit hrai nan dwin dafte rcal mai ran dT a= 10 °C R H= 70 % (+30%v s+80%) .Thi s is suggesting a reduced fleece insulation in the MA ewes that might have resulted from sweating duringexposur e to high temperature. Inconclusion, ewe swit ha hig hfleec etherma linsulatio n (ELMand ,t oa lowe rextent ,MA ) areunfai r toa mugg y wheather.

261 References Hocquette,J.F., M. Vermorel &J. Bouix. Influence du froid, du vent et de la pluie sur les dépenses énergétiques et la thermorégulation de7 types génétiques de brebis.Génét . Sél. Evol. (submitted). Hocquette,J.F., M. Vermorel & J. Bouix. Dépense sénergétique se tthermorégulatio n de3 type s génétiquesd ebrebi sexposée sà de stempérature se thygrométrie sélevées .Génét .Sél .Evol . (submitted).

262 Phenotypic correlations and productive wool traits of Australian Merino and Polwarth breeds raised in Brazil

EM.Siqueira, P.F. Vieira andS.B. Pons Facultyof Veterinary Medicine andZootechny, UNESP, 18600Botucatu SP, Brazil

Summary

Theobjective so fthi sstud ywer et oevaluat eth ewoo lproductio nperformanc e andt oestimat e phenotypic correlations among the considered traits, from 22 Australian Merino and 22 Polwarthewes ,raise da ta naltitud eo f623m ,48°24'3 "o fwes tlongitud ean d22°48'0 "o fsout h latitude.Al lo f themreare d lambsi nth etw oyear so f thestudy .The y grazedrotationall y ina Cynodon dactylonpasture ,wit ha stockin grat eo f 1.67 animalunit spe rha .Th eanimal swer e shorn in the last day of march. The following traits were determined: greasy fleece weight (GFW), yield (Y), clean fleece weight (CFW), fibre diameter (FD), staple length (SL) and staplestrengt h (SS). Theresult sreveale d asatisfactor y performance of both breeds.Meanwhile ,th e high yield values obtained were ascribed to the rain concentration before shearing, indicating that one should shearth efloc k immediately before therain y season (late spring).Concernin gpheno ­ typiccorrelations ,i twa sconclude d thatgreas y fleece weighti sa goo dselectio n criterion,bu t onehav et oatten d to therisk o f excessive increase offibre diameter . Keywords:sheep ,woo lproduction , wool traits,phenotypi c correlations

Introduction Thewoo li sa textil efibr e thati sphysicall y andchemicall y complete andha sproper scharac ­ teristics whichincrease s thevalu eo f itsen dproduct s (Bonifacino andLarrosa , 1985). Mean­ while,th ewoo lproductio n systemsinvolv einexorabl ecomplexit ydu et oth egrea tvariabilit y of environmental and genetic factors, that affect several characteristics related to the perfor­ manceo f thefibr e industrial process. Nutritionallevel ,healt hcondition san dphysiologica l status,beside sclimati cvariables ,ar e responsiblefo rth echange si nth efibr e structure,whic hca nalte rth equalit yo fth een dproduct .

Resultsan d discussion

The woolproductio n performance of the studied breeds was satisfactory considering theen ­ vironmentalcondition s (Table 1).On eemphasiz emeanwhile ,th eyiel dvalue sobtained ,highe r than the verified by Sanderson et al. (1976), Donelly et al. (1983), Rodriguez and Camiou (1985). Theseresult s were ascribed to therai n concentration in december,January , february andmarc h (770an d43 9m mfo r thefirst an d secondyear ,respectively) .Ver yhig hyield sma y be associated with amino rprotectio n of the fibres, due toth e suint washing (Cardellino and Ponzoni, 1985). After that, one suggest to shear in november, before the rainy season (late spring),i n order toavoi dpossibl e damageo f thefibres , due toth eexcessiv e moisture. Thephenotypi c correlation coeficients among thewoo l traits (Table2) ,evidenc e thestrai t relationbetwee nGF Wan dCFW , corroboratingth erecomendatio n ofCardellin oan dPonzon i (1985)t ous eth eGF Wi nth egeneti cimprovement , wheni ti simpossibl et omesur eth eCFW . Similar values were determined by Mullaney et al. (1970), White and McConchie (1976),

263 Table1. Means standard errors of the wool traits from Australian Merino andPolwarth breeds (twoyears means).

GFW CFW Y FD SL ss (kg) (kg) (cm) (%) (m) (NKtex-1) Australian Merino 2.88+0.08 2.28+0.07 78.96±0.68 20.50+0.19 8.90+0.19 52.62+2.34 Polwarth 3.13±0.08 2.51±0.07 80.17±0.60 22.08±0.23 10.83±0.21 62.10+1.49

Table 2. Phenotypic correlation coeficientsfor Australian Merinoand Polwart wooltraits, respectively (twoyears data).

CFW Y FD SL SS

GFW 0.98*** 0.50*** 0.33* 0.37* 0.39** 0.97*** 0.24ns 0.60*** 0.31* 0.46*** CFW 0.67*** 0.32* 0.32* 0.43** 0.48*** 0.56*** 0.29ns 0.58*** Y 0.18ns 0.12ns 0.48*** 0.08ns 0.04ns 0.61*** FD 0.33* 0.12ns 0.16ns 0.20ns SL 0.14ns 0.40** *** =P<0.00 1 **= P<0.0 1 * =P<0.0 5 n =P>0.0 5

Cardellinoe tal .(1981) .Th ecorrelation s betweenGF Wan dth eothe rvariable swer eno tanta ­ gonistes. Meanwhile, the positive phenotypic relation between wool quantity andfibr e dia­ meter,considerin g thefleec e weighta sth emai nselectio n objective, allowst odeduc etha ton e must check the diameter in order to avoid the overcome of the standard limits.Nevertheless , according to Garcia (1985), this care is essential when the greasy fleece is heavy, weighing moretha n 5.40kg ,i n the Corriedale breed.

References Bonifacino,LA. & J.R.Larrosa, 1985. Evaluacion economicad ela scaracteristica s del alan a uruguaya.In :Lana s- Seminari oCientific oTecnic oRegional ,Montevideo , 1985. Anales... Editorial Hemisferio Sur,Montevideo ,p . 167-171. Cardellino, RA., JL.V. Guerreiro & J.C.S. Osório, 1981. Produçâo de lä en borregos Corriedalen oRi oGrand ed oSul .In :Reunià oAnua ld aSociedad eBrasileir ad eZootecnia , 18,Goiânia , 1981.Anais.. .SBZ ,Vi ,cosa .p .306 . Cardellino, R.C. & R. Ponzoni,1985. Definicion delo s objetivos de mejoramiento genetico eindice sd eseleccion .In :Seminari oTecnic od eProduccio nOvina ,2 ,Salto ,1985 .Anales.. . Secretariado Uruguayo del aLana ,Montevideo ,p . 67-83.

264 Donnely,J.R., F.H.W. Morley & G.T.McKinney, 1983.Th e productivity of breeding ewes grazing onlucern eo rgras s andclove rpasture so n thetableland s of southern Australia.H . Woolproductio n andweight . Aust.J .Agric .Res .34:537-548 . Garcia,D.G., 1985. Algunasvariacione s lanimetricase noveja s Corriedale seleccionadaspo r produccion delana .In :Lanas -Seminari o Cientifico TecnicoRegional ,Montevideo ,1985 . Anales...Editoria l Hemisferio Sur,Montevideo ,p . 128-131. Mullaney,P.D., G.H. Brown,S.S.Y. Young& P.G.Hyland, 1970. Genetic and phenotypic parameters forwoo lcharacteristic s infine woo lMerino ,Corriedal ean dPolwart h sheep.I I Phenotypic and genetic correlations, heritability and repeatability. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 21:527-540. Rodriguez, M.E. & H.Camiou, 1985. Muestreo de lote de lana vellon de establecimiento productor.In :Lana s- Seminari oCientific o TecnicoRegional ,Montevideo , 1985.Anales.. . Editorial Hemisferio Sur,Montevideo ,p .201-206 . Sanderson, ID., JD. McFarlane& J.E.Pratley, 1976. Production and quality of wool from wet ewes, dry ewes and wethers grazing irrigated lucerne. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 11:169-172. White,D.H. & BJ. McConchie,1976. Effect s of stocking rate on fleece measurements and theirrelationship s inMerin o sheep.Aust .J .Agric .Res .27:163-174 .

265 Repeatability ofwoo lcharacteristic s and body shorn weighti n eweso ffiv e breeds,raise d in intensivegrazin gsyste m

EJR. Siqueira, P.F. Vieira andS.B. Pons Facultyof VeterinaryMedicine andZootechny, UNESP, 18600Botucatu SP, Brazil

Summary

This study was conducted for twoyear s with five sheep breeds, toestimat e the repeatability of wool traits and body weight. Data were obtained from 98 ewes (18 months of age).Th e experimentalgrou pconsiste do f 10Il ed eFranc eewe san d2 2fo reac ho fth efollowin gbreeds : Australian Merino,Polwarth , Corriedale and Romney Marsh. All ewesreare d lambs in both years of the study. They grazed rotationally in a Cynodon dactylonpasture , with a stocking rateo f 1,67 animals unitspe rha .Woo lsample s were takenfro m therigh tmidsid epositio no f the ewes and sent to laboratory for analyses. The LSMLMW program (MixedModel Least Squares andMaximum Likelihood Computer Program), b yHarve y (1987),wa s usedt oesti ­ mateth erepeatability ,includin gyea ran dbree da sfixe d effects andew ea srondo meffect . The repeatability estimates of the studied traits were high, except for staple strength andextensi ­ bility.Th eestimat eobtaine dfo r yellowdiscolouratio n incidence showedtha ti tmus tb einclu ­ ded in thegeneti c improvement programes. Key words: sheep,woo l traits repeatability.

Introduction The repeatability coeficient is a phenotypic parameter dependent on the population genetic patrimony and specific environmental conditions,althoug hth eestimate sfo r wooltrait smad e byvariou sworker s werever y similar (Cardellino andRovira , 1988).I nadittion , accordingt o Cardellino et al. (1983), therepeatabilit y tend tob elowe r under adverseenvironmenta l con­ ditions.Th e difference between repeatability estimates of adult and young ewes is not great inmagnitude ,s omeasurement s accomplished inth efirst fleece , couldpredic t the subsequent animalperformanc e (Younge tal. , 1960;Mullane ye tal. , 1970).Concernin gbree d differences, Mullaney et al. (1970) concluded that one may useth e sameestimate , topredic t gains in the productive life of Australian Merino,Polwart h and Corriedale breeds.Amon g several fleece traits,yello w discolouration isa seriou sfaul t thataffect s thewoo lindustria lvalue .Wilkinso n etal .(1985 )reporte d theoccurrenc eo fhig hrepeatabilit y estimatesi nAustralia n Merino,Pol ­ warth and Corriedale flocks, from different environments. Theobjectiv e ofthi sstud ywa st oattai nrepeatabilit yestimate so fwoo ltrait si newe sraise d in a sub tropical environment, in Brazil.

