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Global Estimates of Modern

FORCED LABOUR AND FORCED

In with

Global estimates of modern slavery: and

GENEVA, 2017 Copyright © International Labour and Walk Free Foundation, 2017

First published 2017

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Global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva, 2017

ISBN: 978-92-2-130131-8 (print) ISBN: 978-92-2-130132-5 (web pdf)

Also available in French: Estimations mondiales de l’esclavage moderne: travail forcé et mariage forcé, ISBN 978-92-2-230932-0 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-230933-7 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017; and in Spanish: Estimaciones mundiales sobre la esclavitud moderna: Trabajo forzoso y matrimonio forzoso, ISBN 978-92-2-331038-7 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-331039-4 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017.

The designations employed in this publication, which are in conformity with United practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office or the International Organization for Migration concerning the of any , area or or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.

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Funding for ILO’s work on the 2016 Global Estimates of Modern Slavery leading to this reportwas provided by the Department of Labor under Agreement numbers GLO/10/55/USA and GLO/11/11/USA. This report does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of names, commercial products, or imply endorsement by the United States Government.

4 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage On any given day in 2016

40 METRICS million 40 million were victims of modern slavery. This includes:

▪▪ 25 million people in forced labour ▪▪ 15 million people in forced marriage

PREVALENCE

There were 5.4 victims of modern slavery for every thousand people in the in 2016.

There were 5.9 victims of modern slavery for every 1,000 in the world and 4.4 victims for every 1,000 children in the world. 5.4 per 1,000

GENDER

Women and accounted for 71 per cent of 71% modern slavery victims.

50% 25%

DEBT BONDAGE CHILDREN

Debt bondage affected half of all victims One in four victims of modern slavery were of forced labour imposed by private actors. children.

IN THE PAST FIVE YEARS, 89 MILLION PEOPLE EXPERIENCED SOME FORM OF MODERN SLAVERY FOR PERIODS OF RANGING FROM A FEW DAYS TO THE WHOLE FIVE YEARS.

5 © Lisa Kristine Table of contents

Executive summary 9

Introduction 15

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 21 1.1 Main results 21 1.2 Forced labour 28 1.2.1 Forced labour exploitation 32 1.2.2 Forced sexual exploitation of adults and commercial 39 sexual exploitation of children 1.2.3 -imposed forced labour 41 1.3 Forced marriage 44

Part 2. Ending modern slavery: road forward to 2030 49 2.1 Building a policy response: prevention and protection 50 2.2 Building the base 53 2.3 International cooperation and partnership 54

Annex: Note on 57

Endnotes 63

Table of contents 7 © Lisa Kristine summary

The 2017 Global Estimates of Modern it refers to situations of exploitation that Slavery are presented as a contribution a person cannot refuse or leave because to the Goals of threats, , , deception, (SDGs), in particular to Target 8.7, which and/or of power. calls for effective measures to end forced labour, modern slavery, and The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery trafficking, as well as in all focus on two main issues: forced labour its forms. It is intended to inform policy and forced marriage. The estimate of making and implementation of target 8.7 forced labour comprises forced labour and related SDG Targets. These include in the private (forms of forced eliminating all forms of violence against labour imposed by private , all women and girls in public and private groups, or in all sectors spheres, including trafficking and sexual except the commercial sex ), and other types of exploitation (SDG forced sexual exploitation of adults 5.2), eliminating all harmful practices, and commercial sexual exploitation such as child, early, and forced marriage of children, and state-imposed forced and female genital mutilations (SDG labour. 5.3), ending abuse, exploitation, and Due to limitations of the data, as detailed (SDG 16.2), and in this report, these estimates are consid- facilitating orderly, safe, and responsible ered to be conservative. migration and mobility of people, including through implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies (SDG 10.7). The global figures The estimates herein are the result of a collaborative effort between the International Labour Organization An estimated 40.3 million people were (ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation, victims of modern slavery in 2016. in partnership with the International In other words, on any given day in Organization for Migration (IOM). They 2016, there were likely to be more than benefited from inputs provided by 40 million men, women, and children other UN agencies, in particular the who were forced to work against Office of the High Commissioner for their will under threat or who were living (OHCHR). In the context in a forced marriage that they had not of this report, modern slavery covers a agreed to. of specific legal concepts including Of these 40.3 million victims: forced labour, debt bondage, forced marriage, other slavery and slavery ▪▪ 24.9 million people were in forced like practices, and . labour. That is, they were being forced Although modern slavery is not defined to work under threat or coercion as in , it is used as an umbrella term domestic workers, on that focuses attention on commonalities sites, in clandestine , on farms across these legal concepts. Essentially,

Executive summary 9 and fishing boats, in other sectors, and in the . They were The regional forced to work by private individuals figures and groups or by state authorities. In many cases, the products they made and the services they provided ended Modern slavery occurred in every re- up in seemingly legitimate commercial gion of the world. Modern slavery was channels. Forced labourers produced prevalent in (7.6 per 1,000 some of the we eat and the people), followed by Asia and the Pacific clothes we wear, and they have cleaned (6.1 per 1,000) then and Central the buildings in which many of us live Asia (3.9 per 1,000). These results should or work. be interpreted cautiously due to lack of available data in some regions, notably ▪▪ 15.4 million people were living in a the Arab States and the . forced marriage to which they had not consented. That is, they were en- For forced labour specifically, the during a situation that involved having prevalence is highest in Asia and the lost their sexual and often Pacific, where four out of every 1,000 involved providing labour under the people were victims, followed by Europe guise of “marriage”. and (3.6 per 1,000), Africa (2.8 per 1,000), the Arab States (2.2 per Women and girls are disproportionately 1,000) and the Americas (1.3 per 1,000). affected by modern slavery, account- ing for 28.7 million, or 71 per cent of the While noting limits of the data in key overall total. More precisely, women and regions, particularly the Arab States, girls represent 99 per cent of victims of the data suggests prevalence of forced labour in the commercial sex in- forced marriage is highest in Africa dustry and 58 per cent in other sectors, (4.8 per 1,000), followed by Asia and the 40 per cent of victims of forced labour Pacific (2.0 per 1,000). imposed by state authorities, and 84 per cent of victims of forced .

One in four victims of modern slavery were children. Some 37 per cent Forced labour (5.7 million) of those forced to marry were children. Children represented This study examined different forms of 18 per cent of those subjected to forced labour, distinguishing between forced labour exploitation and 7 per forced labour imposed by private actors cent of people forced to work by (such as employers in private ) state authorities. Children who were and that which was imposed by states. in commercial sexual exploitation Of the 24.9 million victims of forced (where the victim is a child, there is labour, 16 million were in the private no requirement of force) represented economy, another 4.8 million were in 21 per cent of total victims in this forced sexual exploitation, and 4.1 million category of abuse. were in forced labour imposed by state In the past five years, 89 million people authorities. experienced some form of modern FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION slavery for periods of time ranging from a few days to the whole five years. An estimated 16 million people were in The average length of time victims were forced labour in the private economy in in forced labour varied from a few days 2016. More women than men are affected or weeks in some forms imposed by by privately imposed forced labour, with state authorities to nearly two years for 9.2 million (57.6 per cent) female and forced sexual exploitation. 6.8 million (42.4 per cent) male. Half of these men and women (51 per cent) were in debt bondage, in which personal

10 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage debt is used to forcibly obtain labour. and do not benefit them, or This proportion rises above 70 per cent forced to work against their will outside] for adults who were forced to work in the exceptions established by the ILO , domestic work, or manufac- supervisory bodies. turing.

Among cases where the type of work was known, the largest share of adults who were in forced labour were domestic Forced marriage workers (24 per cent). This was followed by the construction (18 per cent), man- In 2016, an estimated 15.4 million people ufacturing (15 per cent), and agriculture were living in a forced marriage. Of this and fishing (11 per cent) sectors. total, 6.5 million cases had occurred in Most victims of forced labour suffered the previous five years (2012-2016) and multiple forms of coercion from the remainder had taken place prior to employers or recruiters as a way of this period but had continued into it. preventing them from being able to While men and boys can also be victims leave the situation. Nearly one-quarter of forced marriage, most victims of victims (24 per cent) had their (88 per cent) were women and girls, with withheld or were prevented from leaving more than a third (37 per cent) of victims by threats of non-payment of due wages. under 18 years of age at the time of the This was followed by threats of violence marriage. Among child victims, 44 per (17 per cent), acts of physical violence cent were forced to marry before the (16 per cent), and threats against age of 15 years. While noting limits of the (12 per cent). For women, 7 per cent of data in key regions, particularly the Arab victims reported acts of . States, the data suggests prevalence FORCED SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF of forced marriage per 1,000 people is ADULTS AND COMMERCIAL SEXUAL highest in Africa (4.8 per 1,000), followed EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN by Asia and the Pacific (2.0 victims per 1,000). An estimated 3.8 million adults were victims of forced sexual exploitation and 1.0 million children were victims of commercial sexual exploitation in 2016. The vast majority of victims (99 Data sources and per cent) were women and girls. More methodology than seven in ten victims were exploited in the Asia and the Pacific region. This was followed by Europe and Central As no single source provides suitable Asia (14 per cent), Africa (8 per cent), and reliable data for all forms of modern the Americas (4 per cent), and the Arab slavery, a combined methodology has States (1 per cent). been adopted, drawing on a variety of data sources as required. The central STATE-IMPOSED FORCED LABOUR element is the use of 54 specially There were an estimated 4.1 million designed, national probabilistic surveys people in state-imposed forced labour involving interviews with more than on average in 2016. They included citizens 71,000 respondents across 48 . recruited by their state authorities to Administrative data from IOM databases participate in agriculture or construction of assisted victims of trafficking were work for purposes of economic used, in combination with the 54 datasets, development, young conscripts to estimate forced sexual exploitation forced to perform work that was not of and forced labour of children, as military nature, those forced to perform well as the duration of forced labour communal services that were not exploitation. Forced labour imposed decided upon at the community level by state authorities was derived from

