BRIGHTER FUTURES BRIGHTER SUPPORTING Asia andthePacific labour migrationinSouth-East Young women andgirls A Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants.

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Suggested citation: IOM (2019) Supporting brighter futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific. IOM, Geneva.

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PUB2019/015/L SUPPORTING BRIGHTER FUTURES Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

for Organization Migration International Director General António Vitorino girlsacrossand region. the Ultimately, brighter futures we volumes this hope that also to supporting for contributes young women improving Pacific. the and Asia lives the ofyoung across families, their and women South-East girls, and at aimed interventions and out actions region in the they carry for as practitioners and policymakers volume this itisourhopethat becomesauseful wellsolutions, potential companion girlsas and as attention oncurrent andemerging problems forparticular With trafficking. younghuman women and left onthose smuggling migrant behind, providers migration,as labour impacts the ofhouseholds, migrationofyoungthe women girls–namely, and migration,inter-generational educational with links the The volume inthis papers have beendesignedtoreview evidenceissuesaffecting onsalient existing the Pacific. the and Asia migration ofyoung women girlsinSouth-East and sohavedilemma and the gap soughttofill by reviewingthe current the labour on evidence base have Government the IOMand this volume, understood ofAustralia, through and partnership, this arise when that and needs issues specific the young this on migration. Inand girls embark women tounderstand for positive ofteneven energy change and greatest struggle the with compassion those researchers. and should beapressing However, practitioners concern for migrationpolicymakers, all left on those prevalence behind, migration of young of labour well impacts the as women as girls, and processes challenging negotiate the involved migrationfor ininternational The work. increasing different these It isthereforeas peoplewhomay understand experiences bevulnerable tobetter crucial innewways beaffected also by migration. can themigration and of process, woman, aspects beingaman, with boy all affect significantly orgirl, for different drastically and powerrelationships groups. associated The dynamics expectations, roles, needsare and vulnerabilities by shaped also one’s oforigin.Risks, country the gender, often and vary resources and relations and opportunities available they use, with atdestinations, networks the and globally. Genderinfluences and towhere, whomigrates reasons howfor migrating, peoplemigrate processes and altered ofmigrationhas widerecognitionwith migrationpatterns “feminization” the that consequencesofmigration, and causes todiscussionsofthe Gender isincreasingly becomingcentral family memberstravel as separation for internationally work. life for abetter and themselves sometimesinvolving families, their and opportunities long-term Around world, the more peopleare move onthe ever than before. Many are ofthem new seeking Australian Ambassador for Ambassador WomenAustralian Girls and Stone Dr Sharman Foreword iii Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

The by managed projectwas ofC headofIOMResearch, the McAuliffe, Marie the support with comprised: Panel, DFAT IOMcolleaguesand Panel ofreviewers for The project this colleagues. Expert established benefited Thethe in thematicfrom papers final report review comments provided Expert the by ofForeign Affairs Department and Australian of the Trade. This provided research madepossiblethrough Branch was publication by support GenderEquality the Unit, ValerieUnit, Hagger. layout designand publication by Recinto IOMPublications headofthe directionofthe Ramir underthe (DFAT). James Bauloz Mary (IOM)and the with copy-edited by Bartram, was The report Robert Professor Brenda Yeoh, ofSingapore. University National University, Thailand. Petcharamesree,Dr Sriprapha Peace and Mahidol Rights ofHuman Studies, Institute Professor JennaHennebry, Wilfrid University, Laurier Canada. Commonwealth ofthe General Foundation), Australia. AO,Dr AnneGallagher Independent researcher (subsequently Director the appointed ofPublic ofAmerica. School UnitedStates Heath, Harvard Professor JacquelineBhabha, Acknowledgements é line

v Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

2. 1...... Introduction . Acknowledgements Foreword 3. 5. 4. 6. Young multiplerelations the women girls’...... and Understanding education: migrationand Young women girlsleft and consequences. behind:Causesand migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific the and Asia ...... migrating for work inSouth-East cycles ofmigratingforIntergenerational Young work: women girls and Trafficking A Asia: evidence review ofexisting of young andgirlsinSouth-East women Young women providers girlsas and for householdsoforigin. and the Pacific: the and A evidence review ofexisting Asia ofyoungIrregular women smuggling migrationand girlsinSouth-East and Theodora Lam Roy Huijsmans Harriot Beazley Beazley Harriot Lan AnhHoang Lan Sallie YeaSallie Andreas Schloenhardt ...... Table ofcontents ...... 11 31 45 63 85 99 iii 1 v vii Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

the number and proportion of women girls migratinginternationally and proportion numberand the 6 5 4 3 2 1 women girls. and in2017,48.4 per cent migrants 258millioninternational the Of characteristics. demographic their were evolvedMigration has significantly over and intermsofnumberspeoplemigrating recent both years, How ismigrationchanging? (i.e. choose) inorder tomigrate internationally countries. inother torealize opportunities there toward been a strong bias has who “self-select”’ migration of young, the working age-people migration.Historically, that international analysis and collection we data know from ofstudies, decades of this glance, Atresearch first “fringe”aspects may publication perhaps seemniche, relevant onlyto the benefits that international migration can bring. bring. can migration that international benefits the safeguarding practitioners and policymakers region prosperity inthe ourcollective through optimizing The butfringe. migration ofyoungis anything women girlswillbecomemore for and ofapriority research topicofthis the sense, Inthis homethrough householdsback remittances. tosupport ability sherefers inwhich report, in this towomen having “heroes beenlabelled ofdevelopment” for their home by young This women inherpaper adolescentgirls. issueishighlightedby and Beazley Harriot future, Inthe one. a strategic more households across region the sent willbereliant onremittances migrationofyoung migration–the international and women girlsisalso and connectivity transnational Given abuse. evident the trends before expectations, us–related societal/gender and change tosocial relevant isespecially harm, toyoung whomay women girls, and face greater and riskofexploitation reduce (if noteradicate) unsafe, disorderly atriskof irregular and migrants placesthese migrationthat a current we Policies issuethat increasingly designed toseverely with. grapple must practices and information resources and viaICT, migrationofyoung labour the that means women girlsis and greater and changes Social empowerment through including ofwomen greater girls, and accessto men have tended to undertake the more uncertain or riskier forms orriskier ofmigration. more the men have uncertain tendedtoundertake for especially and irregularalso show findings migration,empirical that of displacementsettings, young being part ofafamily unit), routes. being part viairregular including smuggling migrationand numbers of young women adolescent girls and growingalso processes, increasing and with recognition inmigrationpatterns shifts ofincremental Castles and Miller, and Castles 2003. 2017a. UN DESA, 2016;Pickering 2013. deRegt, and Cochrane, delFranco and 2010;Grabska, De Regt, For we publication, this UNdefinitionof the apply n.d.). is15to24 which youth, ofage(UN, years 2016. Bijlert, 2007;van Monsutti, industrialists).and SeeMcAuliffe 2017:172–175, al., et for adiscussionof key literature the topic. on (e.g. non-existent coerced forcibly trafficked displacedpersons) victims, virtually significant to very wealthy (e.g. retirees We concerning“choice”’ broad wideacknowledgement ofthe there notethat spectrum be exists can inmigration,which 5 The “feminization” of migration has beenwell Theofmigrationhas involving documented, “feminization” increase an in 3 undertaking migration independently (as migration independently opposed to undertaking 6 Introduction as well atrend as as toward 4

2 However, there is 1 Outside Outside

1 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific them migrating independently rather than as family members.7 Women are increasingly migrating to work in specific sectors, and in some countries the majority of emigrants are female, including from Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand.8 The latest data from the International Labour Organization, for example, show that women represented almost three-quarters of all migrant domestic workers and just over 80 per cent of migrant domestic workers in high income level countries (see graphic below).9

Migrant domestic workers by destination country income level and sex as of 2013 (millions)

8

7

6

5

4 Millions 3

2

1

0 Low income Lower-middle income Upper-middle income High income

Male Female

Source: IOM, 2017:29 based on ILO, 2015.

In addition, we are seeing increasing numbers of children migrating around the world, including as migrant workers, asylum seekers and in order to pursue educational opportunities.10 These changes are apparent at the global level, and are also reflected regionally. In mid-2017, for example, female migrants below the age of 19 in South-East Asia accounted for almost 8 per cent of all international migrants, and around 16 per cent of all female migrants.11 Likewise in the Pacific, just over 9 per cent of all international migrants were females under 19, accounting for around 20 per cent of the female migrant population.12

While migration presents new opportunities, it can also raise challenges for young women and girls who have themselves migrated or who have been left behind by their migrant-worker parents, especially as they are likely to experience greater vulnerability and face heightened risks because of their gender and age. At the same time, young women and adolescent girls’ agency must be given due consideration and further examined, including the broader impacts of their migration. While research on the impact of migration related to young women and adolescent girls exists (see the text box below), there remains the need to draw upon this and other current evidence to effectively inform policy and programme responses in the field of labour migration, including labour rights and protection, transnational family dynamics and the impact of gendered migration on countries and communities of origin, transit and destination.

7 Ahsan Ullah, 2013. 8 UN, 2006; Martin, 2007. 9 ILO, 2015. Introduction 10 UNICEF, 2016, ; UNESCO, 2019. 11 UN DESA, 2017b. 12 Ibid. The Pacific region refers here to Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia following UN DESA classification. 2 papers accordingpapers areas specific ofexpertise. totheir project (see box text below), thematic on the whoprovided suggestions and comments guidance, research findings. The papers werealso assembled reviewed this specific Panel for Expert the by state of beento has thecurrentreviewand upon task and base whose reflect evidence field, in the have publication inthis The by experts contained applied papers and leadingacademic beenwritten region. inthe interventions involvedthose refinement ongoing development, and inthe delivery of and programmatic related policy a desk-based review provides and current for ofthe publishedevidence-base, aknowledge “stocktake” Pacific the and minimize(and harm the potential resulting from some practices). entails This publication for Asia youngresponses migrationimpacts labour women designedtoenhance girlsinSouth-East and programmatic and toinform topicsoas policy ofthe potential onkey evidence base aspects existing the research ofthis objective main the From been toexplore examine outset, the project has critically and project About this Montgomery, Sarah Engebretsen and Kathryn BarkerMontgomery, (2013).Population Engebretsen Kathryn Sarah and NewYork. Council, move:Girls on the developing migration in the Adolescent girls and world , by Temin, Miriam Mark 22(3):421–445. Brenda and Anh Hoang Yeoh Lan Ee, Miriam Theodora Lam, andPacific (2013).Asian Migration, Journal livingenvironmentSecuring abetter for left-behind children: by for challenges and Implications policies, by (2015).WorldPhilippines, Patricia Cortes Development,65:62–78. childrenthe on The left effects behind:Evidencefrom its feminization migrationand ofinternational the Hobley for (2015).HIMALAYA, andHimalayan oftheAssociation Studies Nepal theJournal , 35(1):11–23. Mary and by Malaysia, and Gulfcountries Adhikari tothe Jagannath Nepal, Udaypur and districts, Khotang Everyone isleaving. Whowillsow ourfields? The livelihood onmale migration womenof effects from ed.). White, Handbook ofMigration Springer, andPopulation. (M.J. Distribution London, pp.573–604. (2016).In:International Adamo Susana and EleriJones, Agarwal, Siddharth ZhenLiu, Balk, Deborah migration of resultsadolescent girls: quantitative Urban from developing by countries, Montgomery, Mark Development and Geneva. International Studies, MigrationCentre, of (2016).Global GraduateInstitute deRegt Marina and delFranco Nicoletta Grabska, Comparative research migration Time report: , by inthesouth Adolescentgirls’ tolookatgirls: Katarzyna Yen Brenda and Yeoh Platt Khoo,Maria ofImmigrant (2017).Journal andRefugeeStudies, 15(3):326–343. Who migrates? Tracking gendered flux’ across households ‘in access to migration within time, by Choon ofImmigrant (2017).Journal andRefugeeStudies Beazley Harriot , 13(3):305–325. and Leslie Butt by registration Ball, protectionfor Jessica and inIndonesia, children migrants labour oftransnational Birth (2019). IOMMigration Geneva. Research, No.55,IOM, Series Ziway flower Can orDubai: inEthiopia farms by the MiddleEast? reduce migrationto Kerilyn Schewel Selected publications on the impacts ofmigration impacts onthe publications Selected on young women girlsglobally and

3 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific Overall, there is a dearth of research on the Expert Panel peer reviewers labour migration of young women and girls in the Pacific. There are likely to be several Dr Jacqueline Bhabha – Professor of the practice of reasons for this. First, the body of research health and human rights at the Harvard School of Public and analysis on migration more broadly is Health, and director of research at Harvard’s François- far larger in South-East Asia than the Pacific Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights. in light of relative populations, research Dr Anne Therese Gallagher AO – Independent infrastructure as well as research funding. In researcher (subsequently appointed the Director his paper on irregular migration and smuggling, General of the Commonwealth Foundation), and Andreas Schloenhardt points directly to the President of the International Catholic Migration current lack of information available on the Commission. Pacific: “The smuggling of young women and girls in the Pacific Islands is extremely under- Dr Jenna Hennebry – Professor, Department of researched and little is known about the levels Communication Studies and School of International and characteristics of irregular migration in this Policy and Governance, and director of the International region.” Second, it is also likely that, at least to Migration Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University. some extent, prevailing stereotypes (regardless Dr Sriprapha Petcharamesree – Director of the of their accuracy or not) of young Asian female international PhD programme in human rights and trafficked sex workers, influence research and peace studies, Institute of Human Rights and Peace policy agendas, taking up a disproportionate Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand. amount of space. Sallie Yea points to this in her paper on human trafficking of young women Dr Brenda Yeoh – Professor of geography at the National and girls in Asia–Pacific in this volume: “Whilst University of Singapore, and lead of the research cluster much of the literature has focused on women on Asian migration at the Asia Research Institute, NUS. and girls trafficked into the sex and nightlife entertainment industry, there is also a high prevalence of trafficking for domestic servitude and for forced labour in other sectors as urgent issues that have been relatively under-documented by comparison.”

The papers in this report all raise – in varying degrees – underlying gender inequality as being significant in the so-called “root causes” underpinning migration of this cohort. This is most apparent in Sallie Yea’s paper on human trafficking in the region, in which she argues that the structural settings that funnel girls into low skill, low pay jobs increases the risks of trafficking under false pretences, such as through offers of higher paid “waitressing” overseas to local factory workers. It is also referred to by Lan Anh Hoang when she cites studies showing that despite their preferences to continue their education, Laotian girls become migrant workers in order to send remittances back to their families, including to fund the education of siblings. Re-doubling existing efforts to tackle gender inequality within countries as a key development priority would go some way to assist in reducing the structural socioeconomic factors associated with the types of migration that are most harmful to young women and girls, namely irregular migration, smuggling and trafficking. Roy Huijsmans offers some hope in this regard by pointing out that girls’ experiences of their parents’ migration can provide practical financial support as well as motivational incentives to attain higher education outcomes that offer greater employment choice, including to not migrate.

The papers in this volume also suggest that policy and practice may not necessarily be keeping up with the changing nature of young women and girls’ agency in determining their own (migration) futures. With increasing transnational connectivity and evolving social norms in many parts of the region, there Introduction exist emerging shifts in the ability and desire of young women and adolescent girls to make their own way in the world. Theodora Lam explores this issue in relation to those left behind, citing research in 4 well as to draw on its contents as they undertake their work, study or other activities. orother study work, their theyundertake as well todraw contents as onits themselves –are migrants and newfromresearchers, something tolearn able volume, this students as cohort. all practitioners, that We hope readers –policymakers, important strategically this affecting issues the specific of Pacific the and been produced has understanding tohelpdeepenourcollective Overall, research Asia this migrationofyoung labour onthe women report girlsinSouth-East and women’s intoadulthood. theytransition as ofbuildingconfidence ameans adaptive as leadershipskills sherefers migration,inwhich labour generational toprogrammes inVanuatu young tosupport aim that awarenessand approaches Similar are oninter- raising. inherpaper highlightedby also Beazley Harriot forpotential empowering engages young that advocacy campaigns women girlsin anti-trafficking and family’s their offurthering ameans Further,as own ortheir aspirations. personal Yea Sallie tothe points Viet Indonesia showing and Nam how young women may to reference choose norms migration social

5 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

Pickering, S. and B. Cochrane Cochrane B. and Pickering, S. A. Monsutti, Ullah A. Ahsan and Goossens A.M. A. Kitimbo, M., McAuliffe, S. Martin, for Organization Migration(IOM) International (ILO) Organization Labour International deRegt M. and delFranco N. K., Grabska, M. De Regt, Miller M. and S. Castles, A.K.M. Ullah, Ahsan 2013 2007 2017 2007 2017 2015 2016 2010 2003 2013

, 17(1):27–48. Criminology Irregular border-crossing Where, gender: how and deaths why and women diecrossing borders. Theoretical 167–185. Young ariteofpassage: Migration as Iranian inIran. adulthood and Studies Afghans, 40(2), buildingmasculinity eds.). Geneva. Ruhs, IOM, M. and McAuliffe migration journeys from In:World 2018(M. migrants’ perspectives. Understanding Migration Report Migration,Georgetown StudyofInternational the University, Washington, D.C. Women, development. migration,and Transatlantic Perspectives for No.1.Institute onMigrationPolicy Brief 2017. eds.) Geneva, M. Ruhs, McAuliffe. IOM, Worldand 2018(M. Migration Report ILO ofMigrant. ILO, DomesticWorkers: GlobalEstimates andMethodology Results Geneva. Development and Centre, Geneva. ofInternational GraduateInstitute Studies, Comparative research Time report: tolookatgirls:Adolescentgirls’ Migration Global south. migrationinthe , 24(2):237–260. Gender &Society Ways ways tocome, toleave: Gender, workers mobility, domestic Ethiopian among inYemen. il/legality and The AgeofMigration. Guilford Press, NewYork. and Integration, 14(3):475–492. TheoreticalExposure for toremittances: implications empirical and gender. Migration ofInternational Journal References

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n.d. Youth: Frequently Asked Questions. Available at www.un.org/development/desa/youth/what-we-do/faq.html (accessed 25 July 2019).

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8

10 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences © IOM/MuseMOHAMMED 2 1 the dueto Pacific the and country Asian to delve comprehensive intothe South-East ofeach details regions cultures even and histories their ofmigrationmay though differ. isunable this paper While times may providein contemporary some common threads across in these countries the within and culturally. migration and/or socially itself. Nonetheless, country each diversities within Such exist also Pacific the and Asian areregions diverse politically, South-East the within very Countries economically, young background: Issuesgirlsand Contextual women face Young women girlsare and broadlythose aged10to24 definedtobe years the UnitedNations. by Introduction 1. sisters and/or wives and/or sisters of migrants, Itexplores different the migrants. and issues circumstances young and girlsasdaughters, women face voices often-neglected tothe emotionsofyoungdirectly and females whohave been“left behind”by theyresidein which for possiblecauses the alongside situation.Thereafter, their turns paper the young ofthese womenkey diverse considersthe girlsand and contexts characteristics sociocultural Pacific. the and some highlights Asia first The paper inSouth-East remained homecountry intheir ofmigrationon young and impacts and girlswhohavecauses women the onexploring specifically relatives migrant of close experiencesofmigration.This viavicarious orindirectly focuses thus paper donotmove.and are affected Non-migrants also through directly by migrationwhether absence the degreesthose whodo – –tovarying migrationaffects factors, structural and familial, other social with migrationisrelationalmind that whereby migrationprocesses migrants’ and lives are intertwined closely relativesmigrant friendsgiven regions. and/or in Bearing geographical highmigrationratesinthese the themselvesalready or throughmigrants as experienced migration either encounters with personal Pacific the and Asia – may have inSouth-East those many age, Despite their – particularly of them and areas for further investigation. areasand for further migration predominates. Finally, by concludes paper the for interventions offering somesuggestions they navigate communities where within encounter as into adulthood transition their a culture of In light of existing research focuses mainly paper the In lightofexisting on daughters. analysis, and agegroupthis alone. GF.pdf (seeunder study www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/One%20pager%20on%20youth%20demographics%20 womenand context prejudice without countries agerange this within definitionsadopted tothe organizations, by various thereand togirls As isnouniversaland definitionofadolescence young willexamine this paper youth, research pertaining ). Also, given the varied definitions available, it is often difficult to obtain uniform statistics or data conforming or to ). Also, given statistics definitions varied the uniform obtain it is oftenavailable, difficult to Young women girlsleft and behind: 2 reasons for (im)mobility, their everyday the and they challenges Causes and consequences Causes and Asia Research ofSingapore University Asia National Institute, Theodora Lam 1

11 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 12 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences country’s developmental and poverty issues. Natural disasters as wellchange climate as as disasters Natural issues. country’s poverty developmental and many governments inpromoting economicsolutiontoaddressing an migrationas international the there are of regions encouragingpeopleinthese factors other keen the tomigrateincluding efforts to 15years regions. inthese improvedeven generally has from accesstoeducation ranging though education five compulsory with targeted enrolment Pacificfull school the the and rate Asia havetheir population for still notattained with improving wellwith relevant as as education. accesstoquality 2016 (compared toIndonesia’s 100%for agegroup). same the purported while youth ratefor literacy female population aged 15–24years isaround inMyanmar 84.4 per cent in gross enrolment People’s ratiois0.95inLao index (GPI) totertiary for primary Republic Democratic genderparity the For countries. instance, performing percentage better isoften propped upby certain women girlshave and improved generally for overall the considerthat regions, both onemust high or waged-agricultural work, for example, was still considerably higher than boys’ higher than considerably still for work, or was waged-agricultural example, throughout years. the for replacingeducation girls’ youths, Indonesian activities agrarian involvement and/ incraft, domestic education” as evidenced in countries such as Indonesia. as education” evidencedsuch incountries as “‘pushdown’ the and mismatch skills accessto ofexpanding effects due tolimitedopportunities, years for ofschooling young many women are pooremployment girls, experiencing and still prospects 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Brunei Australia, greatertheir compared resource as upper-middle tothe limitations, as economies such advanced and focusespaper onresearch mainly from regions these within lowcountries given tomiddle-income tostress from this that outset the important Itisalso outcome. toeach contribute partially that remember continually contexts and political one must sociocultural specific to consider the Instead, are young about notintendedtomake section this generalizations women regions. girlsinthese and comprisesadiverse that group, liminal and findingspresentedrelational the construct social and in some young women girlsare and facing environment the within theydwell. Knowing youth that isa migrationtrends the alongside issues regionsofthe these within afuller tofacilitate understanding affecting key factors young contextual inhighlightingselected and girls women isimportant section relating those brief this toyounguneven available women –particularly data spaceconstraints, –and and/or greater families. and/or ontheir dependency highunemployment resulted as has issuessuch underemployment and inlocal youths the ratesamong ofyouths proportion versusa higherdemographic agegroups other population.For inthe this some, Pacific, inthe are “youth a also experiencing regions, bulge” these particularly within countries dueto higherrateoffeminized where Asia there migration.Many observably an developing isalso South-East of young populationis higher in migrant and proportion the womengeneral, total the girls among and region ratesineach force labour and enrolment, ispresented literacy inAnnex1.In participation well school ofyoungAn overview populationas migrant as and women girlsintermsoftotal and Islanders with an alternative an with Islanders avenue oflivelihood pathway and to economicsuccess. Pacific the and toprovide Asians migrationappears With prospects, many limitedlocal South-East needed. needed. beadequately addressed cannot which paper. scopeofthis the within More isalso research targeted aspect onthis lives onthe change of climate livelihoods and The ofleft-behind impacts topic young women important girlsisan and Bylander, 2015;Hugo,2013;Kelly, 2011;LYU UNFPA, and 2014;OECD, 2015;UNESCAP, 2017;Ware, 2005. 2012. 1961;White, Geertz, Beazley, Yeoh, 2015;Khoo and 2012:94. 2017;White, Levine, 2018;Woo 2013;UnitedNations, 2009. Corea, and WooDiscovery n.d.; DCode, 2009. Corea, and 2016. UNESCODiscovery n.d.; DCode, for Institute Statistics, 2008;Harper, 2011;Duncan, Curtain, 2017; Hugo,2013;LYU UNFPA, and 2014. Darussalam 5 , Malaysia, NewZealand Singapore. and , Malaysia, More many importantly, governments regions inboth are grappling also 3 While the school enrolment figures school Whilethe literacy and for young 7 Regardless levels ofeducation despite and 6 With and extended higherqualifications 4 Most countries in South-East inSouth-East countries Most 9 At the same time, At time, same the 10 inrecent years 8