Resultsan d discussion Repeatability estimates of median tohig h magnitudewer everified , except for staple strength andextensibilit y (Table 1). Thefleec e weight (greasy andclean )coeficient s werefitted i nth e samerang eo f0.5 0t o0.60 ,reporte db yCardellin oan dRovir a(1988) ,base do nvariou sworker s data.Yiel drepeatabilit y estimatewa slowe rtha nth evalue sobtaine db yAustralia n researcher (Younge t al., 1960;Beattie , 1962;Whit ean d McConchie, 1976).Probably ,thi s discrepancy isdu et oth erai nincidence ,lo wi nAustralia ,bu thig hi nth econdition so fthi sstudy .Otherwise ,

266 Table 1. Repeatability estimates ofwool traits and body shorn weight, inewes offive breeds.

Traits Repeatability Standarderro r Greasyfleece weigh t 0.55 0.071 Cleanfleece weigh t 0.56 0.070 Yield 0.46 0.080 Fibre diameter 0.84 0.030 Staple length 0.53 0.073 Crimps frequency 0.78 0.040 Yellowdiscolouratio n incidence 0.55 0.071 Extensibility 0.19 0.098 Staple strength 0.24 0.096 Body shorn weight 0.75 0.045

therai nintensit y differed between bothyears ,suc ha noccurrenc epromotin g agrea tvariatio n in the yield, which contributed toth e lowrepeatabilit y estimate obtained. The low repeatability estimates for staple strength and extensibility were ascribed to the oscillationi nth ehelminthi cinfectio n betweenth etw oyear si nth eCorriedal ebreed .Althoug h thisinfectio n didn't cause seriousdamag et oth efibr e resistence,promote ddifférence s inthi s characteristic between the two years of the study. The fibre diameter and the crimp frequence showed very high repeatability estimates. It seemstha t theenvironment , especially thepastur enutritiona l value,offere d satisfactory con­ ditionsfo r thediamete r andcrim p frequency uniformity, inbot h years.Th ehig h estimateob ­ tainedfo rbod yshor nweight ,als oconfirm s thelittl eenvironmenta l variation.Thi sconclusio n is based on the fact that adverse environment favor low repeatability estimates, according to Cardellino et al. (1983). The yellow discolouration incidence repeatability estimate, was also high,confirmin g the observations ofWilkinso n etal .(1985) .Considerin gth eheritabl enatur eo fthi sabnorma lma ­ nifestation, it could be convenient to include it in the wool sheep genetic improvement pro­ grammes, mainly in the humid regions, where the environmental effect elevates yellow dis­ colouration frequency.

References

Beattie,A.W., 1962. Relationships among productive characters of Merino sheep in North­ western Queensland. 1. Estimates of phenotypic parameters. Queensl. J. Agric. Sei., 18:437^445. Cardellino, R.C.,A. Florin & A.Rodriguez, 1983. Determinaciones derepetibilidad . Ovinos yLanas , 10:45-54. Cardellino,R.A. &J. Rovira, 1988.Mejoramient o GeneticoAnimal .Editoria lHemisferi oSur , Montevideo,253p . Harvey, W.R., 1987. LSMLMW (Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program) PC-1version ,59p . Mullaney, P.D., G.H. Brown, S.S.Y. Young & P.G. Hyland, 1970. Genetic and phenotypic parameters for wool characteristics in fine wool Merino, Corriedale and Polwarth sheep. II.Phenotypi c and genetic correlations, heritability andrepeatability . Aust.J . Agric.Res. , 21:527-540.

267 White, D.H. &BJ. McConchie,1976. Effect s of stocking rate on fleece measurements and theirrelationship s in Merino sheep.Aust .J . Agric.Res. ,27:163-174 . Wilkinson, BM., F.J. Aitken &B.M. Tinnock, 1985.Prueb a para la prediccion del amarilla- miento del alana .In :Lana s - Seminario Cientifico TecnicoRegional ,Montevideo , 1985. Anales...Editoria l Hemisferio Sur,Montevideo ,p . 143-147. Young, S.S.Y., //JV.Turner & C.H.S. Dolling, 1960. Comparison ofestimate s of repeatability andheritabilit y for someproductio n traitsi nMerin oram san dewes . 1. Repeatability.Aust . J. Agric.Res. , ll(2):257-275.

268 The Sarda sheep breed and the local carpet industry

S.Casu, P. Cappai* andM. Atzori** * IstitutoZootecnico eCaseario per laSardegna. Sassari, Italy. ** Cattedradi Storia délie Tradizioni Popolari, Università diSassari, Italy.

Summary

The Sarda sheep breed with 470 000 0 headsi sth e most important Italian sheep population. Its originally came from Sardinia, but now iswidesprea d alsoi nman y regions ofth eItalia n peninsula,especiall yi nth ecentra lare aTh eanimal sar eo fmediu msiz ewit hannua lmil kpro ­ duction of 150t o25 0 1 depending onth ehusbandr y conditions. Their fleece weight ranges from 1.1t o1. 8k gfo rth efemale s and1. 5t o 2.5k gfo rth emale sThei rwoo li scharacterize d bylon gstaple swit h arelativel y largediameter .I nSardinia ,th etraditio no fwoo lspinnin gan d weaving dates back toprehistori c times This isa traditiona l activity, which is still thriving, sincei taccount sfo ra specifi c sphereo fproductio no nth eSardinia nloca lhandicraft . Weavers make blankets, carpets andtapestrie s following ancient patterns of composition, using both vertical and horizontal loomsconceive d accordingt oarchai c tecnology.

Introduction Sardinia, anislan d located inth emiddl e ofth e Mediterranean sea(Lat . 40°N) ,i sa nItalia n regionwit ha surfac e areao f2 4 809squar ek man d1. 6millio ninhabitants .Mos to fthi s surface is covered byhill s andmountain s (max height approx. 180 0 m). The pasture area is about 1.27millio n ha(Bullitta , 1980),bu t75 % ofth esurfac e ofthi sislan d mayb eexploite dexten ­ sively considering woods and the brushwood. Sardinia has a Mediterranean, warm and temperate climate with thelowes t temperatures inwinte r (0t o5 °C )an d the highest onesi n summer (27°t o 33° C).Th emea nrainfal l is60 0m mi n thecosta lplain san d1 50 0m mi nth e centralmountainou sareas .Precipitation sar econcentrate di nautum nan dwinte rwhil esumme r is anearl y dryseason .

Originan d distribution ofth eSard a sheepbree d

The Sarda sheep breed, indigenous toSardinia , seems tocom e ofth e large Asian stock, like mosto fth eMediterranea n milk sheep(Owen , 1976).I ti sth elarges tItalia n sheepbree d(4 1% of thenationa l sheep stock) with its4. 7 million heads,3. 8million s ofwhic h are bredi nSar ­ dinia. Theres t is bred in thepeninsula , especially in its central regions (Latium, Tuscany, Umbria,Emili aRomagna) .

Morphological and production characteristics

The Sarda sheep isa medium size animal (60-70 cmi n withers heigth),with aliv e weight ranging from 60t o8 0K gfo r the males andfro m 35t o4 5 Kgfo rth efemales . Itha s light, polledhea dwit h straighto rslightl yram-lik eprofil e andextende dtrunk ,dee pthorax ,straigh t back, broad abdomen. Itsudde r iswell-developed , globular, with great sinuses, suitablefo r bothhan dan dmachin emilkin g (Casue tal. , 1983)Afte r weaning(25-4 0day safte r lambing), this sheep gives amil k production ranging from 150t o250 1pe rlactation , depending onth e

269 extensive or semi-intensive husbandry conditions The averagemil k fat content is 6.0-6.5%, whileth eprotei n content amounts to5.0-5.3% . The annual fertility rate is about 95%wit h a 120-150% prolificacy rate lambings occur mainly in autumn for adult sheep andlat ewinte r for first lambings. Thewhite ,ope nfleec e withpointe d staples stretches halfway down theforle g anda littl e further up the hock.Its weight ranges from 1.1 to 1.5 Kgfo r thefemale s and from 1.5 to 2.5 for themale s Thewoo l charateristics are:

Staple length (mm) 187.8 Crimps/25mm 1.1 Fibre thicknes (m) 44.2 Yeld 16%R H 56.7

Animalhusbandr y

Sheepindustr yi nSardini atraditionall yfollow s atypicall yextensiv esystem ,wit hflock s living free range throughout the year,makin g useo f thefodde r from natural pastures.Mil k yield is dependento ngras sgrowt h (Casu, 1971),whic h showsa productiv ecycl etypica lo fman yme ­ diterranean areas,wit h herbageproductio n mostly concentrated inth esprin gmonths .Fo rthi s reason anddu e to mosto f the lambings occurring in late autumn,mil k yield shows acharac ­ teristic trend, with 25%o f the total produced in winter months(December-February), while 50% isproduce d in two springmonths(April-May) . Since several years the traditional system isundergoin g aprofoun d change,makin g avail­ ablesow npasture s (autumn-springtemprar ymeadows ;Bullitta , 1976)wic h supplyth e flocks with plentiful herbage during the critical periods (late pregnancy, lambing, early lactation). Even thesupplementar y concentrate isprovide d atdifferen t extent according toth e intensifi­ cation rateo f themanagemen t (Sanna et al, 1990). After weaning (lamb 30-40 days old) the milking starts usually twice a day, and lasts up to the beginning of summer. The gross income of the flock derives for 75-80 %fro m milk, 25-20 % from suckling lambs slaughtered when 30-40 days old, and only for 0.5 % from wool!

Woolutilizatio n Inth epas tth ewoo lo f the 'Sarda', thesol ebree draise di n Sardinia, washom eutilize d toma ­ nufacture the 'orbace't omak eth etraditiona l costumes orpart so f thembeside s theever yda y items like paksaddles and bags.Howeve r the wool, often mixed with vegetable fibers (flax, cotton) wasusuall y and stilli sprocesse d into blankets,carpet s andtapestries . Toimprov eth equalit yfin ewoo lbreed s(lik eth eMerinos) ,wer eintroduce dfo rcrossbreed ­ ing (Passino, 1931) but due to thedropin g milk yield this schemedidn' t goo n for longtime : consequently the breed was and still is acoars e woolproducer . Theeffec t of crossbreeding on quality andkin d of wool isreporte d inFigur e 1,an d refers toth e effect of crossbreeding withFriesia n atincreasin g levels (Boyazoglu et al., 1979).Th e exposed figures stress clearly that asth e textilequalit y improves the carpet making worsens. Suchcrossbreedin g doesn't seem advisablei n areas like Sardiniawher eth e traditional carpet handicraft thrivesfairl y well;i fno tproperl yplanned , thiscoul djeopardiz eth echaracteristic s of the traditionally manufactured goods.

270 200. Staple length - 12 M (mm)

i87,a —•• 150. l76,o\^ ** 100. 114,0 ~ -• 93,5 1——i 1

Crimps / 25 mm

Fibre thickness (Micron) 45. •- 40. 44,2 35.

Yield (16% RH) 65. S:Sard a 25%Fr:l/4Fries. XSarda . 50. 61,9 50%Fr:l/2 " ' " 55. 1 1 1 75%Fr:3/4 25% Fr 50%Fr 75%Fr

Figure1. Woolcharacteristics ofSarda breedand crossbred Friesian xSarda (Boyazoelu et ai, 1979).

