Ai Margini Dell'impero. Potere E Aristocrazia a Trebisonda E in Epiro

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Ai Margini Dell'impero. Potere E Aristocrazia a Trebisonda E in Epiro Università del Piemonte Orientale Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici Dottorato di ricerca in ‘Linguaggi, storia e istituzioni’, curriculum storico Coordinatore: Referente per il curriculum: Ch.mo Prof. Claudio Marazzini Ch.mo Prof. Claudio Rosso Anno Accademico 2016/2017, XXIX ciclo Ai margini dell’Impero. Potere e aristocrazia a Trebisonda e in Epiro nel basso medioevo Tesi di dottorato in storia medievale, SSD M-STO/01 Tutor: Candidato: Ch.ma Prof.sa Germana Gandino Dott. Marco Fasolio 1 Indice Introduzione, p. 5 Per un profilo storico dell’aristocrazia bizantina, p. 11 Il dibattito storiografico, p. 22 1. Affari di famiglie. Trebisonda e il Ponto da Basilio II il Bulgaroctono alla quarta crociata, p. 45 1.1 Cenni storico-geografici su Trebisonda e la Chaldia, p. 45 1.2 Potere e aristocrazia in Chaldia prima della battaglia di Manzicerta, p. 48 1.3 Da Teodoro Gabras ad Andronico Comneno: l’alba del particolarismo pontico, p. 73 1.3.1 I primi Gabras, p. 74 1.3.2 Il progenitore dell’autonomia ponitca: Teodoro Gabras e il suo tempo, p. 79 1.3.3 I discendenti di Teodoro Gabras tra potere locale, servizio imperiale e intese con i Turchi, p. 93 1.3.4 Da principi armeni a magnati pontici, il caso dei Taroniti, p. 110 1.3.5 La Chaldia dopo Costantino Gabras: i Comneni e il ritorno dell’Impero, p. 123 1.4 Potere e aristocrazia nel Ponto prima del 1204: uno sguardo d’insieme, p. 135 2. Un covo di ribelli e di traditori. L’Epiro e le isole ionie tra l’XI secolo e il 1204, p. 140 2.1 Elementi di storia e di geografia epirota, p. 140 2.2 I Criselii e il loro lascito nell’età di Basilio II, p. 148 2.3 ‘Fammi diventare ricco e potente e io ti sosterrò, chiunque tu sia’: l’instabilità post- basilide, p. 158 2.4 Prassi politiche e ceti magnatizi nell’Epiro dei Comneni, p. 172 2.5 Potere e aristocrazia in Epiro prima del 1204: uno sguardo d’insieme, p. 192 3. Dalle premesse ai fatti. La crisi dell’Impero e la formazione dei principati separatisti a Trebisonda e in Epiro, p. 196 3.1 Considerazioni preliminari sulla quarta crociata, p. 196 3.2 Le premesse al disastro: autonomia e separatismo da Alessio II alla vigilia della caduta di Costantinopoli, p. 197 3.3 Origini dei principati romei sorti nel triennio 1203-1205, una storia tutta bizantina, p. 208 3.3.1 Teodoro Lascaris e l’Impero di Nicea, p. 208 2 3.3.2 Michele I Ducas e la costruzione della signoria epirota, p. 210 3.3.3 L’Impero di Trebisonda tra la Georgia e i Comneni, p. 212 3.3.4 Ribelli di ieri, despoti e imperatori di oggi, p. 215 3.4 Un approccio diverso, p. 222 Conclusione, p. 224 Ringraziamenti, p. 228 Carte geografiche, p. 229 Indice dei toponimi e degli antroponimi, p. 234 1. Toponimi, p. 234 2. Antroponimi, p. 241 Bibliografia, p. 260 3 4 Introduzione Accanto all’Impero di Nicea, l’Impero di Trebisonda e il Despotato d’Epiro erano sorti dalle ceneri dell’Impero d’Oriente tra il 1204 e il 12051 – più o meno in contemporanea con l’atto finale della quarta crociata, ovvero l’occupazione e il saccheggio di Costantinopoli da parte dei cavalieri latini e dei loro alleati veneziani – e la loro esistenza si era protratta rispettivamente sino al 14612 e al 14793, allorché furono conquistati dalle truppe del sultano ottomano Maometto II (1451-1481). Salvo un breve interludio (1337-1348) durante il quale l’Epiro era rientrato nell’alveo dell’Impero dei Paleologi dopo la conquista di Andronico III (1328-1341)4, la vita di entrambi i principati si svolse in maniera del tutto autonoma dai basileis di Nicea prima e di Costantinopoli poi. All’indomani della caduta della capitale imperiale in mano ai crociati (aprile 1204), i principi territoriali romei5 erano entrati in competizione per la riconquista delle province che un tempo erano appartenute all’Impero. Ben presto, però, i sovrani di Trebisonda furono costretti a ripiegare entro i confini dell’ex ducato di Chaldia6 e a contendersi l’eredità della basileia rimasero i signori dell’Epiro e gli imperatori niceni. Sebbene nel primo quarto del XIII secolo gli Epiroti apparissero in vantaggio, quando nel 1230 Teodoro Ducas (1215-1230) subì una tremenda disfatta nella battaglia di Klokotnica per mano dei Bulgari di Ivan Asen II (1218-1241), il suo regno si sgretolò in una serie di deboli signorie indipendenti l’una dall’altra aprendo la strada ai suoi avversari7. Nel giro di vent’anni i basileis di Nicea si erano impadroniti dell’intera Macedonia, della Tracia e di buona parte della Tessaglia, isolando la Costantinopoli latina dai suoi alleati naturali, vale a dire il ducato di Atene e il principato d’Acaia, e riducendo il despotato d’Epiro alla zona costiera a ovest della catena montuosa del Pindo8. 1 Sull’origine di queste denominazioni, le dinamiche costitutive dei due principati e la relativa bibliografia riferiremo nel terzo capitolo. 