young women girls face and are kept of to be also we inmind as turn now impacts toexploringthe numerous the issues others, genderamongst and class ofage, be considered intersections alongside women and girl, as wellwomen boys. as girl, as and left-behind onboth andimpacts thesituation extent of the makes young itdifficultto fullyunderstand Democratic Republic, Solomon Islands, Thailand Republic, VanuatuDemocratic and SolomonIslands, are already by married 18. Lao the as People’s percentage such ofgirlsincountries these in anotable marriage at first regions, early, familiestheir underaman’s tomarry keeping thus constantly them risingage Despitethe watch. work inforeign inorder lands toimprove family’s the overall well-being. ideaofafamily tothe member,accustomed leaving daughters/wives/mothers, including families their to hiring women in numerous factory, care work. domestic and preference global toageneral beattributed also feminization migrationcan oflabour for demand and 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 byabout greater technologies. accesstonewmediaand broughtas challenges as new influences global well and urban inequality, wants, needsand material Naturally, have theyalso ever-changing other tocontendwith familial gendered and social, expectations, even homecountries girlsintheir and before relative migrationofaclose addingthe mix. intothe confronting dilemmas issuesand manyThe atsomecontextual young previous hints women section Broad ofmigration onleft-behind impacts young girlsand women from ranges which reaching 15to21years. ageofmajority the freedom havingand households, tomakein their limitedmobility even independentdecisions after young women girlsoften and have authority, male tosubmitthe fathers orhusbands, as such many regions communitiesinthese ofthe Islands, Marshall areNew Guineaand patriarchal. Many Papua Philippines, the Finally, Indonesia, as such some countries within exist societies while matrilineal have regions compelledmigrationinthese also duetoalossoflivelihoods homes. and aspirations and mobility. and aspirations followed by young have pregnancies, onyoung implications critical women girls’ and education, health, the mean age at first marriage, many also generally marry before many marriage, marry also generally turning25. ageatfirst mean the care for family patriarchy. the escape and motivationtomigrateinorder their tofulfil provide obligations, familial economic may kickstart also may movements limittheir by entrenching incaregiving them roles sphere, domestic the butthey within behind by parents. migrant from anywhere have toninemillionchildren scholars various two Philippinestobeleft inthe suggested for instance, also bewide-ranging; Pacific. the can and Estimates Asia being left behindinSouth-East population of the size the describing characteristics there and no accurate data is still emigration data, girlswhostay.and Interestingly, whilegovernments have policymakers and beendiligentincapturing feminizeda dominant migrationculture unseenpressures additional may exert also onyoung women on the experiencesofyoungon the women girls. and Notably, boys However, young and girls. menare conditionsas tosimilar often also subjected focuses paper this mainly 2018. United Nations, Woo 2009. Corea, and 2010; LYUJones, 2012;UNICEF, UNFPA, and 2018;UNDESA, 2014;Rumbleetal., 2018. Reid, 2014;Woo 2009. Corea, and 2014. Herzberg, and Martin Yeoh, and 2008;Lam 2007;IOMetal., Cortés, 2018. 2018. Butt, Yeoh, and See for 2014;Lam Khooetal., example Dixon, and 2015;Small 2019;Sijapati, 2004;Tisdell, 2014. 2018. 2017;Oakes 2017;Prakash, etal., 2008;IOM, Duncan, 19 On one hand, early marriages and the persistence of traditional genderroles oftraditional persistence the and marriages early Ononehand, 14 The lack of disaggregated data for population segmentofthe The critical data this ofdisaggregated lack 15 20 Given that the impacts ofmigrationshould Given impacts the that 12 Over people grow time, increasingly 16 Many girlsare encouragedby also 13 Livinginenvironments with 18 Early marriages, often marriages, Early 11 The growing 17 Based on Based 13 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 14 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences for have ormigrate, tostay choosing emergedrecently. emotions ofleft-behind young revealing women rationale and girlsinIndonesia, and aspirations their doesnotpresentalso gendered-differentiatedthough outcomes, researchthe highlighting andvoices one or both parentsone orboth migrateinternationally. from Inaddition,studies regions both recent inthe years – Pacificthe have highlighted young asbeingmoreand girls women negatively than affected boys when being left behind. Pacific,in the for example create could that no one is Tongans, ever a perspective leavingreally or 26 25 24 23 22 21 outcomes. well presence the migrationas of parental as impingeonthe ofamigrationculture community inthe length and distance destinations, contexts, ofsurrogate circumstantial and type sociocultural carers, caregivers substitute children, and ageofmigrants, genderand as such factors combination ofvarious produced has array an Asia ofmixed positive –both negative Acomplex and in South-East –findings. research qualitative and quantitative differentExisting on the well-being outcomesof left-behindchildren outcomes education Economic and to pursueany migration aspirations. orinvolvementof consultation ofresources welllack the as as infamilial/parental migrationdecisions, migrationregime labour forbids that absence an family temporary the reunification countries, inhost formerthe whileleft-behind underlyingtoneofchoice an carries given ofchoice alack tendstoindicate “left-behind” and “stay-behind” have seeminglybeenusedinterchangeably far, thus oneshouldnotethat migrationoffamilyinternational membersonleft-behind young terms, Whilethe women girls. and and Vietand lesswork much and Nam, Pacific onthe be can found. Philippines the Indonesia, as such countries Asian South-East situatedinselected disproportionately psychological,emotional, well physical/developmental genderroles as as familial and relations are researchExisting focusing educational, well-beingeconomic, onvarious largely as outcomes such voices the eliciting ofyouths females –especially –are even scarcer numbers. scopeand inboth Studies Asia) decade. South and past inthe East and (mainly America studies situatedinNorth mentionedearlier,As research onleft-behind children relatively isstill limiteddespiteasurgeof families their girlsand flux. and are often inaconstant orbeingleft ofstaying isunlikely given tobepermanent movementsstate the that ofyoung women doesnotimplyany paper this importantly, negative whenusing“left-behind”. connotations the Besides, aspects on the impacts ofmigrationonyoung women impacts girls. onthe and aspects (c) as measure. aform ofdisciplinary (a) complicated family roots; citizenship cultural and their and/or with situations;(b) getting intouch natives from Pacific the are who for different purposivelytheir homecountry sentto including reasons be children ofcross-national children) (for marriages Japanese-Filipino example, or overseas-born country’s inanother events/programmes may others means; through digital who may bepartaking have never either left orhave now travellers returned; someare someare migrants-in-waiting; “virtual” reasons for being“left” For athome. someare example, forced someare who failed tostay; migrants behind young women girlsare and diverse avery group would and have experiencesand varied rather 2017; Suzuki, 2010. 2017; Suzuki, Cave Koloto, and Miller, 2018;Jensenand 2015;Chan, Yeoh, Chengand 2018;Robertson, etal., 2017;Lam 2018; Seiger, See for Yeoh, 2017;Khooand Chan, example Yeoh, 2017;Khoo and Yeoh 2018;Somaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Beazley, 2018. etal., Jordan, and 2015;Graham 2011;Lam Cave Koloto, and 2015. YeohSee reviews 2018;Lam, by etal., Lam 2013. Hoang, and Yeoh, and 2018;Lam etal., Lam 2018. 26 Thus far, or Asia where intoconsideration,notmany inSouth-East genderistaken studies 25 To investigate further, we now turntothree broad often –and interrelated – 21 24 Admittedly, butmore issometimesunclear senseofchoice the On the other hand, the frequent the hand, other Onthe ofislanders coming-and-goings 23 Apart from tostay, whochose those Apart left- 22 Much of the existing research existing ofthe Much for those from Fiji, parts of Indonesia, Thailand Philippines. the and ofIndonesia, for from those parts Fiji, particularly completionofmore the education, higherqualifications, years obtaining and ofschooling improved them ledtohigherinvestments for granting generally ineducation also girls, accessto(better) their migrant parents. migrant their wouldand hard study recite and toward deepsenseof“obligation outoftheir Quran the duty” and improve and education their schoolsupport lives. Thus, theyexpressed their inattending happiness regularly. inparticular, girls, Indonesian awareness an demonstrated parent(s) their that migratedto girls are more sensitive toincomechanges.” more even negativelythere girls, though than affected expenditures iswide that education evidence on of migrationfor Indonesia. left-behind inLombok, conducted children evidenced ininterviews as Occasionally, different may theoutcomes viewson community givethe same personswithin conflicting ensure young most girlsachieve education. abasic togirls’ laws education by helped aided that isalso education ofremittances allocation compulsory 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 children than off parents. both livingwith from mainly albeit Philippines–have the shown left-behind that children are worse notnecessarily also from non-migrant households at school and that girls performed better than boys. than better from girlsperformed that and householdsatschool non-migrant by Ruiz-Marave and A study Asis found left-behind that those than Filipino children better performed ofleft-behind performance Findings onacademic young women girlshave and mixed. beenrather also academically. revealed Filipino children from mother-migrant families tobedoingmore children other poorlythan have progression/pacing school however, better resultsstudies, these though are Other not significant. of 487children, left-behind boys than and better girlsaged9to11appeared academically toperform design ofappropriate measures tohelpleft-behind girls. findings drive inorderthe needtohavethe home to country facilitate studies ineach more targeted siblings. left-behindwith girlsleaving before school turning11(end tolookafter school) younger ofprimary left-behind.those left-behind They that reported children “were more likely todrop outofschool” behind children “psychological described while teachers symptoms” amongst trauma emotional and Local government ofstressed thenecessity remittances officials (read positive) ofleft- thesurvival for and girls – typically gain materially and economically from economically and materially gain parent’s their girls–typically and migration. to affect school enrolment school to affect adversely while fathers’ adverseabsence had no similar impact. were especially important in the past as theyprovided as for past subsistence inthe teenagegirls. were important especially Jampaklay, 2006. 2015:76. Cortes, OWWA, 2004. SMCand 2015;ECMI/AOS-Manila, Conaco,1998;Cortes, and Battistella Ruiz-Marave, and Asis 2013. Yeoh, Khooand Ibid.; 2017. 597. Ibid., 2018. Ball, and Beazley, Butt Brown,Connell and 2005. Yeoh, 2018;Yang, 2008. OWWA, 2004;Gounder, SMCand Ruiz-Marave, and Asis 2013;ECMI/AOS-Manila, 2016;Jampaklay, 2006;Khooand 2018. etal., Lam Ruiz-Marave, and 2006;Asis 2013;Jampaklay,Asis, 2006. 32 Left-behind children themselves revealed whenreceived positive experiencesofremittances 35 One study however Onestudy left-behind reported “significantly boys as mothers migrant with 33 27 Overall, most studies would studies Overall, agree most children that boys –both 36 The found also long-termmigrationofThai was mothers 29 For Tongans, the remittances 28 Remittances have Remittances 34 30 In their survey survey Intheir The increased 37 Such mixed Such 31

15 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 16 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences remittances as well agreater onschoolwork as as emphasis instead. remittances greater the include ofresources availability ofsocial householdduetomigration,transmission inthe reversal spent lesstimeofthis doing household chores. Somepossibleexplanations regularly actually Mexico,revealedand Filipino children that remit and whocommunicate mothers ofengagedmigrant own families through pregnancies unplanned and marriages early inorder to fulfiltheir own lives”. responsibilities caring addedhouseholdand the with “by leaving forming and earlier school their left-behind Philippines, inthe Returning reported tocope appear studies daughtersalso earlier tothe now internationally. married havegirls also householdchores upthe topick formerly by whohave performed oldersisters their more affected –as migration.Similarly,by parental disadvantageously eldest the especially Vietnamese 47 46 45 44 43 42 Ibid. 41 40 39 38 by caused parent’s migrant negative the mitigating the impacts absence. revealed ofgoodsurrogate studies presence carers the that Existing are support and in being. critical mother, relatives other non-relatives and/or – for left-behind childrentheir affecting is one factor well- ofsurrogate type carer genderand the indicated, earlier –grandmother/father,As left-behind father/ work towomen. unsurprising given prevailing the gendered regions both within divisionoflabour toaccord domestic marriage prospects as well as bargaining power. well bargaining as as prospects marriage elevated whenthere (marriage) international isan actually their raising thus household, inthe migrant ofleft-behind economicstatus and social the over young Vietnamese years. Bycontrast, the women are incare change ofmigrationand familial and relations on left-behind impacts the understanding children poverty. ofmigrationand needfor the negative approach highlights alongitudinal Italso impacts toward process.in the The negative presented outlook for causes raises concernover possiblecumulative the mothers’grades upontheir migration.However, theydobecomemore newskills learn independentand Daughters from poorer families experienceamore oflife drop significant and their quality infalling Well-being outcomes social and split-family arrangement. over family transnational formation their are and more sympathize and the with likely tounderstand siblings in their mother’ssiblings intheir absence. responsibilities onadditional take make chores and well householddecisions, care as as for younger regardless Philippines, daughterinthe eldest heavier may ofage, toassume care betasked burdens, girlsare tobecomecarersand for enlisted either also the themselves For families. ortheir instance, the region,the negative may becomelesspronounced. effects also gradually of their migrant mothers’ migrant of their actions. accordingly inreciprocation lifestyles change their toaccommodatethe adjust situation,and of their someare resentful studies, oflarger subsamples with are whileothers more reflectiveand accepting Left-behind react differently daughters also conducted their situation;from to interviews qualitative markettransformed marriage in local the quitesignificantly favour of females. Lam, YeohLam, 2013;Yeoh, Hoang, and 2010. Lam, and Hoang Yeoh, and Hoang 2015. 2015. etal., Hoang Tran, and Belanger 2011. 2015:265. etal., Hoang Jordan 2018. etal., Tran, and Belanger 2011. Parreñas, 2005. Yeoh OWWA, 2004;Hoang, SMCand Manila, Wattie, and Yeoh, and 2012;Lam 2019. surrogate various discussing the of studies For examples carer-types selected well-being see ECMI/AOS- and outcomes, 41 However, laterresearch Nigeria Philippines, the three comparing countries, study 46 As migration becomes increasingly normalized in As many within societies of the 40 Reports ofgirlsspendingmore timeonhouseholdchores Reports are possibly 45 39 Vietnamese thoughtfulness their girls aged12to15demonstrated Overall, earlier studies portrayed left-behind portrayed Overall, studies earlier Filipino daughters– 44 The option of marrying internationally for internationally women The has optionofmarrying 42

47 38

Left-behind young women 43

economic, social and cultural ties. cultural and social economic, Tongans, the as their helpgreatly homewhich visits short-term inconserving frequently can conduct thorough research.to conduct Whatisknown, however, from many isthat migrants Pacific, the such ofleft-behind moreand proportion scattered populationsfrom Pacific the itdifficult region, making outcomesfor and left-behind adjustments social the children there. This smaller duetothe isperhaps known about lessisunfortunately Pacificbehind in the oftencan bederived through reports, country in improving Whileinformation themselves. benefits the left-for educational economicand onthe tolive motivatedthem young and absence their with more women productively girlscopebetter and lives ofmigrants’ and decisions overseas understanding helpedleft-behind also Abetter abandonment. overchannels/tools years the frequent facilitating reducing and communication feelings ofisolationand portray. The by explained improvements increasing the access to new communications be partly can parents/relatives orindire mediaoften popular endupbecomingmaterialistic notall situationsas and appeared atweathering from separation tohave the migrant their grown cohorts earlier than better sometimes inpositive timesinregressive other and ways. Many left-behind Asia girlsinSouth-East butgenderedcountries ideologieshave altered migration, ininternational tofactor beenstrategically Pacific the and Asian Overall, gendered South-East traditional inboth normscontinuetopersist 53 52 51 50 49 48 personally, buttheyare affected equally of the cultureby manifestations the and ofmigration overt from remittances relatives social and maythe affect well-being of left-behind young and girls women wellnon-related Material immediatefamily other their membersas as communities. persons intheir youngAdolescent and females remaining are home countries in their affected the migration of by obligations and “Rights” choices: Individual children girlsare and more resilient ofchildrenperspectives left-behind that from households, non-migrant and migrant international both arebehind girlsthat informative.through of496Thai Astudy the children aged9to11first reported, presented also A handful studies quantitative ofother somewell-being relating indicators toleft- families. This stunting is likely attributed to cultural preferences tocultural This islikelyfamilies. stunting attributed offeeding boys over girls. behind girlsare more significantly left-behind likelythan stunted tobe boysand girlsfrom non-migrant brought nutrition having by about better parents’ their Vietnamese hand, other migration.Onthe left- girls (and boys) peersfrom possiblydueto their than aged9to11are households, non-migrant taller physicalmigration onthe development ofleft-behind girlsare mixed. Filipino left-behind Ononehand, girls, if their mothers have mothers iftheir girls, ever migratedafter birth. their ofleft-behind health 9to11,laterrevealedto 5and mental onthe negative children, impacts especially investigations (n=1,030),butnow sample carers same intothe Further encompassing ofchildren aged3 children themselves. for left-behind toregister mothers children’s their may which leadtofuture births problems for the away from created also fathers migrant of Indonesian absence has difficulties the well-being indicators, a contractual two years two beforea contractual toreturn beingable home. whoare migrants often international labour-bound Asian low-waged employers totheir South-East for programmesas as amore tosomePacific well fluidmigration States regimeunlike thoseconfronting Cave Koloto, and 2008. 2015; Duncan, Beazley, and 2017. Butt Ball, Jordan, and Graham 2013. 2014. et al., Adhikari Vapattanawong,Jampaklay and 2013. happy”.enjoying being“very and school” Resilience iscaptured study through inthis children’s by well-being demonstrated subjective answers“always their as as 52

53 This freedom by aided isperhaps citizenship ofdual availability the 48 in coping with adversities incopingwith respective their than counterparts. 50 In another quantitative study, quantitative of Inanother impacts the 51 Moving 49

17 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 18 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences higher degrees and greater liberty in selecting adesired inselecting courseofstudy.higher degrees greater and liberty sisters, they retain the choice of marrying for love agoodmatch. ofmarrying choice theyretain the suitortheydeemas oralocal sisters, Evenown many though migrationchoices. Vietnamese like internationally their girlsmay tomarry want notforgetmust left-behind that young women tomake girlsdohave their and capacity and agency reasoning that migrating or staying as necessary for providing necessary as reasoning migrating or staying that care for family. the negotiationsfor intheir decisions their help validate desired the (non)migration outcome;for instance, orleave,stay left-behind young togender-appropriate subscribe women girlsstrategically and to scripts 64 63 Ibid. 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 choices. and opportunities educational ofsuccessful parents cases migration,migrant areIn most tooffer able their left-behind children greater and motivating new perspectives and choices”. and motivatingnewperspectives and ways, indramatic becominga ‘referential systems value behaviour repertoire,’ systems orienting value ofmigrationmayand shift “influence history long-standing and adominant communitieswith that community. their within clothing, and Numerous modernappliances vehicles, have studies emphasized and houses through ofmigration ofnewerappearance the economiceffects andbigger and material husband’s wishesover aspirations. personal their and deferas wives, life throughtheir positions considertheir to aspirations first migration while others young women onholdorbreak plans marriage puttheir their off relationships inorder to their fulfil valorised”. homemakersand women’s remain and ‘pre-destined’ cosmologically culturally largely isstill immobility “[a]spirations are desires ofindividualised notopensets possibilities–roles and wives, mothers as aspirations in replicationaspirations predecessors’ of their footsteps. parentsmigrant –aremore reportedly susceptibletoward likelier migrationand todevelop migration securing their ownsecuring their future incomeupongraduation. steady and prospects burdening parents their financially, and make simultaneously their parents’ goodof whilst remittances willavoid that choices responsibilities whenmaking dutiful aspirations as further their daughterswith Left-behind a longer time. or take costly young women girls carefully and religious balanced piety, their areaware too either career coursesguidingtheir that toward paths servants orcivil becomingdoctors They are apharmacist. nursingorworking as to reputable gendered teaching, as occupationssuch bigger, daughterswere mindfulcareertheir their parentsand moderated made sacrifices ofthe choices left-behind young women freedom the and girlsmore and capacities todream aspirational alittle run counter to parental, partner and/or societal expectations whether in staying orleaving. instaying whether expectations societal and/or partner run countertoparental, recentIndeed, reveal studies left-behind that young women girlsmake and may that decisions conscious stay. fulfiltheretheir dreams, are now moreare who becomingincreasingly to their decision about vocal own theretheir as voices, we are just that learnt young women tomigrate girlswhodecided and Robertson, Cheng and Yeoh, Chengand Robertson, 2018:620. Yeoh,Khoo and Yeoh 2017;Somaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Likewise, adverse family’s inthe changes migrationsituationmay ofleft-behind plans the derail also young women girls. and Yeoh,Khoo and 2018. Bylander, 2017. 2015;Chan, YeohSomaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Yeoh, 2017,2018;Khooand Chan, 2018. Tran, and Belanger 2011. YeohSomaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Bylander, 2015:1125. 58 In cases whereor pressuresparental In cases to deny societal freedom their them attempt to in deciding 64 Nonetheless, this doesnotinvalidate this young decisions the Nonetheless, women girlseventually and make. 61 Indonesian left-behind Indonesian girlsrecount optionsinpursuing their 54 60 Left-behind young females with those –especially 55 While this may While this for hold true we some, 63 62 We are reminded thus that Even migrationafforded as 59 Some Indonesian Some Indonesian 57 Through 56

(c) (b) 65 ofmales’ inclusion the as counterparts male their shouldnot neglect studies 24. At time, same the comprehensive and longitudinal onleft-behind studies different the girlsspanning agesfromthrough 10 for future research to focus more to come up with gaps on mending these relational, intersectional, there isaneed aspirations, and girlsorgivenand struggles enoughspacetovoice them views, their Given research that notfully ofmigrationonleft-behind todatehas explored impacts the young women Recommended examination areas for further (a) youngthese The women girls. following and for are interventions. three suggestions positive lives of the onexisting outcomesinrespective prospects and capitalize tobetter countries can agencies peersfrom External ortheir males be more than households. non-migrant disadvantaged emergedfrom pointthat A salient review the stay/left-behind isthat young women girls need not and interventions/assistance Potential for practical

January-2016.pdf. See for https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ED-02-ASEAN-Qualifications-Reference-Framework- example, moderated toavoid abuse. 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Career prospects guide girls on advisors can programmesvarious “youth the atharnessing aimed bulge” through belaunched can schools programmes education existing Enhancing It would beuseful information concise toprepare and attractive disseminate visually and More formal informal and programmes girlsfrom with engagingdirectly families migrant would Knowing many that left-behind young women girlshave and improved accessto(higher) education, 65 Making school interesting school Making 19 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 20 Young women and girls left behind: Causes and consequences together with the needs and aspirations ofyoung aspirations needsand the women with together girls. and toexplore more ofmigration carefully important Itisthus impacts the ofbeing. achieve state ideal their to aspirations personal and expectations social familial obligations, negotiatingbetween continually change, in afluxof young mayfemales not the in remain (im)mobiletheyareand permanently state make Given informed fluidmovements their choices. personal arethat societies within constantly waystheir life – –inunexpected affect also and freedom options migrationcan women girls, to and may oftenremittances improve for prospects education left-behind economicsituationand the young well-beingWhileregular and education economic, ontheir outcomes. positive negative and impacts migration onleft-behind young women girlsare heterogenous and having very also complex, and both of the situation ofbeingleftthem in thus placing behind. place, The impacts first to migrateinthe are circumstances whatpropelled local the youngIn somecases, women girls’ and family members left-behind young females whocomefrom backgrounds. diverse educational economicand very social, Various from ranging factors environment tomigrationoften workthe toaffect together well-being of Conclusion information on left-behindcurrently little-known young women girls. and tocover geographically and thematically bewidenedboth also more well with countries topicsas as addressing also experiences ofmigrationwhilst The males’should study wishes. scopeofthe needsand experiencescouldprovideviews and amore different ofthe gendered understanding and outcomes Belanger, Tran D. 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Annex 1: Overview of Key Data Relating to Girls and Young Women Aged 10 to 24 in South-East Asia and the Pacific*

% of total % of % of total % of total % of migrant Gross enrolment Female % of total population population migrant migrant population aged ratio, primary to Female youth labour force population who are aged 10–24 population who population 10–24 who are tertiary (Gender literacy rate (%) participation aged 10–24 females aged who are are females aged aged 10–24 females Parity Index) rate (%) 10–24 females 10–24

Year 2017 2016 2013

South-East Asia 25.6 12.5 48.8 17.0 8.8 51.9 1.02 97.1 59

Pacific 22.0 10.7 48.6 13.8 6.7 48.8 1.02 Not Available 61

Source 66 67 68

* The data pertains to the total population of the respective regions only.