Woolan dth eweavin gtraditio ni nSardini a

Thecultura l heritage of sheep breeding in Sardinia dates back toprehistori c times (Neolithic Age,4600-380 0BC ;Lilliu , 1988).Thi sheritag e ismad eu po fknowledg eo f ethnoveterinary science,empirica lhusbandr yan dmil kprocessing .Amon gth eothe rthings ,weavin gtradition s have developed according to which women do woolwork as a form of domestic handicraft (Satta, 1983). As happens in other countries whoseculture s centres on sheep breeding, in Sardinia wool processing isdivide d intoa serie so f technical operations being constant anthropological fac­ tors before itresult s in the final product. Actually the sequence of weaving operations is the following: shearing,woo lsortin gan dscourin gan dcarding ,spinning ,throwing ,han kwinding , preparationo fth ebobbins ,preparatio no fth ewarp ,layin go fth ewar po nth eloom ,drawing-i n and finally actual weaving (Balzano and Biddoccu, 1983;Mantiglia , 1987).Durin g the last stage, the fabric takes shape according to the design which one wants to produce. Again, to this end a series of constant operations is performed varying on the basis of the different designs. Precise calculations are made to establish the points where the weft is interwoven withth ewar p (Arataan dBiasi , 1935;Loddo , 1987).Furthermore , somewoo l hanks are suit­ ably dyed mainly red,dar k blue,brown , yellow aswel l asblac k andwhite ,i n ordert ocreat e sharper colour contrasts between patterns. The Sardinian textile tradition uses twokind s of loom:th e vertical one and the horizontal one, excluding each other in their respective areas of diffusion. Thus, specific and different skills areneede d tooperat e them, with theresul t thatonc e whoca n use the vertical loom are notabl e tous e theothe ron ean d viceversa.

271 Asi swell-known ,th evertica lloo mi stechnicall ybase do nth eelementar yprincipl eo ftensio n by means of two bars, one located at its top on proper supports and the other at its bottom, fastenedt orod so rcounterweight sexertin ga counterforce .Materia lcultur escholar sthin kthi s is themos t archaicweavin g system.I ti s usedi n someinlan d areaso f Sardinia with agreatl y conservative and pastoral tradition, such as Goceano and Barbagia (Pinna, 1990). So-called 'double face'carpets ,i n which theinterlacemen t of weft andwar pdoe sno tcreat ea righ t side and a back side, are produced in these areas being rather small in comparison with the ones whereth eorizonta lloo mi swidespread.Th e patternspeculia rt othes ecarpet sar ever ysimple . They are structured according to signrepresentation s based on multy-coloured stripes where lozenges and stars or sinusoids and broken lines with oscillographic structure are inserted. These elements aim at chromatic effects because of their being probably the result of a primitive culturalcontex t whichremaine d uniconic for alonge rtime .Fo r thisreaso n anddu e to thesecarpet s being produced by means of the vertical loom, wema y conjecture that their patterns and production techniques are more ancient than those decorating the carpets from otherSardinia n areas,wher ei ti spossibl et ofin dmor eelaborat einfluence s markedb ya highe r naturalistic realism. Thehorizonta lloom ,a mor ecomple xmechanis m thanth etechnicall y simplevertica lloom , was possibly brought in during the Middle Age by the monastic orders following the Bene­ dictinerule .Th etechnica lsyste mo fth ehorizonta lloom ,whic hprobabl ycam et oEurop efro m Asia,i s an important innovation since itmake s possible to speed up the weaving process by opening the shed through the warp with treadles that move the heddles upwards and down­ wardsan dthu smak eth epassag eo f theshuttl eeasier .Th eflora l patterns,mad ewit h thehori ­ zontal loom, are themos t widespread. Among them, the most peculiar onesportra y bunches and libertystyle compositions of carnations, poppies daisies and lilies hanging from stylized vine-shoots. Sometimes within theflora l patterns, stylized simbols of the monstrance ando f thecros s areportrayed , aswel la sstylize d zoomorphic shapeso fpeacocks , sparrows,hoopes , deers, mouflons and horses.Whereas , the stereotype of the anthropomorphic patterns is the 'round' dancewit h dancers all along the border and thehunter-drive rreasin g his rifle. Compositions andgenre s varyi nth edifferen t historicalan dcultura l areaso fthi sisland :i n someo f them carpets prevail, in some others tapestries orblankets .Generally , asregard s the different characteristics of traditionals patterns, some comunities stand out where the handi­ craft textileproductio n isstil lquit eactive ,wit hreferenc e toth edeman dbot ho fth ehom ean d theexterna l and tourist market, which developed after Sardinia gotint oth egrea trout e ofth e international tourism.I n Sardinia, aspecia lregiona l body,th e"Istitut oSard o Organizzazione Lavoro Artigiano", has been concerned with the traditional textile handicraft and the other sectorso fth eartisti chandicraf t industryfro m 1957,a sregard sbot hth epreservatio no fcultura l traditions andfinancin g programmes.Handicraf t firms andth eman ytextil ecooperative stur n tothi sbod ya sth emos timportan treferenc efo rproduc tmarketing .However ,unde rth epresen t market conditions, also the demand by private pourchasers always exceeds the supply. This means that the handicraft textile industry in the islandcoul d bedevelope d further in ordert o makei t anoutle t especially for thefemal e labour.

References Arata,V.G., BiasiG., 1935. Art e Sarda.Ed.Treves ,Milano . Balzano, F., Biddoccu F., 1983. Il lavoro al telaio a Bonorva e Ploaghe. Ed. Archivio Fotografico Sardo,Sassari , 46-79. Boyazoglu, J.C., CasuS., Flamant J.C., 1979. Ann.Génét .Se ianim ,11(1):23-51 . Bullitta, P., 1976.Rivist a diAgronomia , 1,2,57-64. Bullitta, P., 1980.Ital .Agric . 117,109-118. Casu, S.,1971. Option sMéditerranéennes ,7,100-108 .

272 Casu,S., Carta R., Ruda G., 1983.Il l Simp. Inter. Ordeno Mecanico Penuenos Rumiantes, Valladolid,592-603 . Lilliu,G., 1988. Lacivilt àde isard ida lPaleolitic oal lEt àde iNuraghi .NuovaERI ,Torino ,II I Ediz. Loddo,P., 1987.Art etessil ei n Sardegna. Simbolie orn a tiE dDelfino , Sassari. Mantiglia, G.,1987. In:AA.VV . Latessitura .Material i etecnich edell atradizion eEd .Muse o Etnografico diNuoro ,Banc od iSardegna , Sassari,21-72 . Owen, J.B., 1976.Shee pProductio n Ed.Baillier eTindad , Londres,436 . Passino, F., 1931.Nuov iAnnal id iAgric , IX,317-342 . Pinna,P., 1990.Sesuja , 1,24-34. Sanna,A., Casu, S.,Molle, G., Ligios, S, Ruda G., 1990. IX S.I.P.A.O.C,Grado . Satta,M.M., 1983.I Ilavor o al telaio aBonorv a e Ploaghe. Ed. Archivio Fotografico Sardo, Sassari,20-22 .

273 Presentsituatio n and future ofhan d woven wool carpets

M.Arli, F. Ilgaz andN. Kayabasi Ankara University, HomeEconomics Higher School, Departmentof VillageHandicrafts, Ankara, Turkey.

Summary

History of hand woven carpet making is aver y old art.Thousand s of families from Hereke, Bali-kesir ,Izmir ,Usak ,Konya ,Lak eDistrict ,Kâyseri ,Nevsehir ,Erzurum ,Siva san dAntaly a have been engaged in this activity and they are earning money from this art. Alarg epar to f thousandso fton so fsprin gshor tfleec eproduce di nou rcountr yar euse di nhan dwove ncarpe t making. Hand woven carpet making has a special importance for making use of rough and mixed spring shorn fleece which is notpossibl e tomak eus eo f inothe r branches oftextile . However, it is afac t that this old art has someproblem s nowadays.Ba d quality and non­ compliancewit hstandardizatio n asfa r asth ethread sar econcerned , simplicity andprimitive- ness of thelooms ,degeneratio n of motives anddesigns ,problem s of dyes and dyed threads, scarcityo fscientifi cresearc hi nth efiel d ofcarpe tmaking ,problem so ftrainin gan deducation , inability tomak equalit y control before, during andafte r weaving,problem s ofcooperatives , all sorts of legislative bottlenecks and similar problems areputtin g thefutur e of hand woven carpet making injeopardy , if not now in future. In order to prevent this danger it would be appropriate to take measures toovercom e the problems cited above starting from raw material andi n fact from sheep breeding up to sales andmarketing , thati si n every stage of handwove n carpetmaking . Keywords:Han d woven wool carpet.

Introduction Oneo fth ehandicraft s usedt oextensivel yi nou rcountr yan dmakin gus eo fth efre e workforce inth ebes twa yi shandwove n carpetmaking .Al lo fth eoperation si nhandmad ecarpe tmakin g aredon eb y hand. Carpet requires hand work only from beingthrea d tobecomin g acoverin g material. That is why although it is offered for high prices in the market it hasfoun d buyers easily almost in every age. Also, for this reason the machine-made carpets that have come abouti nth elas tyear sattrac tles sattentio n although theyar emad eo fwit hbette rmaterial ,the y havebette r design andmor e important they arecheaper . Carpetmakin gha sbee na handicraf t inou rcountr yfo r alon gtim ean dpresentl yi ti septen - dedt oal lregions .Ther ear ethousand so ffamilie s whoderiv ethei rlivelihoo dfro m handwoven carpetmaking .Despit e all theseincrease d demand towards handmade carpets inou r country therear esom ebottleneck spreventin gdevelopment .Thes ebottleneck sbrin gsom elimitation s to the development of handwoven carpet making. We can summarize these bottlenecks as follows.

Raw material Thera wmateria luse dcome sa sth emos timportan t factor inadditio n toth eworkmanshi pan d design that effects the quality and marketability of ahandwove n carpet. Alarg epar t of wool produced in our country areroug h and mixed. And rough mixed wools are the best for pro­ duction ofhandwove n carpets.However ,i ti sno tpossibl et osa ytha tal lth ewoo lyarn s arei n

274 the same quality. Wool carpet yarns produced in our country are produced in varied forms varyingwit hregions .Th equalit yo fbot hfactor y producedwoo lcarpe tyarn san dtraditionall y produced ones showdifferen t qualities.Therefore , standardized yarns havet ob eproduced .