Executive summary 11 validated sources and systematic review of forced labour prevention, while of comments from the ILO supervisory improved victim identification is critical bodies with regard to ILO Conventions to extending protection to the vast on forced labour. majority of modern slavery victims who are currently unidentified or unattended. The methodology used to build these Finally, we know that much of modern Global Estimates combined this data, slavery today occurs in contexts of state which covers a five-year reference period fragility, conflict, and crisis, pointing to from 2012 to 2016. All the data on cases the need to address the risk of modern of forced labour and forced marriage slavery as part of humanitarian actions in that took place between 2012 and 2016, these situations. representing a total of nearly 89 million people, was analysed and processed Further efforts are needed to improve to build the main estimates of modern the evidence base on modern slavery slavery presented in this report. in order to inform and guide policy responses in all of these areas. Key measurement priorities identified through the preparation of the Global Estimates Conclusions include the improved measurement of modern slavery affecting children and and way forward specifically cases of commercial sexual exploitation involving children and . There is also a need to Ending modern slavery will require a more effectively capture specific sub- multi-faceted response that addresses populations such as adult victims of the array of forces – economic, social, forced sexual exploitation and victims cultural, and legal – that contribute to in conflict contexts. The ability to track vulnerability and enable . There changes in modern slavery over time can be no one-size-fits-all solution; will be critical for monitoring responses need to be adapted to the in the lead-up to 2030. But perhaps the diverse environments in which modern most important priority is to strengthen slavery still occurs. But it is nonetheless and extend national research and data possible to identify some overarching collection efforts on modern slavery to policy priorities in the lead-up to 2030 guide national policy responses. from the Global Estimates and from experience to date. International cooperation in addressing modern slavery is essential given its global Stronger floors are and cross- dimensions. necessary to offset the vulnerabilities 8.7, a multi- partnership that can push people into modern committed to achieving Target 8.7 of slavery. Extending labour rights in the the Sustainable Development Goals, has – where modern an important role to in this regard. slavery is most likely to occur – is needed The Global Estimates indicate that the to protect workers from exploitation. majority of forced labour today exists in Given that a large share of modern the private economy. This underscores slavery can be traced to migration, the importance of partnering with improved migration is vitally the community – alongside important to preventing forced labour employers’ and workers’ organisations, and protecting victims. and civil organisations – to eradicate forced labour in supply chains Additionally, the risk and typology of and in the private economy more broadly. modern slavery is strongly influenced Cooperation should be strengthened by , and this must also be taken between and among governments and into account in developing policy with relevant international and regional responses. Addressing the root causes organizations in areas such as of debt bondage, a widespread means of enforcement, enforcement, coercion, is another necessary element and the of migration in

12 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage order to prevent trafficking and to address forced labour across .

Executive summary 13 © ILO Introduction

The new Global Estimates presented in partnership with the International in this report indicate that more than Organization for Migration (IOM).2 They 40 million people were caught up in benefited from inputs provided by other the grip of modern slavery in 2016. This UN agencies, in particular the Office of alarming figure is a wake-up call to the the High Commissioner for Human Rights global community, which, through the (OHCHR). The estimates are based of the 2030 Sustainable Devel- on a jointly developed methodology opment Goals (SDGs), has committed to summarised in the annex and described the target of ending modern slavery and in detail in the methodology report human trafficking by the year 2030. produced along with this Global Estimates report.3 They are derived from Thirteen years is but a moment in hu- various data sources, as no one source man history, and doing away with co- was considered sufficiently suitable ercive systems that in some cases have or reliable. The sources are been around for centuries – and that in the Walk Free Foundation’s other cases are emerging from new and data for 2014 and 2015, as well as data illegitimate business models, large-scale from an additional 26 national surveys migration, crisis, and conflict – will be a jointly conducted by ILO and Walk Free monumental challenge. Meeting the am- Foundation in 2016 and data drawn from bitious 2030 target to end modern slav- the IOM’s database of human trafficking ery will require renewed political will, cases since 2012. The terminology utilised matched by the commitment of suffi- in the report is described in Panel 1. cient resources, and a major acceleration of national and international efforts. The report, and the global estimation that underpins it, forms part To be effective, policies and programmes of a broader multi-partner effort to must be grounded in the best possible measure and monitor progress towards of the root causes of Target 8.7 of the Sustainable Develop- modern slavery at both the national ment Goals. This effort is taking place and global levels. This requires not only within the framework of Alliance 8.7, a more and better on the multi-stakeholder partnership commit- numbers of people affected by modern ted to ending forced labour, modern slavery, but also on its various forms and slavery, human trafficking, and child la- manifestations, and the ways in which bour in accordance with SDG Target 8.7. people are caught up in it. This report is aimed at informing global efforts towards The report charts how far we must still the 2030 target by helping to fulfil these travel to our commitment to information requirements. It is also hoped ending modern slavery by 2030. Part 1 that the findings presented in the report presents the most complete possible will encourage further research and profile of modern slavery in today’s data collection efforts by governments, world: the main forms of forced labour focused on the national and local and forced marriage, their extent and dimensions of modern slavery. characteristics, the means by which per- sons are trapped in them, and the dura- The global and regional estimates tion of the abuse. Part 2 discusses key presented in this report were developed policy priorities emerging from the Glob- by the International Labour Organization al Estimates in the drive to rid the world (ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation of modern slavery.

Introduction 15 Panel 1

Statistical concepts and definitions used in this report

In the context of this report, example, a forced her or being modern slavery covers a set into commercial sexual engaged in forced labour. of specific legal concepts in- exploitation is in a forced The coercion take place cluding forced labour, debt situation because of its during the child’s bondage, forced marriage, involuntary nature and to force the child or his or her slavery and slavery-like prac- the menace she is facing, parents to accept the or, tices, and human trafficking. regardless of the dangers once the child is working, to Although modern slavery is and hazards she faces in force him or her to do tasks not defined in law, it is used as this work or whether it is that were not part of what an umbrella term that focuses permitted by law. In recent was agreed to at the time of attention on commonalities years, the ILO has focused on recruitment or to prevent the across these legal concepts. the two criteria embedded child from leaving the work. Essentially, it refers to situ- in the No. 29, ations of exploitation that a namely, “involuntariness” and person cannot refuse or leave “menace of penalty” with because of threats, violence, regard to determining forced coercion, deception, and/or labour of adults and forced . labour of children.”5

In order to make this set Forced labour of adults is de- of complex legal concepts fined, for purposes of meas- measurable, the Global urement, as work for which Estimates focus on two key a person has not offered him forms of modern slavery: or herself voluntarily (criteri- forced labour and forced on of “involuntariness”) and marriage. which is performed under coercion (criterion of “men- Forced labour is defined ace of penalty”) applied by by ILO Forced Labour an employer or a third party. Convention, 1930 (No. 29) The coercion may take place as “all work or that during the worker’s recruit- is exacted from any person ment process to force him or under the menace of any her to accept the job or, once penalty and for which the the person is working, to said person has not offered force him or her to do tasks 4 himself voluntarily.” While that were not part of what forced labour may be was agreed to at the time of particularly widespread recruitment or to prevent him in certain economic or her from leaving the job. activities or industries, a forced labour situation is Forced labour of children determined by the nature is defined, for purposes of the relationship between of measurement, as work a person and an “employer” performed by a child under and not by the type of coercion applied by a third activity performed, however party (other than his or her arduous or hazardous the parents) either to the child or conditions of work may be, to the child’s parents, or work nor by its or illegality performed by a child as a under national law. For direct consequence of his or

16 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Modern slavery

Forced labour Forced marriage

Forced sexual exploitation State-imposed forced labour Forced labour exploitation of adults and commercial sexual exploitation of children

TYPOLOGY OF military, compulsory partic- That is, forced marriage in FORCED LABOUR ipation in public works, and these estimates includes all forced labour. marriages of both adults and Forced labour can be found children that were reported in its various forms in practi- Forced marriage refers to by the survey respondent to cally all countries and all eco- situations where persons, have been forced and with- nomic activities. The typology regardless of their age, have out , regardless of depicted above, which was been forced to marry without the age of the respondent. developed for the global es- their consent. A person might Accordingly, the estimates timates of forced labour, is be forced to marry through do not include every instance based on three main catego- physical, emotional, or fi- of child marriage, as child ries of forced labour defined nancial duress, deception by marriage is not currently as follows: family members, the , measured adequately at the or others, or the use of force, scale or specificity required ▪▪ Forced labour exploita- threats, or severe . for a global estimate.8 tion, imposed by private Forced marriage is prohibited agents for labour exploita- through the prohibitions OTHER RELATED tion, including bonded on slavery and slavery-like CONCEPTS labour, forced domestic practices, including servile work, and work imposed marriage.6 Child marriage is The other main concepts in the context of slavery or generally considered to be of modern slavery are slav- vestiges of slavery. forced marriage, given that ery, and prac- one and/or both parties by tices similar to slavery, and ▪▪ Forced sexual exploita- definition has not expressed trafficking in persons (often tion of adults, imposed by full, free, and informed con- referred to as human traffick- private agents for com- sent. However, there are ing). These are not included mercial sexual exploitation, exceptions. For example, explicitly in the estimates but and all forms of commer- in many countries 16 and 17 are closely linked to them. cial sexual exploitation of year-olds who wish to marry Slavery was first defined in a children. This encompasses are legally able to do so fol- Convention adopted by the the use, , or offer- lowing a judicial ruling or pa- in 1926 ing of children for prostitu- rental consent.7 It is impor- as “the status or conditions tion or . tant to be clear that for the of a person over whom any or all of the powers attach- ▪▪ State-imposed forced purposes of these estimates, ing to the right of labour, including work the measurement of forced are exercised”. It thus refers exacted by the public au- marriage is limited to what to control of one person or thorities, military, or para- was captured by the surveys.