66 UN DESA, 2017. 67 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2016. 68 Asian Development Bank, 2015.

© IOM/ Angelo JACINTO 2 1 remittances. by children oforigin,including throughtheir their education whoremain financing country inthe migrationacross their borders international toprovide ameans parentsMigrant often as justify for migration children’s migrationon The ofparental effects and education gendered its dynamics. to attention paying context, particular Asian youthbetween South-East migration in the and education of knowledge multiple relations on these Following synthesizes chapter state this the framework, this • • fromeducation broad two perspectives: Within diversity, social this multiplerelations the we adolescentmigrationand study between can are always gendered. genderedspecific in waysthe life period in that course”and migrationinteract education age, inwhich areothers working full-time possiblyeven and needstoberecognized Adolescencealso married. “as a position).(e.g. birth young Somegirlsand women are enrolled infull-time formal whereas education, (such atlarge they occupy household ethnicity) wellthe and within society as within as class social as differentthe livedrealities by young arethat and girls positions women social shaped the intersecting by well different the as diversity as ofmigration histories found acrossthe also complicated region. Itis by cultural and political socioeconomic, considerable ofthe because multipleforms. This take can case isthe relation the young context, between women Asian girls’ and migration and education South-East In the migration ofyoung women girls and Introduction: The and multiplerelations education the between 2. parental migration affects children’s migrationaffects parental Drawing education. on Choon research inIndonesia, and Yen Khoo Asis and Ruiz-Marave, and Asis Yeoh 2013:1;Somaiah, 2019:8. Arlini, and 2019:7. DelFranco, and deRegt Grabska, A focus duringyouth. life onthe athow migrationinteract courselooking and education migration; and children’stheir athow looking migrationaffects parental perspective An intergenerational education 2 Using remittances to pay for Using remittances children’s their is acommon way education through which education: Understanding the multiple the Understanding education: Young women girls’ and migrationand 1 International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam University Erasmus Studies, ofSocial Institute International relations Roy Huijsmans 31 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 32 Young women and girls’ migration and education: Understanding the multiple relations and also included olderchildren included also and (up to17years ofage). The nationalism of national education systems providesThe systems education ofnational nationalism for challenge another students. migrant refugees. ofThai government attendance the increased children among has schools workers ofmigrant and government school. following resolution, 2005 Cabinet the are children allowed status a legal who lack to enrol in any Thai were underrepresented agegroup the among above. 15and children of14years orbelow, girls that Thailand research reports Nawarat by innorthern Nongyao for exist toaccesseducation. children, also migrant girls, including obstacles Other are bornonMalaysian soil. self-perception 13–16years children inthe among age-group. ofmigrants on a relativelybased size sample small (n=130) provides and a word relative the about of caution poor 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 from to Thailand Myanmar Parents have Asia migrated may children. for their migratewith also Somefamilies instance inSouth-East children parents.” both livingwith show outcomeswhich or with children that householdsare intransnational notdoingworse than positive with associated outcomes, itis outcomes, school migrationaffects parental “if that conclude (theage from Batangas and Philippines) Celia Ruiz-MaraveLaguna and Asis Maruja households, their and children 500 ofnearly below data 12 survey Analysing of outcomes. years off intermsofeducational migrants’ that children are notworse from separated Although evidence suggests parents, oneorboth pathways years during the through especially beyond system, education the phase”. education basic the Brenda Yeoh are young “parental that tofacilitate argue investments crucial viaremittances people’s thousands of undocumented migrant children ofundocumentedmigrant thousands inMalaysia are outofschool, in 2002 has effectivelyin 2002has limitedfreechildren to education whoholdMalaysiancitizenship. (no. Anamendment inMalaysia. isnotguaranteed school 1996Malaysian 550)tothe law education providedAlthough for Convention 1989 International inthe accessto Child, ofthe Rights onthe earn academic and non-academic awards non-academic and academic earn children than of non-migrating parents. children notesthat Inaddition,italso parents ofmigrant were activities. moreextracurricular likely to are more are and likely in more organizations toholdmembershipofacademic likely toparticipate the case of Thailand is instructive. InThai Thai isthe ofThailand government isinstructive. case the medium ofinstruction the schools the employers,the thereby effectively terminatinggirls’ education. often work anannyworker as ordomestic for requires Thai work Such families. typically living-inwith optionfor young ageof15work refugees.the and attractive becomesan migrants Unlike boys, girls enrolment more inrefugee ratesbutalso broadly. statistics camp follows: Nawarat as this explains from Lall and Vickers, and Lall 2009. 496. Ibid., Nawarat, 2018:495. Dowding, 2014;Punpuing 2014;UNICEF, et al., 2014:46–47. Tuangratananon 2019. etal., UNESCO, 2018:44–45. UNESCO, 2017:56–57. Lumayag, 2016. 2019;Lumayag, 2016. Allerton, Jolliffe, 2016;Nawarat, 2018. 33. Ibid., 31. Ibid., Edillon, 2008. Ruiz-Marave, and Asis 2013:13. Yeoh,Khoo and 2017:281–282. 14 However, gender difference not finding significant although in enrolment rates of migrant 13 Various inThailand education onmigrant indeedshow studies sincethen that 8 and Indonesian and Filipino families and Indonesian and have Malaysia. migratedtoSabah, 4 A UNICEF working paper studied the same issues in the Philippines issuesinthe same the AUNICEFworkingstudied paper 5 The report adds that children addsthat The ofmigrants report 16 15

This was not just the case in school inschool case the This notjust was 7 11 which includes somewho includes which 6 This is however study 12 10 InThailand, As aresult, As 17 Again Again 9 3

adolescent girls to decide to stay put. tostay adolescent girlstodecide stronglyadolescent girlsisshaped by own their migration.This experienceofparental may leadsome of migrationdecision-making the that Indonesiaindicates Java, researchQualitative inEast conducted children’stheir migrationon ofparental effect here education, the findings are morestrongly gendered. Republic point. this illustrate from People’s data often Lao ofboys. lagsbehindthat still Survey attainment educational Democratic girls’ Asia, life ofyouth adifferent phase that inmany paints areas rural ofSouth-East Itobserves picture. researchSecond, as it plays focuses that nexus the education–migration on the out during specifically for potentials higherearning the more draws individuals educated away them from settings. rural Thai are schools lower “placed inaclass gradelevel normal the than for age.” their many that means oforigin,this children migrant in incountry any previous attainment educational ofnotrecognizingare practice placedatalower the Combinedwith Thai their than peers. age-grade into aThai children migrant school having are as aweak assessed Thai ofthe command they language, to study its effects when the childrenthe have when ofmigrants effects its to study adolescence. reached beenwidespread migrationhas Since parental for now, somedecades becomepossible also ithas overall context. policy enabling are likely fewer toendupwith they inparticular despitethe years peers, male their than ofeducation reach Government of the girls accessschools if migrant that teenage years,means their this of Thailand, research shows girlsare migrant that lesslikely tocombinework tobeable whenthey schooling and Ibid. 24 Ibid. 23 22 Ibid. 21 20 19 18 aged15–56in1994. individuals toleavethe decision on effect especially the village, the for women” of2,905 apooledsample among provincea main years that indicates “show ofschooling Philippines, positive the inBicol, asignificant youth’s from Sur, data ofquantitative Camarines analysis econometric life ways. First, courseintwo tomigrateduring the decision affects researchQuantitative attainment educational that indicates onmigration The ofeducation effect over dynamics Education-migration youth’s lifecourse society. and Thai about tolearn are history expected students migrant and language East Asia are Asia often severelyEast Given limited. improved increased and exposure ofrural infrastructure reproducing girlshave these feelings the ofneglect experiencedthemselves. driven isalso tostay decision by the Importantly, work. migrant desire the characterizes that ofnot employment work makesmeaningful also which and lookdown them low-skill uponthe service providedhas children the professional with degrees to find locally them they hopewillenable which education householdsmaythese have remittance-financed and achieved status alower middle-class ofmigrationhave decades as diversified the economy these sendingsites. Through in remittances Lanzona, 1998:41. Lanzona, YeohSomaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Yeoh,Khoo and 2017. Nawarat, 2018:494. alikeor sendingcountries providing and for education separate children migrant aform constitutes ofsegregation. from centres learning obtained such may notberecognized attainments educational by government inreceiving schools more geared towards children needsofmigrant the may and bemore gendersensitive. Yet downside the the isthat Dowding, centres learning curricula in such 2014:6; Letchamanan, educational 2013; Lumayag, 2016). Often are times, Thailand many centres” “learning provide operatethat Fiske, and 2016; children tomigrant education Briskman (Ali, governments national that Note though are Malaysia soleprovider notthe and InIndonesia, for ofeducation migrants. 24 The opportunities to find paid employment in these parts of rural South- of rural employment to find paid these parts inThe opportunities 23 Assuming cost-benefit Assuming LeonardoLanzonacalculations, that explains 21 Such decisions have decisions Such ofmigration, becomepossiblebecause 22

20 Unlike immediate the 19 SinceNawarat’s 18 If upon entry uponentry If 33 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 34 Young women and girls’ migration and education: Understanding the multiple relations higher intoyoung (age adulthood 24).” boys girlsthan Cambodian urban have recently percentages the for with in-migrated, girlsremaining showwhich regards with that age15,higherpercentages about of migration“beginning tointernal censusdata of2008Cambodian world. ofthe basis They onthe this pronounced illustrate part inthis industries that has emerged over the past decades in the proximity of many South-East Asian cities. Asian proximity emergedover inthe decades has ofmany that South-East past industries the for highdemand service ofthe and because young manufacturing inthe female workers, inparticular youth these migrationflows rural–urban context, have Asian strongly become genderedSouth-East to migrate. often earnings migrant features expected their with education inyoung women’s girls’ and motivations While girls’ migrationmay by betriggered leaving atayoung school their ideaofre-continuing the age, are unlikely. border, for chances their that abroad continuingeducation adolescentgirlsthemselves understand also migration, and network size network city”.migration, and inthe whoremained individual similar relative area” rural inthe observably toan regardless of“gender, age at fromof migratingduringchildhood results location urban in“2.9years toan arural more schooling 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 Ibid.:577. 27 26 25 education. isrelativelyeducation scarce, often mightnotgobeyond and of poorer (incomplete) quality primary Pacific the and Asia accessto ofSouth-East progress Despitethe education. inmany made, parts rural overall of uneven development, pattern migration is often internal a requirement one’s for furthering threestraightforwardly, previously in education As ways. migrationaffects Most discussed, an dueto Adolescent girls’ education migrationaffecting etal., butaccording context, toMontgomery Asian South-East tothe is notparticular to getinvolved inmigrationatayounger boys agethan (the gender-dynamic). This gender-age dynamic life ofthe youth inthe courseinmigration)(the located stage typically age-dynamic girlstend that and The above trends produce agender-age This dynamic. migrationis that refers observation tothe youth tolife beyond (temporary) village, the work migrant becomeareal has option. illustrated byillustrated quotefrom this 18-year-old whomigratedtoMetro inherteenage years: Lucy Manilla theywere migrationthat is oftheir because as itwas inschool, that still somegirlsinsisted In fact, education. work migrant succeeded in femalecombining internal completing secondary with migrants providing for young education and adults workers, migrant attimesfree young someofthese ofcharge, villages, district orprovincial centres district inordervillages, levels tocomplete basic toaccessboarding ofeducation, pursuing studies as their main reason main their for city.as coming to workpursuing studies capital in the 30 per cent inMetro Manilla, sheinterviewed found Camacho migrants 50child ofthe Agnes gave that Resosudarmo and Suryadarma, 2014:330. Resosudarmo Suryadarma, and 2016;UNESCO, Huijsmans, Gerber and 2017:39. 2010:146. Camacho, 1999:63. Camacho, Bylander, 2015. 2019:144–146. DelFranco, and deRegt Grabska, 2016. etal., Montgomery 1999;Phouxay 2002;Mills, Tollefsen, and 2008;Elmhirst, 2009;Derks, Pendakis, and Bélanger 2011. Trân and Huijsmans E.g. 1997. 2015;Mills, Thi HàLan, my studies. I am working, andonemore year, Iamworking, my studies. Iwouldgraduate from high school. I’mhappy(withIf youaskme, thedecisionImade). Iwouldnot IfIdidn’tmovehere, havecontinued 33 29 Quantitative research Quantitative for mere the example, ofIndonesia, shows fact context inthe that 30 In most cases such objectives may objectives such notberealized. cases Inmost ifmigrationfor Especially work iscross- Yet exceptions a different paint that there are picture. important also For example, 28 34

Children youth and often have tolarger tomigrateinternally 31 Thanks to night schools to night schools Thanks 25 27 32 Especially in the inthe Especially it is particularly itisparticularly 26 educational inequalities through onresearch inequalities educational migration.Based their Carol Java, incentral Chan In addition,young women girlsthemselves and may toreproducing contribute also gendered young migrant men mentioned education as the main purposefor main young the migration. internal as menmentionededucation migrant country. Thailand forms exception. the Here agreater share young ofthe women migrant the than ismore pronounced pattern ratio, this inrelation tomovement majorregions between the within inTable isnoticeable of sonsover agenderpattern Such daughters. by indicated as gender 1,and the away whilestudying stay can from This home. may education families leadrural toprioritize further the village isoften costly, donothave ifstudents especially relatives whomthey with town inthe orcity plays migrationtocontinueschooling Internal outinagendered Studyingaway landscape. from the schools ortopursue(informal)schools vocational education. poor households in particular, such compartmentalization can bemisleading. can poor households in particular, compartmentalization such from migrationofadolescentgirlsfrom the migrationfor Whenstudying relatively purposesofwork. research, quantitative distinguished In large-scale migrationfor istypically purpose ofeducation the research.further young women Answering needs migrationoffamily girlsleadstolabour and questions members. such likelihood migrationforthe internal orwhether of migrationafterwards; education oflabour the labour. migrationfor internal ofwhether increases education question the raises Inaddition,italso may projects educational well these because dependonmigrant girls’ migrationisimportant labour discussedbelow,As migrationfor topicofinternal the including inabookonadolescent education 40 39 38 37 36 35 Lyda girl (Padu). Roy Chea and of a Laotian example the with argument this illustrate Huijsmans everydaythe migration” “labour after reality (see as having migratedmay qualify well Textbox 1). better research shows purpose of migration is “education” even that stated if the (i.e. migration for education), to another island. to another where one’s Asia may this migrate tofurther well require South-East inmaritime education relocating requires centres. There majorurban orother cities to migratingtocapital anecessity isalso certainly the first born child of two teachers in a rural village in the Lao twothe villagein inarural teachers People’schild of born first the Democratic Republic. Padu left her normative ideaofadutiful daughter. behaviour to,may the isinlinewith becounteredgirls issubjected remittance-sending such because independentmigrationofadolescent the towhich judgements of younger moral some of the siblings, adolescent girls send home arefor used forremittances if the the education that, example financing Source: fromAdapted Table Table 1and 2inBernard 2018:27. etal., Cambodia Indonesia Thailand Country Chea and Huijsmans, 2018:42. Huijsmans, Chea and 2012. Huijsmans, 2017. Chan, Bernard, Cooper, Belland 2018:27. 2009:36. 2016;Nilan, ADB, 2018;Faming, 2019. Huijsmans, Chea and Table by 1.Share migrationsfor purposeofeducation ofinternal sexofpersonsaged15–24 Share moves ofall majorregions between for 36 Men 14.3 19.3 20.6

purpose ofeducation Women 13.8 22.0 6.5 Gender ratio 2.2 1.4 0.9 35 Completing university level Completinguniversity almost education Share moves ofall minorregions between for no data Men 15.5 31.4 purpose ofeducation 39 Women no data Longer-term qualitative 28.0 7.8 37

Gender ratio 2.0 1.1 38 40 – shows She is 35 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 36 Young women and girls’ migration and education: Understanding the multiple relations and Katherine Pendakisand The phenomenon ofmigrationfor work inorder toacquire iswellby askill illustrated Bélanger Danièle requirements. any theydonotcomewith programmes, Trainingbecause entry and Education educational (TVET) morebounds for butstill formal poorest accessiblethan the adolescent girls, Technical Vocational and Informalto acquire apprenticeships newskills. often for needtobepaid are and therefore outof istherefore timeand same at the adolescent girlsfrom commonamong poorhouseholdswhoseek garment industry.garment They as “many that work conclude sector garment inthe women viewfactory 43 42 41 c b a migration) orsensitive for reasons. other may which age, (in beillegal ofcross-border case to comeknowmigrationatayoung about allow for required buildingthe levels ofrapport censusresearch and survey donot characterizing be seriouslyunder-estimated”. circularterm and migrationflowsare apt to short- “both and migrationundetected seasonal previously. leave censusdata Consequentially placeofresidencetime ofcensusand five years from difference the inplaceof residence at censusderive First, migration limitations. of its migration. Yet, torecognize some itisimportant young for womenpoints understanding girls’ and are Censusdata useful and Survey starting between the two. the between relation the and migration,education, understand howcapturing young women girlsthemselves and youngthe life includes this Importantly, course. over ways various the interact these inwhich migration and and ofeducation concepts the researchqualitative allows which for rethinking drawn also and has on ethnographic chapter this often predefined ways.standard in this For reason, research,quantitative are education migrationand becoming mobile. young women tendto getinvolved inwhenfirst precisely forms the girls andof migration in which Bélanger and Pendakis, 2009. Pendakis, and Bélanger Nguyen,See also 2019:64;Temin 2013:2. etal., 41. Ibid.,

e.g. Huijsmans, 2019; Sano, 2016:140,177. 2019;Sano, Huijsmans, e.g. Huijsmans, 2019. Huijsmans, 2016:576. etal., Montgomery research for understanding research for understanding Limitations of quantitative ofquantitative Limitations adolescent migration b Second, the one-off interviews interviews one-off the Second, 43 inresearch onyoung workingVietnamese female inthe internal migrants a Yet are these c Third, in former has the advantage of earning and learning and ofearning former advantage the has The objective. education an with are undertaken look like forms yet ordinary work, ofmigrant may observer outside areas tothe urban which enter informal in apprenticeship arrangements adolescentgirlsmay Second, acquiring newskills. may work entermigrant of aim explicit the with adolescentgirls This forms. First, two take can age Chea and Huijsmans age Chea and poor householdswhohave left atayoung school Inaddition, for village. the adolescentgirlsfrom drivenalso by a desire world to see the beyond For migrationfor many adolescent girls, work is when young women girlsmigratefor and work. Resisting interpretations important singular isalso are exclusive notmutually categories. migration for migrationfor and education work in Vientiane. This underscores example that feature main the was experience ofhermigrant shows time-expenditure “work” her daily that intermsofeducation, stated firmly migration was even such, reason hermain As though for internal host-family’s riverside householdand restaurant. numberofhoursworking larger in hera much lateafternoonin the onweekdays. Yet, shespent course required for class afew hours attending worked inexchange for Padu’s board lodging. and Padu afamily with for ended upstaying whomshe “education”. However, relatives without city inthe referred for migrationas toherinternal reasons of hygiene inVientiane. Padu, herparents, also and formin the ofavocational and courseinhealth education ageof19topursuefurther village atthe obtained through everydayobtained work village”. inthe route towards be cannot that acquiringaskill realistic most the migration often constitutes 41 argue that “labour “labour that argue 42

to bereproduced through culture popular seekto“modernize” that policies and countryside. the 52 51 50 49 48 47 Ibid. 46 45 44 notbeingup-to-date. and backwardness with there Asia isastrong equatesrurality discoursewhich from Acrossmigrants areas. rural South-East inrelation toyoung female important isparticularly Appreciating educational migrationas labour alike.policymakers are and receive seldomrecognized attention diplomas aform as by little ofeducation researchers and forms informal, household-based ofapprenticeshipscontext, donotleadtoany that formally recognized formvocational the takes training policy programmes. Inthis ofcreating formal expanding and TVET hairdressing shops, Theapprenticeships insewing. current inbeauty and focus salons policy on Popular forms ofmigrationfor work adolescentgirlscompriseinformal among learning and performed”. real and a potential monotony source inspiteofthe repetitive and oflearning, nature tasks ofthe workplace provides them with vocational skills and knowledge not easily obtained in rural settings. workplace inrural provides obtained knowledge and noteasily vocational with them skills there programmes, and widespread informal isthe TVET case apprenticingis the ideathat urban inan arethere highlyflexible, the arrangements between isnoseparation “classroom” as the shopfloor and requirements educational These the donotcomewith programmes, the placements offormal TVET form for albeit ofmigration,which, provide workalso purposes, important an aform ofeducation. for adolescent girls in particular, rural be substantial, can are trainings informal urban, such on-the-job familiar to another about which much may be unknown” as Montgomery et al. posit etal. may much which familiar about toanother beunknown” Montgomery as a“ migrationisnotjust rural–urban adolescent girls, youthRural are acutelyaware subordinate oftheir positionvis-à-vis youth. urban This for that means at ayoung age. gendered tomitigatethe and vulnerabilities these tomanage ofmigration learn female dangers migrants adolescent girls’ appreciating also through that, inmigrationwhilst vulnerabilities migration,young young women inmigration.Rather, adoptingamore acknowledging perspective balanced itsuggests denying doesnotmean Recognizing educational many the migrationas ofgirlsand labour vulnerabilities moving to a place in which they stand out and are out and moving looked they stand to a place in downwhich traits. rural of their upon because recognize often a positive to protect oneself was seen as “learning consequence of that migration”. young girlsand migrant the that conclude etal. womenFor Grabska theyhave example, worked with young termas the acquire female migrants life life and skills experiencesthrough process the ofmigration. experience of migration forLastly, very broadest in the the education work an sense of constitutes also Montgomery et al., 2016:573. etal., Montgomery 2010. Huijsmans, 1997. Mills, Baker, and Huijsmans 2012. 2019:179. DelFranco, and deRegt Grabska, 2018. Huijsmans, Chea and 280–281. Ibid., 280. Ibid., tailor shop. withtheseskillsoropenmyown for togoanother thefuture becauseIhavetheability factory valuable specialized that are related kindsofknowledge tomyjob.Ithinkthattheseskillsare very ofsewingandother that there were …Ihadlessonsinthetechnology manythingstolearn Irealized anymoreIcametoHanoiandbeganworking, learn …IdecidedtogoHanoi…When Ifailed again.When again,Ifelt sadthatIwouldnot encouraged butmyparents metotry time, entrance examination. I failed school, I took the university thefirst I completedWhen secondary 44 A24-year-old female relation the explains follows: migrant internal as 49 46 45 Although the quality of such placements nodoubtdiffersand placements ofsuch considerably fees quality the Although 50 These discourses have roots continue and historical transition fromtransition oneenvironment isrelatively that . 52 It also means means Italso 47

51 48

37 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 38 Young women and girls’ migration and education: Understanding the multiple relations 53 too. educational as berecognized informal experienceofmigrationcan as very apprenticeships, such whilethe education, for accessinginformal well Inaddition,migrationmay aform constitute beimportant oflearning. also researchqualitative for that argued adolescent girlsfrom ithas migrationmay labour poorhouseholds, gonebeyondThis has Drawing chapter ofmigrationon afocus on schooling. effects formal on the youngthe life courseofadolescentgirls. over multipleways the analysing interact education migrationand inwhich entails course perspective children. ofadolescent Alife migrationdecision-making how study migrationaffects parental also can drawcan onseveral Thailand, ofwidespread Indonesiaand decades one as migrationsuch labour children.Thetheir of the education at how former migrationaffects parental looks that For countries a life and perspective intergenerational an course perspective. between distinguished The has chapter gender relations are and given by meaning young women girlsingendered and ways. solidify. This relations various the that means youth between are education migrationand by shaped In doingso,youth isrecognized life aperiodinthe genderrelations as courseinwhich identities and multipleways outthe mapped This youth’s has inwhich chapter interact. education migrationand Conclusion positivelycontributes toadolescentgirls’ self-esteem. recognized atransformative experiencethat as own educational an experienceinits rightconstituting mere achievement ofsuccessfully orcross-border internal managing migrationatayoung be agemust the abackground, such Against orcross-borderurban theyconsidermore that destinations up-to-date. tosucceedinthese girlsleave they willbeable rural whether Hence, about anxiety villagewith their Derks, 2008:167; Huijsmans, 2018. 2008:167;Huijsmans, Derks, 53

Camacho, A.Z.V.Camacho, Bylander, M. Cooper J. Belland M. Bernard, A., Bélanger, Pendakis D. K. and Ruiz-Marave C. and M.M.B. Asis, C. Allerton, Fiske L. and Briskman L. M., Ali, Development (ADB)Asian Bank Chan, C. Chan, 1999 2015 2018 2009 2013 2019 2016 2016 2010 2017

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44 Young women and girls’ migration and education: Understanding the multiple relations © IOM/MuseMOHAMMED 3 2 1 to achieve development their goals. youth rural wish oftheir that labour countries to“sell”the tolabour-attracting attempting Asia East A key feature beenemergingeconomiesinSouth- has divisionoflabour newinternational ofthis labour,transnational and rise ininternal significant an accompanying with surge in fragmentation. family economicforcesneoliberal leadingtoa have inmigrationdecision-making, beenmajor factors threeOver poverty, rural decades last the global and limitedemployment orcareer opportunities forces Structural how and more they play detail, country. outineach to explore Pacific inthe and these Asia factors regions it is important South-East migration in the migration inmigrant-sending To communities. provide female ofintergenerational analysis an labour and perpetuate generate workers, normswhich migrant cultural out- social female specific and and community divisionoflabour, newinternational the and government migrant-sending within policies and nations, forcesstructural are paths gendered global result the including: migratory ofanumberinfluences, of women girls are and trajectories reproduced across The generations. enduring nature of these cycles offemaleIntergenerational migrationfor work refers ways tothe migration the inwhich empowermentprotection and offemale workers migrant region. inthe have that interventions beensuccessful inbreaking cycle ofhighfemale the inthe migration,and is continuedfrom onegenerationtoanother. The recent by concludes paper programme identifying youngto adolescentgirlsand women ofmigration migrating for likelihood the and type this work, that migrationforthat lead focus the transnational migrationand to urban work, specific isonthe factors Myanmar,for Indonesia, work inCambodia, Vanuatu. Philippinesand the rural onboth Concentrating ofyoungThis literature the examines paper women contexts intergenerational exploringthe migrating Introduction 3. women make 60–75 per centofoverseas upbetween workers. where Philippines, the communities inIndonesiaand evident poorrural within beenmost has strategy growing the with norms, livelihood this feminization migrationglobally. oflabour Asia InSouth-East century, industry. late twentieth Since the however, construction the there beenashift in gender has young with male, mengoingtowork informal inthe overseas orin economy incities, onplantations Lam and Yeoh, and Lam 2018; Silvey, 2006;Piper, Beazley, and Ball 2017. 2008;Butt, YeohSomaiah, 2019. Arlini, and Hennebry, Piper, and Hari 2018. Intergenerational cycles ofmigratingforIntergenerational work: household characteristics, including the economic status and education of female education and economic status the including household characteristics, Young women girlsmigratingfor and work in 2 Initially in South-East Asia labour migration was predominantly migrationwas labour Asia inSouth-East Initially South-East Asia and the Pacific the and Asia South-East School of Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast SunshineCoast ofthe University Sciences, ofSocial School 3

1 Harriot Beazley Beazley Harriot 45 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 46 Intergenerational cycles of migrating for work: Young women and girls migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific shaped byshaped inmigration. growth rapid this lives the with few young ofgirlsand decades, past women livinginmany poorcommunitiessignificantly and it is often mothers who go to work as domestic servants in the cities oroverseas. cities inthe servants itisoftenand whogotowork mothers domestic as 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 communities. rural for disadvantaged becomeamajorlivelihood 2000sithas early strategy the Female migrationisarelatively recent since and butincreasingly prevalent phenomenoninCambodia, Cambodia Japan. including promoted has overseas Asia, (64%in2015)and State 1970s the female MiddleEast migrationtothe offemale sincethe impoverished migration,and international The alonghistory families. Philippineshas forResearch role emphasized the also alivelihood Philippines has ofmigrationas inthe strategy Philippines up tofour migrationfigures. official timeshigherthan journeylabour migrationis tocompletethe through andundocumented channels documents official workersof female domestic migrant world. inthe However, many women unskilled secure false travel minimumworkingfemale, legal ageof15. underthe inmany under18and cases workers domestic ofthese are 50 per cent At alone. least workers domestic 600,000 child inJakarta there that Non-governmental are organizations’ advocates communities in Indonesia. rural purport employers young biggest of adolescentgirlsand is oneof the women from service Domestic impoverished Indonesia work in the capital, and 44 per cent and work industry. workinggarment capital, female inthe inthe of all migrants of women finding travel in Cambodia female Phnom Penh, migrants capital 75 per cent to the with trends inrecent societal changing years allow that women tomigrateindependently. of The majority increaseddue to the for demand women worksector, manufacturing in domestic the and with along broader isinlinewith situation inCambodia regional trends global and of afeminization ofmigration, East. Middle inthe servants work also domestic ofdocumentedfemale as migrants majority migration the a means of supporting their families. their ofsupporting a means move girls, usually oroverseas how toManila and income, adolescents, insearch ofemployment as research role Philippinesemphasizesthe inthe ofyoung female workers family insupplementingthe and 150,000 of them were 150,000 of them and workers. domestic migrant continued totravel through permonth, agents. helpofillegal the MiddleEast tothe However, have upto 10,000 undocumentedfemale that migrants been estimated it has ban since the penalty. death of the implementation the and in of 2015, abuse after a number of cases Middle East have increased Government since the of Indonesia placed a moratoriumon female migration to the Zimmer and van Natta, 2015. Natta, van Zimmer and 2019;Green, 2018. Hak, and Nurick Yeoh, and Graham 2013; Parreñas, 2005. Yeoh, and Lam 2018. 2017. Asis, 2018. Ganesha, Beazley, and 2017. Butt Ball, Tirtawening, 2019. ILO, 2013. Rosenberg, 2003:18. 5 In 2018, Indonesia sent 283,640 migrant workers In2018,Indonesiasent283,640migrant abroad. number, that Of 198,975were female 9 In 2015 domestic servants were topoccupationfor the new hires servants In2015domestic for Filipino women, 11 The phenomena has impacted onfamily relationships The impacted over phenomenahas the 7 The numbersofundocumentedfemale migrants 6 This makes major sources Indonesia one of the 4 In terms of transnational Intermsoftransnational 8