Toolsan d design

Alarg epar to fth eloom suse di nou rcountr yar emad eb yth euser san da ssuc hthe yar eprimi ­ tive.The ymus tb eimproved .Because ,a qualit yproduc t (carpet)i sproduce dwit hqualit yra w material, careful workmanship and right tools looms. Motifs and designs seen in handmade wool carpets are very varied. There are some designs prepared by some special institutions, Siimerbank,Ministr yo fAgricultur ean dRura lAffair s andMinistr yo fCulture .Weaver smak e useo fthes edesigns .However , therear eals odesign sprepare di naccordanc e with thewis ho f the market and demand of the businessmen andcarpet s woven with thesedesigns . Therefore instead offollowin g the degenerated designsrequire d by the market wemak eou r traditional designs andquid e the marketbot h internally andinter - nationally. Education andresearch :I n order toenabl eou rcarpet s toattai n itsvalu ebot h inhom e and foreign marketsthe ymus tb ewove ni ngoo dqualit yan dgoo ddesign .An dthi sca nb erealize d only with thewor k of specializedpeopl e whokno w theaspec to f carpet from rawmateria lt o marketing.Suc hpeopl eca nb ebrough t upwit hgoo deducation .Unfortunately , thenumbe ro f institutions,researc h people andresearc h in thefiel d of handwoven carpet is almost none.I t is afac t thateducatio n without research is notpossible .

Coordination and cooperation

There areman yestablishment s inou rcountr ywh oar eengage d incarpe tbusiness .However , asther ei sn ocoordinatio nbetwee nthes ebodies ,labour ,knowledge ,mone yan dtim ei swasted . Therefore, itwoul d beusefu l tocombin ecarpe t making under asingl epubli c body andcarr y out all the works by this centralized organ. Cooperatives are an effective tool to develop the rural areas from socio-economic point of view. Carpet cooperatives which come under De­ velopment Cooperativescoul dno tcomplet ethei ruppe rorganizatio n andtherefor e theycoul d notse tu pthei runions .Therefore ,the yca nno tfunctio n effectively. Inorde rt omak eth ecarpe t cooperativeseffectiv e thereneed st ob elong-term , lowinteres t loansextende d tosuc hcoope ­ ratives.Hence , the financial problemo f the cooperatives will be solved.

Other problems

Thewage sreceive d byth eweaver s aredetermine d bylump-su m systemo rb y thenumbe ro f knots.Althoug h therear ever yman yan ddifferen t applications, thewag epai dt o theweaver s by knot is very low. Also, a large part of carpet weavers in our country are not covered by health insurance. Noseriou squalit ycontro li sdon eo nth ecarpet sproduce d bythos eothe rtha n Siimerbank, Development Fund of Turkey and some serious workshops. This fact means that erroneous carpets come on to the market. Therefore, on auto-control system to inspect carpet quality mustb ese tu pan ddeveloped .Als ohand-wove n carpetsmus thav ean dextensiv epropagand a andpromotio n both athom ean dabroad ,henc eothe rproblem so f carpet tradewil lb esolved . Wehav e the opinion that taking important measures in the field of raw material andeve n sheepbreedin ga swel la ssale san dmarketin gwoul db ever y appropriatefo r thedevelopmen t of handmade carpet trade which has and important place in the socioeconomic life of our country.

275 Design characteristics in Anatolian carpets

I.H. Güngör Facultyof Architecture, University ofTrakya, Edirne, Turkey^

Abstract Amongth ecarpet s woveni nvariou sproductio n centersi ndifferen t regionso fAnatolia ,ther e aretypica ldifference s aswel la ssimilaritie so fcharacteristic si ngeneral ,i nterm so fmaterials , colors,design s and sizes.Th emai n differences seem toleratet o designs rather than the other factors. The majority of the carpets woven in most of these regions display similarities in well-knownelement ssuc ha sth e 'mihrab'i nMedallion san di neac hcarpe tth eplai ni s framed bylarg ean dsmal lborders .I nspit eo fthes ecommonl y sharedsimilaritie si nth emotif s ofbor ­ ders andmedallions ,ther e are someregiona l differences incharacteristics .Th emotif s onth e borders make the region of the carpet easily known. Some carpets can be differentiated by theirmedallion so rth emotif s usedi nthei rmedallions . Keywords:Weavin gregion ; similarities in form andcharacter ; differences in design.

Introduction I have surveyed over fifty carpet-and rug-weaving regions in Anatolia. In general, there are similarities bothi nfor m andi ncharacte rbetwee n thecarpet swove n ineac h of theseregions . However, in spite of the general similarities, each one of these carpets is different from the others.Th e differences indesig n willb e studied in thisarticle .

Design characteristics

The differences in appearance between the Anatolian carpets may be grouped under four points:difference s in material; differences incolor ; differences in size;difference s in design. Only thedifference s of design willb e studiedi n thisarticle : 1. Although borders which are among the elements commonly used in the carpet design compositions exist oncarpet s of allregions ,ther e aredifference s between theirgeome ­ tric forms, flower patterns and branches that are used in the borders of most regions. Where the differences are very clear, the borders indicate the region where the carpet has been woven. Some famous examples are the following: 'Gemi' (Ship), 'Karanfil' (Carnation) and Cafer borders in Milas carpets; 'Heybe' (Saddle-bag) borderi n Yagci- bedircarpets ;Haliell iborde ri nDösemealt icarpets ; 'Çift Ayak'(Doubl eFeet )borde ri n Yahyali carpets; 'Narli' (Pome-granate) and Çubuklu border which consists of the fine borderso fGörde scarpets ; 'YanYaprak-Bardak '(Serrate dlea fwit hwine-glass) ,Goldii r and 'Makas' (Scissors) borders in Çanakkalecarpets . Similarly, Kirsehir, Nigde,Kara - man, andObru k carpets have specific borders of theirown . 2. Aninne rborder ,whic hi sfoun d onlyo nTaspina rcarpets ,form s asecon dfram e between the main border and the plain of the carpet. Alon g motif, called Sallama, within his frame is acharacteristi c of Taspinarcarpets .

1 Presentaddress :Abid eSitesi ,A Blok ,D.1 9Mecidiyeky ,Istanbul ,Turkey .

276 3. The 'mihrabs'i n carpets alsodiffe r according toth eregions . 3.1. Thecorner s of themihra b archo n the historical Gordes carpets are bevelled. 3.2. Themihrab s onLadi kcarpet s aresingle ,triple-o r quintuple-arched. 3.3. 'Hamayel' motifs on thearc h of Milascarpet s make themihra b nodose. 3.4. Thelas t stageo f themihra b iskep t long on Kirsehir carpets. 3.5. Themihra bi sdoubl ean dsymmetrica lo nth eYagcibedi ran dOrtakö y (Altinhisar) carpets.Th e samefeatur e exists on Yahyali andKul acarpets .However , thepart s of theplai n remaining within themihra b arequit edifferen t from each other. 4. Some carpets are differentiated with their medallions and the motifs forming their medallions. 4.1. Interlinked hooks form abi g medallion on theKarakeçil icarpets .Thes ear euse d eithera ssingl emedallion ,o rwhol emedallio n withtw ohalves ,o ra sa doubl eme ­ dallion. 4.2. Thelozenge-shape dmedallio n decoratedwit hflowe rpattern si sth echaracteristi c of the Kiz Bergama carpets. These carpets are woven by the YagcibedirYUriik s (Nomadic Turkmen) settled in thevicinit y ofDikili . 4.3. Themoti f called 'civa' found in thedoubl emihra bplai n of theYagcibedi rYiirii k carpets in Sindirgii suse donl yi n thisregio n withvariants . 4.4. The medallions found in the carpets woven in the Çanakkale region are not common in places outside this region. But a different variant of the medallion called 'Çarkli Elek' is used in Malatya. Oklu (Arrowed) and T^rnali (Crane) medallions arefoun d only in thisregion . 4.5. Aspecia l group of motifs found in asymmetrica l arrangement above and below the middleplai n of the Saribas (Yellow-headed) carpets woven in the Çanakkale region, are specific only toth ecarpet s in this region. 4.6. The medallions of Taspinar carpets are authentic in that these medallions which are called 'Civil Göbek'cotai n tiny flowers and forms. 4.7. The form of the medallion in the Yahyali carpets is also authentic, the motifs of which areno t found in otherregions . 4.8. Themedallio n ofth eOrtaky ö(Altinhisar )carpet ssurrounde db yhook sha sa ver y vividappearance .Anothe rdifferenc e betweenthi smedallio nan dthos eo fth eothe r carpets is thati ti s adjacent to theborders . 4.9. TheMade n(Çamardi )carpet shav eauthenti cmedallion sa swell .Thes emedallion s areeasil ydistinguishe d from thoseo fothe rregion swit hthei rcornere dshape san d the 'semse' (head of themedallion ) ateac h ends. 5. Themos timportan tcharacteristi c ofth eol dKul acarpet swhic h arecalle d theKömürc ü Kula,i stha tth emotif s found inth eplai n within themihrab sar ecompletel y wovenwit h black thread. Many other similarities as well as differences can be found when the details of the carpets woven in Anatolia are examined. Here, because of the limited time, only the most general characteristics havebee n mentioned.

277 Summary and conclusions Summary of symposium sessions

O. Kaftanoglu

Introduction

This summary attemptst ohighligh t someo fth emajo rissue swhic hwer ediscusse ddurin gth e Symposium. The programme was well balanced and the organizers were congragulated for thepreparatio no fsuc ha goo dsymposium .Th ehistorical ,cultural ,sociologica lan deconomi c context of theproductio n ando f theus eo f hides,skins ,woo l and hair,mohai r and cashmere wereunderline d andth een dproduct s such asleather ,carpet s andconfectio n were presented. Theinformativ e andauthoritativ epaper sstimulate d fruitful discussions.Th esymposiu mals o brought the scientist and authorities together to exchange ideas and developed scientific cooperation.

Introductivesessio n

Mr.Krostit zsummarize dth ecurren t situationan drecen tdevelopment si nth emarket so fhides , skins,wool ,hai ran dderive dproduct san dgav einformatio n onth esuppl yan ddeman da swel l asthei rimplication s for international trade. The developing countries keep the larger part of global population of ruminant animals; however, thedevelope d countries produce moremeat ,mil k and wool.Hid e and skinproduc ­ tion is about the same in developed and developing countries but these two outputs account only for a relatively small proportion of the total value of the animals. Hides and skins are therefore considered tob eth e by-products of livestock breedingfo r otherpurposes . The cattle numbers and consequently slaughtering and hides and skins output have de­ creased in almostal l developed countries. Themajorit y of theworl d goatpopulatio n andth e output of goat skins are concentrated in the developing countries. Wool production is much more in the developed countries than the developing countries. Australia and New Zealand produce over 40% of theworld' s wool. The short term outlook is for little change indeman d and supply of hides and skins in the next couple of years.Wit h global supplies exceeding demand, wool prices willremai n rela­ tively smalli n the shortterm .A certai n increasei n prices will occur in the long term. Prof.Peke lgav ea brie fdescriptio no fshee pproductio n inTurkey .H eindicate dtha tTurke y isamon gth efirs t 10countrie s witha populatio n of 45millio n sheep.Abou t 97%o fth eshee p population are native breeds and theremainin g 3%ar emerin o and merino crosses. Sheepi s keptfo rmea tan dmil kproduction .Woo li suse dfo rtextile ,carpe tan dkili mindustry .I nCentra l Anatolia, most of the sheep are fat-tailed. In theTrace , Marmara and Aegean Regions sheep arekep tunde rintensiv efannin gconditions .Howeve ri nth eEast ,the yar ekep tunde rextensiv e conditions. Numerous breedingexperiment s wereconducte d toincreas e themeat ,mil k andwoo lpro ­ duction in Turkey since 1934.Recentl y someexoti c breeds were imported from Europe and theywer edistribute d tovariou sfarmer s in thecountry .Als oselectio n andbreedin gprogram ­ mes wereinitiate d toimprov e thequalitie s ofAwass ishee pi n the Ceylanpinar StateFarm . Prof.Sönme zcomplaine dabou tth eproblem srelate dt oth etransfe ro fth eresult so fexperi ­ mentsan dscientifi c workt oth efarmers .H eindicate d theimportanc eo fextensio n besidesth e scientific work.