Introduction 17 persons over others, and is isation, it is also accepted Organized , adopted in also considered a serious that the eradication of these 2000. The definition specifies criminal offence. The concept slavery-like practices can that the crime of trafficking of slavery-like practices was be achieved only over time is a process constituted by first addressed in internation- through the necessary leg- three distinct elements – act, al law in 1956 by means of a islative and other program- means, and purpose (ex- instrument, matic measures. ploitation). Coercion is one of supplementing the earlier the means enumerated in the Slavery Convention, covering While the concept of traffick- Protocol, which states that a range of institutions and ing in persons was addressed when coercion (or any other practices similar to slavery, in a number of earlier instru- means) is used to get victims including debt bondage, serf- ments, the most recent and into an exploitative situation, dom, and forced marriage.9 widely accepted definition is actual exploitation need not While the instrument places that contained in a Protocol happen for a trafficking crime some emphasis on criminal- to the United Nations Con- to have taken place. vention against Transnational

Table 1

Modern slavery: global results

Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age

Forced labour sub-categories Total Forced sexual Forced Modern forced Forced labour exploitation of adults State-imposed marriage slavery labour exploitation and commercial sexual forced labour exploitation of children

No. (thousands) 15 975 4 816 4 060 24 850 15 442 40 293 World Prevalence 2.2 0.7 0.5 3.4. 2.1 5.4 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 6 766 29 2 411 9 206 2 442 11 648 Male Prevalence 1.8 0 0.6 2.4 0.6 3.0 (per thousand) Sex No. (thousands) 9 209 4 787 1 650 15 646 13 000 28 645 Female Prevalence 2.5 1.3 0.4 4.2 3.5 7.7 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 12 995 3 791 3 778 20 564 9 762 30 327 Adults Prevalence 2.5 0.7 0.7 3.9 1.9 5.8 (per thousand) Age No. (thousands) 2 980 1 024 282 4 286 5 679 9 965 Children Prevalence 1.3 0.4 0.1 1.9 2.5 4.4 (per thousand)

18 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Table 2

Modern slavery: global results

Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age

Total forced labour Forced marriage Modern slavery

No. (thousands) 24 850 15 442 40 293 World Prevalence 3.4 2.1 5.4 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 3 420 5 820 9 240 Africa Prevalence 2.8 4.8 7.6 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 1 280 670 1 950 Americas Prevalence 1.3 0.7 1.9 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 350 170 520 Region Arab States Prevalence 2.2 1.1 3.3 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 16 550 8 440 24 990 Asia and Prevalence the Pacific 4.0 2.0 6.1 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 3 250 340 3 590 Europe and Prevalence Central Asia 3.6 0.4 3.9 (per thousand)

Introduction 19 © Lisa Kristine Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery

who were being forced to work against 1.1 Main results their will under threat, or who were living in a forced marriage that they had not agreed to. In terms of the of AN ESTIMATED 40.3 MILLION PEOPLE prevalence modern slavery, there were 5.4 victims WERE VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY for every thousand people in the world IN 2016 in 2016. Due to limitations of the meth- In other words, on any given day in odology and data,10 these estimates are 2016, there were likely to be more than considered to be conservative. 40 million men, women, and children

Figure 1

Modern slavery

Number and percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by category

Forced labour

Forced marriage

15,400,000 38%

24,900,000 62%

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 21 OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF VICTIMS This reflects highly gendered patterns OF MODERN SLAVERY, 24.9 MILLION of and migration and helps PEOPLE WERE IN FORCED LABOUR shed light on where prevention and victim AND 15.4 MILLION PEOPLE WERE identification efforts should be focused. LIVING IN A FORCED MARRIAGE But the data also suggests the relevance of broader patterns of human rights It is worth reflecting on what these fig- abuses that disproportionately affect ures mean: women and girls, including domestic and sexual violence and discriminatory beliefs ▪▪ 24.9 million people were being forced to work under threat or coercion as and practices around access to , domestic workers, on construction , and even . sites, in factories, on farms and fishing boats, in other sectors, and in the sex industry. They were forced to work by private individuals and groups or by state authorities. In many cases, the products they made and the servic- es they provided ended up in seem- ingly legitimate commercial channels. Forced labourers produced some of the food we eat and the clothes we wear, and they have cleaned the build- ings in which we live or work.

▪▪ 15.4 million people were living in a forced marriage to which they had not consented. That is, they were en- during a situation that involved having lost their sexual autonomy and often involved providing labour under the guise of “marriage”.

WOMEN AND GIRLS ARE DISPROPORTIONATELY AFFECTED BY MODERN SLAVERY, FOR 71 PER CENT OF TOTAL VICTIMS

The estimates suggest that far more fe- males than males are affected by modern slavery (71 per cent versus 29 per cent). This varies across forms. Women and girls are disproportionately victimised above all for forced labour in the private economy (including domestic work and the sex industry) and forced marriage. Women and girls represented 99 per cent of victims of forced sexual exploita- tion and 84 per cent of victims of forced marriages.

22 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Figure 2

Modern slavery and sex of victim

Percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by sex and category

100% Female

Male

80% 40.6% 57.6% 71.1% 60% 84.2% 99.4%

40%

59.4%

20% 42.4% 28.9% 15.8% 0.6% 0%

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

The Global Estimates indicate that ONE IN FOUR VICTIMS OF MODERN men are disproportionately to SLAVERY IN 2016 WERE CHILDREN state-imposed forms of forced labour, BELOW THE AGE OF 18 YEARS reflecting the impact on men of abusive and , and to One of the most alarming findings of the forced labour in sectors that traditionally modern slavery estimates is the extent involve (construction, to which children are victims. One-quar- , and agriculture/fishing). ter of all modern slavery victims – They also confirm that men and boys 10 million persons in all – were children. can be victims in all aspects of modern Children were especially likely to fall slavery, including forced sexual exploita- victim to forced marriage. Some 37 per tion and forced marriage. Accordingly, it cent, or 5.7 million, of those forced to is critical that preventative efforts reflect marry were children. Children represent- this risk profile and also that national ed 21 per cent of the victims of forced and responses to make al- sexual exploitation, 18 per cent of those lowance for male victims. subjected to forced labour exploitation, and 7 per cent of people forced to work by state authorities.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 23 Figure 3

Modern slavery and age of victim

Percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by age and category

100% Children 6.9% 18.7% 24.7% 21.3% Adults 80% 36.8%

60%

93.1% 40% 81.3% 75.3% 78.7% 63.2%

20%

0%

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

There is in fact only a small difference between children and adults in terms of prevalence of modern slavery. There were 5.9 adult victims of modern slavery for every 1,000 adults in the world and 4.4 child victims for every 1,000 chil- dren in the world. When examining the rates of prevalence by form of modern slavery, adults were more likely than chil- dren to be victims of all three forms of forced labour; however, children were more likely than adults to be victims of forced marriage. For every 1,000 chil- dren, there were 2.5 victims of forced marriage, while for every 1,000 adults there were 1.9 victims of forced marriage.

24 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Figure 4

Modern slavery and age of victim

Prevalence (per 1,000 persons) of modern slavery, by age and category

Children

Adults

5.9

4.4

2.5 2.5 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.1

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

Forced labour of children takes two pre- days or entered into a forced marriage. dominant forms. It can result from their Of these, 82.7 million were victims of guardians themselves being in forced forced labour and 6.5 million had been labour, in which case the children work forced to marry against their will. There with their parents or at least for the is wide variation in how long victims of same employer. Or the children may be modern slavery remain in their situation. in forced labour on their own as a result While some manage to escape after a of trafficking, deceptive recruitment, or few days or weeks, others are trapped coercive means used by their direct em- for years, as is the case for those in tradi- ployer. In the former case, parents are tional forms of hereditary bonded labour more likely to be aware of their children’s and some forced marriages. For victims situation and working conditions. In the registered by IOM after 2012, the average latter case, parents are less likely to be duration in forced labour exploitation was aware, as with children who migrate slightly over 20 months and for the vic- alone or are trafficked into forced labour, tims of sexual exploitation it was 23 particularly domestic work. months. Victims of forced labour im- posed by state authorities were exploit- THERE WAS A TOTAL OF 89 MILLION ed for a duration that varied from a few VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY OVER days per month (for example, when au- THE PERIOD FROM 2012 TO 2016; thorities force people to participate in THE TIME DURATION VARIED WIDELY illegal communal services) to several Over the five-year period from 2012 to years for some cases of prison labour or 2016, 89 million people were either in forced labour in the context of military forced labour for a minimum number of service.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 25 Figure 5