10

of the ofthe Much 13 However, 12 The workers. guest-worker Ni-Vanuatu employs which scheme, temporary horticultural seasonal as migrants male into Vanuatu are through workers’ inNewZealand’s participation Recognised Employer Seasonal (RSE) groups, with the majority ofmarket vendors majority groups, the with areas women. inurban beinguneducated young women female are market vendors more are Inparticular vulnerable vulnerable. most oneofthe exploitation. and abuses toemployer vulnerable them making jobs, non-contract arefemale migrants engagedinlessstable, government When employed, manufacturing, public administration. and young construction, particularly More centres men migrate to urban men dominate formal women, in Myanmar than employment, as and where better employment opportunities are employment tobefound.where opportunities better manufacturing industry.manufacturing women ofthese Malaysia were formajority The work. workers vast domestic inMalaysia’s (75%)and 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 Ibid. 16 15 14 by beenpracticed men. traditionally elsewhere ofmigrationhas but as kind this Ni-Vanuatu past, In the (Vanuatu citizens) have migratedthroughout Pacific the archipelago for work, Vanuatu work domestic sexindustry. orinthe food beverage and factories, garment services, tea plantations, onlyrecently has infemale seenagrowth Myanmar migration.Young labour women often work in Myanmar sector, construction in the agriculture work. ordomestic undocumented migrationover border the intoThailand isextremely high,where theyare employed into overseas work. domestic inMyanmar.than recently has women banned Myanmar from Cambodia, inIndonesiaand migrating As borders toThailand Singapore and workers, towork domestic where as more earn theycan money organizations and migrant non-governmental organizations put these figures putthese non-governmental migrant and organizations organizations higher.far in low-paid low-skilled and work. market labour in the for working young and education an women lacking most are with limited, very However, there under-representation an isstill force ofwomenlabour domestic inthe opportunities and migrant domestic workers domestic migrant 40,000inSingapore. 30,000and inThailand between and The there Government that estimated are has ofMyanmar around 28,000undocumentedMyanmar know itdifficultto thenumber inneighbouringcountries. toarrest making working vulnerable and them Korea. growing for demand female transnational Singapore Cambodian inMalaysia, labour Republic the and of Parker, 2018. Beazley, 2017. 2009. Connell, and 2013; Hammond Cummings, 2013; Jolly,Cummings, 1987. 2018. IOM, 2015. Natta, van Zimmer and UN-Women, 2017. inUNESCO,IOM 2016cited pp.1–7. n.d. 2018. Natta, van Zimmer and 2018. Hak, and Nurick 15 From migratingto women Cambodians ofall 2000to2012Cambodian madeup87 per cent 22 The majority offemale The migrationinVanuatu, majority therefore, from isinternal, areas, tourban rural Gender-based inequality is deep in urban areas, comparedGender-based areas, isdeepinurban areas torural and inequality 18 As aresult, theycontinuetomigratethrough As making irregular channels, 17 Young travel women limitedemployment with across opportunities 23

14 Inrecent years there beena also has 21 The main remittances The remittances main 24 20 19

International International 16

47 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 48 Intergenerational cycles of migrating for work: Young women and girls migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific aspirations, particularly among the rural poor. rural the among particularly aspirations, forfemale method family and out-migration achievingpersonal necessary acceptedand becomean has should be contributing to the householdeconomy tothe should becontributing oncethey are oldenoughtodoso. pressures they that tomigratefrom situatedaround parents expectations household members, the and 30 29 28 27 26 25 they are soon as girls aspire and old enough to do desirable, so. to migrate as a“culturedeveloped as beendescribed whathas ofmigration”, where overseas migrationisseenas highlevels communities with aresult of out-migrationAs enduring circumstances, ofthese have Cultures ofmigration wealthier countries. low-skill ofwaged, lack employment increased for the demand athomeand female in unskilled labour reduction strategy, duetoa poverty migrationisamulti-generational labour transnational Asia, East whereand there ofwelfare isalack from government. the support For poorfamilies South- inrural come from impoverished economieswhere tomake poorsubsistence endsmeet families are struggling appreciate reasons the for cycles offemale female existing migrationacross Most migrants generations. The offamilies inmigrant-sending circumstances socioeconomic to beunderstood communitiesmust household characteristics and Community Consequently, communities. in their they have been promoted “heroes by as of development”. State the topay for insendinghome remittances reliability due totheir children’s their subsistence and education unemployment toencourageforeign numbersand remittances. female facilitated encouragedand for overseas has example, migrationtoreduceof Indonesia, its of development becomeprevalent agents has as migrant-sending within The nations. Government With growing the feminization discourses promoting migration, dominant of labour women migrant Government development policy scheme toNewZealand.scheme guest-worker RSE inthe For women example, toparticipate are Asia. notpermitted in South-East womenand are notencouragedtomigratefor work by families their Government orthe theyare as In Vanuatu, however, Government’s the rhetoricpromoting female migrationdoesnotexist, labour improve lives the families. oftheir familyand have values converged, creating strong pressures for young women towork overseas to togoearlier. tobeable documents their enough todosoortheyfalsify way Inthis Government’s the government young local and Inpoorcommunities, girlsaspire tomigratewhenthey are leaders. old resultedhas promotion in the ofoverseas migration to women inlow-income families by provincial Cambodia, Philippinesand the ofoverseas enculturationinpolicy migrationinIndonesia, systematic Such are wealth family individual the orescaping home. seeking from literature the are migrationdecisions isthat even ahousehold, embedded within ifyoung women Bylander, 2015. Beazley, and 2008;Beazley, 2017;Bylander, Butt 2015;Ball, 2006:31;Derks, Camacho, 2015. Beazley, 2015. Palmer, 2016. Jordan, and 2014;Graham Chan, 2011. World 2015. Bank, 27

29 In these communities, young communities, Inthese women face increased 25 Women are encouragedtomigrate 28 Within communities these 30 What is clear Whatisclear 26

chiefs, because theyare because kastom traditional challenging chiefs, beliefs young Ni-Vanuatu women are cities livinginthe perceived a“problem” as by women eldersand aresultbelieved As cultural ofthese theyshouldremain orhusbands. mothers their villageswith inthe In Vanuatu, however, continuestohave society negative viewstowards itis young as women migrants, women migration. to access labour roles have toallow patriarchal with migrationsystems previously ideologiesand intersected immobilized Over household. the within gender dynamics intergenerational timetraditional ingenderand changes processes decision-making surroundingChanging migrationistherefore labour genderand leadingto actual migrations and futures, migrationsand gendered as such actual migrations”. have can of individuals members’ arelationaland community imaginedor household onother effect move toward economicdevelopment modernization” and after years the genocide. and orwarfare cometoplay has role labour essential an how describes country’s inthe “female Derks Cambodia, butin herresearch female notencouraged, migrationwas past In the onWomen ontheMove in Traditional towards attitudes social female are migration in Cambodia change. undergoing rapid also 36 35 Ibid. 34 33 Ibid. 32 31 themselves family’s totheir onceold enough,tocontribute migrate, well-being. migration from to hadstrong ayoung aspirations study adolescentgirlsinthe Importantly, age. children’s responses emotional way Inthis absence. toparental children are socialized totransnational around anxieties migration transnational community arein pervasive migrants entangled childrenfeelings migratefor of mothers orsadnesswhentheir ofanger work. The suggests study Within children tocontrol are context, socializing the intensenegative expected emotionsincluding harmony social deference and socialized support inIndonesia. and emotiontodiscourageindividualism community.of migrationintheir Specifically,the conceptofmalu(shame) shared isacollectively and children behaviourenable their normative toadjust emotionstothe and prescriptions culture ofthe The communities. researchin migrant found community emotionsinthe cultural socializing that a feminized culture ofmigrationisreproducing children among gendered work about duty ideas and researchIn their how migrant-sending describe among Ball and Beazley, communitiesinIndonesia, Butt definedemotions Culturally During herresearch Parre inamigrant-sending Philippines, inthe community culture” that: and country’s move toward economicdevelopment. “unimaginable tenyears was before”,industry female that and isplaying labour role essential an inthe how explains women massiveofCambodian the sex growth and workinggarment inthe She further by their migrant mothers. Specifically,by mothers. migrant their Parre research inmigrant-sending where conducted girlsare communitiesinIndonesia, socialized tomigrate Beazley, Butt and Ball, 2017. Ball, and Beazley, Butt Yeoh, and Khoo, Platt 2017. 2008. Derks, Parreñas, 2005. subjective willingnessfor migrationsubjective amongleft-behind children. through differences migrant as constructed parents The cognitionofrural-urban facilitated a 34 As a result migration experience As cultures of these of migration “the ñ as foundas communitieshave that a“migration-oriented 33

(custom), through appropriation their ofnew 35 31

ñ as’ findings were to similar 36

which shape shape which 32

49 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 50 Intergenerational cycles of migrating for work: Young women and girls migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific after. however, children resilient parents emotionally ofmigrant are as well and often looked depicted a renegotiation of tradition through interactions constructed through relations. social a renegotiation constructed through oftradition interactions kastom young Research women many that cities. livinginthe young demonstrated women girlsregarded and research with duringparticipatory areasin urban are kastom unconcernedabout unsupported was impact, from parents migrant of provides benefits material the remittances that argue studies a positivethese done. shewillleave that has as hermother sending communitiesthere to find isahighexpectation work, family tothe tocontribute Inmigrant- income. she isnolongerconsidered isexpected and achild family to the contribute income. move and getmarried either they must husband’s intotheir find householdortheymust work to they have todrop that For outofschool. daughterswhodrop normsdictate social outofschool, irregular to or insufficient cover child’s the meaning child will be negatively the impacted, basic needs, the mother isaway. mother the are reliable; remittances topaywhether isable mother the whether how recruitment and debts; long (and mother’s the whether school); incomelevels; attend employment can associated with isskilled, beenregistered shehas whether including: atbirth factors, intersecting migrating dependsonother themselves. themselves. torecruitment (forbeing vulnerable agents unsafe undocumentedmigration) inmigratingfor and work channels. through and migrating more them undocumented trafficking making to child vulnerable out of school, have migratedare dropping- and acute for abandonment, especially young neglect, include girlsand These recent Philippinesreveal the inIndonesiaand for studies children risks that whosemothers by mothers. migrant their particularly parents, migrant their bychallenged lives the evidenceexamines which accumulatingethnographic ofchildren left behindby 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 migrationonchildrentransnational whohave beenleft behindby mothers. migrant their agrowingmigrated for respect, Inthis work. of bodyofresearch economicimpact the examined has herown whether including poverty,include has mother norms, cultural social and ofeducation alack therefore, described, As an adolescentgirl’s influencing factors the likelihood ofmigrating for work norms cultural and Social forms. cultural it was “men’sit was work”. inNewZealand,scheme butwere patriarchal righttodosoduetraditional beliefsthat deniedthe foundalso young that overseas inthe guest-worker women RSE hadastrong desire toparticipate Sano, 2012. Sano, Beazley, and Ball 2017. Butt, Jordan, and 2017. 2014;SMERU, 2012;Graham Ball, and etal., 2011;Beazley, 2014;Graham Allerton, Butt 2011;McKay,Coe etal., 2007. Yeoh, and Hoang Lam, 2013;McKay, 2007. Yeohe.g. 2012. etal., 2006;Graham Lam, and Yeoh, and Hoang Jordan, and Graham 2011;Lam, 2017;McKay, Ball, and 2013;Beazley, Butt 2007. 2013. Cummings, Beazley, 2017. 2013;Beazley,Cummings, 2017. 43 46 These constructions of the experiencesofyoung ofthe communitiesare peopleinmigrant These now constructions being A lack of access to a sustainable livelihood results education oran indaughtersof migrants ofaccesstoasustainable Alack 41 as a vital component of their lives componentoftheir life, sought theydidnot rejecttraditional that and butinstead avital as with children with left improved an behindexperiencing oflife. quality 44 Further, likelihood the in turn herself mother adolescent daughter of a migrant of an 37 However, perceptions the heldby older women and villagechiefs young that women 45 39 The reliability and size of remittances is an important factor: if remittances are ifremittances factor: important The isan size and reliability ofremittances In many South-East Asian rural communities if a girl is married at 15 communitiesifa girl is married rural Asian In many South-East 42 Within literature, this 38 The research 40 Someof daughters. controlling patriarchal normsenforced social by ofbeingdutiful parents toevadeideals their and cultural They toadulthood. transition intheir are step migratingtoescape anecessary as and agency their aliberatingprocessmay as for allowing beunderstood also toexercise them female adolescents, adolescent girlshave diverse reasons for migratingfor work are these and Migration notonlyeconomic. ofliterature are emphasizeshowmajority onfemaletheir to significant families, migrants remittances has alreadyhas documentedhow female hadanegativethe daughtersofmigrants. migrationhas on effect century, twenty-first female early Although inthe began migrationinCambodia recent r labour that migrationmakesthat householdacross tothe future generations. marital conflicts at home. conflicts marital 59 58 57 56 Ibid. 55 54 53 52 51 Ibid. 50 49 48 47 migrationexperience. in the inrecent ofgrandmothers years willingnesstoparticipate their and increasedto the life expectancy onadultresponsibilities totake family. the within wellopportunity an as as families, migration,therefore,Labour isperceived away as for young women toprovide for impoverished their migration for work by after grandchildren their looking daughtersare whiletheir away. explored cycles of intergenerational how are older relatives, supporting grandmothers, including researchEthnographic inmigrant-sending also Indonesiahas Philippinesand communitiesinthe Grandmothers mother isaway.mother household chores (including for caring younger their siblings) householdincomewhiletheir the and familiesGirls inmigrant are more likely to todrop tocontribute they are as outofschool expected their daughters to migrate to urban centresfamily.daughters to migrate to urban the their in order to support out of school, reflecting traditional thinking that girls are better suited to household chores. suitedtohousehold arethat girls thinking better traditional reflecting out ofschool, their agency within prevailing within norms. agency social their for powerful even ability to exercise the gendered least the householdsdemonstrates within dynamics As scholars have scholars As however, pointedout, householdduties. with assist and migrating offspring “care the stayed behindtolookafter children, the travelled buttheyalso tocare frequently for city tothe their workersmigrant were young women employed study inthe Grandmothers factories. ingarment these are the most accessible job opportunities for them. are accessiblejobopportunities these most the industry, as istomigratefor workerchoice toafactory, adomestic work, as entertainment orinthe girlswhohave rural poorly educated Often only their dropped possessinadequateskills. outofschool are more likely tomigratefor work themselves. ofgenderrelations, they means restructuring the with which households, innon-migrant those than in economic activities of participating higher probability from households have migrant a 27 per cent Lawreniuk Parsons, and 2017. Croll, 2010. Heazley, and 2017. Butt 2012; Ball, etal., Graham OECD, 2017. Tunon 2013. Khleang, and 2019. Hak, and 2008;Nurick Derks, 2019; Silvey, Hak, and Nurick 2006;Beazley, 2007. Iversen, and Hashim 2007. Whitehead, Gil Araujo,2009. Yeoh,Khoo and 2017. Thorsen, and Hashim 2009. 48 Others are wanting to escape early marriage, domestic violence, abusive violence, relationships domestic are Others marriage, early toescape wanting or 54 Almost 74 per cent of household heads reported theywould female take ofhouseholdheadsreported children 74 per cent Almost 49 As Whitehead, Hashim and Iversen and Hashim Whitehead, have As stressed, therefore, interplay the of 58 Research revealed has inCambodia how encourage grandmothers 50 Such dynamics effect migration decisions and the and migrationdecisions effect dynamics Such role 56

52

51 The reality, however, young, isthat 59 The majority of these The majority 47 Although the the Although 57 This isdue esearch 55 Girls 53

51 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 52 Intergenerational cycles of migrating for work: Young women and girls migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific likely to be vulnerable to sexual abuse, trafficking and migrating themselves. andmigrating likely trafficking abuse, tosexual tobevulnerable are granddaughters the then granddaughters their more are grandmothers the If tosupport unable role. children the their own beingstrong their enoughtoperform and grandmothers the and mothers however, offemale migrationislessestablished. practice the 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 tomigrate. decisions continuetoinfluence intergenerational technology migrant’s embeddedinthe networks through social placeoforigin,which include communication ofwomen over communitiesadapted strategies inthese three strategies orfour Such generations. migration the migrationofformer with labour international tothe generations, strongly connected more Philippinesand migrationflows the countries Indonesia and Inthese are recently inCambodia. communitiesin migrant support that networks social enhanced also has technology Communication insending home remittances. daughters and their experience with sharecan mothers which with informationthe ease the migration to about contributed significantly fifteen inintergenerational family past the In the years relations has technology role ofcommunication Technology through on commitments. triangle” involving are empowered caregiver agrandparent the as parties whenall onlyworks tofollow impetus for migration” for young girls. byas the as technology,“motivational well communication providing support, financial and emotional across are borders national aresult, being strengthened family transnational networks to doso.As socializesmother a female once idea they of migrating are themselves, adolescent to the old enough Inregardmobile phones. cycles ofmigration,regular tointergenerational their with communication regular and through positive separation, duringtheir child their sustain with texts communication can to protect the rights of female migrants in the region. inthe offemale rights migrants to protect the have that success of interventions the to prevent aimed young girlsand women migratingfor work and Pacific the and Asia paper considers the of region. section The final South-East migrationinthe labour cycles offemale tointergenerational contribute that This summarized factors main the has paper migrate for work. are lessdeveloped practices cultural butare growing year each newgenerationsofyoung as women communication technology.communication howexamined toachieve aresult manage across mothers as increased ofnew intimacy great distances relations youngintergenerational their and mothers Filipino migrant between adultchildren, Parreñas initiation, maintenance and expansion of transnational family oftransnational exchange”. expansion and initiation, maintenance noted“have tothe has been axiomatic Bryceson –which skyping mediaand social message, text –via communications and familybetween membersare heavily technology dependentondigital Derks, 2008;Bylander,Derks, 2015;Petrou, 2018. Piper, Yeoh, 2008;Khooand 2017. 2019:2. Bryceson, Parreñas, 2005. 2019:4. Bryceson, 2019. 2014;Bryceson, Datta, Beazley, and 2017. Butt Ball, 60 63 This adult female the includes sending money child home to provide for The literature shows also how feel mothers more toleave able they as 64 66 As a result the social networks and and aresult networks As social the 61 62 Relationships exchanges and In her study of transnational oftransnational Inherstudy 65 In Myanmar and Vanuatu, and InMyanmar • • • • • 68 67 forneeded toincrease young advantages women, However, while avoiding costs. socioeconomic an relationships isknown the about migrationinVanuatu, labour genderand between Little policies orthe Vanuatu children left behind. NGO Philippines the In the Philippines cycle ofmigrationgirlsfromshort-circuiting the poorfamilies inhighmigrant-sending communities. on young people’s lives. InIndonesiaSave Children’s the programme ENABLE success hadconsiderable research migration local and of transnational explores that impacts motivations and the participatory A deeperappreciation ofhow needsofyoung tomeetthe women ispossiblethrough youth-focussed Indonesia communities. migrant regions isreproducing gendered work about family ideas and young obligations among women in Pacific the and Asia feminization South-East the ofmigrationinthe toacknowledgethat important It is also psychological their needs. design,including emotional and and intervention in policymaking needs tobedoneby governments toensure protection.Young their women needtobeconsidered fewWhen migrationisoneofthe optionsfor young and mothers women alivelihood, toearn more Policy implications at the villagelevel.at the providing prevention and young vocational peoplewith for strategies training livelihood sustainability; ofgirls’ (undocumented) ofillegal dangers the and education awareness migration; importance ofthe raised which committees education community normsand cultural oflocal understanding in-depth led to an which participation, village levelsuccess at the to community commitment due to the was villagelevel,beliefs atthe were which for essential The programme’s buildingeffective interventions. and The programme structures ENABLE developed ofcommunity grounded aculturally understanding Atikha, 2019. Atikha, Beazley, 2018. Developing community-based tourism initiatives, with training in ecotourism and homestays. inecotourism and training tourisminitiatives, with Developing community-based savings including caretakers, investment and schemes instruments. Developingamong gendersensitive literacy young financial women, female overseas workersand Promoting to ensure education children that onlymigrateby notoutofnecessity. and choice consumerism. Increasing savings ofyouth Anorganization savers consciousness: working tocountergrowing awarenessSuch reduces desire the tomigrate themselves. Increasing awareness ofmigrationrealities: children most donotknow how parents their are living. 68 Its main areas of action are: areas main ofaction Its Atikha provides economic and social services to overseasprovides Filipinostheir and services social economic and 67

53 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 54 Intergenerational cycles of migrating for work: Young women and girls migrating for work in South-East Asia and the Pacific migrants. migrants. by are which adult-centric dismissive agendas, agency, ofthe autonomy resilience and young ofthe research contemporary intoyoung adopttoconduct agencies people’sthese lives are often directed approaches intheir toworkingyoungbased” with young especially people, women, that methods the welfare international most Although toadulthood. transition smoother tobe“rights- claim agencies position young that agendas a women facilitates dominated a protectionist and source as of anxiety afocus Such mobilize and onyoungnetwork others. women’s adaptive avoids leadershipskills adult- level, therefore, toempower young itisnecessary women tomake tobeable to and decisions 70 69 developmentthat programming and planning are appropriate for Asia–Pacific the region. approach an Such research willensure community-based sendingcommunitiesisundertaken. inmigrant Itisrecommended,themselves. therefore, EMERGE and ENABLE the programmes, with further as that positive experiences –both motivations and negative and from –and ofyoung perspective the people There research much isstill Asia–Pacific young tobedonein the region, tounderstand women’s Conclusion governments non-governmental international and as such local organizations. and stakeholders, other and partners local offices, resources tools and country projects, practices, between through DFAT’s NGOCooperationProgram EMERGE (ANCP). Australian shares programme’s the best communitiesforand young women. migrant The programme isimplementedby funded and CARE programmethe to develop aims protections for marginalized women, to ensure and safer work places careerand for advancement female workers garment safer and conditionsfor sexworkers. InCambodia EMERGE the In Myanmar programme isfocused onsafer employment for women, migrant personal • • • • • • • • centres. The EMERGE ofthe aims programme are to: programme beenworking across has young Mekong with the Delta livinginurban female migrants (and Cambodia and In Myanmar People’s Lao Republic Democratic Viet and Nam), EMERGE the Myanmar and Cambodia taketheir lives. they in that the decisions increased confidencein their onyoung impact women’s hadan has areas, in rural and has behaviour confidence, and attitude programme for young women Vila, whohave for living and Port still those capital migratedtothe ofForeign Affairs Department and Australian Trade (DFAT) funded Youth ChallengeVanuatu leadership CARE Australia, n.d. Australia, CARE Vanuatu 2009; Office, Statistics National Challenge Youth n.d. Vanuatu, conduct high quality evidence-based research evidence-based inproject sites. highquality conduct gender-based against develop violence(GBV); actions for tohave female migrants participation avoice; meaningful enable improve accesstodecentwork; improve young women’s resilience circumstances; tochanging economy; inthe improve participation equitable profile the raise migrant ofurban women’s issues; youngenhance women’s urban migrant rights; 69 On a policy and programme and Onapolicy 70 • • • • • • • • • • • • • Recommendations violations of cultural normsmayviolations ofcultural beconsidered offences. criminal as culture country local destination intheir workersMigrant tounderstand betrained also must devices communication neededtomigratesafely and toprove and documentation one’s identity. and other passports youngAdolescent and certificates, women have must accesstobirth housing alternatives well skills. occupational as as iftheyare safe atriskofharm, whom tocontact enroute destination, atthe and they mightexpect what rights, human ontheir including workers training, Migrant receive must pre-departure better orvocational education training”; infurther participate to age of 18 “doesthe or interfere education, opportunities with not deprive of compulsory them required toensure steps totake work by the that workers performed domestic whoare under The ILO Convention Workers onDomestic are which be enforced must through parties, States migration; (ILO) Convention Workers, on Domestic of undocumented negative and dangers the and impacts laws Organization protection offemale onthe workers, migrant Labour International the including Governments migrant-sending and communities(and recruitment agents) besocialized to must prevent recruitment illegal the offemale workers, migrant whoare those including underage; Policies undocumentedmigrationand facilitate beenforced that must networks todismantle so theyinvest tomigrateagain; donotdecide and money their locally Return workers migrants should be provided financing and facilities, counselling, small-business with parents; migration oftheir the migration and their them, including affect own that indecisions actively younggirls and women toparticipate adolescent tosupport are migrationdecisions oftenAs householdlevel madeatthe itisimportant alternativeand forms ofincomefor young women sothey donothave tomigrate; communities sotheyare more self-sufficient. local investment Thisincludes tosupport programmes Improving young of adolescent girls and employment economic and the women status in their programmes;education through for Access including to education communities, adolescent informalgirls in migrant through media(social the newspapers); radio,internetand media, including awareness communities, and Raise migrants potential of migration among of dangers youngamong women (to informand policymaking); effective better interventions youngadolescent girlsand migrationdecisions women affects how migrateand genderinequality reasons ofthe that to allow understanding for data agedisaggregated of sexand a better Collection (for practices cultural norms and more effective intervention); research social Community-based inmigrant-sending community communitiestounderstand 55 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

