Introduction
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Notes Introduction 1. The project was initiated in 2005 by pupils of the Rudolf-Virchow High School in Berlin-Marzahn, based on the information given by the teacher of the project, Regina Kittler, and one of the participants, Anne Leutzsch. See also the article “Spurensuche zu jüdischen Schicksalen,” in Berliner Zeitung (January 21, 2007). 2. Quoted from the documentary 30 Monuments to Raoul Wallenberg by Peter R. Meyer (Sweden, 2001). Frank Vajda became an important figure in keep- ing the Wallenberg memory alive. For more information on Vajda, see the article “Han räddades av Raoul Wallenberg” by Mats Carlbom, DN (July 22, 2007), 22–3. 3. Within the title of this study, the term “contemporary” refers only to the time period the monuments came by. I am aware of the term’s weakness. However, the term is suitable to encompass all monuments created after World War II, including those in 1949. 4. See Tim Cole’s article “Turning the Places of Holocaust History into Places of Holocaust Memory: Holocaust Memorials in Budapest, Hungary, 1945–95,” in Shelley Hornstein and Florence Jacobowitz (eds), Image and Remembrance: Representation and the Holocaust (Bloomington, 2003), 272–87. 5. See Paul Levine’s article, “Whither Holocaust Studies in Sweden? Some Thoughts on Levande Historia and Other Matters Swedish,” in Holocaust Studies: A Journal of Culture and History 11 (1) (2005), 75–98, here 76. 6. See, for example, Janet Blatter, Art of the Holocaust (London, 1982). 7. In this context, I mention Art Spiegelman’s comic Maus: A Survivor’s Tale (New York, 1986), and the exhibition Mirroring Evil: Nazi Imagery/Recent Art that was shown at the Jewish Museum in New York in 2002. 8. See Thomas Lutz, “Einleitung,” in Wulff E. Brebeck (ed.), Über-Lebens- Mittel. Kunst aus Konzentrationslagern und in Gedenkstätten für Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Marburg, 1992), 7–11. 9. Quoted from Tom Rogers, “An Architecture of Sanctuary,” in Michigan Alumnus (Early Spring 1996), 34–6, here 34. 10. In addition, Eva Palmqvist wrote about Ortwed’s monument in her university major’s thesis (32 pages) I offentlighetens tjänst: En studie av Raoul Wallenbergs Torg och tre hjältars monument vid Nybroviken (Stockholm, 2002). 11. The address of the IRWF is <www.raoulwallenberg.net> [reaccessed July 21, 2008]. The address of the Raoul Wallenberg föreningen (updated in the meantime) is, www.raoulwallenberg.se> [reaccessed July 21, 2008]. 12. This is, for example, the case for the unburned bust created by Tove Hansen and Tani Abdulkader in 1999, stored in a repository of the Besættelsemuseet (The Museum of Occupation) in Århus, Denmark, or 364364 PPL-UK_HMF-Schult_Notes.indd 364 12/13/2011 11:43:53 AM Notes 365 for the small-scale marble sculpture showing Wallenberg at 77, created by US artist Hal Goldberg, which seems to be in private property in Irvine, California. For basic information and an image of the sculpture, see the homepage of The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation (= IRWF) <www.raoulwallenberg.net/?en/wallenberg/tributes/world/647.htm> [reaccessed July 21, 2008]. 13. As it is, for example, in the case with the St John Ambulance Annual Raoul Wallenberg Award of Brighton, a presentation of a Raoul Wallenberg trophy linking Wallenberg with the life-saving work of the St John Ambulance service. See the articles “Remembering Wallenberg,” in Jewish Chronicle (August 18, 1989) or “Wallenberg’s 80th birthday celebrated with care award” by Cecily Woolf in Jewish Chronicle (August 14, 1992). The same applies also for the Ottawa Raoul Wallenberg Award Lending Hand, shown on the homepage of David Kilgour, member of the Canadian parliament: <www.david-kilgour.com/mp/wallenbg.htm> [reaccessed July 21, 2008], or the small-scale bronze sculpture Homage to Raoul Wallenberg, created at the request of the IRWF by Argentine artist Norma D’Ippólito. See the homepage of IRWF: <www.raoulwallenberg.net/?en/wallenberg/tributes/ statues/707.htm> and of the artist <www.normadippolito.com.ar> [both reaccessed July 21, 2008]. 14. See Gundolf Winter, Zwischen Individualität und Idealität: Die Bildnisbüste. Studien zu Thema, Medium, Form und Entwicklungsgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1985), 17. 15. Unfortunately, I learned about Károly Veress’s Freedom in Rock Island, Illinois, only long after my study trip to the US. Therefore I did not have the chance to see the sculpture on the spot. 16. In the following, I mainly refer to Maria Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis des Persönlichkeitsdenkmals in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und West-Berlin seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (Münster, 1982), especially “Zur Geschichte des Individualdenkmals bis 1945,” 11–41. My predominant use of German literature seems “justified by that country’s contribution to the developments of the 1980s and 1990s. Since the mid- 1980s, German artists and critics have been at the forefront of the debate about public monuments.” See Sergiusz Michalski, Public Monuments: Art in Political Bondage 1870–1997 (London, 1998), 203–4. 17. See Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 13. 18. Ibid., 16. 