Regional prevalence of modern slavery

Prevalence of modern slavery (per 1,000 population), by region and category

7.6 Forced labour

Forced marriages 6.1 5.4 2.8

3.9

3.4 4.0 3.3

4.8 1.9 3.6 2.2

1.3 2.1 2.0 1.1 0.4 0.7

World Africa Asia and Europe and Arab States Americas the Pacific Central Asia

THE PREVALENCE OF MODERN bearing in mind critical gaps and limita- SLAVERY IS HIGHEST IN AFRICA tions of the data.11 This is especially the case in Central Asia and the Arab States, There were 7.6 victims for every where few surveys have been conduct- thousand people in the Africa region. This ed despite numerous reports of forced was followed by the Asia and the Pacific labour and forced marriages occurring.12 region (6.1 per 1,000), Europe and Cen- Far more research and survey work is re- tral Asia (3.9 per 1,000), the Arab States quired at the national level to provide a (3.3 per 1,000) and finally the Americas more comprehensive picture. (1.9 per 1,000). Regional prevalence rank- ings differed for the two main categories of modern slavery – forced labour and forced marriage. Asia and the Pacific had the highest prevalence of forced labour (4.0 per 1,000) and Africa the highest prevalence of forced marriage (4.8 per 1,000). The regional figures are impor- tant but should be interpreted with care,

26 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Figure 6

Regional distribution of modern slavery

Number (in thousands) and percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by region

Asia and the Pacific

Europe and Central Asia

Africa 3,600 Americas 9% Arab States 25,000 62%

9,230 23%

1,950 5%

520 1%

THE POPULOUS ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION IS HOST TO BY FAR THE LARGEST ABSOLUTE NUMBER OF VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY

Figures for the absolute numbers of persons in modern slavery underscored the importance of the Asia and Pacific region, where 62 per cent of all victims of modern slavery worldwide were locat- ed. This was followed by the Africa re- gion (23 per cent), Europe and Central Asia (9 per cent), the Americas (5 per- cent), and finally the Arab States (1 per cent). The Asia and the Pacific region has the highest share of victims across all forms of modern slavery, accounting for 73 per cent of victims of forced sexual exploitation, 68 per cent of those forced to work by state authorities, 64 per cent of those in forced labour exploitation, and 42 per cent of all those in forced marriages.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 27 1.2 Forced labour

Table 3

Forced labour

Number and prevalence of persons in forced labour, by category, sex and age

Forced labour sub-categories Total Forced sexual exploitation of adults forced Forced labour State-imposed and commercial sexual exploitation forced labour children

No. (thousands) 15 975 4 816 4 060 24 850 World Prevalence 2.2 0.7 0.5 3.4. (per thousand) No. (thousands) 6 766 29 2 411 9 206 Male Prevalence 1.8 0 0.6 2.4 (per thousand) Sex No. (thousands) 9 209 4 787 1 650 15 646 Female Prevalence 2.5 1.3 0.4 4.2 (per thousand) No. (thousands) 12 995 3 791 3 778 20 564 Adults Prevalence 2.5 0.7 0.7 3.9 (per thousand) Age No. (thousands) 2 980 1 024 282 4 286 Children Prevalence 1.3 0.4 0.1 1.9 (per thousand)

This section of the report presents the on farms in America, in main findings related to forced labour European cities, and constructing high using three broad categories: forced rise buildings in the Gulf States, among labour exploitation,13 forced sexual other sectors and geographic areas. exploitation,14 and state-imposed forced Regardless of the setting, an identifying labour.15 feature of situations of forced labour is lack of voluntariness in taking the job or Forced labour, as set out in ILO Forced accepting the working conditions, and 16 Labour Convention, 1930 (No.29), refers the application of a penalty or a threat to “all work or service which is exacted of a penalty to prevent an from any person under the menace of from leaving a situation or otherwise any penalty and for which the said person to compel work. Coercion can take has not offered himself voluntarily”. many forms, ranging from physical and Men, women, and children are forced sexual violence or threats against family to work in various settings across the members to more subtle means such as globe, with examples of forced labour withholding of wages, retaining found in garment making in South Asian documents, threats of , and factories, digging for minerals in African threats of denunciation to authorities. mines, harvesting tomatoes on North farms, working as domestic workers in East Asian , working

28 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage victims of forced labour exploitation in economic activities such as agriculture, AN ESTIMATED 24.9 MILLION construction, domestic work, and man- PERSONS WERE VICTIMS ufacturing, 4.8 million were victims of OF FORCED LABOUR IN 2016 forced sexual exploitation, and 4.1 million Among the 24.9 million people in any were victims of forced labour imposed form of forced labour, 16 million were by state authorities.

Figure 7

Forced labour

Number and percentage distribution of victims of forced labour, by sub-category

Forced labour exploitation

Forced sexual exploitation

4,100,000 State-imposed forced labour 17%

4,800,000 19% 16,000,000 64%

A SIGNIFICANT SHARE OF VICTIMS OF FORCED LABOUR WERE EXPLOITED OUTSIDE THEIR COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE17

Almost one of every four victims of forced labour were exploited outside their country of residence. As illustrated in Figure 8, victims of forced sexual exploitation appear most likely to have been exploited outside their country of residence, while, not surprisingly, almost all forced labour imposed by state authorities took place within the borders of their own countries. It should be noted, however, that these differences by typology were driven in part by the differences in the data sources used for measuring them.18

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 29 Figure 8

Forced labour and migration

Percentage of victims of forced labour living outside their country residence, by form of forced labour

100%

80%

60%

40% 74%

20% 23% 14% 1% 0%

Forced labour (total) Forced sexual Forced labour State-imposed exploitation exploitation forced labour

The large share of victims exploited This point is taken up further in Panel 2. outside their country of residence points The fight against modern slavery is thus to the high degree of risk associated with integrally related to global initiatives migration in the modern world, particu- to promote orderly, safe, and regular larly for migrant women and children, migration, such as the global compact who are likely to be the most vulnerable. for safe, orderly and regular migration.

Panel 2

Migration and the risk of exploitation

Although most migration is smugglers and become traf- reduced bargaining power. voluntary and has a positive ficked along the way. Once Large-scale displacement impact on individuals and so- they reach their destination, caused by humanitarian crises cieties, migration can increase migrants who have travelled such as armed conflicts, nat- vulnerability to human traffick- through regular and irregular ural , and protracted ing and exploitation. Irregular channels remain vulnerable to unrest can also create vul- migrants, for instance, trafficking in persons and oth- nerable populations who can may be subjected to kidnap er forms of exploitation due to become victims of traffick- and ransom demands, extor- language barriers, challeng- ing.19 tion, physical violence, sex- es of , and ual abuse, and trafficking in unscrupulous employers and Migrant workers and job seek- persons. They may start their landlords who take advan- ers, who constitute the major- journeys by willingly placing tage of their limited knowl- ity of international migrants, themselves in the hands of edge of local conditions and are vulnerable to human trafficking throughout their

30 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage migration process. Labour documented the clear links among children and on migration is an increasingly between human trafficking the move through the Medi- complex and dynamic phe- and migration. The United terranean .23 nomenon taking place within Nations Office on Drugs and and between all regions of Crime (UNODC) reports that Opportunities for exploita- the world. In certain migration approximately 60 per cent of tion of migrant workers can corridors, such as between victims of trafficking in per- include charging recruitment Asia and the Arab States and sons detected between 2012 fees, providing false promis- within South-, the and 2014 were from outside es about or working number of international mi- the country where they were conditions, or even the na- grants, the large majority of exploited.21 IOM also docu- ture of the job itself. Migrant whom are migrant workers, mented the predatory behav- workers may find themselves has tripled since 1990. Tem- iour and the kinds of enabling employed under substand- porary labour migration, par- environments in which human ard working conditions, be- ticularly of low-skilled work- trafficking and associated ing paid at levels be- ers, is exceeding permanent forms of abuse and exploita- low national standards and flows, and this presents a sig- tion flourish along key mi- counterparts, and sometimes nificant governance challenge gration routes. For example, kept under these conditions in terms of ensuring decent approximately three-quarters due to their sta- work and reducing migration of respondents in IOM’s Flow tus, difficulties in changing for this category of mi- Monitoring Surveys conduct- employment linked to re- grant workers.20 Many migrant ed on the Central Mediterra- strictive visa regimes, and/ workers are concentrated in nean route to Europe from or debt bondage. While pro- specific economic sectors North Africa (primarily ) tections for migrant workers such as domestic work, man- reported direct experiences are increasing in some areas, ufacturing, construction, and of abuse, exploitation, coer- particularly through bilateral agriculture. Special attention cion and practices that may agreements, there is a con- is required for domestic work- amount to human traffick- tinued need to reform the ers, who are among the most ing.22 Findings from a recent recruiting and contracting vulnerable groups of workers. report by UNICEF and IOM systems that place migrant also shed light on the risks of workers at risk of forced la- Several recent reports have trafficking and exploitation bour and human trafficking.