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Immigration and of Labour Available at Ministry Myanmar Strategic Planfor theAdvancementofWomen (2013–22),CEDAW andtheSDGs.Research paper, UN-Women, for Myanmar DomesticWorkers inThailandand Singapore. DomesticWorkersMyanmar’s DevelopmentatHomeandAbroad: –Driving ofProtective Study Policies ontheImpact Strengthening Protection through theMyanmar National www2.unwomen.org/-/media/field%20 . . (accessed 18 (accessed 61 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 62 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin © IOM/JohnVINK is irregular may and notbefully captured by data. official 3 2 1 one estimate. 3–5millionworkers concerning at least by migrationiswidespreadLabour across SEA, Mainland Regional perspective People’s Lao the Republic, Democratic Viet and Myanmar Nam. SEA):Asia (Mainland Cambodia, Thailand, five the within that make countries South-East upMainland This how examines paper young have women girlmigrants and increasingly becomehouseholdproviders Introduction Korea, Taiwan Japan, Province People’s ofthe Republic increasingly, ofChinaand, are Middle East the Republic have programmes Singapore, recently (Malaysia, Republic the begunformal export of labour People’s Lao the and from Myanmar subregion. in the countries the all While Cambodia, Democratic Thailand forms ahubfor migration labour SEA, inMainland country onlymajordestination the As migration) Asian across ways. insimilar five the toEast exists and manifests that countries East (especiallymigration isdriven disparity demographic ofSouth- and by case inthe economicinequality International industries. hospitality and commercial agriculture, sexindustry, the entertainment and industries, manufacturing orcare domestic services, including ofsectors inavariety opportunities through internationally and internally both regular irregular and toseekincome-generating channels negative of these impacts and concludes with recommendations with concludes and examination. onareas fornegative impacts further ofthese most couldalleviatesomeofthe that assistance and interventions practical Finally, suggests paper this origin. This isfollowed by ofmigrationonmigrants’ families well-being. their areview and impacts ofthe forexplanations why somany young women have becomeproviders householdsatplacesof oftheir religious and cultural presents socioeconomic, Itthen ofthe overview an SEA. girlsinMainland and Thetrends differences ofthe overview an beginswith paper in migratory and similarities for women where female oncefrowned migrationwas upon,impliesprofound transformations inplacesoforigin. subregion.the The recent increase exponential infemale from and migrationwithin countries the interesting and given convergence the divergence and in important inmigrationtrends patterns and 4. Harkins, Lindgren Suvavoranon, and Harkins, 2017. 2013. ADB, for paper endofthis at the offemale overview an migrationfrom labour Pacific islands. The Pacificthe limited due to the paper body of the main in is not included researchthe subregion. on the textbox See 2 International migration within the subregion the migrationwithin International intraregional, isprimarily ofwhich much Young women providers girlsas and School of Social and Political and The ofSocial School ofMelbourne University Sciences, for householdsoforigin 3 Women across subregion the migrate 1 The isboth focus SEA onMainland Lan AnhHoang Lan 63 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 64 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin order to participate in trade and sex work or work in entertainment and hospitality establishments. hospitality and sexwork and intrade orworkorder inentertainment toparticipate for young women whomigratetoborder important areas in are particularly booming border activity is acceleratedby come with that more borders. active The activities openand income-generating and labour movementtransnational services intensifies, ofgoods, economicglobalization As been married. Vietnamese bridesare predominately women 22)whohave agedunder30(70%ofagelessthan never East Asian countries on an annual basis. annual onan countries Asian East On average, approximately 15,000Vietnamese women South- and migratethrough toEast marriage market labour access tothe economieswhere ofindustrialized besoldatahigherprice. can labour their provides Marriage to research, family’s the in many with cases. migrants is actually economic strategy For Viet example, subregion source inthe largest according migrants isthe which, ofmarriage Nam Asia. East and Republic,Democratic Thailand inSouth-East countries toother and abroad People’s increasingly through Lao overland the including irregular channels, toCambodia, Vietnamese agreements Vietbilateral between countries. women destination and Nam migrate also 500,000 were working overseas in 2018. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 There isevidence border that women enables trade toincreaseSEA. household incomethrough their Cross-bordertakes across place anddocumentbut track migrationisnotoriouslydifficult to Mainland respectively. People’sLao 15 per cent, and Republic Democratic at53 per cent the and Myanmar positive with migrationrate, labour international increase inits had a109 per cent Theybound. have migrationinrecent inlabour growth experiencedrapid all years. In2016,Cambodia destinations),main Thailand- and migrationfrom ofinternational much isspontaneous countries these 131,751 Vietnamese workers contract were deployed in 2017, According statistics, latest to the of Korea, destinations. main Malaysia the Algeria as and SaudiArabia, workers subregion inthe Taiwan with Province People’s ofthe Republic the Japan, Republic ofChina, source largest contract isthe ofmigrant Thetrends country countries. other the intoThailand as migration labour same the itdoesnotdemonstrate from as countries other the apart Viet stands Nam migration, intraregional movements remain acore subregion’s componentofthe makeup. demographic by Government the despiteattempts that ofThailand tocurbwavesnumbers suggest ofincoming sending areas, increasing the value of daughters and weakening ofdaughtersand increasing value the sending areas, sonpreference. and manyand more women(as migrants well male) as may beunaccountedfor data. official within People’s Lao the (17%)and Cambodia Republic Democratic roughly these, (7.5%).Of are half women, working inThailand legally from in2017came migrants international (approximately Myanmar 65%), 2,062,807 ofthe onsexbutdoesshow Thailandmajority within based the that doesnotdisaggregate care consumption. daily and familiestheir inViet parents their health toinvest enabling education, Nam, business, inproductionand Xu ILO, 2018a. 2008. See Suksomboon, Tran, and Belanger 2011. Researchon sending communities of Thai migrants. marriage shown impacts has comparable Belanger, Tran Le, and 2011. Nguyen 2005. Hugo,2005:12;Seol, and 2017. IOM, VietnamNet, 2018. aspx thoibaotaichinhvietnam.vn/pages/xa-hoi/2018-01-16/xuat-khau-lao-dong-dat-so-luong-ky-luc-trong-nam-2017-52751. fromData ILO, 2017. ILO, OECDand ADBI, 2018:4. ẩu laođộngạtsốlượkỷlụ ất kh (accessed 8September2018). 9 Research finds that their remittances form a substantial portion of the total incomeof the total of portion Research form asubstantial their that finds remittances 10 This vital flow of remittances has helped to transform helped to has gender flow This of relations in vital remittances c trong năm 2017 (Labour exports setanewrecord in2017),http:// exports c trong 2017(Labour năm 7 8 These figures that those havereflect abroad migrated under Marriages are mostly arranged by are arranged Marriages commercial mostly brokers and 6 42 per cent were of which female, and 11 4

Published from data 5 These 12 Democratic Republic as primary drivers migration to more oftheir RepublicDemocratic areas. primary urban as “boredom” the cited ofvillagelife People’s work inThailand, tediumofagricultural the and Lao inthe for 16–24-year-old example, accounts, Inqualitative areas. inrural well limitedprospects as as migrants People’s Lao the inlessdeveloped Cambodia, centres (particularly Republic Democratic Myanmar) and Viet urban within Thailand). and migrationisheightenedby Nam Rural–urban industrialization rapid migrationpathways internal (and of are case inthe rural-to-urban important urban-to-urban most the were over SEA, region InMainland inthe three international. many migrants as timesas internal Affairs Social ofEconomicand (UNDESA)therethat estimated UnitedNationsDepartment 2016, the However migrationiseclipsed international country. migrationineach by internal itis, significant In 17 16 15 14 13 2018e. Source: 2018d, 2018b,2018c, UNESCO 2018a, etal., unregulated border within informal and towns. incomegeneratingactivities female discrimination. is encouragedby femaleand the inChina after deficit demographic ofsex-selective decades abortion women are whomigrateinternally childless. young, and unmarried and uninhibited, as well as less worthy of respect than Khmer women, ofrespect than well lessworthy as uninhibited, as and by isfacilitated ofVietnameseMigration toCambodia stereotype the women adventurous sexually as provinces from China for to Southern northern or sex work. marriage border; the 2) along and 1) from provinces southern establishments for toCambodia work incommercial entertainment sexand for young irregular intwo Vietnamese flows: important women participate whomainly is particularly 100 20 40 60 80 Kumar 2018. etal., Temin 2013. etal., 2007. Khuat, and Belanger Duong, 2004,p.244. Busza, 2004. See Kusakabe, 0 Thailand 15 Figure 1.Percentage migration ofpopulationengagingininternal

Cambodia Non-migrant population Non-migrant Viet Nam Internal migrant stock migrant Internal 17 Myanmar 14 whileChina-boundmigration 13 Cross-border migration Democratic RepublicDemocratic 16 The majority of The majority Lao People’sLao 65 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 66 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin back toparents communities. back inrural going remittances ofall women are more also 74.5 per cent with likely toremit migrants, male than money, togendered wagedifferences. isattributable which remit more overall, often, share remit alarger of and salaries, migrants oftheir amounts male larger decide whosemigrationtosupport. decide more reliable and daughtersare, and consistent remitters therefore, favoured over sonswhenparents distinction as Myanmar has a substantial problem networks. irregular with asubstantial remittance has Myanmar as distinction migration; allowingto accesslegal for more tobesent “official” by animportant women– remittances 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 orirregular internal capture and as migration. such harder those toquantify particularly address and full the ofmigration– identify scopeofgendered that patterns statistics disaggregated donotregularly publish SEA in Mainland countries most age, ofgenderand importance Despite the status. regardless migrants, ofgender, intraAsian between sector, oreven nationality, legal country destination for Organization Migration(IOM)reveals sending International inremittance variation there that islittle (ILO) Organization Labour regulating International ofthe lives. Ajoint2017study migrant their the and inand ofmigrationorwork part take theycan types which mobility, dictating choices, their shaping are women deeplygendered. remittances Migration and girls’ and orconstrain Gendermightenable gender-disaggregated statistics are availablegender-disaggregated (such statistics Viet as Thailand), and Nam study. familiesbut their their siblings to home toenable could not affordthey send thus, it– remittances predominately the amongst young female workers, would most have liked education tocontinuetheir do somore regularly. they and more counterparts, male their than less onaverageearn men, they remit than 20 per cent by Government conducted the In 2012,asurvey found female ofCambodia although migrants that, are and accountedchannels officially notsufficiently for. therefore, men toengageinirregularthan remittances, their migration and tend to gothrough irregular ILO research qualitative and IOMstudy and by couldbeexplained women that fact the are more likely policy changes. Seeweb.nso.go.th. changes. policy information onforeign-born have nationsthat beenregistered work tolegally aftermath inthe ofrecent government information Force onincomingmigration.The Labour National Survey, for gives and isupdatedannually example, pagesare data notavailable individual region inthe for Thailand for isnotable basis, publicaccess. publishing publicly available inEnglish.Seewww.gso.gov.vn onlineand . However, whilefull netmigrationinformation isavailable annual onan completepublishedstatistics most the with from region inthe country countries the other the as apart Viet stands Nam Lindgren Suvavoranon, and (Harkins, 2017:11). workers ofwork isnotcomprehensively sector intermsofgenderand available orentirely indefinition” consistent share ofirregular workers migrant whoare Moreover, notfully captured data. inofficial onmigrant ofdata disaggregation large duetothe migration,particularly onlabour data region, there of accuratestatistical isalack ASEAN the “Within UNESCO 2018e. etal., UNESCO 2018d. etal., 2017. Ma, World 2012. Bank, 2016. ofStatistics, Institute National Kingdom ofCambodia, Yeoh, and Hoang 2015b;UN-Women, 2017. Lindgren andSuvavoranon, (Harkins, data 2017:63). in official differences helptoexplain part in couldatleast variances status. These differ ofdiffering greatly migrants legal between However, and sendingcountries between quitesubstantially, particularly dovary channels remittance that reported itwas 21 18 InMyanmar, showed a2017report historically, that women Burmese were moreable financially However, tendtobe female that migrants evidence from suggests studies qualitative various 20 The year, same aWorld found that sector garment Laotian onthe study Bank 19 23 The discrepancy between the official statistics reported by the by statistics reported The official the between discrepancy In Viet Nam, evidence suggests that whilefemales that dotendto InViet evidence Nam, suggests 24 26 itdoesnotaccountfor 22 Thai migrant 25 Where irregular migration patterns or migrant domestic workers. domestic ormigrant irregular migrationpatterns 29 28 27 migration for survival. their households around 1990s, worldSince the the have become increasingly reliant on women their and urbanization and Economic development, industrialization Drivers ofyoung women’s migration girls’ labour and to industrialized and increasingly and urbanizedto industrialized region. However, notbeeneven has industrialization this transformed rapidly from has agrarian overtly an SEA ofMainland much Throughout decades, past the of householdhead. becoming financially and how responsible this couldaccount their households, for for understandings why helptoexplain can that differing and socioeconomic are cultural women factors increasingly itdoesnotalways equatehouseholdprovidership.in somecontexts, there Within are country each degreeshousehold headshipdoesindicate ofwomen’s power economicautonomy decision-making and athird and householdswere ofall aquarter Thailand,and headedby between women. Whilefemale People’sLao (approximately Republic, Democratic highest and Viet 40%) in urban InCambodia Nam. gender sensitive migration policies and interventions. gender sensitive interventions. and migrationpolicies safe migrationpathways tosupport ability onour effect for acrippling and more has women data more rural. areas commoninurban than head usingself-definition. areThey households Asia generally,that, female-headed found inSouth-East looked authors publishedin2014,the athousehold onestudy Inatleast contexts. country individual extent to which the difficult to women determine become household actually haveproviders within Dommaraju and Tan, and Dommaraju 2014. 2000. SeeSassen, 2016:73). (ADB, industries or cleaning women banning from apolicy instituted entertainment also migratingoverseasworkMyanmar orindomestic, for factory Lindgren Suvavoranon, toThailand)and (primarily migration channels (Harkins, Government 2017).In2011,the of women ban, despite this that from have countries these suggests continuedtomigratefor work domestic through irregular on domestic evidence workers do notinclude any data statistics Anecdotal whomigrate. migration official their thus and The People’s Governments Lao and Myanmar ofboth Republic Democratic have onmigrationfor bans work, domestic UN DESA, 2017. Source: UN DESA, Viet Nam The People’s Lao Republic Democratic Myanmar Cambodia Thailand Table 2017 countries, 1.Foreign SEA inMainland immigrants 28 Due to limitations on discrete household data in this region, ondiscrete inthis Duetolimitations householddata itisextremely 29 They are lowest (approximately areas rural ofthe 9%)inthe Total Population 96,491,146 53,855,735 16,245,729 69,183,173 6,961,210 27 The ofreliable lack gender-disaggregated Total Foreign Immigrants 3,600,000 76,100 45,500 74,700 76,300 67 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 68 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin were young women 15–29). (between sector workinggarment inthe onemillionCambodians nearly of the In2018,85 per cent factories. oringarment migration from areas rural toPhnomPenh industry for work hospitality the ineither 79.2 per cent – one of the highest in the region.79.2 per cent inthe highest –oneofthe In 2012,UN-Women inCambodia’s female that participation reported formal force labour was care chain. transnational South–South the own as children beencharacterized inorigincommunitieswhathas toMyanmar,back People’s Lao the tobeusedfor Republic care Democratic the Cambodia, oftheir and for destination women a more flow subregion. the within attractive Remittances country the making increasingly there work home, the outside isastrong for care riseindemand and labour, domestic 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 Nam, and Thailand and Nam, ranked all worldwide top ten countries the within trends. these experiencing share alarge with origin.Within beingofrural recent migrants, study, internal their Viet Cambodia, percentages adolescentgirlsare ofurban, shows study inpoorer substantial Council that countries, A2013Population developing rapidly isalso Cambodia although three urbanizing. other and countries, by Viet why helpstoexplain –which Nam theyhave different very fromthe migrationpatterns across five the the economicgrowth, in countries followedthe largest experienced region. has Thailand both registeredboth undocumentedmigrants. and Women make up45.3 per centlabour official force total includes ofthe estimate which in an Thailand; inVietLike migrants region, ofinternal inthe countries other are Nam amajority young female. and tomigrate. decisions have influence urbanization and over substantial to evidenceindustrialization women’s that and girls’ VietWhile both Thailand’s and Nam trend urbanization may have slowed points study this sincethen, service, hospitality or the garment industry. garment orthe hospitality service, manydominated, ofwhommove before Vientiane capital ageof25tothe work the indomestic UNESCO et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2018d, 2018e. Source: 2018d, 2018b,2018c, UNESCO 2018a, etal., move 20s. their within initiatetheir female oflargely Population migrants internal majority the HousingCensusnotedthat and migration are internal and atplay. industrialization ofurbanization, patterns Myanmar In2015,the Viet Nam Myanmar The People’s Lao Republic Democratic Cambodia Thailand UNESCO 2018b. etal., UNESCO 2018c. etal., ILO, 2018b. UN-Women, 2012. Pearson 2012. Kusakabe, and World 2018. Bank, UNESCO 2018e. etal., Temin 2013. etal., 33

Table 2. Female participation in internal migration in Mainland SEA countries, 2018 Table countries, SEA migrationinMainland ininternal 2.Female participation

36 In the Lao People’s Lao Inthe Republic, Democratic female- migrationisalso internal 35 % of population that engages in internal migration engagesininternal % ofpopulationthat In Myanmar and the Lao People’s Lao the and InMyanmar Republic Democratic similar 37

32 As Thailand Thai and continuestoindustrialize women As 34 This is associated with the highrate(57%)offemale the This with isassociated ~13.6% ~20.0% ~17.0% ~25.0% ~1.2% % Female 52.4% 53.0% 59.2% 49.6% 47.8% 31 30

serves as a reflection of their status and rank within the within and rank order. family status their areflectionof as serves contributions in both the public and private spheres, public and the in both contributions inViet promoted ideals emphasize women’s femininity Nam, In contrast, State by socialist the migration isfeminized. labour force participation (73%in2018) forcelabour participation parents. for through emphasize sons’ daughters’ economicsupport piety offilial than rather demonstration householdprovider’s placethe which North, the roleand centre atthe notionofmasculinity ofthe values enduringinfluenceofConfucianist note the regarding in and gender especially family relations, in service to the husband (or husband tothe in service father) herfamily. and herfamily. support and income This family managing supplemental couldinclude orearning finances topromotesister’s law), todowhatisnecessary woman the that isexpected states explicitly which is prescribed by through Theravada the enshrined into society beliefs and Buddhist role traditional the ofwomen For insociety inCambodia, countries. example, ofthese traditions Women’s responsibility for family oftheir economichealth isrooted the inreligious cultural and to Thailand insearch ofwork. migration as a communal goodfor acommunal family. wholeofthe migration as the Researchers have are socialized to treat contexts frequentlyin many Asian migrants noted that Religion culture and regardless exist ofworker. that trends industries the nationality within ofthe macro trends across region the have yet tobepublishedbutcouldhelpilluminatecross-cutting hospitality, industry. Comparative garment/manufacturing orthe researchservice, these examining at a young and internally Further, age. tofind appears domestic work in either portion a significant Overall, ofwomen subregion, the within whomigratefor majority the economicpurposesdoso 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 their migrationtoSingaporetheir through marriage. brides inSingapore, motives for for shows family the example, primary isoneofthe “helping” that whomigrateoverseas those among butalso for migrants labour Research marriage. onVietnamese immoral. failureparents the and for toprovide family the isconsidered economicsupport demeritorious oreven scholars note similar gendered expectations and practices. and gendered notesimilar scholars expectations religion dominant the is also People’s in Thailand, Lao the Republic Democratic Myanmar, and where a household decision-maker family. the within or give her a position of authority Therevada Buddhism degree woman’s aCambodian of economic independence, role provider as toequate is not meant Hoang and Yeoh, and Hoang 2011. World 2017. Bank, World 2019. Bank, forthcoming. Hoang, 2015. Sijapati, upwardthreat. the of as a UNFPAalso beseen women could mobility financial patriarchal contexts, 2006; and IOM, However, of women origin communities. in their status sociocultural the positivelymigration can impact inhighly Tan, and Dommaraju 2011;Fox, 2014;Chie, 2003;Wilson, 2004.There labour isevidenceinsomecountries that 2003. 1994;Surtees, Ledgerwood, and See Jacobsen,2008;Mortland 2018. Chambers, Yeoh 2013. etal., 2000;Piper,See DeJong, 2002;2008;Phouxay Tollefsen, and 2011. Piper, 2002. Piper, 2008. 48 42 Thus, there is no explicit expectation for Vietnamese Thus, there expectation isnoexplicit women girlstoprovide and for the The obligationtoprovide moral for family the compelsmany well-travelled the totake route 39 Many tofamily, young migrateoutofduty women girlsreportedly and which 46 and female literacy (93%in2015). female and literacy 41 InMyanmar, daughtersare bornindebtedtotheir 43 45 Although aworking Although woman may have avisible which explains Viet explains which Nam’s high rates of female 38 44 This becomemore has pronounced when

40 This is observed not just among among notjust This isobserved 47 However, scholars Chbap Srei (the 69 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 70 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin of Chinadecreased to1 per cent. from 20 per cent were poor before very men from daughters married their Taiwan Province People’s of the Republic shows percentage the majorsource ofhouseholdsthat that the migrants, ofmarriage Mekong Delta, they are usedfor mostly “non-productive” InViet of624householdsin purposes. a2004survey Nam, evenincomes below have averages, national when reduction onpoverty remittances impact asignificant comefrom offemaleGiven migrants areas highunemployment rural majority with the that ratesand ownership infamily orgreater decision-making. authority 54 53 52 51 50 49 work equivalent areas in their oforigin. they would undertaking toearn be able havein general), more much earn and than higherlevels non-migrants than force oflabour participation from benefit economically their movesmigrants be can relativelytheir (although insignificant remittances of majority vast the The is that literature consensus in the general SEA migration in Mainland on internal Economic impacts irregular insecure borders, lead to vulnerable, and result situations. or marginal remittances in smaller movements, migrationexperienceismore their South–South likely tobetemporary, involve porous/ in Further, trafficking. and violence, thesubregionand within participate most migrants because female abuse sexual inirregular are exploitation, those labour including tomany situations, vulnerable risks especially gendered, Female gender lines. and rooted migrants, class along perpetuating inequalities in and migrationpathways and Theconsequence. employment available opportunities are tothem highly freedoms. The increasing economicburden however, beingplacedonthem, doesnotgowithout are ofwhich increased notable economicautonomy most personal the and across SEA, Mainland There ofmigration economicbenefits and for evidence social isample ofthe young and girls women Impacts role farming. and trade insmall important traditionally household despitetheir behind families. for implications left- their and female both security economicand migrants social, This important has remitting money to their parents and, for the majority of families, the total amount ofmoney amount received total the offamilies, for moneyparents remitting totheir and, majority the womenhadbeen 276migrant ofthe study inthe Republic ofKorea found which 93 per cent that migrationfromon marriage Viet toTaiwan Nam Province People’s ofthe Republic the ofChinaand expansion. are, however, remittances of their production or business than livingexpensesrather spentondaily frowned upon,yet considered generally livelihood ideal still alessthan optioninVietnamese society. subsidies inagriculture, Nowadays, healthcare, education. and female migrationisnolonger labour fordemand government the female timeas same atthe labour onwelfare cutback provisions and female migration,untilrecently, economy global ofthe unprecedented ledtoan restructuring whenthe norms regarding broadly disapproval female social tothe contributed sexuality of even and stigmatization pressure for wellrestrictive the women householdas tothe as girlstoprovide and economicsupport Nguyen Tran, and 2010. 2010). (IOM, Cambodia 2017),and (Ma, 2015),Myanmar inThailandexample, (Osaki, 1999;Sobieszczyk, are Vasuprasat,Evidence shows and (Deelan utilized remittances that throughout similarly SEA 2010).For Mainland 2003; Deshingkar,Guest, 2006. Bylander, 2017. Rydstrøm, 2011. 2001;Hoang, Leshkowich, 2017. 2015;Horat, 53 Migrants’ economic contributions to the family do not necessarily lead to property family Migrants’ tothe economiccontributions leadtoproperty donotnecessarily 54 This is corroborated by amixed-methods study 52 49 A large proportion proportion Alarge The ofsocial lack 50 51

least USD601billioninexports. least employed region, acrossthat sector Asian the the more 40 millionworkers than at contributed and People’s Lao increasingly riseinthe onthe Republic Democratic Myanmar. and estimated In2016,itwas and Viet inboth work workGarment Cambodia, and Nam ishighlyestablished conditions. hazardous criticized by groups rights human international for underpay, beingfraughtwith and exploitation, exploitative “migration industry” that thrives that onthem. exploitative “migration industry” migrationregimesThere the ofrestrictive Asian and isgrowing impacts tothe attention scholarly hadonfemale workers has migrant yet has tobecomprehensively industry this understood. impacts waged-work The workers ofthe full region, inthe formal, stable scopeofthe vulnerability the persists. 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 protectionlawslabour are notrigorously enforced. where informal the areas and predominantly sector industries work manufacturing and ingarment Female from abuse. and are migrants rural exploitation toprivation,labour migrants nolessvulnerable theydonothave borderAlthough with associated crossing, dangers internal and toface risks the migration events were found agegroup. inthis male ofall femaleof all migrationevents concernedgirlsaged12–17years, whereas only32 per cent People’s Lao For inthe a2012study males. example, 85 per cent Republic that Democratic reported females in a more impact negative reportedly of which cohesion – all way in community changes than negative completion and rate of school in the a decline dependence on remittances, aspirations, of a“culture result can which ofmigration” ofyouth’s changing inthe sendingcommunities, within development is the cause feminization the of that migration can impacts social pervasive most One of the impacts Social for site. study the ayearwithin many was timesgreater average annual the householdincomerecorded than percapita that similar results similar forthat couldholdtrue migrationfor choosing those labour. more are15–19 inCambodia likely twice nearly towork boys than agegroup same inthe –suggesting are males kept as ofadultguardians, usually for inschool longer.part Likewise, ages of the girlsbetween (forfemale duetogendered onthe butisalso migrants inparticular), work, decision-making domestic bills, finance the education of the education finance children,younger bills, coverand even expenses daily buildhouses. from helpfamilies workers. pay hospital migrants and marriage Remittances contract debts migrant “wives” as motives true butthe migrationmightnotdiffer oftheir country greatly fromthose of wife-worker They thedestination enter mightofficially dichotomy onmigrants’ trajectories. based greater vulnerability to abuse and exploitation. Rather than offering migrants and their and offering a than families migrants Rather exploitation. and to abuse greater vulnerability ofmigration,increased financial results inflatedcost inan pressure andmigrants’ onmigrantfamilies, positive effect on their likelihood of remitting, lending support to and Piper positiveRoces’ lendingsupport their likelihood on effect of remitting, to Taiwan Province People’s ofthe Republic ofChinathrough marriage. increased dropout an school with youngmigration isassociated rateamong whoaspire tomigrate girls, Hoang and Yeoh, and Hoang 2017. etal., 2017;Platt Hoang, 2015c; Huynh, 2016. and Fleischer, Henaff, and Abrami 2004;Marx 2010. Nguyen Tran, and 2010. 2003. Surtees, 2012. Huijsman, Yeoh 2013. etal., Piper Roces, and 2003. Belanger, Tran Le, and 2011. 55 The survey also reports that the working status of marriage migrants has astrong has migrants ofmarriage working the status that reports The also survey 62 While the industry has beenlaudedfor tocreating contribution has its industry Whilethe 58 This by couldbeexplained agreater for demand young 61 Garment and manufacturing factories are factories heavily manufacturing and Garment 63 The commercialization ofmigrationbrokerage 60 59 InViet marriage Nam, 56 criticism of the ofthe criticism 57