281 Prof.Eliçi ncomplaine dabou tth estat epolic yi nimportin gsom eexoti cbreed san ddistributin g themamon gth efarmers .H eemphasize d thatth eadaptatio n studiesshoul dhav ebee ndon ea t theuniversitie s andresearc h institutes before they were givent oth efarmers . Mr. Kosar asked if therewer ean ybreedin g work aimeda tincreasin g the quality ofhide s and skins. Prof.Boyazogl u explained theris ko fchangin g theloca lgeneti cmateria lan dindi ­ catedth enegativ easpect so fintensification . Mr.Févrie radvise dt oge tlesson sfro m thedevel ­ oped countriesi nterm so fintensificatio n and environmental pollution.

Session1

Dr.M .Eskoli n explained the anisotropy ofphysica l characteristic functions ofshee pleather . She compared theAustralia n andFinnis h leathers in terms of breaking load, thepercentag e elongation atbreak ,th esampl e thickness andth e tensile strength. Eventhough theAustralia n sheep leather hadhighe r samplethicknes s values,breakin g load,elongatio n atbrea k thanth e Finnish sheepleather , shestresse d that there were noremarkabl e differences between them. Dr.L .Blaja n explained theeffect s ofdisease s onth eproductio n ofhides ,skin san danima l fibers. Allcondition saffectin g thegenera lhealt hca ncaus ea visibl edefect s ofth eskin .Espe ­ cially skindisease ssuc ha sshee ppox ,goa tpox ,contagiou secthyma ,lump yski ndisease ,der - matophilosis andparasite s such asmange ,mycosi s andmyiasi s whichcaus eth edepreciatio n of hides, skins andanima l fibres. Dr.L .Blaja n alsogav ea pape ro nth eeffect s ofabattoi rprocedure so nth equalit yo fhide s and skins. Heemphasize d that themos tcommo n deffects ofhide san dskin s arecause da tth e timeo fslaughterin g andcarcas s flying of the animal.H eals oexplaine d that hides andskin s mayals odeteriorat efro m toomuc hdrying ,salting ,fault y folding anddurin g storageo rtrans ­ port.H eemphasize d thatth eimprovemen t ofqualit yo fth ehide san dskin sdurin gi nth eabat ­ toiran dwarehous estorag edepen do nth eskil lo fth eworkers ,gradin go fth ehide san dpaymen t according toquality . Prof.T .Yakal igav ea brie finformatio n aboutth einvestigation so nth ehide san dskin sfro m farmers toth e industry inTurkey .H eshowe d thedifferen t qualities ofleathe r and explained the genetic and environmental factors which affect the leather production andquality .H e emphasizedtha twhe nth ewoo lget sthinne ran dtighter ,th eleathe rbecome sweake ran dmor e porous.Th eleathe r which hasroug h andmingle d wool is considered tohav e better quality and morevalu e than thathavin g thin andtigh t wool likemerinos . Hedemonstrate d theeffect s ofdiseases ,parasite s andenvironmenta l factors onth equalit y of leather.A sbein gth eprotectio n organ ofth ebody ,th eski n andth eleathe rreflec t all signs of the strugletha t theanima l faces during itslife . Allthes e environmental factors including inadequate storage andconservatio n lower thequalit y ofleather . Prof.Eddebar h spokeo nth eus eo fhide si nMorocc oan do nth echaracteristic so fth esector . The leather industry hasa nimportan t place in Morocco. There areabou t4 0 tanneries in the country andthe yproduc e 80millio n square foot ofleather . The leather industry can be divided into 3group s such as, small traditional enterprises, semi-industrial andindustria lenterprises .Finess e and strength areth emajo r propertieso fth e Moroccon leather. Theindustr y isbecomin g more attractive forth efarmer s andwholesalers . Mr. T.Kosa r explained theproblem s andexpectation s of theTurkis h private leatherin ­ dustry. There areove r 40000 0peopl e working atth esector . The export valueo f the leather products,whic h comes after the textile,i sclose d to$ 1billion .Th esecto r hasbee n changing its structure since 1985.Th ehistorica l Kazliçesme leather industry is moving to organized leather industry district inIstanbul .Al lothe rleathe r industries areals omovin g toorganize d industrialplace s indifferen t cities. Oneo fth e main problems ofth e Turkish leather industry isth eshortag e ofra w material. The yearly increase ofnumbe ro fhea do fcattl e andsmal l ruminants (sheep andgoa t) i s not

282 sufficient. Theanima lstatistic san dth enumbe r ofslaughtere danimal sar eno tknow nprecise ­ ly.Consequentl y thera wleathe rproductio n isno t sufficient forth eneed so f theindustry .Th e qualityo fra wleathe ri slo wan dabou t50 %o fth eleathe rvalu ei slos tdu et ouncontrolle dan d faulty slaughtering and flying. Prof.Arta n presented theplac eo f Turkish leather industry within European Comunity,it s future andth epossibilitie sfo r itscompetitivenes s withth eindustr y inEuropea n Community. Turkeyoccupie sth e3r dplac ei nterm so fnumber so flarg eruminants ,th e1s tplac ei nsmal l ruminant numbers, the5t hplac ei n theproductio n ofra w hides from largeruminant s andth e 1st place in the production of raw skins from small ruminants. In other words Turkey has 13.5%o f thetota lnumbe r of cattle,39.5 % of sheep and 10.6%o f goats withreferenc e toth e ECcountries . The leather sector is one of the oldest sector of the Turkish industry. The establishments aremostl ysmal lan dthe yar elabou roriented .I norde rt oincreas eth ecapacit yan dt omoderniz e the leather sector, there are 4 bigproject s ongoing. By the realization of theproject s the ex­ portation valueo f the sectori sexpecte d toreac h upt o $3billio n in 1995. Leathertechnolog y andleathe rtechnicia n trainingcourse shav ebee ngive n atth eEg eUni ­ versity andIstanbu lUniversit y tomee tth emanpowe ro fth eindustry .Th era wmateria lavail ­ ability and low labour cost are important factors which provide acompetitio n superiority to the leather sector. Therefore, the Turkish leather sector has an outstanding performance and competition capacity inEurope . Prof.Eliçi n asked whyorganize d leather industry is beingestablishe d in the surroundings ofIstanbu lwhic hwil lb eth ecente ro fth ecit yi nth enea rfutur e duet oth euncontrolle dexpan ­ sion.H e also askedi f they couldb eestablishe d in theEast . Mr.Kosa r answered that therei s not enough promotion in theEas t andther e are some advantages being in big cities.H eals o said that in the newly established organized leather industry the utilization of water will be reduced from 80% to 15%,ther e will be waste water treatment units and re-use of solvents, bromium and the solid waste materialetc . Prof.Arta nals osai dtha tTurkis hleathe rindustr ynee dt obrin gth ene wtechnolog yi norde r toincreas e thequalit y of leatherproducts .

Session2 Dr.Simoncin i talked aboutth escientifi c andtechnica l innovation for controlling theenviron ­ ment andth equalit y ofwast ewate ri n the leather industry.Th eItalia n leatherindustr y isi na leading position asregard s thewor k performance and according to theresult s of the studies concerningwast ewate rtreatment ,depletio no femissions ,sludg edisposa lan drecover yo fby ­ products. Chemical reagents have to be used for processing hides into leathers, therefore, technologies arebein g developed toreduc e thepollutio n toth elarges t possible extend. There are about 13 000 tanneries in the world and 50000 0 people work in that industry. About 300 million m3 water/year are used for the process of tanning in the world. Italy uses 35millio nm 3 water/year. Tanningi sdon eb ymean s ofchromiu m salts.Raisin gth etempera ­ ture of drums to 40-45° C reduces the use of chromium salts to 33%.Th e finishing water containsformaldehyd e whichals ocreat eecologica lproblems .Th efutur eprospect so ftannin g process from the ecological and economic viewpoint must follow recent innovations which mustb e introduced in thetanneries . Prof. Sari explained thepossibilt y ofreductio n andre-usin g the wastes of Turkish leather industry that causes environmental pollution. The leather industry showing arapi d develop­ menti n the last 20years ,ha sno tha dit s own infrastructure oreducate d personnel. When the sector'spollutin gcharacteristic s werenotice di twa salread yver ylat efo r applyingpreventiv e measures.

283 Mosto fth eestablishment s arefoun d incitie san dtowns .Mos to fthe md ono thav ean ywast e treatment plants, therefore, all liquid effluents are directly discharged to the environment, therebycausin gpollution . TheTurkis h leatherindustr y ingenera l hasn opossibilitie s totrea t its own effluents with the exception of 5-10 treatment plants. Some of theproblem s can be solvedb yeducatin gth eleathe rmanufacturer s andpeopl eworkin gi nth esector .A tleas t50 % of thewate rca n be savedan d thevolum eo f theeffluen t can bedecrease d byoptimizin gpro ­ cesses.Thi s can bedon e by eliminating the superflous washings andrinsings .