NINETY-FOUR PER CENT OF MODERN cal data providing insight into the connec- SLAVERY VICTIMS WERE EXPLOITED tion between levels and forced IN A COUNTRY IN THE SAME labour movements. To explore this issue, INCOME-BASED REGIONAL GROUPING the estimates of victims of forced labour AS THEIR COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE were examined according to the income levels of the victims’ country of residence is often cited as an important risk and of the country where the exploitation factor for modern slavery, and relative took place. The results suggest very lit- disparities between countries are tle movement across income groupings. often cited as a pull factor. While poverty Ninety-four per cent of victims of forced can drive a decision to migrate for labour, labour were exploited in a country that it can also act as a barrier to migration, was in the same income-based regional as members of the poorest groups are of- grouping as their country of residence. ten unable to raise the money required to People who were exploited in the low- reach their destination, whether through and lower-middle-income groupings were accessing in their local communities almost exclusively residents of countries or from others in the migration industry. that were in the same income grouping. But to date there has been limited empiri-

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 31 Females accounted for a significant- 1.2.1 Forced labour ly larger share of total victims (57 per exploitation cent) than males (43 per cent). Nearly 20 per cent of the victims of forced la- bour exploitation were children, who This sub-section refers to persons in may have worked alone, far from their forced labour exploitation imposed by , or together with their parents. private actors other than for commercial Among cases of forced labour exploita- sexual exploitation. tion where the type of work was known,24 the largest share – almost a quarter – was AN ESTIMATED 16 MILLION PEOPLE in domestic work. This was followed by WERE VICTIMS OF FORCED the construction (18 per cent), manufac- LABOUR EXPLOITATION IMPOSED turing (15 per cent), and agriculture and BY PRIVATE ACTORS IN 2016 fishing (11 per cent) sectors.

Figure 9

Sector of forced labour exploitation

(a) Sectoral distribution of victims of forced labour (b) Sex distribution of victims of forced labour exploitation(a), (b) exploitation, by sector of economic activity(a), (b)

Female Male 1%

100% 4% Begging 10 7% and quarrying 18 18 9% 32 80% Personal services 10% 48 48 Wholesale and trade 61 11% Accommodation and 60% food service activities 92 15% Agriculture, forestries, 100 and fishing 90 40% 82 82 18% Manufacturing 68

Construction 52 52 20% Domestic work 39 24% 8 0% Begging and fishing Construction Manufacturing Domestic work Personal services Wholesale and trade Accommodation and Mining and quarrying food service activities Agriculture, forestries,

Note: (a) These figures are based on cases of forced labour exploitation where industry was reported. Informa- tion on the industry was available for 65 per cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation; and (b) with the exception of begging, categories are based on the Classification of All Eco- nomic Activities, Rev.4 (1-digit level). For further detail and explanation see United Nations Statistics Division (https://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcst.asp?Cl=27).

32 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage DIFFERENCES BY SEX IN THE Within each of these broader economic TYPOLOGY OF FORCED LABOUR activity areas, forced labour exploita- EXPLOITATION WERE CONSIDERABLE tion can take on a number of forms. They range from the servile practices Male victims were much more likely than still found in parts of the world’s poorer female victims to be in the mining, man- countries, often the vestiges of slavery ufacturing, construction, and agriculture or longstanding practices of ethnic and sectors. Nine out of every 10 victims in- social , to the abuses in the volved in begging were also male. Fe- supply chains of major modern compa- male victims of forced labour exploita- nies. Some of these issues by sector are tion were much more likely to be in the reviewed Panel 3. accommodation and food services in- dustry and in domestic work.

Panel 3

Forms of forced labour exploitation in the private economy

DOMESTIC WORK 19 per cent. Moreover, umented, the fragmented high-income countries ac- nature of recruitment can The domestic work sec- count for 9.1 million domestic lead to “excessive fees, work- tor, which accounted for workers globally, amounting ing conditions akin to forced 24 per cent of identified to about 80 per cent of the labour, substitu- forced labour exploitation total. tion, visa trading, and inef- cases, is now receiving more fective complaint and griev- attention for its employment With a few exceptions, ance procedures”. Excessive potential but also for the domestic workers are exclud- recruitment fees are often abuses occurring within it, ed from the protections in transferred to workers in including extreme violence. national labour laws. Com- the form of direct payments, There has been a steady in- mon grievances have includ- large loans requiring repay- crease in the overall number ed unpaid wages, the with- ment at extremely high inter- of persons, mainly migrant holding of wages, lack of est rates, or deduction women, seeking employment pay, long and schemes.26 in this sector. Significantly, heavy , inadequacy the ILO’s most recent global of rest days, absence of The situation can be ex- estimate of migrant workers care and maternity leave, acerbated when migrant has a special focus on mi- poor living conditions, and is- domestic workers are tied grant domestic workers.25 sues related to and for a lengthy period of time Worldwide, there are cur- their termination. There has to one employer by visa ar- rently an estimated 67 million however been some progress rangements. In such situ- domestic workers, of whom in recent years, notably since ations, they may suffer re- some 11.5 million are migrant the ILO’s Domestic Workers strictions on their freedom domestic workers and almost Convention, 2011 (No. 189) of movement, leaving them three-quarters are women. was adopted. isolated and alone and with The Asia and the Pacific no effective remedy against region hosts the largest The coercion domestic work- abusive treatment. share, with almost a quarter ers often face, and which in of the world’s female migrant many cases leads to forced CONSTRUCTION domestic workers, followed labour situations, typically In the construction industry, by Europe with 22.1 per cent stems from recruitment and which is estimated to employ and the Arab States with job placement mechanisms. As has been widely doc- 7 per cent of the global work-

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 33 force and where 18 per cent abuses in the electrical and The seafood industry, which of identified forced labour have also is part of the larger agri- exploitation cases occurred, received global attention, and fishing sector, employment conditions are with some major electron- has also drawn international notoriously demanding and ics, telecommunications, and attention, particularly af- dangerous, with high levels of brands encoun- ter media reporting in 2014 industrial accidents. Howev- tering criticism over labour named specific companies er, there are indications that exploitation, including forced alleged to be tainted with the use of bogus “-em- labour, in their supply chains. slavery in their supply chains. ployment” schemes have Another high-profile issue in- The most severe cases, doc- contributed to the growth of volves pressure on high-tech umented on some deep-sea coercive practices.27 companies to ensure that fishing vessels in the Asian their products do not contain region, have involved phys- MANUFACTURING minerals – such as , ical brutality and even loss In the manufacturing sector, tungsten, and cassiterite – of life. Yet this industry pos- which made up 15 per cent that are produced in conflict es unique challenges for of identified forced labour zones where forced labour preventing abuses. Difficult exploitation cases, coercion may have been imposed by conditions are inherent to has been documented main- rebel groups. the , which ly in the lower-income coun- typically involves long hours COMMERCIAL AGRICUL- of work and strenuous ac- tries. While attention has TURE AND FISHING long focused on the abuses tivity in a challenging marine in small garment or footwear Commercial agriculture is environment. On top of this, factories in the largely infor- part of the broader agricul- the proliferation of modern mal sector of the South Asian ture and fishing sector, where ships and the globali- countries, growing aware- 12 per cent of identified forced sation of the fishing industry ness of global labour exploitation cases have greatly complicated ef- risks has led to coercion being occurred. Much of the low- forts to protect workers on detected in the production paid work in commercial ag- vessels, which may be at sea of a range of products that riculture is seasonal, meaning for long periods, in distant until recently had escaped that the coercion may be of fishing grounds, and well be- public attention. Just one ex- short duration. A common yond the reach of national la- ample is the manufacture of feature is the presence of la- bour inspection systems. garments for use – a bour providers, who can be Migrant workers are at an large global industry produc- employment as well as re- especially high risk of coer- ing some 150 billion pairs of cruitment agents, generally cion in this industry. They are gloves per year and with a responsible for the payment increasingly manning ves- value of more than and working conditions of sels operating out of a wide US$ 5 billion – for which most the . Known by a range of both developed and production is outsourced to multiplicity of names, ille- developing countries, largely factories in Asia that rely on gitimate agents have been because nationals of these migrant workers. The doc- widely responsible for the countries find the salaries too umented concerns at many typical range of abuses such low for the rigorous work and of these factories include ex- as non-payment or late pay- the lengthy periods at sea. cessive working hours and ment of wages, restriction And in many cases the entire production targets, payment on physical movement, vio- business operation is illegal of high recruitment fees, il- lence, and threats. Moreover, (involving illegal brokerage legal retention of , cases of such abuse have and illegal fishing in addition and in some cases illegal im- been widely documented in to serious violations of labour prisonment and beatings of the agricultural sector of the law), and the vessel owners 28 workers. At the higher end wealthier as well as poorer can use undocumented mi- of the manufacturing scale, countries. grants both to cut costs and

34 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage to escape the attention of ercive practices have also through legally recognise re- authorities. been documented in other cruitment agencies, leading industry activities including to personal that must Recently, IOM’s Global Assis- onshore seafood processing. be repaid through deduc- tance Fund for victims of traf- The risks of abuse are highest tions from wages. And when ficking and other migrants in when there is extensive use the labour brokerage is in- vulnerable situations contrib- of contract labour, and nota- formal and the workers have uted to assisting 600 men bly when temporary workers no contracts of employment, from foreign fishing boats are recruited from abroad there is considerable risk of in Indonesian . Some under special visa arrange- further abuse. had not been on dry land ments. for years. One of the victims had been separated from his Many migrant fishers enter family, without any , the destination country for 22 years. through networks of recruit- ment agents, often incurring Apart from the abuses high brokerage fees, even against fishers at sea, co- when they are engaged