71 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 72 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin Cambodian parents sell their children, mostly daughters, for parents children, daughters, selltheir sex. Cambodian mostly centof per and40 30 Asource thatbetween estimates Asia. inSouth-East by trafficking human labour. affected Known ahaven most countries isoneofthe Cambodia as for sextourists, child labour. girls are In some situations, even turned over to recruiters by families their for debt bondage are routinely enticed by promises ofemployment soldfor then and prostitution, forced and marriage higher than forhigher than women non-migrant incomparative communities. been madeinThailand whereissubstantially female Cambodia and migrants riskofHIVamongst the 69 68 67 66 65 64 SEA. Mainland in prevalence tothe trafficking ofhuman attributed young that womenThe been girlsprovide has and expectation families their economicsupport with rights human and Security it. with associated rights the and migrationstatus legal work treacherous to enter the contracted informaltheir market,them of labour effectivelystrips which her family even homeand back pushsomewomen orto“run toengageinsexwork, away” from their bycaused debt-financed been the migrant’s migrationhas found toadversely impact relationship with ifany,little, formal the priorexperiencewith market labour oreven wagedlabour.stress The financial debt-financed with associated they have migrationbecause risks tothe vulnerable girls are particularly reproduces and migrants’ agency constrains inlabour-sending inequalities Young areas. women and route out of poverty, migration sometimes drives Debt-financed into debt. them migration severely migrants were 50 per cent more were counterparts. male their migrants likely than 50 per cent toexperiencesickness The 2004 Viet diseases. shows toinfectious female Migrationsurvey that Nam susceptibility their homecountry, their oroutside within tolive inpoor-qualityover-crowded and increases housingwhich It is movingcommon for those especially from low-waged areas to urban rural migrants, either labour problems.often health suffer long-lasting procurers.and (STIs) They infections and abuse are transmitted tosexually vulnerable substance and employers dependenceontraffickers, toand wellsubservience their isolationas as barriers, language due to assistance even or seeking violence and prospect ofescape life-threatening little situationswith Trafficked Canada. and ofAmerica UnitedStates the andgirls women to are subjected frequently traffickedMalaysia tobecommercially as asJapan, and to internally far exploited both and sexually are hills, minoritiesfrom ethnic northern the source pointand a transit from particularly girls, which butalso Administrative Region,Special country Thailand Malaysia. isnotonlyamajordestination and Macao including Republic, toThailandDemocratic Myanmar increasingly and and Cambodia China, beyondand subregion: the from from People’s and Viet Lao the Cambodia, toChinaand Nam befound cross-bordercan inseveral distinct flowsthat overlap migrationcorridorswithin labour Nam–Cambodia border zoneNam–Cambodia are elsewhere higherthan country. inthe sexworkers among ofHIVinfection Rates Viet inthe STIs. other HIV/AIDSand ofcontracting risks sex workers are routinely exposedtoaggressive behaviour, physical forced violence and well sexas as Webber Spitzer, and 2014. 2010;UNAIDS, 2003. Stachowiak, Chris and Fleischer, and Mark 2010:35. 2010. Debeljak, Kneebone and Rafferty, 2007;Davy, 2014. Yeoh, and Hoang 2017. Hoang, 2011,2012,2015a; 64 66 Victims of trafficking in Mainland SEA Mainland in Victims oftrafficking 69 65 Girls in search of a better life Girlsinsearch ofabetter 68 Similar observations have observations Similar 67 Migrant Migrant affordability technologies. oftelecommunication increasing the mediaand ofsocial ongoingexpansion tothe thanks organizations society civil and provision doneby couldbeeasily government both ofinformation counsellingservices and agencies irregular and ininternal cross-border participating those migration.The especially women girls, and for challenge migrant important The most isthe ofaccesstoreliable lack information support legal and verification processare even more significant. (e.g. involved informaljobs inthe work), sector and risks domestic anational costs insuch financial the to migrate throughare irregular more hold precarious and channels likely counterparts male their than 72 71 70 (2) (1) There are several areas require that examination: further Recommended examination areas for further they often have debtbondageinorder toenterlabour tobecomeregular. stressalreadytheir and exacerbates toenormousfinancial precariousas migrants situation subjects employers tousebrokers investment workers. oftheir onbehalf toorganize This documents substantial People’sLao Republic, Democratic Myanmar, and Cambodia complexbureaucracy leads the because however, are high for very many ofwhomare foreign most low-waged labourers migrants, from the verification, ofnational The costs workvisas. and permits by passports, obtaining status legal to gain forcampaign “national verification”– aprocessallowed that already migrants thecountry in working Government implementedin2017,the 2560)was ofThailand aggressive an launched of AliensB.E. they are likely tobackfire. Before newmigrationlawDecreethe (Emergency onManaging strict a Work are required transparent simplifiedor and togothrough below-cost, must toregularize status their subregion.the The recent experienceofThailand shows bureaucratic that procedures migrants which are developed intended to protect migrants’ rights consistently enforced and instruments legal across governments toensure collaborate theyhave accesstosafe, regular migrationpathways the that and have national that migrants challenges and itisvital toface atdestination, and risks the intransit will increase years inthe To tocome. and mitigate ofmigration optimize benefits socioeconomic continuetogrow, SEA Mainland within incomedisparities and imbalance demographic the As migration interventions Potential for practical Kunthear, 2018. Bylander, 2019b. Bylander, 2019a. non-transparent, non-binding and, therefore,non-transparent, non-bindingand, mightincrease migrants’ vulnerability. because of the relatively high costs, long wait times and limited rights afforded limited rights times and long wait relatively of the because to MoU migrants. high costs, People’s Lao the with inpart Republic Democratic paths, in2002butfew pursuethese migrants subregion: girlsinthe and Thailand entered in2003and Myanmar and Cambodia intoMoUswith on women direct impact their (MoU) in migration and The of Understanding use of Memoranda in accessingdata. itremains intoChinaisaccelerating, under-researched Asia South-East duetodifficulties primarily WhilethereMigration intoChina: isincreasing evidenceeconomicmigrationfrom that Mainland recruitment associations and three and signed. recruitment was Malaysian associations associations workers’On 6December2018,aMoUonmigrant Cambodian two protectionbetween 70 Given women that girls and 72 These MoUs are bilateral, 71

73 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 74 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin 73 (4) (3) d c b a seasonal work in Australia was more was work appropriateseasonal inAustralia for men. norms. ahigherdemand toboth and gender labour for male are isattributable which female, Pacific,the 14 per cent just Zealand orwork seafaring inthe sector, workers migrant Amongseasonal from strength. male value ofwhich both New and programmes labour inAustralia inseasonal from migrants region this are Most limited. participate very Migration from Pacificfor as employmentand girls phenomenon women amale islargely opportunities islands remittances and skill acquisition, especially with regardand Englishlanguage. with acquisition,especially literacy skill and financial totimemanagement, remittances have that studies positive aspecific outcomesintermsof islimitedbut focus on evaluations and girls, women report research Academic programmes, particularly labour ofproducts. seasonal onthese packing gradingand as such tasks toagriculture,been extended tourismsince2012.Women accommodationand are for often “feminine” selected viticulture.and has scheme Workers butthe industry were horticultural tothe senttoAustralia restricted initially of women Pacific in the are employed.formally only migrants themselves children, their butalso only migrants families communitiesoforigin. and willbenefitnottargets women like the PLS genderequality. specifically and that scheme alabour that Itisexpected sector,service care isintendedtopromote Scheme especially the work, Pacific women’s labour force participation employment semi-skilled and programme –following With asuccessful pilotprogramme afocus North. inthe onthe low The in2018–anon-seasonal launched Pacific (PLS) being invested Scheme Australia Labour businesses. insmall are usedfor evidence ofthem householdconsumptionbutthere and mostly personal Remittances issomeanecdotal Tobita, 2018. women families. their girlsand and of migrant like of new schemes economic mobility and on social these impacts to understand holidayand for visascheme Vietnamese 30.Itisimportant Thai 18and and agedbetween nationals Cambodia and the Lao People’s Lao the and Cambodia Republic. Democratic nursing caregivers from Viet Indonesia, with by Nam working targets tosetsimilar 2020 and was employment Government indeveloped In2018,the countries. agreed ofJapan toaccept10,000 a growing trend ofyoung orsemi-skilled women toengagein skilled migratingfrom SEA Mainland to beenpaid has female attention semi-skilled migrationtodeveloped and Skilled Little countries: future. inthe inmigrationpatterns changes for implications Myanmar, couldleadto and important female Cambodian and migrants, Laotian newlaw underthis penalties to harsh (enacted in2018).This amended in2017and decree has permitare workingavalid without subjected Migrants border female country: migrationintothe ofThailand’sImpact Decree Work the Emergency onManaging 2560oncross- ofAliensB.E. ILO, 2012. Voigt-Graf, and Duncan 2010. McKenzie,Gibson and 2011. Kagan, 2014. a For example, Gibson and McKenzie found that 95 per cent of their Tongan centoftheir respondents believed per that For McKenzie Gibson and example, found 95 that Labour migrationofyoungLabour women girlsfrom and Pacific islands c In NewZealand, Pacific workersare employed inhorticulture mainly b This should be seen in the context that less than athird lessthan This that context shouldbeseeninthe 73 Australia has recently has introduced Australia awork d

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B85MbQwuDkveYlf4vVWPAaRs9rETo0_DUdelNmDoI5yoF7Aw nikkei.com/Economy/Japan-agrees-to-accept-10-000-Vietnamese-caregivers?fbclid=IwAR0U-pbgZg_ agreesJapan toaccept10,000Vietnamese caregiver, Review. Nikkei Asian Available athttps://asia. Population Council. Move:Girls onthe Development Migrationinthe AdolescentGirlsand World. The GirlsCountSeries, GenderandDevelopment,11(2):30. marriages. non-violenceNegotiating violenceand inCambodian inThailand. Gender,migrants Technology andDevelopment,12(3):461. on livelihoods Theirremittances’: ‘social and of Thai impact womenRemittances non- and Netherlands in the NewYork,Basingstoke, p.822. Yeoh, eds.). B.S.A. and Palgrave Hoang Macmillan, Family (L.A. Changing the and in Asia Remittances In:Transnational Thai migrants. international behaviours ofNorthern remittance Migration, Labour migrationand ofthe analysis “dutiful” symbolicinteractionist “Good” sonsand daughters:Astructural Washington, and for D.C. Bangkok, MigrationPolicyOrganization Migrationand Institute, Women’s International and Challenges. Pacific: Migrationfrom the and Opportunities Labour Asia Republic.Democratic by Center for the Area Asia–Pacific Studies (CAPAS). Sinica, Academia ProvinceTaiwan the of People’s Women inKorea: immigrants marriage The Immigrationprocess organized seminar lunch 9th adaptation. and , 53(2):503. Affairs Women’s ofInternational burden: Journal Counter-geographies feminization the ofsurvival. and ofglobalization 394–413. ‘Like awhitepieceofpaper’. upbringingofVietnamese moral the Embodimentand children. Ethnos,66(3): the Study, 16(6):401–422. andPrevention ofChildAbuseandNeglect Asia. Children in South-East for Child trafficking sale: Migration Studies, 43(1):119–136. inSingapore. ofEthnicand Journal migrants labour female and Male temporary gender: and precarity Debt, Child Abuse Review: Journal of the British Association for Association of the British Child Abuse Review: Journal , (accessed 2019). 22February Viet Nam.net UN-Women United NationsPopulation Fund (UNFPA) for Organization Migration(IOM) International and for UN-Habitat Organization Migration(IOM)and International (UNDP), (UNESCO), Organization and Cultural Scientific United NationsEducational, UnitedNationsDevelopment Programme Affairs Social ofEconomicand (UNDESA) United NationsDepartment UnitedNationsProgramme onHIV/AIDS) UNAIDS (Joint 2018 2012 2006 2018a 2017 2014 2017 2018e 2018d 2018c 2018b

society/193095/vn-to-send-100-000-workers-abroad-annually.html (accessed 8September2018). VN tosend100,000workers abroad annually. Viet Available Nam.net. athttps://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/ 2019). (accessedorg/system/files/GMG_Report_Remittances_and_Financial_Inclusion_updated_27_July.pdf 25July Empowerment. MigrationGroup Global UN-Women, and NewYork. Available athttps://globalmigrationgroup. for Women’s Opportunities and Challenges Inclusion: Financial and Migration, Remittances Economic RegionalBangkok. Office, Concernsfor Women MigrationinASEAN: Labour Managing Workers. Migrant UN-Women Pacific Asia Group NewYork, Meeting, 2–3May. Throughout Gaps the Female Bridging Migrants: Life the Cycle. Papers Selected UNFPA-IOM ofthe Expert Vietnam.pdf (accessed 25July2019). article/Social%20and%20Human%20Sciences/publications/Brief%208%20-%20Country%20Brief%20-%20 UNESCO, UNDP, Available athttps://bangkok.unesco.org/sites/default/files/assets/ UN-Habitat. IOMand 10, Brief Asia, Migrationin Viet ofInternal Overview MigrationinSouth-East onInternal Policy Nam. Briefs Thailand.pdf (accessed 25July2019). article/Social%20and%20Human%20Sciences/publications/Brief%208%20-%20Country%20Brief%20-%20 8, UNESCO, UNDP, Available athttps://bangkok.unesco.org/sites/default/files/assets/ UN-Habitat. IOMand Brief Asia, Migration in Thailand. of Internal Migrationin South-East Policyon Internal Overview Briefs Myanmar.pdf (accessed 25July2019). article/Social%20and%20Human%20Sciences/publications/Brief%206%20-%20Country%20Brief%20-%20 UNESCO, UNDP, Available at UN-Habitat. IOMand 6, Brief Migrationin Myanmar. ofInternal Overview Asia, MigrationinSouth-East onInternal Policy Briefs (accessed 25July2019). Lao%20PDR.pdf article/Social%20and%20Human%20Sciences/publications/Brief%204%20-%20Country%20Brief%20-%20 4, UNESCO, UNDP, Available athttps://bangkok.unesco.org/sites/default/files/assets/ UN-Habitat. IOMand Brief Asia, Migration in South-East Policyon Internal Briefs PDR. Migration in Lao of Internal Overview (accessedCambodia.pdf 25July2019). article/Social%20and%20Human%20Sciences/publications/Brief%202%20-%20Country%20Brief%20-%20 2, UNESCO, UNDP, Available athttps://bangkok.unesco.org/sites/default/files/assets/ UN-Habitat. IOMand Brief Asia, Migration in South-East Policyon Internal Briefs Migration in Cambodia. of Internal Overview (accessed 25July2019). www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/index.asp Population Division.Available The at UNDESA, 2017Revision MigrationStock: International Dataset. (accessed 25July2019). Available atwww.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/04_Migrants.pdf 2014.UNAIDS. The Report Gap https://bangkok.unesco.org/sites/default/files/assets/ 81 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 82 Young women and girls as providers for households of origin Yeoh, D.T.K. Chee, H.L. S., B. Vu Y. and Cheng World Bank Wilson, A. Webber, Spitzer D.L. and G.C. 2013 2012 2004 2010 2018 2017 Global Networks, 13(4):441–458. Networks, Global for families: two The VietnameseBetween ofremittances inSingapore. meaning social migrants marriage at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS (accessed 2019). 30January female rate, force (% of female population ages15+) (modelledLabor participation ILO estimate). Available desc=false (accessed 27March 2017). SE.ADT.LITR.FE.ZS?contextual=max&end=2010&locations=VN&start=2010&view=map&year_high_ adult female rate, (% of femalesLiteracy above). ages 15 and Available at Pacific Region. Workers. and World Asia Development, East Sector EconomicManagement Poverty and Reduction Bank, and ofManagers ASurvey Sector: Export Garments in the Productivity and Standards Labour PDR; Lao California Press, Berkeley Los and Angeles. The Tomboys, IntimateEconomiesofBangkok: Tycoons Avon and City. Global inthe Ladies of University Public 10:389. Health, beerpromoters: pilotstudy. Asian Aqualitative reproductive and Sexual issuesfacing health BMC South-East http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/

84 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence © IOM/Benjamin SUOMELA © IOM/Benjamin 2 1 trafficking ofhuman of rigorous research ofaspects on arange data and forresulted many. vulnerability and inariseprecarity lack the lamenting many Andwith commentators have that inmany States contexts have toexacerbatealreadycatastrophes structural challenging acted and environmental variegated. and are complex trafficking ofhuman civilconflicts Recent patterns The breadth and political-economically, Asia–Pacific ofthe socioculturally region, both that means of Asia–Pacific young trafficking andgirlsin the women Mapping paper. ofthe part last inthe further successisdiscussed This of tangible lack interventions. even and evaluationsofpast basic practices best of identification subpopulationhavethis way in the reductionoftrafficking, ofthe yieldedlittle aimedat 15years ofintensive past the efforts isthat paper anti-trafficking ofthe The key suggestion study, case be drawn major geographical the on as Papua with along Timor-Leste. New Guinea and will Asia future region, scope of the enormous geographical of the Because examination. South-East areas requiring as asidentifying well prevent toboth and victims, protect trafficking assistance and these interventions of also paper groups. trafficking The the forpractical provides somesuggestions – of rights human economic, – social, key the the issues surroundingbroader impacts trafficking, their This provides paper of trafficking young of the overview an the andgirlsin women region, focusingon commonplace throughout region. the trafficking for and other sectors into region, girlsinthe marriageand forced trafficking also labour are expressions two oftrafficking have trafficking the of young tendedtodominatediscussionsof women sector, privateeconomy. inthe nightlifeand entertainment for and servitude domestic these Whilst alike. Trafficking of young the andgirlsin women broader regionoccurs thesex within predominantly 18 years) prominent policymakers and beenregarded concernby has practitioners both aparticularly as Pacific of trafficking the youngregion, women (thoseagedbelow 21years) andgirls (thoseagedbelow the and Asia– Asia broader South-East Inboth epicentre an as for trafficking. human notoriety gained for Organization Migration.Within International Nations and has Asia broad this region, South-East asa beenidentified key has traffickingAsia–Pacific problem ahuman regionwith theUnited both by Introduction estimates and claims, and estimates 5. Weitzer, 2014;Brunner, 2015. 2017. Harkins, Trafficking of young andgirlsin women 2 South-East Asia: Areview Asia: ofexisting South-East it is indeed challenging to gain a complete picture of human trafficking, both both trafficking, acompletepictureofhuman togain itisindeedchallenging School of Humanities and Social Sciences, La Trobe La Sciences, Social and ofHumanities School University 1 as well as some questionable well some questionable as as evidence Sallie YeaSallie 85 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 86 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence women and girls to enter the sector initially,women sector girlstoenterthe and compelyoung that circumstances intent behindrescue/removal structural ofthe ofunderstanding lack and have by ofinterventions challenged These foregrounding those beenconsistently types moralizing the rehabilitation ofyoung women sexindustry. girlsinthe and the aimedat and rescue interventions akey ofanti-trafficking emerged as site for enactment the region. (Cambodia, Thailandevident Asia also in the Philippines)Asia In particular,the and South-East Thisinterest and ingirls young a focus womeninefforts. of anti-trafficking was forced prostitution forced concurrently, that, ofmigrationmeant prostitution became context also inthe sexindustry the number ofgovernment and worldwide non-governmental and exploitation sexual organizations with across many contexts in Asia and notonlyproduces and across stress and inAsia for asenseofshame many many contexts young female The produced stigma ofprostitution by isonedocumented context deviance inthe tosexual allusion alternatives doesnotbecomeadefault labour sosexual option. young film, through including women as mediasuch popular girls, and 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Persons, Women Especially Children and Protocol ofthe after passing the toPrevent, 2000s, early In the Suppress Punish and Trafficking in exploitation Commercial sexual discussedhere consideredbe explicitly itisnotgenerally as issue). alabour for trafficking and marriage work; forced domestic than transacted last or trend willnot this that (note other insectors informal privateand inthe labour exploitation economy; for trafficking particularly increasing the prevalenceexploitation; growing and servitude, fordomestic trafficking concernwith research.existing These trends are: ofaddressing ongoingchallenge the forcommercial trafficking sexual somekey documents paper of the trends where young women girlsare and drawing concerned, on where young women girlsare and wellsubpopulationsmore other concernedas as generally. This part itself prioritized the trafficking of prioritized children and women trafficking itself the other over groups. commercial the within primarily given sexindustry. Protocol This the that focus understandable was government of andgirls women trafficking onthe exploitation, non-governmental forsexual and sectors was safe and sustainable social support systems. support social safewas sustainable and livelihoods employment, and for accommodationthat sustainable conditions concernopportunities release from conditions post-rehabilitation the shelter because the altered. had not significantly These found also shelter-based that city notconducive rehabilitation was topreparing girlsfor life after meaningful way.meaningful incomeor toearn restore livelihoods ofopportunities anyand lack in surveillance confinement, for including tocriticism reproducing forcedbeen subject conditionsoftrafficking, very someof the forhas ThaiIn the shelter-based example, context, victims rehabilitation offemale sextrafficking sidelineissuesaround and compulsion. and choice ofagency lack ameliorate than rather through whatmay choice betermedconstrained Sandy, 2010. Yea, 2010. Pearson, and Gallagher 2010. Yea, 2016. 2007;Krsmanovic, 2014;Andrijasevic, Weitzer, 2007. Trafficking alsoProtocol which focused exclusively on children and women thesexindustry. in Thailand, the laws in place priorto had anti-trafficking as such Asia, notably,Although in South-East some countries 2000. UN, 7 In the Philippines, an in-depth study ofoneshelterfor study sextrafficked girlsinCebu in-depth an Philippines, Inthe 3 (the Trafficking thereProtocol), clearwas a both focuswithin 5 the (mis)representation the of circumstances trafficking ofthe 9 8 and therefore and need decent livelihood educational and Many young women and girls enter the sex industry Many young women sexindustry girlsenterthe and 6 and interventions that reinforce that interventions and 4 The concernofalarge more hidden,forms. other, amongst servitude, make can itdifficulttostereotypes trafficking for domestic focuson possibly notingsuch how trafficking, of human portrayals circulating fictional mediaand popular inthe industry thesex in stylized images ofvictims this thehighly in someof vein,questioned has, anti-trafficking Much on scholarship in recognizing critical recent responding and servitude. fordomestic totrafficking (non-commercial) domestic inthe toexploitation not applicable sphere presents enormouschallenge an and exploitation sexual with associated aphenomenon asprimarily preconceptions trafficking about migratethroughusually migrationisoverseas. regularized iftheir Undoubtedly especially channels, workers migration(which consenttotheir agreements) orother may signingcontracts include and government that and domestic because in privatespaces, trafficking often authorities donotseeitas work domestic that isoften manifoldand fact the unregulated include and orpoorlyregulated, occurring The ofaddressing of challenges trafficking are complex young andgirls women servitude fordomestic employers. toerrant vulnerability their werewhich protectionsofforeign supposed toenhance toheighten workers acted domestic actually wayssituations is the migration regimes managed (involving organizations) private sector and State both 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 for Malaysia, ofyoung exploitation ofthe womenwork including girlsindomestic documentation and inAsia–Pacific, comprehensive have non-governmental rights organizations A numberofmigrant undertaken Trafficking servitude fordomestic through may vulnerabilities which beheightened. possibly, words, inother shame, Stigmaand future beproductive their can realms migrationtrajectories. and, theireconomicopportunities status, citizenship their can also but affect oftrafficking, survivors hours and poorremuneration.hours and were by characterized in many of freedom lack cases (of movement association), and excessive working yokedmigration costs workers domestic often toexploitative and abusive employment situationsthat the criteria for the crime of trafficking in persons. for criteria the oftrafficking crime the women are sometimesremoved through rescues, despitenotformally from meeting sexindustry the girlsinIndonesia. and recently ofreturn inherexamination madeby reintegration and Rebecca oftrafficked Surtees women gendered and theyare inwhich sociocultural ofthe context embedded;apoint understanding of an tocurrentpaid processes ofreturn reintegration, and tobedevoid appear many because interventions programmatic for and needstobe far purposesisthat cases policy of such greater attention critical industry and post-trafficking. and industry of thesex circumstances andgirlsin appreciate women to authorities thecontextual anti-trafficking Andrijasevic, 2007. Andrijasevic, 2014. Guichon, Anti-Slavery 2006. International, 2019. for Economies(HOME), Organization Migrant Humanitarian 2012. Huling, 2007. Agustin, 2017. Surtees, 2010. Vijeyarasa, 13 Singapore 17 11 Arelated over-identification concernisthe inwhich cases, young trafficking of 14 and in the Middle East States. MiddleEast inthe and 16 One of the key Oneofthe by such concernsraised reporting many organizations 10 12 The key away pointtotake from documentation Both these problems these Both failure highlightthe ofState 15 The studies found that debts associated with with The found associated studies debts that 87 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 88 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence women, may and heighten it. infact for ofyoung migrationoverseas contracts doesnotalways vulnerability labour the stem above suggests, oversight. privateagency and However,State workers domestic experienceofmigrant the as discussed process is markedly different, with with young migrant binding contracts signing legally women normally thushas far beenpoorlyunderstood. those For the working andmigratinglegally of trafficking overseas forms toother asiteofvulnerability as exploitation labour work sectors, inother orservice for factory girlsareand work offailed migration regularly labour context inthe recruited for entertainment sexand research further that Moreover, beinitiated. itiscrucial servitude, domestic given young that women they are as prevalent as or equally are for victims exploitation for sexual female trafficking labour child generally. Given issues of reintegration that recovery and (including physical and issues) health mental received has fromstakeholders more researchers by attention country far least the anti-trafficking and women are trafficked, however,of thehome sectors andindustrial service in the trafficking labour 18 key the examine for create issuesthat young situationsof vulnerability women girlsthroughout and the paperIturnto of the part In this trafficking. marriage and servitude domestic particularly trafficking, recently expressions beentempered toother –has of by attention greater organizational and policy displacedmore notnecessarily although – focus initial the that onsextrafficking trends, suggesting these study toilluminate the as Asia case key Asia–Pacific girls inthe Region, drawing onSouth-East trafficking trends Thethe main brieflymapped paper ofthe for foregoing young and women part Key Asia–Pacific andgirlsin women issuesfor trafficking young women girlstrafficked and servitude. fordomestic they often finditdifficulttoincluding appliesto also reintegrate, which something school, returningto are non-governmental policeand operations between organizations returned topriorsituationswhere labour. todomestic applies also apointthat disputes, labour Children whoare rescued through joint are redress monitoring and minors, victims the the it is difficult because and falls outside civil of realm of oversight a lack and migrationprecisely contract of labour a legal absence of this of the because will beprovided someform decentaccommodationand are of education routinely broken. Because working inexcess of16hoursaday whenorders Promises needtobefilled. children to parentsthat children the areMinh City tosevereand monitored confined and subject oftenworkplace regimes, verbal, child’s onthe parents migration.OnceinHoChi advance with priortotheir acceptingan salary from regions are central ofHoChiMinhCity the streets country.sellers onthe ofthe usually Contracts some boys) 16years 10and agedbetween are recruited for flower work as and insweatshop factories responsesand are Forthat in Vietavailable example, or required victims. girls (and Nam, to support theyhave because nature the onboth ofexploitation adeterminingimpact migration are important bordersinternational are prohibitive for moving The younger differences of victims. the organization in women girlsis more and likely requirements legal-immigration the because tobeinternal for crossing toabove, alluded organized migrationschemes and of ofmanaged through trafficking types young the Asia–Pacific is in cross-border ofadults innature trafficking oflabour proportion a large Whilst internal. typesof through is they movements the whether trafficking involved,are cross borderparticularly or Perhaps circus as a useful such of performing. work, waymanifestations these about of thinking service seafood well forms other processing, as as of begging, toutingand work, forAsia sweatshop /factory occurs. where trafficking sectors labour to other Young andgirls women traffickedare throughout Many apply by also of issuesraised ofthe trafficking young andgirls women servitude fordomestic Labour trafficking Labour Yea, 2017. 18 Of all the sectors where young sectors girlsand the all Of these youngthese women abroad Republic tothe ofKorea. towards employment the over ofmales propelling factors majorcontributing females oneofthe was for graduates due to gender bias employmentDisillusionment with of opportunities lack and prospects were orgraduatedand tofindemployment unable ofopportunities to lack chosen their in vocation. hadcommencedcollegedegrees dropped either and outdue number,this more 50 per cent than of and hadgraduatedhighschool, interviewed ofthose found itwas over that bases, 90 per cent girls trafficked and bars in forcommercial States military brothels exploitation sexual around United In research by Republic inthe author conducted this ofKorea young mid-2000s with inthe women and to leave oppressive situations. domestic togoabroad, many wererelished opportunity the propelled by more urgent desires immediateand familial either young dissolutionorgender-basedof these was young Filipinas Whilst violence. women that one finding the key was motivation study this about for migration ofmany notable also What was opportunities that can leadto trafficking. can that opportunities young women girlsthroughout and region the from employment engagingintenuousmigrationand futures, their about platforms and through isamajorhurdle bepursued, can these which for safeguarding workforce. in the for in decisions against inclusion discriminated meaningful The of opportunities lack forced (and marriages intoearly are opportunities, deniededucational often unsafe pregnancies) and thisoccurswhengirls directly Most totrafficking. vulnerability ontheir impact consequences which have perceptions cultural (low) the about demonstrated, ofnegative ofgirlsleadstoarange value conflict. violence during or political due to sexual families abusive due to violent situations, and marital domestic where youngresonance in Asia, women across girls often and of contexts a range leave or natal their (US DoS) report for 2018 states, for 2018states, (US DoS) report for labour, ofState polygamy. including for and purposes, sexual Department United States the As These leaders. children direction oftribal occurringunderthe are as traded both beenreported has children, of InPapua asdiscrimination. as girls including trafficking internal young NewGuineathe five, perpetuate gender-based that practices tribal region, in the of traditional persistence the namely of trafficking issue in the young and girls women Papua important another New Guinea illustrates currenttheir situations. to girls alreadyabroad a pathway traumatized seeking areas and or in other country of the to escape 23 22 21 20 19 womenand boys and girlsare and intoconsideration”. taken Region. UN-Women prioritiesofmen As needsand interests, the impliesthat “gender equality states, urgent ongoing issuesfacing young boys, most girlsand isoneofthe and women Asia girlsinthe and Gender inequality, for women menand referring responsibilities opportunities and rights, equal tothe employment opportunities. for levels low work, skill theyare and mean education nonetheless often shuntedintomore tenuous trends Thus, whilethese may havemigration opportunities. increased young women’s opportunities relevance todiscussionhere, (labour) compelmany poorlyconstrued toengageintenuousand milieus around region the toleave young women ofparticular few girlswith and, and prospects economic environment by characterized impulses have neoliberal combined in different geographical region. growing coupledwith discrimination, and apolitical- and Persistent genderinequality inequality Beyrer, 2001. Yea, 2005. Yea, 2015. Rafferty, 2007. UN-Women, n.d. 23 Traffickers typesofsituations in offering jobs these of takeare advantage well-positionedto 22 20 Although notwell-researched Although findingdoeshave this todate,