2 A. G. K. SAVVIDES, Ιστορία της αυτοκρατορίας των μεγάλων Κομνηνών της Τραπεζούντας (1204-1461), Θεσσαλονίκη 2009, p. 157 sgg. 3 D. M. NICOL, The Despotate of Epiros, 1267–1479. A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 1984, p. 213. 4 Op. cit., p. 107 sgg.; B. OSSWALD, L’Épire du treizième au quinzième siècle: autonomie et hétérogénéité d’une région balcanique, Tesi di dottorato, Université Toulouse II Le Mirail, 2011, pp. 154-158. 5 Il termine ‘Romei’, d’ora innanzi utilizzato in alternanza con il più noto ‘Bizantini’, è la traslitterazione italiana basata sulle regole di fonetica della lingua greca medievale e moderna di ‘Ῥωμαῖοι’. Quest’ultima è una parola dalla forte carica semantica, in quanto era adottata dagli abitanti della basileia e, in seguito alla progressiva contrazione dei domini imperiali, dai Greci sottoposti alla sovranità straniera per definire se stessi. Sebbene la sua traduzione e il significato che gli stessi Bizantini le attribuivano fosse ‘Romani’, in segno di rivendicazione dell’eredità politica e culturale della romanità antica, sarebbe errato o quantomeno confusivo indicare in tal modo i sudditi dei basileis, a maggior ragione per quanto concerne il periodo più propriamente medievale della storia dell’Impero oggetto di questo contributo. L’uso di ‘Romei’, peraltro ampiamente invalso nella bizantinistica italiana contemporanea, appare, pertanto, il più adatto per affiancare il tradizionale, seppure meno ossequiente nei confronti delle fonti antiche, ‘Bizantini’. 6 Il nucleo originario del loro principato. Riferiremo estesamente su questa suddivisione amministrativa nel corso del primo capitolo; affronteremo nel terzo le fasi del ripiegamento trebisontino. 7 D. M. NICOL, The Despotate of Epiros, Oxford 1957, p. 47 sgg.; OSSWALD, L’Épire cit., pp. 69-71. 8 Sulla geografia epirota rimandiamo al secondo capitolo. 5 Dopo che le forze congiunte del despota d’Epiro Michele II Ducas (1230-1268) e dei principi latini di Grecia, coalizzatisi nel disperato tentativo di arginare l’avanzata nicena, furono sonoramente battute nel 1259 dall’esercito messo in campo da Michele VIII Paleologo (1259-1282) nella piana di Pelagonia, l’Impero Latino – l’entità che si era sostituita alla basileia in seguito all’occupazione di Costantinopoli da parte dei crociati – ebbe i giorni contati. Nel luglio del 1261 Alessio Strategopulo entrava a Costantinopoli con un manipolo di uomini e dopo pochi giorni Michele VIII faceva il suo ingresso trionfale in città dalla porta aurea ed era incoronato dal patriarca a Santa Sofia9. Sebbene con la riconquista della capitale l’Impero potesse formalmente dirsi restaurato, non tutte le sue antiche province si trovavano sotto la sovranità del basileus, in quanto non solo continuavano a prosperare i principati feudali retti dai baroni franchi che fino ad allora erano stati i vassalli dell’imperatore latino, ma su Trebisonda e Arta10 regnavano sovrani romei indipendenti, il cui potere non dipendeva in alcun modo dal nuovo autocrate dei Romani. La maggioranza degli uomini di cultura del tempo come Niceta11 e Michele Coniati12, i patriarchi Michele IV Autoriano (1206-1212)13 e Germano II (1223-1240)14, Giorgio Acropolita15 e Giorgio Pachimere16, solo per citarne alcuni tra i più noti, avevano – chi per convinzione personale, chi convenienza politica – cercato di screditare in ogni modo i governanti pontici ed epiroti, accusandoli di essere come comuni ribelli o di non appartenere alla ‘nazione romea’, e ribadito a più riprese il principio dell’indivisibilità dell’autocrazia bizantina, ipostatizzata nella persona del basileus. Il loro ragionamento di fondo era il seguente: se l’imperatore di Trebisonda e il despota d’Epiro erano stranieri o semplici oppositori del legittimo sovrano, l’antico adagio eusebiano che voleva l’Impero Romano come imitazione del regno celeste poteva essere ancora salvato. In Cielo esisteva un solo Signore, Cristo, quindi nella basileia non vi era spazio che per un solo imperatore, quello che sedeva sul trono di Costantino, risiedesse egli a Nicea o a Costantinopoli17. I basileis 9 D. M. NICOL, The last centuries of Byzantium 1261-1453, Cambridge 1992 (ed. or. London 1972), p. 31 sgg. 10 La capitale insieme a Ioannina del despotato. 11 Solo a titolo esemplificativo le sue considerazioni sui signori trebisontini ed epiroti in NICETAE CHONIATAE Historia, 2 voll., ed. a cura di J.-L. VAN DIETEN, Berolini Novi Eboraci 1975 (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae, XI, Series Berolinensis), vol. I, p. 626 sgg. 12 Sul suo pensiero M. ANGOLD, Church and society in Byzantium under the Comneni, 1081 – 1261, Cambridge 2000 (ed. or. 1995), pp. 197-212. 13 Nel discorso in occasione dell’incoronazione di Teodoro Lascaris, in N. OIKONOMIDES, Cinq actes inédits du patriarche Michel Autôreianos, in «Revue des Etudes Byzantines», XXV (1967), pp.
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