MOST VICTIMS SUFFERED MULTIPLE The Global Estimates have shed signif- FORMS OF COERCION FROM icant light on these issues. Withholding RECRUITERS OR EMPLOYERS of wages, or the threat that this would be done, was the most common means In cases of forced labour, it is important of coercion, experienced by almost a to understand the means of coercion at quarter of people (24 per cent) forced both the recruitment and employment to work. This was followed by threats of stages. For example, were violence or violence (17 per cent), acts of physical threats of violence used? How impor- violence (16 per cent), and threats against tant was the debt factor? Were workers family (12 per cent). The estimates also physically prevented from leaving the confirm that different forms of coercion ? And in the case of migrant may be used depending on whether the workers, was the coercion or decep- victim is male or female, a finding that tion used at the initial place of recruit- can help inform victim identification and ment, in the country of origin, and/or at responses. For example, the estimates the workplace? The ILO has developed suggest that male victims were more 29 indicators on these concerns, enabling likely to be subjected to threats against national statistical and research family, withheld wages, confinement, institutes to undertake national surveys of food and sleep, and threats of on the forced labour of both adults and legal action. In contrast, female victims children. of forced labour suffered higher rates of sexual violence and were more likely to have their passports withheld.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 35 Figure 10

Means of coercion

(a) Percentage of victims of forced labour (b) Percentage distribution of means of coercion, exploitation, by means of coercion by sex

Female Male

0.9% 100% 4.1% Kept drunk/drugged 13 11 4.3% Sexual violence 23 5% 32 37 35 34 Withheld or 38 5.7% 46 80% other documents 52 49 6.6% Punished through 65 6.7% deprivation of food, 60% 6.7% sleep, etc. 98 Threats of legal actions 9.1% 87 89 Punished through 77 40% 11.8% fine/financial penalty 68 62 63 65 66 Too far from 54 48 51 and nowhere to go 14.5% 20% 35 Locked in work or living quarters 16.4% Had to repay debt 2 0%

Threats against family

17% Other

Physical violence Sexual violence Withheld wages

Threats of violence Physical violence Had to repay debt

23.6% Threats of violence Kept drunk/drugged

Withheld wages Threats against family Threats of legal actions Locked in work or living quarters Too far from home and nowhere to go Withheld passport or other documents Punished through fine/financial penalty Punished through deprivation of food, sleep, etc.

DEBT BONDAGE, THROUGH forced labour exploitation worldwide THE MANIPULATION OF DEBT were held in debt bondage. The figure BY EMPLOYERS OR RECRUITING rises to more than 70 per cent of the to- AGENTS, AFFECTED MORE tal for adults forced to work in agricul- THAN HALF OF ALL VICTIMS ture, domestic work, or manufacturing. OF FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION It is likely that these estimates reflect a mix of cases of both traditional forms of Debt bondage is defined for the purpose bonded labour and newer forms of debt of the estimates as being forced to work bondage where recruitment fees and to repay a debt and not being able to charges become the debt that leave, or being forced to work and not binds. Situations of debt bondage are being able to leave because of a debt. discussed in more detail in Panel 4. Just over half the men and women in

36 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Figure 11

Debt bondage

Percentage of victims of forced labour exploitation who are held in debt bondage, by sex and region

100% Total 88.7 Male 80% 69.6 Female

60.9 55.1 60% 54.4

37.9 40% 47.0 52.5 43.4 44.7

20% 34.3 21.3 50.9 54.9 54.2 50.8 36.3 35.9 0%

World Asia Africa Arab States Americas Europe and Central Asia

A regional analysis found that debt debt bondage. Eighty-nine per cent of bondage was most common in Asia, all female victims of forced labour ex- Africa, and the Arab States, where rough- ploitation were held in debt bondage in ly one-half of all victims of forced labour the region, compared to 45 per cent of exploitation were in situations involving all male victims. The opposite pattern debt bondage. In the two remaining re- prevailed in the Asia and the Pacific and gions, the Americas and Europe and the Europe and Central Asia regions, Central Asia, a little more than one-third where debt bondage affected a greater of victims of forced labour exploita- share of male victims of forced labour tion were in debt bondage. In the Arab exploitation than female victims. Similar States, female victims of forced labour proportions of men and women were in exploitation were much more likely than debt bondage among those forced to male victims to be in situations involving work in Africa and the Americas.

Panel 4

Situations of debt bondage

In most cases of debt - the level of compensation including the and age, the initial debt grows at a the worker may be getting. original amount. To give back rate that is unable to be met, A male survey respondent the they made me work and the individual (some- in described the forcefully and I paid back the together with family unmanageable increase in loan by working for them.” members) is unable to leave the debt he owed: “I took loan the work as the debt mounts to maintain the family. Lat- In these situations, the debt and cannot be paid with er it became a high amount can last for years or even

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 37 . Often, such a variety of including Such traditional forms of debts transfer from one construction work, domes- bonded labour still sur- family member to another, tic work, agricultural work, vive throughout , as illustrated by a male sur- factory work, and quite fre- particularly in rural areas vey respondent residing in quently for are where land and tenancy re- who described being often controlled through debt forms have not taken place, forced “…to sell the drugs to bondage and other mech- and where landowners still repay debts of my brother anisms”.30 This is due pri- enjoy wide powers. Yet much who was in an Italian prison at marily to the often illicit and of today’s bonded labour is that time”. Others described prohibitive recruitment fees associated more with internal the burden of such loans taken by recruiters and/or migration, the involvement and the situations of vulner- employers to enable the mi- of labour contractors and re- ability they experienced. For gration. cruiting intermediaries, and example, a 30 year-old male work in a range of sectors in victim of forced labour in In- Patterns of Asian bonded the informal economy. Min- dia described the situation he labour have evolved since the ing, brick-making, fish-pro- and his wife faced as having first laws and policies on the cessing, gem-cutting, and “…become a curse on both of subject were adopted more carpet-weaving are among 31 us. We had threats against than 40 years ago, when it the industries, many of them our family and we also got was seen as a largely agrarian hazardous, where bonded la- the threat that we would be phenomenon. Most bonded bour has been detected. New evicted from our house and labourers were sharecrop- patterns of bondage can also the village. There were also pers who took loans from be seen in large and small threats of violence”. their landlords to cover their scale commercial agriculture, families’ subsistence needs or where seasonal unemploy- Debt bondage in the con- expenses related to ill health, ment has led to conditions of text of labour migration and , marriages, funerals, bondage involving the debt- trafficking is a trend that can or festivals. These traditional based attachment of casual be seen across a number of bonded labour systems were and migrant workers, though countries and sectors. A re- characterised by feudal rela- of a much shorter duration cent report to the UN Human tionships in agriculture and than the old forms of bond- Rights Council said “the vast by unequal power relations age in agriculture. majority of people trafficked based on . Often they to countries in North Amer- were inter-generational, with ica, Europe and the Middle children born into bondage, East and to other developed paying off debts accumulat- countries are migrant work- ed by their forebears. ers who are trafficked into

38 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage 4.8 MILLION PEOPLE - ALMOST 1.2.2 Forced sexual ex- EXCLUSIVELY FEMALE - WERE ploitation of adults VICTIMS OF FORCED SEXUAL and commercial EXPLOITATION IN 2016 Women and girls accounted for more sexual exploitation than 99 per cent of all victims of forced sexual exploitation. More than of children 70 per cent of victims of forced sexu- al exploitation were in the Asia and the Pacific region, followed by Europe and This sub-section refers to persons in Central Asia (14 per cent), Africa (8 per forced labour and services imposed by cent), the Americas (4 per cent), and the private actors for sexual exploitation. Arab States (1 per cent).32 Information This includes women and men who have from the IOM database suggested that involuntarily entered a form of commer- the duration of exploitation was typi- cial sexual exploitation, or who have cally protracted; victims were exploited entered the sex industry voluntarily but for an average of about two years (23.1 cannot leave. It also includes all forms of months) before being freed or managing commercial sexual exploitation involving to escape. children.

Figure 12

Regional distribution of forced sexual exploitation

Percentage distribution of victims of forced sexual exploitation, by region (in 000’s)

Asia and the Pacific

700 Europe and Central Asia 14% Africa 400 8% Americas

200 Arab states 4% <1 1%

3,500 73%

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 39 CHILDREN COMPRISED MORE forced labour exploitation imposed by THAN A FIFTH OF ALL VICTIMS OF the State. This includes forced labour COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION exacted by the military, compulsory par- ticipation in public works, and forced More than 1 million of the victims of prison labour. The last category includes forced sexual exploitation – 21 per cent not only forced labour camps but also of all victims – were children under the work imposed in semi-privatised or fully age of 18 years. In accordance with the privatised . ILO’s Worst Forms of Child Labour Con- vention, 1999 (No. 182), all children found AN ESTIMATED 4 MILLION PEOPLE in any type of commercial sexual activ- WERE IN STATE-IMPOSED ity exploitation are considered victims FORCED LABOUR AT ANY of commercial sexual exploitation. Child GIVEN POINT IN TIME IN 2016 victims of commercial sexual exploita- tion are particularly difficult to detect, ei- When the ILO’s first instrument on forced ther through efforts by law enforcement labour was adopted in 1930, and even and agents or through more so when the second instrument survey data collection. The true figure was adopted during the height of the is likely far higher than the current esti- Cold in 1957, state-imposed forced mates. labour was a major and cause for concern. More recently, with the rise in the number of detected cas- es of forced labour imposed by private 1.2.3 State-imposed actors, much of the concern has shift- forced labour ed away from that imposed by States. Nevertheless, with some 4 million per- sons affected, state-imposed forced la- bour remains a major problem.