21

19 As many above cited examples ofthe As 89 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 90 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence trends are repeated region-wide. Such tenuouswork orother opportunities. recruitment for sexindustry the marriage, international both internal and international populationmovements, international and internal both uprooted has this familiescitizens induced and toforeign InCambodia, businessinterests. local and for governments population,as the region-wideheightened vulnerability of selloffproductiveassets livelihoods risingdispossessionfrom and Dispossessionfrom land. isonearea produced land has which and precariousas in flexible areasthe population in for such reduced security arrangements, work 27 26 25 24 agreed. young Second, theyreluctantly sex work, women graduateor either whoentercollegeand or remunerated, to enter hostessing many with confessing when approached that, opportunities with zone), work extremely young arduous was poorly found and female factory migrants that internal in Indonesia’s (a Island Batam processing processing and work hub for a major export and factory Recruiters offered five salaries timesin theyexcess ofwhat Similarly, were thePhilippines. paid in being frequently approached by Filipino women mentowork and waitresses Republic as inthe ofKorea. for young example, women trafficked the to forcommercial exploitation Republicof sexual Korea were werewaitressing, approached frequently byabroad. recruitersthe Philippines, In offering opportunities or shopassistance as such young industries womencontexts employed service jobsand infactory found for itwas across that example, Indonesia, three Philippinesand all the inCambodia, author abroad.women Inresearch for work/marriage by poorlyunderstood opportunities conducted this arethat for acause they present for concernas traffickers aprimetarget and girls recruiting young theseemployment of processing. flow-on and effects Itisthe dynamics factories and sector service First the are waysto trafficking. young women are pushedinto low-wage, precarious the workinboth Therewomen girls. and trend of this are in arerendering manifestations that two notable girls vulnerable for and employment ofeducational the young opportunities affected throughout has availability Asia a key emergedas featureThe has that rollback policies inState-provisioned ofneoliberal services opportunities and Education globalization. liberal defined by deepeningneo- contexts ariseinlevelsincluding political-economic and ofchronic poverty work intheir precarity populationexperiencing broader ofthe and proportion lives, the between causal the examined ondevelopment scholarship relationship has bodyofcritical A large inAsia–Pacific globalization Neoliberal traditional cultural practices can severely can harms practices cultural fortraditional trafficking exacerbatethe young andgirls. women Papua ways the NewGuineaillustrates gender-based of context violenceinthe and discrimination Peksen, Blanton and Blanton, 2017. Blanton, and Peksen, Blanton Springer, 2013. 2015. For Rigg, example, 2018. US DoS, husbands’ extendedfamilies. husbands’ Younggirls. are often for sold into polygamous marriages forced girls their into domestic service patriarchal attitudes that men own women and perpetuates against women and discrimination Polygamy inPapua asitaffirms forced concern, NewGuineaisalsoaserious domesticservice. leaving themvulnerable towealthymenandpoliticians—tosettle to debts, marriages—often Traditional intoforced customsinPapua toselltheirdaughters parents NewGuineapermit 25 The defining features a include ofneoliberalism insocial roll back welfare, arise 27

24

26 exposingmany young women girlsto and stark picture, with an estimated 11.4 million people displaced by natural disasters in2017. 11.4millionpeopledisplacedby estimated an disasters with natural picture, stark events by caused presents increasing asimilarly change, the climate numberofcatastrophic particularly 30 29 28 persons. 1.4millionstateless displacedpersonsand 1.9 millioninternally 3.5million 7.7millionin2018,including Asian refugees,Region totalled the in displaced by conflict civil Region; Asia namely, The number of persons South-East conflict. civil and environmental catastrophes oftrafficking the youngaffecting – as children as and girls women well and youth more the broadly – in providesthe paper of two widespread the most challenges of and urgent of Thisan part final overview conflicts and Catastrophes New challenges: from islessened. marriage orchild labour tochild girls’ which vulnerability orincreased security, provide atleast opportunities itcan aplatform intobetter translate necessarily doesnot education above the as they consentedatanywhether Andwhilst discussionsuggests, point. national andmost laws irrespective underinternational are of considered oftrafficking tobevictims is involved, laws. is When forbidden exploitation national most and under international practice children forms workforce Girlsenterthe ofdiscrimination. atayoung The brides. latter ageorbecomechild (UNESCO) Organization Cultural and Social UnitedNations Economic, the and based culturally as have adecenteducation togain beenrecognized ofopportunities Denial widelyby UN-Women both peers. male nurseswhowere and teachers over passed accountants, infavour for employment opportunities of involving young Republic inthe Filipinas ofKorea Singapore, and for found author this example, graduate (as mentionedabove). abroad. Inresearch toseekouttenuousopportunities Disillusionmentleadsthem the low field, in their payand gender-based they encounterinemployment discrimination opportunities withdraw before degree completion of their the express of opportunities lack the disillusionment with of parents children desperatetoseetheir for provided work beyond opportunities life camps. inthe from parents relatives, their orother many are others recruited underfalse pretences consent the with or recruited many having are abducted Whilst of those minors, unaccompanied beenseparated helpers. believing theywillbedeployed majority the with waitresses false jobdescriptions, as ordomestic Those helpers. recruiteddomestic areas toworkorother by inDhaka traffickers givenare normally refugee the outside are camps employed job opportunities girlsseeking ofRohingya The as majority 17years13 and are tobeconfinedinbrothelsand reported inCox’s forced intoprostitution. Bazaar theytravel further Girlsbetween the given inBangladesh, needfor the detected documents. official girlsare although more areas aroundnearby likely resort Cox’s orinDhaka, tourist tobe Bazaar –are torecruit said inthe either Rohingyas primarily and Bangladeshis girlsfor work opportunities remaining most with inovercrowded refugee inCox’s camps Bazaar. From here, traffickers –both for toonemillionrefugees close example, have from fledtoBangladesh decade, Myanmar overthe past refugee Rohingya ofthe case trends. Inthe inMyanmar–Bangladesh crisis highlydisturbing and notable situationsofyoungdocument the ofdisplacementhave women contexts girlsinspecific and yielded breakdownthe to figures ismore some ofthese obtain, efforts difficultto and agecohort by gender through the insecurities associated with displacement. The displacement. documented severalthrough with of IOM has insecurities associated cases the ofyoung women vulnerability exacerbatethe also girlstotrafficking and Environmental catastrophes the Asia Dialogue report and some anecdotal cases that appear in the media, including Al Jazeera, 2017,2018. AlJazeera, including media, inthe appear that cases someanecdotal and report Dialogue Asia the of young women Rohingya refugees of experiences documented here types in Cox’s arethe and on largely based Bazaar See especially, onForced Dialogue Asia Migration,2019.Very situations research onthe in-depth beenconducted has little 2018. IOM, were notavailable. Asia, Figures n.d. for South-East subregions, as such UNHCR, 28 Environmental catastrophes, Environmental catastrophes, 29 Although Although 30

91 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 92 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence anti-trafficking interventions aimedat reintegration interventions manyare unrealistic anti-trafficking because young and women concern.Similarly, anti-trafficking a crucial government that thatdisplacecommunitiesmeans policies gender-based pre- post-trafficking violenceinthe and lives of young thusbecomes andgirls women 33 32 31 family ofdisplacement or untenable home because situations. return cannot orwherewhere employment victims/survivors there ofsuitable opportunities isalack forpsychosocial are example, livelihoods/skill rehabilitation and training, often released intosituations are often interventions unsuccessful. issues, Girlswhoreceive structural and shelter-based health/ and trafficking programmes remainprojects remotelysituatedin relationto broader sociocultural therefore, This finding, to re-trafficking. because anti- twomany leads to First, recommendations. vulnerability livelihood their and couldstem situationsthat in reintegrating intocommunity survivors generally orientedto have victims female interventions protecting notbeensuccessfulanti-trafficking ofyoung women vulnerability alleviate the many and girlsthroughout and region the totrafficking, A key to appear that many finding is actually failedto current interventions have anti-trafficking region,the oftrends acorrective sexindustry. as the generalization within tothe would provide sectors these more amuch comprehensive of trafficking young pictureofthe womenin have beenrelatively under-documented by More comparison. of examination thorough detailed and and for These forced servitude that are urgentissues other sectors. fordomestic labour in trafficking industry, there alsoahigh is girlstraffickedand andnightlife thesex prevalence of into entertainment throughout thetrafficking regionin theliterature of much has recent Whilst focusedon years. women have ofyounginduced dislocation women vulnerability onthe hadamarked girlsto also and impact by excluding young women from opportunities). educational politically and Newconcernsofclimate ormarginalize young disadvantage that womenfamily practices (for cultural dissolution,and example gender-based include Asia economicinequality,young and women gendered inSouth-East violenceand for totrafficking degree the key Someofthe or education. ofvulnerability impact ongoingissuesthat for work moving others and toseekoutopportunities voluntarily insecurities, or political-economic nature, many with young women forced beingboth compelledtomove and aresult as ofenvironmental Trafficking Asian trends Region varied in and forare complex young theSouth-East andgirlsin women Conclusion from toThailand. Cambodia respectively, Typhoon of trafficking drought-affected the Philippinesin2013and inthe Haiyan migrants Asian the2004 including trafficking, Tsunami, and2009 Bangladesh in2007 in andAiar Sidr Cyclones region inthe ofpopulationstohuman leadingtoextreme situationsofvulnerability major disasters rural areas alreadyrural and and opportunities. ineducation suffering disadvantages iswidespread, girlsrecruited and practice Indonesiathis New Guineaand tendtobeindigenousorfrom involvesactivities, recruitment the InPapua ofyoung camps. women girlstobrothels and inlogging/rural economic of young agriculture women plantation are and where girls in countries and important logging undocumentedtrend largely trafficking inthe buthitherto Analarming, India. diverse and Cambodia as throughout region, the by farming with communitiesincreasingly targeted recruiters as in countries to trafficking faced by this subpopulation in the context of displacement. faced ofdisplacement. to trafficking thecontext thissubpopulationin by for oftenand extreme youngthe highrisk vulnerability confirming recent with women girls, and reports haveand environmental catastrophe conflict civil produced ofboth because situationsofheightened See Yea, 2010,for Philippines. inthe ofthis example an 2012. IOM, 2016. IOM, 31 Due to climate change, droughts have change, Duetoclimate becomeincreasingly common 33 Addressing gender inequality and and Addressing genderinequality 32 Insum,displacement futures are theyare brighterthan tobeatall atpresent. for potential of the but also new approaches girls, and to be introduced methodologies and if, indeed, situationsregionknowledgethe many tofill inourtrafficking gaps of notjust involving young women facilitated, but not driven,facilitated, by advocates. outside realities desires own intheir needs, practical and terms, young as labour girlsarticulate domestic child project provides the Philippines, excellent an ofanovel example approach toreducing of harms the the including Piloted insixcountries, at improving possibilitiesofparticipation. the lives, illustrates their approachworkers, onan domestic iscentredbased which on involving aimed activities girlsin advocacy One projectbyof womenbeenlimitedtodate. girlshas and Anti-Slavery child with International development, ininternational totrafficking application have their methodologies such history hadarich represent methodologies approach, an such for although and actioning onepossibility Participatory circumstances. of their women limits the dowithin girlscan and intermsofwhatyoungapproach focuses shouldbetiedtocapabilities, how ondemonstrating agency approaches are rights-based that (focusing often idealistic onentitlements), whereas acapabilities 35 34 promising approach here isproposed by Briones, anewapproach ofwhether One iswarranted. question begsthe Asia women girlsinSouth-East and years of failurethere suggestion, new in this is nothing of to reduce of trafficking incidence young the women needfor the girlsand and desires processes realities. Whilst and re-centre that aspirations, their needfor ofyoung the areconceptualization agency ofthe suggests paper discussioninthe Second, prevention success. intheir atbest orprotection –are likely tobepartial at aimed – whether reintegration family/community and training assistance skills as such interventions ofyoung security women and girlsthroughoutrights and region, the focused often and technocratic concerns are broader reconciled Until these relation in ways structural to Cambodia. the enhance that foreign brieflydiscussedin togovernment was investment, as atattracting such contrast aimed policies tositinmarked appear also return. they can communitiestowhich interventions Such stable girls lack advocacy projects. projects. advocacy yetAnti-Slavery 2013.Anti-Slavery has International, International to provide child-centred evaluationofthese an 2010. Briones, 35 34 There is enormous scope in the South-East Asian Asian There South-East is enormous scope in the who draws on a capabilities framework to suggest whodraws framework onacapabilities tosuggest 93 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific

Al Jazeera L. Agustin, Guichon, A. Guichon, Gallagher, Pearson E. and A. Brunner, J. L. Briones, Beyrer, C. onForced Dialogue Asia Migration Anti-Slavery International R. Andrijasevic, 2017 2007 2018 2010 2015 2010 2001 2019 2006 2007 2013

bangladesh-women-children-trafficking-rife-rohingya-camps-180129061417161.html TraffickingBangladesh: Al Jazeeracamps. of girlsrife . Available in at www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/ Rohingya rohingya-women-sold-sex-slaves-bangladesh-171203075517252.html (accessed 25July2019). women sexslavesRohingya soldas inrefugee AlJazeera camps. . Available atwww.aljazeera.com/news/2017/12/ London. . Zeb Books, Sex attheMargins:Migration, LabourMarkets andtheRescueIndustry , 32(1):73–114. Quarterly Rights Human ofdetentiontraffickedThe analysis offreedom: personsinshelters. highcost policy and Alegal East-WestASEAN. Centre, ofHawaii, University Honolulu. in InadequatePolicies: prevalence to evaluatethe Inaccurate Numbers, trafficking data ofhuman Enhancing Trafficking, andSocialJustice(T. ed).Routledge, OxonRights, Zhang, Human NewYork, and pp.62–83. livelihood and Beyond Capabilities work in Filipina experiences of domestic in Hong Kong. victim: the In: Social ScienceandMedicine,53(4):543–550. Politicalsituations. rights human and Asia: causes inSouth-East womenShan sexindustry the girlsand and Arisingfrom SituationsinCox’s the Exploitations Bazaar. onForced Dialogue Asia Migration,Sydney. Avoiding Trafficking, ofHuman aCrisis:Addressing aCrisiswithin Risks the and Related Smuggling Migrant Workers of ChildDomestic toUs:Participation Listen inAdvocacy. Anti-Slavery London. International, traffic_women_forced_labour_domestic_2006.pdf (accessed 25July2019). Region. Anti-slavery London. International, Available atwww.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/ Trafficking in Women for andDomestic ForcedLabour andGulf East theMiddle of theContext Workin 86(1):24–44. Beautiful deadbodies: Gender, Feministcampaigns. representation Review, migrationand inanti-trafficking References . (accessed 25July2019). Sex 95 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 96 Trafficking of young women and girls in Southeast Asia: A review of existing evidence Surtees, R. Surtees, Springer, S. Sandy, L. J. Rigg, Rafferty, Y. Blanton R.G. and Blanton S.L. Peksen, S., E. Krsmanovic, for Organization Migration(IOM) International A. Huling, for Economies(HOME) Organization Migrant Humanitarian B. Harkins, 2014 2013 2010 2015 2007 2017 2016 2012 2012 2019 2017 2018 2016

work-slavery-reports/ (accessed 25July2019). London.International, Available atwww.antislavery.org/reports-and-resources/research-reports/domestic- Workers Domestic Migrant ofNepalese Unknown:Into the Exploitation inLebanon. Anti-Slavery , 103(3):106–26. Geographers ofAmerican AnnalsoftheAssociation Cambodia. neoliberalising Violent dispossession: Apost-anarchist ofexception ofproperty, in critique state the dispossession,and , 18(2):194–206. Anthropology Representations choices: Just coercion and TheAustralianof ofchoice Journal insexwork inCambodia. Development: The Asian Shadows Taylor ofSuccess. South-East Challenging London. Francis, and ChildAbuseReview,16(6):401–422. Asia. Children inSouth-East for Childtrafficking sale: 70(3):673–686. unfreelabor: markets, for trafficking Free human and policies Neoliberal workers?, Political Research Quarterly Anti-Trafficking media. inSerbian sex industry Review,7:139–160. the into Captured trafficking storieson “realities” illustrating ofphotographs Analysis trafficking: ofhuman (accessedsouth-asia 31July2019). Available athttps://nepal.iom.int/assessing-climate-change-environmental-degradation-and-migration-nexus- IOM Nepal. Environment Climate Change, the Assessing Asia. Migration Nexus in South Degradation and (accessedint/system/files/pdf/mecc_infosheet_climate_change_nexus.pdf 31July2019). TraffickingThe Climate Change-Human at Geneva. Available Infosheet, IOM, Nexus. Moresby. Port IOM, Report. Assessment Trafficking in and and in Persons Baseline Data Papua NewGuinea: PeopleSmuggling Needs Training 44:629–680. workersDomestic forced and ofabuse inMalaysia: Hiddenvictims labour. LawandPolitics International , (accessedDocuments/Issues/Slavery/SR/DomesticServitude/CSO/Reply%20HOME.pdf 25July2019). Women ofMigrant Servitude onDomestic Thematic Available Report Girls. atwww.ohchr.org/ and Anti-Trafficking interventions. for toarobust anti-trafficking evidence-base Constraints , 8:113–130. Review https://publications.iom. Yea, S. Weitzer, R. R. Vijeyarasa, United NationsWomen (UN-Women) United NationsHighCommissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations(UN) for Trafficking Cooperationagainst United NationsAction in Persons(UN-ACT) (USDoS) ofState Department United States 2005 2007 2010 n.d. n.d. 2000 2016 2018 2017 2015 2014 2010 2014 2017

of Children andYoung People , Vol. eds.). 7,Children’s NiLaorie, Springer, C. Whiteand Mobilities(A. London. rescuers:Running to the Trafficking children of for forcedlabour in Ho Chi Minh City, In: Vietnam. Trafficking. Routledge, London. WomeninKorea: Filipina Migrant Entertainers filmSingapore. screenings in anti-trafficking activism in Girls onfilm:Affective Political Geography , 45:45–54. ed.). Edward Elgar, London. In:Trafficking Philippines. inthe victims Holmes, European (L. andAustralianRights: andHuman Perspectives trafficking experiencesofdomestic ofthe Anexamination return rehabilitation and sexindustry: tothe Exit, Studies Asian , 20(1):67–95. ofSouth-East Journal Sojourn: migration decisions. When pushcomestoshove: Violence, family transformation personal dissolution and intrafficked women’s 653(1). AcademyofPolitical AnnalsoftheAmerican New directionsinresearch andSocialResearch, trafficking. onhuman , 35(3). Society crusade. of a moral and institutionalisation Ideology of sex trafficking: The construction social , 12(1):S89–S102. Health andSexuality in oftrafficking evils”: Culture, familyof “social Vietnam. the language the victims and The Re-stigmatising state, (accessedhtm 25July2019). Women Watch: definitions. atwww.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/conceptsandefinitions. and Available Concepts Pacific. the and Asia atwww.unhcr.org/asia-and-the-pacific.htmlAvailable (accessed 25July2019). November (entry intoforce 25December2003). UnitedNationsConventionsupplementing the Transnational against Organized 2237UNTS319,15 Crime. Protocol toPrevent, Suppress Punish and Trafficking in Especially Persons, andChildren, Women (accessedReport.pdf 25July2019). ACT, Available Bangkok. athttp://un-act.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Final_UN-ACT_Forced_Marriage_ TraffickingHuman UN- AStudyon Asia: in Forced Vulnerabilities andChina. Cambodia Marriage between Trafficking in USDoS, Washington, D.C. Persons Report. Washington D.C. Moving Reintegration On:Family Trafficking AmongIndonesian Community and NexusInstitute, Victims. Geographies Politics and 97 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 98 Young Women and Girls’ Migration and Education: Understanding the Multiple Relations © IOM/Visarut SANKHAM 3 2 1 Pacificin the Islands. lessso, and, are Asia, ofmigrants widespreadIrregular across smuggling the migrationand South-East Introduction 6. existent, contradictory ornotfully developed. contradictory existent, vacuumsorgrey occurinlegal laws, orthat national with compliant areas laws inwhich are non- transportation, transfer,transportation, orreceipt harbouring ofapersonusingcoercive ordeceptive for means the involves entry of illegal the if the transform facilitation can into trafficking recruitment, Smuggling involves border illegal crossings are that by facilitated payment demanding others for assistance. their isone ofmigrants form ofirregular byfromthat migration the smuggling definition, oneintoanother: can morph and alongaspectrum sit trafficking and Irregularthree migration,smuggling phenomena. donotoradequatelydifferentiatebetweenmany because these inpersons, reports trafficking from ofmigrants smuggling the and concerning irregular ofmigrants, migrationfrom smuggling the bestressed from itisoften information that It must separate notpossibletoclearly outset the research. areas knowledge and for gaps further identify ofyoungevidence irregular concerningthe women smuggling region migrationand girlsinthe and and plightofrefugees. onthe a lesserextent, The istosummarize paper purposeofthis available the termsorfocusesgeneral onirregular of specifically migration,especially labour young men,or, to available ofthe much research problemsWhile these are invery them examines either long-standing, region. irregular inthe and migrants ofsmuggled proportion orby livesmigrants their placing indanger. safety and Young womenasubstantial girlsconstitute and by fees, exorbitant by situationofmigrants the charging abuse coercingsmugglers orthreatening the irregular the who facilitate movement to smugglers resort in returnmany migrants for payment. Many countries, destination and intransit contacts toorganizeUnable journey their themselves orestablish January 2004); see also, Gallagher and McAuliffe, and Gallagher 2004);seealso, 2016. January Nations Convention Transnational against Organized 2247UNTS507,15November Crime, 2000(entered intoforce 28 subpara. (a) Air, Seaand by ofMigrants Land, See art. 3 Protocol Smuggling ofthe the against United supplementingthe McAuliffe, and Gallagher 2016. NewZealand.and “Pacific and the of Islands”’ Australia notincluding the memberStates to IslandsPacific Nations (ASEAN), Forum(PIF), Asian For paper, purposeofthis the Asia” ofSouth-East refers Association of the tenmemberStates tothe “South-East Irregular migration and smuggling ofyoungIrregular smuggling migrationand 1 Millions of people migrate in this region Millionsofpeoplemigrateinthis inways are that ornotentirely, not, and the Pacific: the and A review ofexisting women and girls in South-East Asia Asia women girlsinSouth-East and 2