Session3 Dr.Allai n explained thephysiologica l basisan dgenetic so fwoo lan dhai rproductio ni nsmal l ruminants andrabbits .H e described two types of hair follicels in the fur. Thefirst on e is the epidermal hair follicels which originate from the primitive epidermis and produce coarse fibers. The second isth ederive d hairfollicl e which produce thefines t fibres. Inshee pan dAngor agoa tth enumbe ro fderive dhai rfollicle s islo wan dconstant .Wherea s inAngor arabbi tth enumbe ro fderive dhai rfollicle s ishig han dvariable .Th eangor acharacte r isdetermine db ya pai ro f autosomalrecessiv e genes.Grea ta numbe ro f factors influence the quality andquantit y of fibre production in thesheep ,Angor agoa t andAngor arabbits . Dr. Ryder gave a very interesting talk on the production of desired wool characteristics during fleece growth. The wool buyers usually pay forfine fibres i n clothing wools, lack of kempan dpigmen t incarpe t wools.However , in all systems aheav y fleece ismor e economic for theproduce r since price/fleece is more important than price/kg. The most fleece charac­ teristics arehighl y heritable andtherefor e heredity contributes more tofleec e type than does theenvironment , such asda y length and nutrition. Thefleec e weightequal smea nfibre lengt h (L)multiplie db yfibre diamete r (A)multiplie d byfibre densit y (N)multiplie d bydensit yo f wool multiplied bytota lare ao f skin.Accordin g toth eformul a inorde rt oge tmor ewool ,w eshoul dgro wlarge rshee pwit hlonge ran ddense r wool. Feedingan dbreedin ginfluenc e thecomponent so ffleec e weight.Goo dnutritio n andextr a food stimulates wool growth, enlargement of body size and skin area, therefore, causing the increase of the fleece weight. Breeding also increase, almost all the components of fleece weight. Dr.Moran dFeh rtalke dabou tth enutritiona lcharacteristic san dfeedin g strategiesfo rAngo ­ ra goats.Th e Angora goats produce more fibre than Merino sheep if thefibr e production is calculatedi nkg/k go fmetaboli cweight .Th eefficienc y offeed sfo rfibre productio ni n Angora goati s higher than in Merinosheep . Energy and protein supplies can improve angora fibre production if the supplementary energyo rprotei nallow st oincreas eth esyntehsi so fmicrobia lprotei ni nth erumen .Th esuppl y of formaldehyde treated protein or protected methionine in the diets of animals being about anincreas eo fth efleec e weight.However ,whe nth efleec e weightproductio n pergoa tincrea ­ ses,fibre qualit y decreases. Asatisfyin g feeding strategy must beapplie d particularly toth egestatin g goatsi norde rt o reduceth eabortion san dperinata lmortality .Thi spractic eincrease sfibr eproductio nfro mkid s whichi s thehighes t quality and is sold ata highe rprice . Prof. Yalçin compared the Turkish Angora goats with the American x Turkish crossbred generations inrespec t of body weight andmohai rtraits . TheAngor agoat sar eraise dmainl yo nth eCentra lAnatolia nplatea ui nTurkey .Th egreates t part of theregio n isforme d bypoo rrangelan d and treeless steppes.Th eclimat e is semi-arid withdr yho tsummer s andcol dwinters .Becaus eo f thepoo rleve lo f nutrition, theproductio n traitso f Angora goat flocks aregenerall y low,i nTurkey .

284 In ordert oincreas e the productivity ofTurkis h stocks andt oincreas e thegeneti c variation, 19 bucks were imported from theUS Aan d a crossbreeding experiment wasconducte d in CentralAnatoli ai n 1983.Crossin gTurkis hAngor agoat swit hAmerica n stocks, significantly increased themohai r production, compared toth epur e Turkish goats. Itwa s found thatth e kidsi nth ecrossbre dgroup swer esignificantl y heaviertha nth epur eTurkis hkids .Als ocross ­ bredgroup swer esignificantl y superiort opur eTurkis hgrou pi nrespec to fgreas yfleec eweigh t and staple length. During discussions, Prof. Eliçin indicated that physiological characteristics depend on genetics.H easke di fphysiolog y isdifferen t from genetics?Wha t areth egeneti c andphysio ­ logicalcharacteristic s ofwoo lan dhair ?Dr .Allai n indicated that acorrelatio n existsbetwee n physiology andgenetics ,e.g . ifon ewant s toimprov e thequalit y ofmohai ron eca nimprov e thefinenes s ofth ewool .H eals o saidtha tphysiolog y dependso ngenetics . Prof. Özcan asked howProf . Yalçin determined thekem p andmedullate d fibers. Heals o asked howw ecoul d improve the Angora goats in Turkey? Is it possible to select thebes t material from thefarmer s and have anelit e flock? Prof. Yalçin agreed with Prof.Özca nan d indicated that theproductivit y ofTurkis h Angora goats canb eincrease d by crossbreeding, selection andth edevelopmen t offarmer s organizations i.e. breeders associations. Mr.Flaman t asked ifcrossbred s areeconomi c ornot ?Prof.Yalçi n answered that theyca n beeconomic . Dr.Erde mindicate dth eimportanc eo fkem pfibr erati oan dsh esai dtha tth ecrossin gAngor a goatwit hHai r goatincrease s thekem pfibr e ratio. / Prof. Pekel classified theTurkis h Angora goats according toth eecologica l regions, such as Gerede region (pine forest area) with black andgreas y hair, Beypazari region (oakfores t area)wit hmediu mgreas yhai ran dcentra lAnatoli a Plateau.H e askedwher eth eresearc hma ­ terial camefrom ? Prof. Yalçin said thatthe y were brought from the surroundings ofAnkara . Prof.Eliçi n indicated that therewer eno tmuc h difference between theAmerica n andTur ­ kishAngor agoats .H easke dfo rth ereason .Prof .Yalçi nindicate dtha tth epur eTurkis hAngor a goatsha dals o good, desirablequalities .

Session4 Prof.Eliçi n gavea brie f talko nwoo l andmohai rproductio n inTurkey .Th eshee ppopulatio n ofTurke yi sabou t45-5 0 millions and4-5 % ofthe mar eMerin ocrosses .Th emajorit y ofth e nativeshee pbreed sar efat-taile d andthe yal lhav emixe dcoars ewool .Th eaverag ewoo lyiel d isbetwee n 1.6-1.8kg/shee pan dth etota lwoo lproductio n isabou t70-8 0thousan dton swhic h isfa rfro m meeting theneed so fth ecountry . For thelas t6 0year s there havebee n numerous studieso nho w toincreas e thequalit yan d thequantit yo fwoo li nTurkey .Howeve rthes estudie scoul dno tb esuccessfu l duet ounsuitabl e managementan dfeedin gcondition sfo rfin ewooled-shee psuc ha sMerinos ,instabilit yi nwoo l prices andth eeasines s of working with native breeds which means less risks. Moreoveri n recentyear s theproductio n ofqualit y woolhav edecrease d greatly. Consequently Turkey im­ ports mosto fth erequirement s ofit s textileindustry . Angora goatproductio n isimportan t forTurke y asmohai ri sa nexpor t commodity which sellseasily .Th eAngor a goati sa nimportan t sourceo ffoo d andrevenu efo rth efarmers ,an d mohairproductio n meetsth enee do fth etextil e industry. There has been fluctuations inmohai r production. The lowan dunstabl e priceso fmohai r have an important effect onth erecessio n of Angora goat husbandry. Moreover, decreasei n acreagean dqualit yo fth eranges ,preventio no fbringin ggoat sint oth efores tarea san d difficul­ tiesi nfindin g shepherds accelerate thedecreas eo fth enumbe ro fgoats . Miss Joly and Mr.Billan t gavea n interesting talko n Angora goat andmohai r production: history andanalysi s of ane walternativ e farming inWester n Europe.Th emohai r production

285 was started about 10year s agoi n France,U.K. , Spain andGermany .Eventhoug h moretha n 500breeder s areinvolved , lesstha n 10% ofthe m havethei rmai n incomefro m Angoragoa t husbandry. The average mohair production is over 5 kg/year. Thefarmer s either sell theproduct s to theconsumer s directly ort oth etextil eplants .Therefor e allFrenc hproductio ni sclassed ,pro ­ cessed and soldunde r breeders structures. Dr.Ryde rpresente d thecashmer e production inChina . Chinaproduce s 60%o fth e world production. Chinesecashmer efibr e hasa diamete ro fabou t 15.5micron s whichi ssimila rt o the under-wool ofordinar y goats.Th enationa l average cashmere production is25 0gr/goa t andi treache s anaverag eo f50 0 gri n theLiaonin g breed. There are7 0millio n goats in China and4 0millio n of them grow cashmere.Th echines e cashmereproductio ni nabou t3 00 0ton san d1/ 3o fi ti suse db yth eChines eindustry .I norde r toincreas eth ecashmer eproductio nnativ ebreed sar ecrosse dwit hLiaonin gbreed .Th ecross ­ bred offspring of black native goats producing less then 100g ro ffibr e grow atleas t 300 gr of whitecashmere . Prof. Tuncel presented theopportunitie s forcashmer e production. Thegoa t productioni s animportan t agricultural enterprise inTurkey .Ther ei sa goo devidenc etha tth eus eo fcross ­ breedingnativ ebreed so fgoat swit himprove dcashmer eproducin ggoat swil lresul ti nincrea ­ sed both meat andmil k production; aswel l ascashmer e production. Backcrossing toAngo ­ ra/nativegoat swil lincreas ecashmer eproductio nsubstantially ,causin gsupplementar yincom e for the farmers. Prof.Özca nindicate d that thepopulatio n ofAngor agoa ti sdeclining . Awoo l and mohair research institute should beestablishe dan dstudie sshoul d beconducte do nrearing , selection and breeding, disease control, marketing products etc.Prof . Eliçin replied that a gene pool should be established forth epurpos eo fconservin g them. Dr. Erdem indicated that thetextil e industries dono t want fine wool. Dagliç andWhit e Karaman wools' areuse d forcarpet-making . However recently thecharacteristic s of Dagliç wooli sdeteriorating .Prof .Eliçi nanswere dtha tth etextil eindustrie sshoul dindicat eth eneed s andrequirement s toth eresearc h institutes. Mr.Flaman t askedMrs .Jol yi fal lth eAngor a goatkeeper s arefarmers ? She said thatonl y 50%o fthe m are farmers.

Session5 Prof. Jankowski presented the paper entitled "Wool associated to other sheep products in different production systems and breeding programmes in Europe". He indicated that the EAAPShee pan dGoa tCommissio ncreate dth ewoo lan dhai rexpert sworkin ggrou pi n 1987. Thecommissio n surveyed theproductio n ofwool , goat's hair andothe r fibre inEurope . Accordingt oth esurvey san dFA Ostatistics ,th eCentral-Eas t (C-E)Europea ncountrie s are the best in wool production, but thepoores t lamb and mutton producers. The North-West (N-W) European countries areth ebes ti n lamb andmutto n production andquit e good wool producers.Th epoores twoo lproducer s areth eMediterranea n countries,bu tthe y areth e best in sheepmil kproductio n andfairl y goodi nmea t production. Inth eC- E countries wool took the 1st place, in N-WEurop e the 2nd place and in the Mediterranean area the 3rd place accordingt oth eeconomi cimportanc eo fshee pproducts .Programme so fgeneti cimprovemen t of woolproductivit y were widely adopted inth eshee pindustrie s ofC- Ecountries . Dr. Sergent gave aninterestin g talk onth e"objectiv e measurement of wool: state of the art".H eexplaine dth eprinciple san dth emethod so fsampling ,determinatio no ffibr ediamete r in wool byth emicroscop e projection, determination of the main fibre diameter by air-flew, determination ofpercentag e ofmedulate dfibres, determinatio n ofth ekem pfibre , woolfibre length distribution, bundle strength of wool fibres, determination of the felting properties,