19. See Peter Bloch, “Heroen der Kunst, Wissenschaft und Wirtschaft: Zierbrunnen und ‘freie’ Kunst,” in Eduard Trier and Willy Weyres (eds), Kunst des 19. Jahrhunderts im Rheinland, vol. 4 (Düsseldorf, 1980), 281–348, here 281. 20. Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 84. 21. Felix Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit (Stuttgart, 1995), 123. 22. Peter Springer, “Rhetorik der Standhaftigkeit: Monument und Sockel nach dem Ende des traditionellen Denkmals,” in Wallraf-Richartz-Jb. (48/49) (1987/88), 365–408, here 373–4. 23. See Werner Hofmann, Die Plastik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt/Main, 1958), 16. PPL-UK_HMF-Schult_Notes.indd 365 12/13/2011 11:43:53 AM 366 Notes 24. Wolfgang Eberl, “Sind Denkmäler heute möglich?,” in Ekkehard Mai and Gisela Schmirber (eds), Denkmal—Zeichen—Monument: Skulptur und öffentli- cher Raum heute (Munich, 1989), 35–7, here 36. 25. See Peter Bloch, “Denkmal und Denkmalkult,” in Peter Bloch, Sibylle Einholz and Jutta von Simson (eds), Ethos und Pathos: Die Berliner Bildhauerschule 1786–1914 (Berlin, 1990), 191–205, here 193–4. 26. See Hans-Ernst Mittig, “Die Entstehung des ungegenständlichen Denkmals,” in Evolution générale et développements regionaux en histoire de l’art 2 (1972), 469–74, here 471 (Actes du XXII: Congrès international d’histoire de l’art, Budapest 1969). 27. Unfortunately, there exists no extensive, general study on the genre of non- representational personal monuments. I will predominately refer to the dissertations of Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, and Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien. 28. Hofmann, Plastik des 20. Jahrhunderts, 83. All original German and Swedish quotations within this study were translated by the author. 29. Johannes Langner, “Denkmal und Abstraktion: Sprachregelungen der monumentalen Symbolik im 20. Jahrhundert,” in Mai and Schmirber (eds), Denkmal—Zeichen—Monument, 58–68, here 59. 30. Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 40. 31. Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, 132. 32. Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 38. 33. Le Normand-Romain, Antoinette, Sculpture. The Adventure of Modern Sculpture in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York, 1986). See also Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, 137–58. Tatlin’s model will be taken up again in Chapter 7, the section on Ernst Neizvestny’s monument. 34. According to Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, 285ff. 35. See Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture: The Effects of Science and Technology on the Sculpture of this Century (London, 1968), 44. 36. Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 31. 37. See Hans-Ernst Mittig, “Das Denkmal,” in Werner Busch (ed.), Funkkolleg Kunst. Eine Geschichte der Kunst im Wandel ihrer Funktionen (Munich, 1987), 532–58, here 549. 38. See Ekkehard Mai and Gisela Schmirber, “Mo(nu)ment mal: Denkmal?,” in Mai and Schmirber (eds.), Denkmal—Zeichen—Monument, 7–12, here 7. 39. See Martin Damus, Kunst im 20. Jahrhundert: Von der transzendierenden zur affirmativen Moderne (Reinbek/Hamburg, 2000), 235. 40. Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, 291. 41. Langner, “Denkmal und Abstraktion,” 60. 42. Michalski, Public Monuments, 156. Some feared that also non-representational monuments could be used ideologically in connection with the Cold War. However, according to Reuße, non-representational monuments were hardly suitable to be appropriated by any political ideology because of the art form’s inherent fundamental “tenet of liberal ideology.” 43. Based on Reuße, Das Denkmal an der Grenze seiner Sprachfähigkeit, 287. 44. Christoph Heinrich, Strategien des Erinnern: Der veränderte Denkmalbegriff in der Kunst der achtziger Jahre (Munich, 1993), 19. 45. Ibid., 20ff. 46. Zimmermann, Denkmalstudien, 51. PPL-UK_HMF-Schult_Notes.indd 366 12/13/2011 11:43:53 AM Notes 367 47. See Heinrich, Strategien des Erinnern, 162. 48. See Stefanie Endlich and Thomas Lutz, Gedenken und Lernen an historischen Orten: Ein Wegweiser zu Gedenkstätten für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus in Berlin (Berlin, 1995), 105. 49. Heinrich, Strategien des Erinnern, 162. 50. Lars Berggren, Giordano Bruno på Campo die Fiori: Ett monumentprojekt i Rom 1876–1889 (Lund, 1991), 255. 51. Heinrich, Strategien des Erinnern, 162. 52. Ibid., 163. 53. Lisa R. Saltzman, Art after Auschwitz: Anselm Kiefer and the Possibilities of Representation (Cambridge, 1994), 252. 54. See, for example, James E. Young, At Memory’s Edge: After-images of the Holocaust in Contemporary Art and Architecture (New Haven/London, 2000); Young, The Changing Shape of Holocaust Memory (New York, 1995); Young, The Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History (New York, 1994). 55. See Hans-Georg Gadamer, “Wort und Bild—‘so wahr, so seiend,’” in Jean Grondin (ed.), Gadamer Lesebuch (Tübingen, 1997), 172–98, here 195. Gadamer refers to architecture, which shares with monuments the charac- teristic of having a purpose, a function, in contrast to the other arts. See also Gadamer, “Zur Fragwürdigkeit des ästhetischen Bewußtseins,” in Gadamer, Gesammelte Werke, vol. 8 (Ästhetik und Poetik: Kunst als Aussage) (Tübingen, 1993), 9–17, here 12. 56.