TC ofLaw, BeirneSchool The ofQueensland University Andreas Schloenhardt evidence 3

99 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 100 Irregular migration and smuggling of young women and girls in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: A review of existing evidence trafficked) is, at best, in its infancy. in is, atbest, trafficked) literature the that and experiencesofchildren onthe migrants (rather whoare smuggled than sectors. numbers in Thailand’slarge seafood garment, processing construction manufacturing, and agricultural, Female workers migrant sexindustries. and befound also can in hospitality service, domestic the for professions and foreign insectors filled traditionally exists labour by Thai in women, especially With many upemployment Thai women acquiringhigherlevels and taking demand ofeducation, tomany Thais. conditions unacceptable fora highdemand foreign workers from whooften neighbouringcountries work for under wagesand Among the manyAmong the millions, tobeinthe working irregular livingand inThailand, estimated migrants 9 8 7 6 5 4 over three decades. past the experiencedremarkable economicgrowth has that bycharacterized toThailand, labour acountry People’sIrregular Lao the migrationfrom Cambodia, Republic Democratic ismostly Myanmar and People’s Lao the Republic, Myanmar, Democratic Cambodia, Viet and Thailand Nam them. between than subregion each volume placewithin alarge takes and rather ofirregular smuggling migrationand apart setthem events subregions, migrationroutesthese several and characteristics connect circumstances, Philippines(andthe Whilemany Pacific Singapore Darussalam), Brunei and States. Islands (3) the and People’s Lao the Republic, Democratic Myanmar, Indonesiaand Thailand Viet and (2) Malaysia, Nam, region ofmigration,the bebroadly context In the can dividedintothree subregions: (1) Cambodia, temporarily, from, within, across intoand region. the desiresneeds and ofmen,women children and tomigratefrom oneplacetoanother, or permanently of development broadly that wealth, and the diverse explain and settings natural and demographic The nations. regionisland government and differing ofpolitical comprisesawiderange levels systems, Pacific and Asian life daily and inSouth-East history ofthe part integral migrationisan International Current emergingissues and purpose ofexploitation. are difficult to separate in many cases. Some ethnic minoritiesinMyanmar Some are face severemanycases. in difficult to separate hardship irregular migrationfrom are involving Myanmar complex, that economiccauses and political both fromare numberofmigrants alarge Myanmar, many ofwhomare refugees. The of circumstances basis toworkbasis innearby onfieldsorin factories. markets, Inmany border womenlong-term stays. areas, children and cross intoThailand onaweekly ordaily It involvesrelativesto find through enoughmoney and earn tosupport work and short- remittances. of trafficking. UNODC, 2017;Bylander,UNODC, 2019. 2015. World 2015,2018b;seealso, Reyes, and Jalilian 2013;UNODC, 2013;Sophal, 2011;Bylander, 2012;Margesson, Bank, 2018b. 2012;UNODC, 2012;Pasadilla 2016;Jalilian, Abela, etal., and Ullah Ashan Bylander, 2018a; UNODC, McAuliffe, and 2019;Gallagher Ullah, 2016; Ahsan Yusof-Kozlowskiand D’Aria, 2016. subparas. (c)See art. 3 (d) and Trafficking ofthe in Persons Protocol. November 2000 (entered intoforce 25December2003). Children, UnitedNationsConvention supplementingthe Transnational against Organized 2237UNTS319,15 Crime, Protocol ofthe toPrevent, subpara. (a) Suppress Punish and TraffickingSee art. 3 in especially Persons, and Women 7 Irregular migration of young women motivated by girls to Thailand and is mostly desire the 5 It also must be noted that most sources do not distinguish between male and female sourcesand male between most be noted that do not distinguish must It also 4 If children If are involved, coercive ordeceptive are means element notan 6 With levels the developed Thailand has ofwealth rising, education and 8 9

bring their children,bring their or, prohibit ofminors, migrationaltogether. labour case inthe especially agreements donotallow prevent to them industries, women fromemployment seeking incertain community.or toMalaysia Rohingya ishometoalarge which 19 18 Ibid. 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 ofrefugees, case in the avenues such are non-existent. irregularchoose official ofmigrationbecause channels avenues expensiveare inefficient, slow; and regulations these because orbureaucratic. are Many obstructive orunnecessarily migrants unclear regulations, possibly existing complywith Migration is frequently only partly irregular migrants because requirements the –complyingwith orunwittingly immigrationlaws. and oflabour –wittingly without to Thailand isirregular. remain enterand and inThailand homecountry their depart Many migrants Regardless orinvolves migrationisvoluntary ofwhether forced migration ofthe much displacement, of flowersstreets of the goodsin orother Thailand’sareas. and tourist cities big theyarewhether selling the and recruited inThailand, parents intobegging their leadthem orwhether children whether about are trafficked into Thailand there thispurpose, though for uncertainty ismuch isfrequently Thecontext, mentionedinthis parents begging peers. their phenomenonofchild and Thailand, growing ofemployment types pursuedby same intothe leadthem upinconditionsthat children tendtomove parents often their and with youth oftheir spendmuch adolescencein and Morework. commonly, movements. such Younger facilitate, insomecases and families their instigate, tomove independently somedecide ofolderteenagers, of children. toThailand case Inthe insearch of The draw that factors women adult men and to Thailand irregular shape also smuggling the migrationand fledtoneighbouringBangladesh, aresult,years. some800,000Rohingyas As grave government and extremists violenceby forces experiencedparticularly has Buddhist inrecent state inRakhine The toemigrate. minority decide thus and discrimination MuslimRohingya and borders can be crossed easily and undetected without the aid ofsmugglers. aid the without borders becrossed undetected and can easily islesscommoninareas where vessels. Smuggling or other trucks, borders hidden in cars, clandestinely crossallowing to or noteasily, migrants offer also services through Smugglers regular obtain channels. where needtravel orworktheycannot, that for documents migrants permits instance, case, oridentity to reach Indonesiaonvessels and Thailand, Malaysia, operatedby smugglers. seekers of asylum of 2015, when thousands from Myanmar, refugees, many Rohingya of them sought future. promise that destinations a better and by safety This illustrated “Andaman the is best Sea crisis” are fleefrom oftenmigrants and generalized persecution the onlyoptionto smugglers violence, reach and can onlybecrossed can and great with difficulty, knowledge. often orexpert requiringlocal where borders commonin instances are controlled tightly available isparticularly information, smuggling women including children, and toThailand migrants, isacommonoccurrence. onthe Based Smuggling offered assistance usethe and channels by smugglers. fail todeter(andcircumstances protect) many young women children and optfor whoinstead irregular persecution. for often leaving tend to migrate to fearThailand, sometimes China, ofcountry the north and east about Vietnameseabout enteringCambodia. migrants labour Chatterjee, 2016. Chatterjee, 2018a. UNODC, Bylander, 2019. 2015. Nguyen 2013; UNODC, Development Loi, and 2013; Asian Bank, 2013;Bylander, Gonzales, jrand 2015;Orbeta 2019;McAuliffe,UNODC, 2016. al., et 2017; Ullah Van Doore, 2018. 2018. Rose 2011;Song, 2011;Margesson, Ullah, 2011; Ahsan Sarausad, and McAuliffe, and Gallagher 2018a; 2016. 2013; UNODC, UNODC, 2018. IOM, 12 15 Moreover, migration labour bilateral existing 14 The same observations have The observations beenmade same 11 Ethnic minoritieslivinginMyanmar’s Ethnic 19

18 In instances in which inwhich Ininstances 10 13 others toThailand, others 17 This isthe 16 These 101 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 102 Irregular migration and smuggling of young women and girls in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: A review of existing evidence payments, which drives which payments, intousingirregular many migrants avenues, smuggling. including channelslabour migration Official for from Indonesia are bureaucratic and often requireup-front high the GulfRegion,the are America Europe involved. orNorth in to involve ifdestinations especially routes, air sometimesusingfraudulentdocuments, seaand both commonphenomena. trafficking remain and irregular migration,smuggling abroad. migrants Nevertheless, of labour rights protect the and from mere the they entered that fact Malaysia usingunlicensedbrokers orrecruitment agents. For stems irregular their some, status irregularly ofsmugglers. aid the with and country enter the smugglers. are ill-informed nature the about their irregular of are specifics some and journey; misled theirby orare recruitedsome engagesmugglers by adviceofrelatives onthe them Many orpriormigrants. Many out. seek them feasible some doso actively because alternatives are of smugglers; lacking; Many women phenomena. adolescentgirlscometorely and two the separating services onthe clearlyof thedifficulties and inpersons trafficking and ofmigrants overlapthe smuggling the between womenSubregion, migrant children, and situationofirregular the and demonstrate smuggled and Greater inthe ofmigrants MekongThe ofirregular smuggling circumstances the migrationand 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 many women Indonesian ofthem who work helpersinprivatehomes. migrants, as The numbers of large relative Asia. prosperity attract of Malaysia demand high labour East its and South- and ofSouth from for migrants parts labour other Malaysia country adestination isprimarily afield. further and region inthe (suchsectors Singapore Malaysia, HongKong and as Administrative Region, Special China) health and hospitality are countries these women who emigrate to work service, domestic in the from Philippinesare sourceMany the Indonesia and migrants mostly for countries migrants. labour Philippines(and Darussalam) Singapore Brunei Malaysia, and Indonesia, oftrafficking. risk tobecomevictims aresult, as menare that, atagreater tocross intoThailand suggest mentousesmugglers and than onirregular severalIt iscuriousthat migrationfrom reports women notethat Cambodia are lesslikely likely tooccur. inprivatehomeswhere ismore exploitation often servants and workworkplace domestic rights as women Cambodian that argue are they because moreare lesslikely totrafficking vulnerable todemand and bribery further fuel women. of Indonesian irregular further smuggling migration and bribery and are not. venture oftheir may journey parts their isregular whileother whether someparts belegal, and ornot, privatebrokers with deal migrants when theyleave theyare often Indonesia, unaware orunsure UNODC, 2015; Spaan and van Naerssen,2018. van and 2015;Spaan UNODC, Hosen,2005;Silvey, McAuliffe, and Gallagher 2018a; 2016. Nadratuzzaman 2015;UNODC, 2007;Amri, 2013. 2015;IOM, UNODC, Naerssen,2018;Silvey, van and Spaan 2012. 2007;UNODC, Watch, Rights Hosen, 2005;Human Ford, 2005. 2006;Nadratuzzaman 2012,2015;UNDP,UNODC, 2009. 2015,2018a. Naerssen,2018;UNODC, van and Spaan Yeoh, and Khoo, Platt 2017. Van Doore, 2018. UNIAP, 2007;Chalamwong, Hongprayoon, Meepienand 2012. UNIAP, Baumeister, 2010;Millerand 2013;UN-ACT, 2013, 2018b;Munro, 2012. 2015;UNODC, 27 Information about the smuggling of migrants from the Philippines is very limited. It appears from Itappears limited. ofmigrants Philippinesisvery the Information smuggling the about 22 21

23 Indonesia and the Philippines have gone to some length toregulate Philippines have the Indonesiaand migration labour gonetosomelength 20 Other sources Other have and instead madedifferent observations 24

28 26 29 Because many Because Somewomen 25 Corruption 30 For migration and smuggling are less common than in other parts of South-East Asia. Asia. ofSouth-East are parts inother lesscommonthan smuggling migration and exerciseimmigration and border ofirregular stringent may controls, which instances that indicate by Malaysian law for workers. domestic agetomeetminimumrequirements This their in Malaysia. women includes stipulated whomisstate employment and nationals ofIndonesian entry illegal tofacilitate useoffraudulentdocuments the about been attributed to the limited capacity of these countries to detect irregular arrivals. At irregular same the arrivals. todetect countries ofthese limitedcapacity tothe been attributed world. ofthe level same parts the inother as Afghan ofthem most boys, have minors, unaccompanied notat albeit beenreported, of smuggling also 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 ofirregular region. migrationinthis levels is known the about characteristics and little ofyoungThe women smuggling Pacific girlsinthe and isextremely Islands under-researchedand Pacific Islands region. inthe countries other have foreign countries Both Darussalam. many Brunei fromand ofthem substantial populations, labour ofyoung isknownirregular about women smuggling the girls toSingapore migrationand and Little abuses. rights human other and whoseekprotectionfrom persecution,conflict, SriLanka, and fromthem MiddleEast the Afghanistan, Malaysia levels Indonesiaexperienceconsiderable and ofirregular seekers, many migrationofasylum of refugeesincluding from women Cham and Myanmar from Cambodia. Muslim migrants, among destination popular Malaysia visa conditions. to comply is with a particularly inMalaysia becomesirregular fail status their iftheyoverstayothers, work their orotherwise permits and patterns ofmigration. patterns and are that for notvalid generalizations aregion economies comprisesdiverse that cultures, histories, make somereports Furthermore, ofmigrants. smuggling the analyse documentand systematically aresize States onereason island populationsofthese and why few have studies that beenconducted If womenIf children family and theycommonlydosowith groups. or inlarger are smuggled, available seekers information, are asylum countries inthese most men,many ofwhomtravelled alone. in Malaysia Indonesiainirregular and few situationswith nowhere protectionsand on togo.Based many though whohadarrived remain countries, changes enter these before policy Australian the Status ofRefugeesStatus Convention tothe Protocol and relating isparty tothe country neither because destinations other seeking employment as nannies, caretakers and domestic helpers. caretakers domestic employment and nannies, seeking as irregular have boatarrivals butimpossible. all madethat measures though implementedbymany Government seektoreach the tostop Australia, ofAustralia See also, Lindley Beacroft,See also, and 2011. 2017. IOM, Van Hear, Bakewell Long, 2012. and 2015. UNODC, Correa-Velez, 2017. Nardone Knoetze, and 2015. Amri, 2015. Schloenhardt Craig, and referredcollectively “Refugee to as Convention”. Protocol 1967(entered relating ofRefugees, Status tothe 606UNTS267,31 January intoforce 1967); 4October Convention relating ofRefugees, Status tothe 189UNTS137,28July1951(entered intoforce 22April1954),and 2011;Munro, Sinanu, and Missbach 2011. Watch, Rights 2015. Hosen,2005;Human 2004;UNODC, Nadratuzzaman Kenny,Chia and 2015. Centre, Migrant 2013;UNODC, 2012;Mekong Asian and MigrationNetwork 34 nor has formal toprotect refugees norhas systems seekers. For asylum and reason, this 41 The also relatively has low smuggling of migrant numberofknown cases 38 Singapore attracts large numbers ofyoung large female migrants Indonesian Singapore attracts 33 For Malaysia some, Indonesiaare and merely to countries transit 32 37 35 As aresult, since2013fewer As seekers asylum 39 Both countries tightly restrict restrict tightly countries Both 31 There are frequent reports 40 36 The small Instances Instances 103 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 104 Irregular migration and smuggling of young women and girls in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: A review of existing evidence sometimes with the aid of smugglers, are abroader donotindicate somewhatisolatedand pattern. ofsmugglers, aid the sometimes with involve mostly offoreignIslands through adultmen.Reports transiting nationals region the irregularly, from are of migrants Pacific the known cases irregular concerned, as smuggling the migration and the in trafficking regionmostly involve of child children. of local Insofar the exploitation Instances already occur, by tobefacilitated donotappear smugglers. better described as migrant smuggling if women use paid services to enter the Pacific toenterthe illegally. Islands ifwomen services usepaid smuggling migrant as described better are cases Somewomen such exploited. move voluntarily; region tothe sexindustry engageinthe and Thailand Philippinesand the whoare recruitedChina, for legitimatework butare sometimes sexually This Papua involves Fiji, Kiribati, mostly SolomonIslands. the NewGuineaand young women from the of Islands, the Marshall region, including irregular main the some parts as migration issue affecting sites andlogging citiesortomining of trafficking young the sources womentosomeport Most identify are andsmuggling conflated. frequently trafficking and onisolatedincidents, available ofthe be experiencedby Much orbased information others. isanecdotal 46 45 44 43 42 theyare that means Italso more options. and prone rights their about tobelieveknow little false young they their that mean especially from can inexperiencewhich ageand stem can multiple factors, For more the be all young can severe. circumstances these women girls, and Their vulnerability special where they are where and underpaid, theyexperiencecoercion, force physical and violence. working livingand inconditions wheremigrants freedoms their are severely are that unsafe, restricted, employers. their than people other have with There limitedcontact are ofirregular examples ample are language, local the not familiar relevant with and laws regulations, and do not know rights, their they if especially are inplaceswhere they donotspeak trafficking, and are toexploitation vulnerable irregular migrants circumstances, Inthese by authorities. national deported and ofbeingdetected afraid wouldconditions that for beintolerable population.Alltoooften local the theyhave tolive inhiding, areprotections that They available regular and tonationals often migrants. work for live wagesand in borders irregularly orwhoare livingabroad and irregular inan rights accessto the situationlack are who Pacific. the and crossing millionsofmigrants Importantly, Asia international in South-East have ofmigrants Irregular for seriousimplications people smuggling and the countries migrationand the Implications necessarily indicativenecessarily ofgrowing activities. smuggling refusal border and at the higher rates of been detection arenoted that it has of entry time, not natural disasters, or other environmental, orother oreconomiccauses, political disasters, natural unregulated migrationflowsand from within the in region, especially change, climate response to of young women girlsfrom and there While Pacific the isapotential countries. toother Island for entry the illegal to facilitate offer recruiters agents services other paid and smugglers, that suggesting or special citizenship,or special migration,ortravel labour arrangements. exclusively migrationoccursalmost such avenues usinglegal often benefitingfrom visa-waiver schemes Pacific thethe Based on of information, are available that Rim Islanders. diasporas Pacific hometolarge People from Pacific the the ofmigrationwithin havealong Islands and tocountries region alonghistory Save 2016;Lindley Beacroft, and Children, the 2011. 2015;UNODC, See generally, Parker, 2018. 2018b. Lindley Beacroft, and 2011;UNODC, 2018b. 2017;Lindley Beacroft, and 2016;IOM, 2011;UNODC, UNODC, 2016,2018b;Pacific ImmigrationDirector’sUNODC, Conference, 2010. 42 Put simply, may not inonecountry issuesarising 44 There isnoopen-source information 45 such flows, insofar as theyas may flows,insofar such 46 43

48 47 ofsmugglers. leave services tothe personsforced optionbuttoresort little orwillingtomigratewith regionin the elsewhere, and frequently result the ofborder that controls immigrationrestrictions and in any is, way, ofmigrants smugglers smuggling ofthe scale emergenceand the that butdemonstrates fail migration flows to manage in a and effective fair way. This does not theexcuse workof unscrupulous ofmigrationwhere enablers as government act ofirregularnot acause systems migration.Smugglers Pacific the and Asia is asymptom, ofwomenThe children and across and smuggling within South-East complex questions. forin needofprotection.The Migrationprovides Compact Global ablueprinttoaddress someofthese population developments offer and asylum those for immigration laws for cater that shortages, labour create affordable accessible and legal avenues of migration, to legislatecomprehensiveand modern highlevelsthe complexitiesofirregular and migrationflowsthe in thereregion, an urgentneedto is for women levels. at givenall Furthermore, opportunities education ensure that and better rights, their ofwomen for protect These call children, and approaches circumstances status better the raise that slow, orexpensive. cumbersome, are migration is irregular avenuesthis legal used because smugglers and of migrationare non-existent, persecution, war,instances, generalized and violencegivesabroad. nooptionbuttoflee them of Much Insome Asia. for migrationofmen,women the many the among children and triggers inSouth-East Poverty, are inequality, homecountries intheir employment and ofeducation alack and opportunities women are pressured controlled and by menorby families. their wheresystems women have limited or liveaccess to government in patriarchal where societies services in especially are vulnerabilities Someofthese threats. genderdynamics, createdand by structural promises employers, and madeby are and recruiters, smugglers more likely tosuccumbcoercion profits are not supported profitsare by much evidence. notsupported Pacific the and in generatingmillionsofdollars Asia Islands operatinginSouth-East cartels smuggling about mafia-style Myths networked across offer borders mentioned, ofservices. as arange and, someofwhomare involving orgroups individual industry” ofopportunists, ofitisa“cottage Much itinvolvesin that coordination profiteering,always and butitdoesnot involve organizations. criminal oforganized crime, many has hallmarks country. intoanother ofmigrants The entry smuggling or illegal transportation local tofacilitate Frequently, boats and trucks cars, knowledge, their local theyusetheir arise. are becomeinvolved and Many amateurs smugglers whenopportunities ifand insmuggling professionally years with and often it is a business that of experience, involves organization. and skill little operate many and besignificant can smugglers ofmigrants profitsWhile the fromthe smuggling indistinguishable. can become inpersons trafficking and ofmigrants smuggling the circumstances, or years. Insuch oremployers smugglers totheir tiethem and for intodebttraps months leadmigrants can which loans greatly Many over-charge clientele. oftheir smugglers vulnerability someofferand for services; their prey country.is a lucrative many of migrants business and desperation on the The smugglers smuggling employment accommodationand may destination inthe supplyoffraudulent documents, the include border-crossing, and gowell beyond and ofsmugglers transportation services For the many migrants, UNODC, 2018a; Gallagher and McAuliffe, and Gallagher 2018a; 2016. UNODC, 2014. Hobolth, and 2010;Czaika Kneebone, 48

47

105 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 106 Irregular migration and smuggling of young women and girls in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: A review of existing evidence migration, especially of youngmigration, especially women girls. and prevent and forms other and movement, ofirregularhuman ofmigrants, smuggling rights protectthe young how area, in this ways of the they and impact women practices they facilitate girls, in which and laws and immigrationpolicies, This ofnational thorough with needstogohand-in-hand assessments Pacificand locally. the and these nationally examine importantly, and, facets Asia Islands in South-East ofyoung many irregularthe shape and women explain facetsthat smuggling migrationand girls and more research and targeted further itwould on background, this toconduct bedesirable Against development. intobroader and migration,asylum migrants onlabour policies of irregularlaws, smuggling whilemany the against migrationand fail countries tointegratestrategies enforcement operationand the about Inmany transparency placestherepolicies. ofimmigration islittle border oftheir tobeexposedcriticism theydonotwant because refugeeand/or protectionand they would systems prefer itmaythat asylum immigrationand oftheir reveal tokeep hidden aspects researchmisinformation. somegovernments Furthermore, field inthis tosupport arefor reluctant fear Globally, remains under-researched ofmigrants an smuggling the often topic, shrouded and by myths themselves. smugglers and migrants inrelation both tosmuggled ofmigrants, smuggling the information role the about there little agein ofgenderand isvery patterns, documenting numbersand differently. onthem women girlsor impact and from ofmorethe lack comprehensive Apart material countermeasures protection and ofthe adoptedbyand theyare insofar as directedatyoung States irregularof these the experiencesof flows, young and afterand girlsduring women their journey, means and patterns the phenomena, ofthese scale of the done to provide understanding abetter Pacific, the and work needstobe Asia ofyoungfurther women smuggling the girlsinSouth-East and merely paper While this provides ofirregular migrationand asketch characteristics and causes ofthe work Further Correa-Velez, Knoetze Nardone K. and M. I, Kenny S. and J. Chia, A. Chatterjee, Chalamwong, Y., Hongprayoon K. Meepienand J. Bylander, M. DevelopmentAsian Bank A. Amri, Y.M. Yusof-Kozlowski A.K.M., Ullah, Ahsan D’Aria M. and A.K.M. Ullah, Ahsan 2017 2012 2016 2012 2015 2013 2015 2016 2011 2019

ANU Press, Canberra, p. 141. ANU Press, Canberra, K. McAuliffeLongand Koser). (M. Way and Decision-making toGo:Irregular Migration Drivers Processes, Patterns, In:A Leaving minors. irregular the asylum-seeking migration of unaccompanied family behind: Understanding 13:838. The on Children Reflections regional Law, ofMaeLa: ofInternational refugee Journal cooperation.Melbourne , 12(2):58. Affairs Maritime ofSyrian Rohingyas, studies and Case atsea: Migrants 40:447. ofSocialScience, ofcross-borderManagement Journal ofnetimmigration.Asian acase migration:Thailand as Is regular migrationsafer from migration?Insights , 7(1):1. onMigration Thailand. Journal andHumanSecurity 22(8):1124. mobilities:GenderedContested migrationpressures youth. Cambodian among Gender, andCulture, Place, for Organization Migration. International and Development Asian Bank, . Report, Intervention Facilitating Safe Labor Migration in the Greater Mekong Challenges and Forward-Looking Subregion Issues, , 7(2):132. Ocean Affairs Trends, Asia: People inSouth-East smuggling way and and challenges ofMaritime Australian forward. Journal V.T. eds.). Ibrahim, Z. Springer, Kingand London, p.89. (P.J. Asia inSouth-East Carnegie, In:HumanInsecurities How Asia. safe issafe? migration” “Safe inSouth-East & RefugeeStudies, 9(2):139. ofImmigrant Journal marginalization. refugeesRohingya exclusions contemporary and Historical toBangladesh: References 107 Supporting Brighter Futures: Young women and girls and labour migration in South-East Asia and the Pacific 108 Irregular migration and smuggling of young women and girls in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: A review of existing evidence Margesson, R. R. Margesson, Lindley, Beacroft L. and J. S. Kneebone, YeohKhoo, C.Y., B.S.A. and Platt M. Reyes G. and H. Jalilian, H. Jalilian, for Organization Migration(IOM) International Watch Rights Human Gallagher, McAuliffe M. and A. M. Ford, Hobolth M. M.and Czaika 2011 2011 2010 2017 2013 2012 2013 2004 2016 2006 2014 2018 2017 2005

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