286 objective measurement of thecolou r ofra w wool, thedeterminatio n of theexistenc e andth e levelo f coloured fibre, quantification of thebul k of wool andresistanc e tocompression , and finally determination of woolbas ean dvegetabl e matter base-yield. Dr.Trabalz apresente d apape r titled"Colorimetri c analysis andmélanin equantitativ ede ­ termination in hair of goat with different pigmentation genotypes". The high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) wasuse dfo r melanins and theMunsel l method wasuse d for thedeterminatio n ofcolorimetri ccharacteristic so f 15pigmente dhai rsample sfro m theSout h Italianlon ghai rgoats .Eumelanin s andpheomelanin swer edetecte di n allsamples .Th eblac k phenotypepresente da larg eamoun to feumelanin s andth ewhit ephenotyp e showeda limite d biochemical activity.N ocolorimetri c orbiochemica l differences werefoun d between there d andbrow n phenotypes,indicatin guncertainit y of the geneticmake-up . Dr.Guirgi spresente d thecarpe t wool,productio n andrequirements .H eexplaine d thecha ­ racteristicso fcarpe twoo lwhic hi sclassifie d into3 groupssuc ha sspecia lcarpe twool ,genera l purpose wool and filler wool. In carpet wools thefibre lengt h is much more important than themea n fibre diameter. Medullation is adesire d characteristics in carpet woolblends . For an efficient marketing ,i t is necessary toestablis h a"carpe t wool organization" on a regionalbasi si nth eMediterranea nBasi nan dMiddl eEast .Potentia lbreed so fth eregio nsuc h asAwassi ,Karaman ,Karakul ,Kurdi ,Baluchi ,Churr acoul d beuse dt oimprov eth eproducti ­ vityo fth eloca lstocks .Th erequirement so fth ecarpe tindustr yca nb esummarize da sfollows : staple length of about 10 cm, fibre diameter high, medullation as much as possible, fibre strength and elasticity are satisfactory, no kemps,reasonabl y sound, high spinnability, high settability, helical crimp as much aspossible , free from vegetable matter and other contami­ nants,maximu m fleece opennes.Dr .Guirgi sals ogav e alis to frecommendation s for research inthi s field. Dr.Erde m talked on"th e investigations on the suitability of woolfo r textileproduct s and carpetsobtaine dfro m newlyimprove dshee pi nWester nTurkey" .Thre eshee ptypes ,Tahirova , Sönmezan dAcipaya m weredevelope d in Western Anatolia byth eDept .o f AnimalScience , University of Ege.Woo l samples weretake n from these sheep types and thephysica lcharac ­ teristics such asfineness , length,breakin g strength andelongatio n were determined. Dr. Tisserand gave information on the camel wool and hide.H e indicated that the studies andth eliterature s onth ecame lwoo l andhid ewer elimited .Th edromedar y provides0.5-1. 0 kg wool/animal/year whereas the Bactrian camels produce 3-4 kg wool/year.Th e quality of thewoo ldepend so nth ebreed ,sex ,age ,nutritio n ando fth epart so fth ebod yan di tdiminishe s when the animal getsolder . Thecame l hide isconsidere d tob eo f poor quality and is usedt o makeharnesse s whips andsandals . Dr.Bourfi agav ea tal ko nth efleec echaracteristic so fMorocco nbreed so fsheep .H epresen ­ tedth eresult so fresearc ho nth efleec echaracteristic so fMorocco nbreed so fshee pfro m 1983 to 1987.Th e BeniAhse n breedha dth eheavies t fleece amongothe rbreeds . Therewer esevera lquestion st oDr . Sergentabou tth epreparatio n ofth esample san dobjec ­ tive measurements. Dr. Sergent indicated that training of the technicians is very important. Application of computers and sharpening of microscope are alsover y important for accurate measurements. Prof.Yalçi n askedDr .Erde mi f the samples weretake n from thesam efar m orfro m same age animals.Prof . Sönmez indicated that the wool production which has the least economic valuewa sto omuc hemphasize di nMerin obreeding .Th eai mo fth estud ywa st odevelo pne w types of sheep suitable for the region and for the needs of thefarmers . The wool production was not considered to be the main goal. Dr. Erdem also indicated that the meat and milk productiono fnewl ydevelope dtype swer estudie dextensively .Howeve rther ewer en ostudie s onth ewoo lcharacteristic so fthes eshee ptypes . Theai mo fth eprojec t wasno tt oincreas eth e woolqualit y buti twa s toinvestigat e thewoo l characteristics of thesetypes . Aquestio n was asked about thefutur e of camel breedingi n theMiddl eEast .Dr .Treache r saidtha tth enatura lhabita tha sbee ndestroyed .Th emoder npick-up ,tractor san dcar sreplace d

287 the camels in these countries and the camel population has declined greatly. Dr. Tisserand addedtha tth enatura l balancei sbein gdestroyed ,consequentl y thecame lpopulatio n isdecli ­ ning and the sand hills areincreasin g in thedeserts .

Session6 Dr. Aslanapa gave a presentation of the history and present situation of the Turkish carpet industry.Carpe tha sbee npractise db yTurk ssinc eth eperio do fHuns ,tha ti ssinc eth e3r dan d 2nd century B.C. The animal-figured Anatolian carpets predominantly appeared in the 14th century and originated in the Selçuk period. With the development of the geometric type carpets of the 16thcentury , theTurkis h carpets gained good reputation and the development of Turkish carpet weaving continued until theen do f the 19thcentury . Inth epresen ttime ,Kayseri ,Konya ,Sivas ,Kirsehir ,Isparta ,Fethiye ,Dösemealti ,Balikesir , Yagcibedir,Usak ,Bergama ,Kula ,Gördes ,Milas ,Çanakkale ,Ezine ,Kar san dErzuru mcarpet s arereflectin g the art of Turkish carpet-weaving. Dr.Pakso ypresente d apape ro nth econservatio n oftraditiona lcharacteristic si nhand-wo ­ venTurkis hcarpet san di nimportanc eo fnatura ldyes .Sh eexplaine dth euniqu echaracteristic s of Turkish carpets due to the material used, to the dying methods applied, as well as to the richness of dyean dornamentt o the andweavin g techniques.On eo f themos timportan t cha­ racteristics of theTurkis h carpets is thenatura l dyes used andth edyin gmethod s applied. Dr.Aslie rgav ea presentatio no nth eresearc han dth edevelopmen to fth enatura ldye suse d fortraditiona lcarpet si nth eAegea nRegio n"DO BA GProject" . Theobjective so fNatura lDy e Research and Development (DOBAG) project is to review the tradition of carpet andkili m weaving in the regions where these activities are forgotten, to give the villagers artistic and scientific support while producing new carpets, to investigate and identify the natural dyes and traditional patterns, to give a guarantee certificate for the carpets and kilims which are produced according toth eDOBAG' s objectives. Dr.Güngö r gave apape r on therol e of statepolic y in Turkish carpet sector.H e explained thathan dwove ncarpe tmakin gha sa ninterdiciplinar y areawhic hinclud eth echemistry ,basi c design,ar thistory ,textil etechnology ,production ,restoration ,materia lknowledge ,marketin g and economics. Heals oindicate d therole so f thegovernmen t in theresearc h anddevelopment s ofTurkis h carpets.H eliste dth eproblem s ofTurkis h carpetindustry ,problem so fvillage rcarpe tmakers , responsibilities of Universities,Ministr y of Culture,Ministr y ofEducatio n andTh e Ministry of Agriculture for the survival anddevelopmen t of thisfine art . Dr. Benyoucef talked on the production and local transformation of wool in Algeria. He mentioned that the surface area of Algeria is 2 83400 0 sq.km. and that 3% of land is arable. The wool production is therefore concentrated in highlands. However the transformation is madea ttw olevel s sucha sfamilia l levelan dsemi-industria l level.H eals omad ea neconomi c analysis of wool. There were several questions raised toDr .Paksoy , one of which was theorigi n of natural dyes. Are the natural dyes all vegetable origin? Are there any animal originated dyes being usedi ncarpe tindustry ?Sh eanswere dtha tbot hanima lan dvegetabl eoriginate ddye sar eused . Whatkin do fextractio n methodsar euse dfo rdying ?Sh esai dtha tbot hho tan dcol dextractio n methods wereused . Miss Joly askedi f therei s any inventory studies in natural dyeresources ?He r answerwa s "not yet". However Dr. Erdem indicated that the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs initiated such an inventory.

288 Postersessio n Thequalit y of theposte rpresentation s wasexcellent . In thefirst session ,Dr . Marinuccipre ­ sentedth egeneti canalysi so fgreas yfleec eweigh tan dew elam bgrowt ho n"Gentil ed iPuglia " sheepbreed .Th efloc k wasbre di nth e"Institut o Sperimentalepe rl aZootecnia "o fFoggi ai n Italy. The average weight of greasy fleece was found to be 3.32 kg which decreased onlyi n 9.5 yearsol d animals. Dr. Vegara presented the "Postnatal development of wool follicles of Pramenka sheep breed","Heredit yo fwoo lfinenes s ofdifferen t sheepbreed san dthei rcrosses "an d"Th ecom ­ parative study of wool follicles of Pramenka, Merinolandschaf and Romanov sheep breeds and their crosses". Pramenka isa mountainou s sheep with apopulatio n of 7.9 million heads. TheRomanov swer euse dfo r theformatio n ofPramenk a sheep.Th eexperiment s andth eme ­ thodologies used were very interesting. Dr. Lazzaroni presented the use and production of Angora rabbit hair in Italy. Italy uses about70-80 % of theworl d Angorarabbi t hair production. Iti s veryimportan t for theItalia n textile industry. Angora rabbit production is not widespread because of the high production cost.Howeve r itcoul d beinterestin g for somefarmer s toincreas e theincom e and supply the lowqualit y woolneede d by the market. In the second poster session, Dr. Yildirim's poster the mohair production districts and consumption wayso fmohai ri nTurke y wasshown .Th emohai rproductio n isconcentrate di n theCentra lAnatolia .Mos to fth eproductio n isexporte d andth eres to f themohai ri suse d for themanufactur e ofblankets ,scarfs ,sof t weavingsan dfo rmakin gsocks ,bag setc .Dr . Yildirim alsopresente d aposte r entitled "a research on some physical properties ofprincipa l mohairs produced in Ankara andBol udistricts" . Dr.Roge rpresente d aposte ro nCashmer efibr e production from Australasian andSiberia n (Gorno Altai) goatsi n acrossbreedin gprogramme .Th ecashmer efibr e of Siberiancros skid s was significantly longer than Australasian kids, the latter had significantly finer fibre, lower yields,lowe r gross fleece weights andcalculate d down weights than Siberian crosskids . Mr. Antonini presented the Angora goat breeding in Italy. Angora goats did not have any adaptationproblem si nth ecente ro fItaly .Studie so nnutrition ,reproductiv easpect san dqualit y ofki dfleece s areongoing . Dr. Cappai presented the Sarda sheep breed which is the most important one in Italy and theloca l carpet industry. Traditional designs andweavin g practices andpattern s in theislan d of Sardinia were shown. Dr. Kayabasi and Dr. Ilgaz presented the present situation and the future of hand-woven woolcarpet s inTurkey . Dr.Güngö rpresente da pape ro nth edesig n characteristicsi nAnatolia ncarpets .H eshowe d different carpet andkili mdesigns .

289 Conclusions

J.Boyazoglu, J.C. Flamant.