This sub-section refers to persons in

Figure 13

State-imposed forced labour

Number and percentage distribution of victims of state-imposed forced labour, by form of state-imposed forced labour

Abuse of conscription

Obligation to perform work beyond normal civic 591,000 obligations or communal services 14.6% Compulsory prison labour

325,000 Compulsory labour for the purpose 8% of

563,000 2,582,000 13.9% 63.6%

40 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage Of the total number of people in FORCED LABOUR IMPOSED BY state-imposed forced labour, the major- THE STATE VARIED CONSIDERABLY ity (64 per cent) were forced by their IN TERMS OF DURATION government to work for the purpose of furthering economic development. How- Among cases of forced labour imposed ever, while the overall number and per- by state authorities, not only the type of centage appears high, only a few States work varies widely, from picking cotton actually resort to this kind of forced to constructing roads, but so does the development work. Fifteen per cent of length during which victims are exploited. those in state-imposed forced labour A typical case of short duration, gener- were subjected to abuse of conscription ally a few weeks, is found in States that and 14 per cent were forced to carry out requisition their citizens for the purpose prison labour under conditions that vio- of economic development work, such late the pertinent ILO standards. The re- as the forced participation of , maining 8 per cent were either forced to unemployed, or any individual in pub- perform work or services going beyond lic construction, industrial, or agricul- normal civil obligations, or to perform tural projects. This is also the case for communal services exceeding the nature the abuse of communal services where and scope of these activities as permit- a large share of a population is forced ted by the ILO standards. The share of to perform “community work” that is men in forced labour imposed by state not for the benefit of their communi- authorities is higher than that of women, ties and has not been decided upon by essentially because more men than wom- members of those communities. In these en are affected by abuse of conscription cases, the forced labour usually involves and prison labour in all concerned coun- a large group of citizens for a few days tries. per month. On the other end of the spec- trum, some countries force military con- CHILDREN REPRESENTED 7 PERCENT scripts to perform non-military tasks for OF VICTIMS OF STATE-IMPOSED a number of years. And forced labour in FORCED LABOUR prison varies between a few weeks for cases of people in administrative deten- The main forms of forced labour in which tion to many years for long term sen- state authorities were found to use tences. children were in the abuse of the obli- gation to participate in minor communal services or civic obligations and, to a cer- tain extent, in work for purposes of eco- nomic development. More than half the forced labourers in the former category were children, specifically North Korean children who are compelled as part of their schooling to engage in work that far exceeded the goals of vocational ed- ucation and was also highly demanding in physical terms. Globally, few children were found in forced prison labour, or in abuse of conscription, although data gaps in these areas remain large.34 The forced recruitment of children by armed groups and armed forces was excluded from the estimates due to a lack of reli- able data.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 41 Panel 5

Forced prison labour

Forced prison labour ministrative cen- the private use of prison deserves separate treatment. tres. While the administrative labour (either through pri- The ILO Conventions estab- imposition of imprisonment vatised prisons or through lish broad principles regard- involving forced labour ap- contracts between public ing the conditions in which pears to have declined in prison agencies and private prisoners can or cannot be recent years, a number of companies) is widespread required to work; and, in countries in East and South- in certain countries and can cases where they are required East Asia have responded to provide significant revenue to work, the limitations on the rise in substance abuse for the private agencies con- private sector involvement in by establishing laws and poli- cerned. There have been pol- prison labour. cies that allow for compulso- icy debates in a number of ry detention without in a countries since the first steps Generally, prisoners who of law, and the impo- were taken as of the 1980s to have been duly sentenced sition of compulsory labour, seek more private sector in- by a court of law can be as a means of treatment for volvement in prison adminis- required to work. They can- persons suspected of being tration. Proponents of private not be required to work be- dependent on drugs. Re- sector involvement in prison fore sentencing, or when ports on such “rehabilitation industries argue that this can they are in administrative de- centres” in several countries reduce incarceration costs tention. And even if prison- have highlighted the lack of and contribute to rehabilita- ers have been sentenced by and legal assis- tion. Opponents argue that a court of law, they cannot tance. Additionally, in some it can increase exploitation, be required to work if they cases, migrants and and that the authority for have been imprisoned for a have also been forced to is a core gov- range of ideological, political, work when confined in de- ernment function that should and other specifi- tention centres pending ad- not be delegated to the pri- cally mentioned in the ILO’s ministrative processing. vate sector. Furthermore, in Abolition of Forced Labour most cases, labour and social Convention, 1957 (No. 105). The use of forced prison la- security laws are not applied Moreover, there need to be bour for political and other to prisoners, meaning that specific guarantees of pro- impermissible reasons is par- prison labour can constitute tection for prisoners placed ticularly difficult to assess. unfair with free at the disposal or private in- There is, not surprisingly, no labour. dividuals, companies, or as- available data on penal sanc- sociations, including those tions imposed on political On this subject, there has confined in private prisons. In activists, journalists, or mem- been substantial dialogue the latter case, guidance has bers of dissident groups in between the ILO superviso- been provided by ILO super- repressive regimes.35 ry bodies and those Member visory bodies on factors to States that have ratified the ensure that labour is provid- Nor are statistics generally first forced labour Conven- ed voluntarily and not under available concerning the var- tion. The supervisory bodies the menace of any penalty. ious ways in which private have pointed to the need for companies can be involved convincing indicators that Of the 563,000 persons esti- in or benefit from compul- the choice to work is volun- mated to be in forced prison sory prison labour. It is now tary. labour, 202,000 are in ad- generally recognised that

42 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage 1.3 Forced marriage

Table 4

Forced marriage

Number and prevalence of persons in forced marriage, by sex, age, and region

Number (000s) Prevalence (per 1,000 persons)

World 15 442 2.1

Male 2 442 0.6 Sex Female 13 000 3.5 Adults 9 762 1.9 Age grouping Children 5 679 2.5 Africa 5 820 4.8 Americas 670 0.7 Region Arab States 170 1.1 Asia and the Pacific 8 440 2.0 Europe and Central Asia 340 1.1

AN ESTIMATED 15.4 MILLION PEOPLE entry into the country. Once forced to WERE LIVING IN SITUATIONS marry, many victims are placed at great- OF FORCED MARRIAGE IN 2016 er risk of being subjected to other forms of exploitation, including sexual exploita- Forced marriage refers to situations tion, domestic servitude, and other forms where persons, regardless of their age, of forced labour. Children are especially have been forced to marry without their vulnerable in these situations. consent.37 Forced marriage is prohibited through the prohibitions on slavery and An estimated 15.4 million people were slavery-like practices, including servile living in situations of forced marriage marriage.38 in 2016. In a total of 6.5 million of these cases, the forced marriage occurred There are many reasons for forced during the five-year period from 2012 marriage, some of which are closely to 2016, while the remainder occurred linked to longstanding cultural practices. prior to this period but continued into In some parts of the world, young girls it.40 In terms of prevalence, 2.1 out of and women are forced to marry in ex- every thousand persons worldwide were change for payment to their families, the living in forced marriage in 2016. It is im- of debt, or to settle family portant to note that the measurement of disputes. In countries with significant lev- forced marriage is at an early and els of conflict, they can be abducted by both the scope and the armed groups and forced to marry fight- are likely to be further refined. Accord- ers, enduring all manner of sexual, phys- ingly, the current estimates should be ical, and emotional abuse. Forced mar- considered to be conservative. riages also occur in developed nations, with women and girls being forced to marry foreign men for cultural reasons, or in order to secure another person’s

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 43 THE AFRICA REGION AND THE ASIA gion (2.0 per 1,000), and then by the AND THE PACIFIC REGION HAD Europe and Central Asia region and the THE HIGHEST NUMBER AND Arab States region (1.1 per 1,000) and the PREVALENCE OF FORCED MARRIAGE Americas (0.7 per 1,000). These regional figures, however, were affected by dif- More than 90 per cent of all forced ferences across regions in data availabili- marriages took place in two regions: Af- ty. There are numerous reports of forced rica and Asia and the Pacific. The prev- marriage in Central Asia and the Arab alence was by far the highest in Africa region,41 for example, but few surveys on at 4.8 victims for every 1,000 people, the issue have been conducted there. followed by the Asia and the Pacific re-

Figure 14

Forced marriage across regions

(a) Number and percentage distribution of victims (b) Prevalence of forced marriage per 1,000 of forced marriage persons), by region

8,444,000 5,818,000 4.8 55% 38%

2.1 2.0

1.1 1.1 0.7 667,000 173,000 4% 1% 341,000 Africa 2% World Africa Americas Arab States Americas

Europe and Central Asia Asia and the Pacific Arab states Europe and Central Asia Asia and the Pacific

Note: These figures are based on national surveys conducted in 48 countries, involved interviews with more than 71,000 respondents aged 15 years or older. See methodological annex for further details.