CeSymposiu ma ét éconç upou rattire rl'attentio nde szootechnicien ssu rl'intérêt d elaproduc - tiond ecuirs ,d epeaux ,d elain ee td epoi ldan sl econtext ed el'élevag ede spay sméditerranéen s etd uMoyen-Orient , sujet peu souventpri se nconsidératio n dansle sréunion s internationales etdan sle s équipes derecherch eeuropéennes . Un second objectif était d'amorcer, àl'intérieu r dec eSymposiu m undialogu e entrede s spécialistes del'élevage , del'industri e du cuir,d el'artisana t des tapiso uencor e mieuxd e1 ' histoire del'ar t dont lespréoccupation s sont généralement disjointes. Beaucoupd eparticipant son tinsist édan sleur sintervention ssu rl'enje u d'unetell erencon ­ tre: assurer la survie et l'avenir, enMéditerrané e eta uMoyen-Orient , d'activités d'élevage multimillénaires aujourd'hui menacéespa rle sévolution s del'économi e internationale etde s sociétéslocales ! Unehypothès efort e este n effet quel afaibl e productivité technique dumatérie l animale t des systèmes d'élevage dece srégion spourrai t être compensée parde s productions dontle s marchés n'admettent certes qued efaible s quantités mais quipeuven t bénéficier de valeurs marchandes élevées. Nousproposon s d'organiser latrè sgrand erichesse de sinformation s collectées aucour sd e ces troisjours ,de srapport s présentés comme desdébats ,e ntroi srubriques : • Laprééminenc e duconcep t de qualité • Lesprocessu s technologiques géréspa rle sopérateur s économiques • Lavalorisatio n des acquis duSymposiu m

Laprééminenc ed u conceptd equalit é

Il estéviden t quel econcep t dequalit é estcentra l pour évaluer l'avenir etle schance squ e représentepou rl'élevag e Méditerranéen laproductio n depeaux ,cuirs ,lain ee tpoil .E nfai ti l fautavoi rconscienc equ ec econcep tes tprobablemen tl eseu lpoin tcommu nidentifiabl e entre lesdiverse sproduction s donti la ét équestio n aucour sd ec eSymposium .E neffe t lesespèce s animales impliquées sont diverses (lespetit sruminants ,le s bovins,le scamélidés ,le slapins) . Lesbase sphysiologique s etanatomique s desfibre s concernées sonttou t aussidiverse s d'une espèceà l'autre ;o relle se nconditionnen t engrand eparti ele stechnologie sd erécolte .E talor s quel aproductio n deslaine se tpoil ses tassuré ea ulon gd el avi ed el'animal , laproductio nd e cuire tpea u nepeu têtr eobtenu equ'aprè s abattage.I létai tutil ed erappele rqu el apeau ,obje t de tant de transformations etd etraitement s avant sonusag e sous forme d'objets etd evête ­ ments,jou ed'abor d unefonctio n deprotectio n del'anima l vivantcontr ele sagression sd eso n environnement: lecui re n gardel atrace . Nousmetton sic ie navan tl'exigenc e del aqualit épou rindique rl adifférenc e fondamentale avecde sproduction s quidoiven têtr eassurée se nmasse ,notammen tcelle squ i correspondent aux besoins alimentaires essentiels pour l'homme. Lecrénea u exploré parc e Symposiumes t celui deproduit s motivépa run erecherch e du confort, oud el aqualit éd el avi epa ru n souci del'esthétisme , etqu ipeuven t constituer desobjet s d'arte tl'expressio n culturelle d'une so­ ciété.Economiquemen t lesquantité s acceptablespa r lemarch é sontlimitée se tcec i d'autant plus sice sproduction s sont concurrencées enconsommatio n demass epa rde s substitutsin ­ dustriels.

290 Par l'utilisation du terme de 'co-produits' (ou 'produits liés') plutôt que celui de 'sous-pro­ duits', nous voulons exprimer une réalité biologique: la même action d'élever les animaux aboutit simultanément à une gamme de diverses natures, à l'origine de diverses filières de transformation etd ecommercialisation . Surl epla n économique deux situationspeuven t être envisagées ausei n desquellesl econcep td equalit ées timpliqu é différemment: • soit le lait, soit laviande , constituent l'objectif principal de l'activité d'élevage, alors que les autres productions nereprésenten t qu'une faible part du produit économique brut. Le principe à suivrees tdan s cette situation quele scondition s d'exploitation duprodui tprin ­ cipaln edégraden tpa sl aqualit éd u (oudes )co-produit(s ) économiquement secondaire(s), ceux-cipeuvan t êtreà l'origin e d'unefilièr e àhaut evaleu rajoutée . Parexempl e l'amélio­ ration génétiquede sovin spou r lesquantité sproduite s delai te td eviand epeu t avoirpou r conséquence ladisparitio n desrace s locales dont lestoison s sont adaptées àl a fabrication artisanaled etapi s (casde scroisement s debrebi sd erac elocal epa rde sbélier sFrisons) .D e mêmele scondition sd'abattag e agissentdirectemen tsu rl'intégrit é etl abonn econservatio n de la peau des animaux et sont donc déterminantes pour la qualité ultérieure des cuirs. H fautremarque rà c epropo squ el efai t d'assurer debonne scondition s sanitairesa utroupea u pour saproductio n principalegarant il abonn epar tl aqualit éd uco-produi t secondairecon ­ trele s atteintes decertain s parasites ou contrele seffet s négatifs d'affections tellesqu ele s abcès. • soit l'un des co-produits, non lait et non viande, apporte un bénéfice significatif auxéle ­ veurs.I les talor sessentie lqu el'amélioratio n del aconduit ede stroupeaux ,qu ipeu tévidem ­ ment concerner une amélioration quantitative des performances, intègre des objectifs d' amélioration desparamètre s exprimant lesqualité s quijustifien t lavaleu r économiqued u produit. Teles tl eca sde s fibres telles que lemohai r etl ecachemir e pour les chèvres,e t1 ' angora pour leslapins .

Lesprocessu stechnologique s géréspa r lesoperateur s économiques

Ilfau t avoirbie nidentifi é lescritère sd equalit éà recherch e surle sproduction s animalespou r aboutir auxproduit s transformés recherchés. Pour yparveni r l'écoute réciproque des spécia­ listes des animaux etde s spécialistes de la transformation de leurs productions en produits à hautevaleu rajouté e apparaît uneconditio n incontournable. Cescritère sdoiven tavoi re n effet unesignificatio n technologiquepou rle sdifférent s professionnels impliquésdan sl achaîn ed e production-transformation: éleveurs,artisans ,industriels .E nfai t ils'agi td econstruir el edia ­ logue et lesrelation s entre les opérateurs économiques. Ce dialogue doit reposer sur lacon ­ naissance des systèmes technologiques qu'ils pilotent res- pectivement: • leséleveur s pilotent un système technologique detransformatio n deproduit s végétaux en produits animaux; • de même, les industriels du cuir, du fil ou des tapis pilotent des systèmes technologiques detransformatio n d'unematièr epremièr eanimal ee nproduit sdestiné sau xconsommateurs . Mais il faut être également attentif au contenu des interventions des industriels du cuir qui révèlel'intérê t quepren dd eplu se nplu sl edéba tsu rl erespec td el'environnement , enterme s de procédés technologiques de traitement, et de localisation des entreprises (on aurait pu illustrer dans les mêmes termes lesproblème s de l'industrie del alaine) . Laplupar t desrapport s présentés motivent un appel à tout un ensemble de travaux dere ­ cherches à l'interface entre les exigences technologiques de ces systèmes différents mais articulés ou articulables: • s'agissantdesystème séconomique sdiver se tma lconnus ,i lapparaî td'abor d indispensable deréalise ru neffor t systématiqued edescription sminutieuse sd efilière s articulantsystème s d'élevage et systèmes artisanaux ou industriels. L'intérêt de telles études est bien mis en évidencepa rle stravau xpréparé sspécialemen te nAlgéri ee ta uMaro cpou rc eSymposium ;

291 • ladéfinitio n desobjectif s dequalit éd e lamatièr epremièr e animaledoi tfair e aussi l'objet derecherches .Celles-c idoiven timplique rle sopérateur séconomique sintervenan tau xdif ­ férents maillons del achaîne .Elle s doivent toutparticulièremen t intégrerl e savoir-faire et les exigences technologiques des artisans et industriels assurant le traitement et lestrans ­ formations enproduit s finis; • les critères de qualité eux-mêmes doivent faire l'objet, autantqu epossible , de la misee n oeuvre de mesures objectives. Les travaux présentés au cours de ceSymposiu m révèlent lanouvell emodernit éd ece sopération ssu rl abas ede snouvelle stech -nologie sd el arobo ­ tique,d e l'informatique etd el'analys e d'image. Plusieursrapport se tplusieur stémoignage son tmontr éauss il erôl edéterminan tqu ejou edan s la stratégie des industriels (du cuir comme du textile), l'accès au marché international pour leur approvisionnement en produits d'une qualité choisie. Une meilleure articulation locale entresystème sd'élevag ee tsystème sartisanau xo uindustriel scorrespon dà un eautr elogiqu e degestio n des entreprises. Ilfau t analyser cettequestio n soigneusement pourrendr epossibl e et acceptable une stratégie visant à sauvegarder uneéconomi e d'élevage sur la base desres­ sources génétiques nationales etd eproduit s spécifiés. Ceci signifie en effet lamis ee n place de relations interprofessionnelles, et probablement de systèmes de redistribution des profits quimatérialisen t l'intéressement réciproque, les unsau xcondition s d'obtention del amatièr e première, les autres àl avalorisatio n duprodui t fini.

L'organisation dessuite sd u symposium

Ils'agi tmaintenan td etransforme r encollaboratio n l'écouteréciproqu eréalisé eduran t3 jour s entre 'hommes demétier' . Troisobjectif s s'imposent: • pour lespeau xe tle scuirs ,mettr ee nrappor t leurscaractéristique s aveccelle sd u matériel animal (races,type sd e toison,etc. )e t avecle scondition s d'élevage, notamment lerégim e alimentaire.L e CIHEAM, àl'initiativ e del'Institu t Agronomique Méditerranéen deZara ­ goza,propos e d'apporter son concours àl'organisatio n d'un séminaire de travail pouvant réunirensembl espécialiste sd el'élevag ee tspécialiste sd ucui rduran tun eà deu xsemaines . La Turquie et l'Université de Cukurova qui ont si bien accueilli le présent Symposium pourraient en êtrel elie u deréalisation ; • pour les laines et les tapis,défini r les spécificités des laines destinées àl a fabrication arti­ sanale des tapis, notamment tester dans des situations régionales bien identifiées l'hypo­ thèsed e la liaison 'race x tapis x localité'. Les travaux conduits dans ce sens dès lespro ­ chains mois devraient être présentés lors du Symposium méditerranéen qui se tiendra au Portugale n 1993 surl ethèm ede srelation sentr eactivité stouristique se tactivité sd'élevage ; • pour leschèvre smohai re tcashemire ,entreprendr eu nprogramm econcert éd'inventair e et d'évaluation du patrimoine génétique, dans le cadre d'une collaboration internationale ayantpou robjecti f lamis ee névidenc e desspécificité s etd el adiversit éde sécotype sdan s les pays d'origine, tant sur le plan des caractéristiques zootechniques (format, prolificité, production laitière)qu ede scaractéristique s desfibres.

292 Desk TopPublishin g by: State Institute for Agriculture,Environmenta l Sciencean d Foodtechnology (RAHL) P.O.Bo x 1528,890 1 BVLeeuwarden , The Netherlands