44 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage MOST VICTIMS OF FORCED MARRIAGE of forced marriage. The share of fe- WERE WOMEN AND GIRLS males in forced marriage is substantially higher than the share of females in all An estimated 13 million women and girls forms of modern slavery (84 per cent were living in a forced marriage in 2016, versus 71 per cent). representing 84 per cent of all victims

Figure 15

Forced marriage by sex

Percentage distribution of victims of forced marriage, by sex

100% Female

Male 80%

71% 60% 84%

40%

20% 29% 16% 0%

Modern Forced marriage slavery

Panel 6

Forced marriage: additional considerations

The forced marriage of rapist is permitted to escape forced marriage in conflict adults is a highly complex criminal sanctions by marry- and post-conflict situations issue. There are ing the victim, usually with needs to be examined care- where arranged marriages the consent of her family. fully. Families who are faced are common, and it may be with physical and economic difficult to assess the pres- Forced marriages may occur insecurity may see early ence of compulsion. The in the context of migration, forced marriage as a way of coercion can be manifest- for example to secure the alleviating poverty and pro- ed in various forms, includ- documentation extended tecting girls from difficult liv- ing exchange or trade-off family members needed to ing conditions. Similarly, they marriages, servile marriag- reside in a particular desti- may fall prey to traffickers es, and levirate42 marriages. country. Forced mar- who claim to offer their chil- In some societies, a forced riages are also being used dren a safer place and job marriage may occur when a by armed groups during opportunities.43 conflict. The prevalence of

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 45 In its latest global report on port, trafficking for marriage As these are the first-ever trafficking in persons, the takes on different permuta- global estimates of forced United Nations Office on tions, from organized irreg- marriage, it is important that Drugs and Crime (UNODC) ular migration and benefit methods and data collection has provided some data on schemes in Europe to continue to evolve and grow. trafficking for marriages, traditional practices in Cen- Some statistical information which was reported by many tral Asia and the on forced marriage is now countries in different parts of (involving marriage without being provided at the coun- the world during the 2012- consent and possibly ab- try level. For example, a small 2014 period.44 Altogether, duction), as well as the trade number of countries have trafficking for forced or sham of women for marriages in established Forced Marriage marriages accounts for about South-East Asia. Moreover, Units, which provide impor- 1.4 per cent of the total de- a new mode of trafficking tant data on referrals and tected victims of trafficking. has surfaced in the form of a cases. Given the estimates of forced large transnational organized marriage in this report, this crime group that recruited suggests forced marriage is Central European women for massively under-detected. sham marriages in Western As noted in the UNODC re- Europe.

MORE THAN ONE-THIRD OF VICTIMS purposes of these estimates, the meas- LIVING IN A FORCED MARRIAGE urement of forced marriage is limited WERE CHILDREN AT THE TIME to what was captured by the surveys. OF THE MARRIAGE; ALMOST That is, forced marriage in the estimates ALL CHILD VICTIMS WERE GIRLS includes all marriages of both adults and children that were reported by the sur- An estimated 37 per cent of victims living vey respondent to have been forced and in forced marriage were children at the without consent, regardless of the age time the marriage took place. Among of the respondent. Accordingly, the es- child victims, 44 per cent were forced timates do not include every instance of to marry before the age of 15 years. The child marriage, as child marriage is not youngest victims of forced marriage currently measured adequately at the in the sample were nine years of age scale or specificity required for a global at the time they were forced to marry. estimate. Girls were more much likely to be forced to marry than boys; 96 per cent of all child victims were girls. Child marriage is generally considered to be forced mar- riage, given that one and/or both par- ties by definition has not expressed full, free, and .45 However, it is important to be clear that for the

46 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage

© ILO Part 2. Ending modern slavery: road forward to 2030

The Global Estimates clearly demonstrate struments send a clear message: forced that forced labour and forced marriage labour, slavery, and human trafficking have not yet been relegated to the past are serious and need to be dealt where they belong. Rather, these forms with as such. But they also make clear of modern slavery remain tragically com- that these abuses cannot be eliminated mon in today’s world, affecting virtually through criminal law enforcement alone. all countries. The estimates indicate that Rather, a broad-based approach is need- more than 40 million people were caught ed, with a strong emphasis on address- up in the grip of modern slavery in 2016, ing root causes and prevention and on a quarter of whom were children below the protection of victims. the age of 18 years. Honouring our com- mitment to end modern slavery and hu- We do not have to start from square one. man trafficking by the year 2030 will be We have already accumulated a substan- an immense challenge. tial set of programming experience relat- ed to forced labour and forced marriage, Appropriate policy choices will be crit- as well as to the crimes of human traf- ical. A number of international legal in- ficking and slavery, thereby providing a struments provide guidance in this re- foundation and important lessons for fu- gard, including the United Nations 1956 ture efforts. Convention on slavery and slavery-like practices, the United Nations Protocol to But progress must be faster and more Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking comprehensive if we are to reach the in Persons (2000) supplementing the UN 2030 target on . There remains Convention against , a huge gap between the total number of and the ILO Forced Labour Conven- victims and those receiving protection or tions Nos 29 and 105, the Worst Forms assistance. And important categories of of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. vulnerable groups have received too lit- 182), the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced tle attention until now. For example, very Labour Convention, 1930 and the Forced few countries have instituted any form of Labour (Supplementary Measures) Rec- response to forced marriage, and many ommendation, 2014 (No. 203). These in- have yet to extend victim protection re-

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 49 sponses to men and boys. Legal gaps in to preventing forced labour and protect- some countries allow forced labour to be ing victims. Additionally, the risk and imposed by the State, and these must typology of modern slavery is strong- be addressed. We also need to closely ly influenced by gender, and this must evaluate existing approaches and inter- also be taken into account in developing ventions, to identify which ones need to policy responses. Addressing the root be adjusted or strengthened and which causes of debt bondage, a widespread ones have been the most successful and means of coercion, is another necessary have the greatest potential for replica- element of forced labour prevention, tion. while improved victim identification is critical to extending protection to the The Global Estimates offer critical in- majority of modern slavery victims who sight into the scale and manifestations are currently unidentified or unattended. of modern slavery. In what follows, we Finally, we know that much of modern use the global estimates findings to slavery today occurs in contexts of state discuss some of the key elements of a fragility, conflict, and crisis, pointing to policy response to modern slavery in the need to address the risk of modern the lead-up to 2030. We also look at slavery as part of humanitarian actions in what additional information is need- these situations. Policies and measures ed inform and guide this response, in all of these priority areas should be ev- and the role of international coopera- idence-based and informed by research tion and partnership in supporting it. and statistics on the specific profile of modern slavery in the countries con- cerned. 2.1 Building a policy Extending social protection systems, in- cluding floors. Vulnerabilities associated response: preven- with poverty, sudden job loss, natural dis- asters, armed conflicts, economic crises, tion and protection and other shocks can play a central role in pushing people into modern slavery. Social protection is therefore critical to Ending modern slavery will require a mul- mitigating these vulnerabilities. Yet, the ti-faceted response that addresses the ILO estimates that, despite some pro- array of forces – economic, social, cultur- gress, more than 5 billion people do not al and legal – that contribute to vulnera- have access to adequate social protec- bility and enable abuses. There can be no tion. This points to the continued need one-size-fits-all solution; responses need to build social protection systems, in- to be adapted to the very diverse envi- cluding floors to help prevent vulnerable ronments in which modern slavery still people from being caught up in modern occurs. It is nonetheless possible to iden- slavery.46 Cash transfer schemes, public tify some overarching policy priorities in employment programmes, health pro- the lead-up to 2030 from the Global Esti- tection, maternity protection, mates and from experience to date. benefits, protection, and income security in are all rele- Stronger social protection systems, in- vant within a well-designed social securi- cluding social protection floors,45 is nec- ty system in helping offset vulnerabilities essary to offset the vulnerabilities that that can lead to forced labour and forced can push people into modern slavery. marriage. Extending labour and social rights in the informal economy – where modern slav- These schemes can also play an impor- ery is most likely to occur – is needed to tant role in facilitating the recovery of protect workers from exploitation. victims and preventing their re-victim- ization. In particular, and Given that a large share of modern slav- microinsurance schemes can play an im- ery can be traced to migration, improved portant complementary role in making migration governance is vitally important sure that vulnerable families are able to

50 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage avoid falling victim to debt bondage, as has a positive impact on individuals and they help provide families with access societies, many migrants are vulnerable to the financial market and enable them to forced labour and abuse. When ave- to hedge against some of the risks they nues for regular and safe migration are face. closed, migrants resort to irregular and dangerous migration routes, often with Ensuring for all. The the help of smugglers. Once they reach Global Estimates indicate that much of their destination, migrants – including forced labour today occurs in the private those who have arrived regularly – may economy, most notably in agriculture, rely on informal labour recruiters and re- construction, manufacturing, domestic main vulnerable to forced labour. service, and the commercial sex indus- try. People working in these sectors and Shortcomings in the governance of mi- industries are often the most vulnerable gration help permit modern slavery to and least protected, either because they survive and even grow. Inadequate sys- are migrant workers, or because they tems for the recruitment and placement are working in the informal economy, of workers and poor of inter- or because they work under contractual national marriage brokers, for example, or geographical conditions which pose create space for the growth in unregu- serious challenges for law enforcement, lated intermediaries, some of whom are including labour inspection. All men, in turn responsible for abuse of migrants, women, and children should be protect- such as the excessive rates of fee-charg- ed from violations of their fundamental ing that have helped drive vulnerable rights, whether they work in the formal migrant workers into debt bondage sit- or informal economy. Criminal laws and uations. Restrictive visa regimes for mi- their enforcement are a vital part of any grant workers also create increased vul- national response to modern slavery. The nerability to forced labour. The unique expansion of rights to poorly protected vulnerabilities faced by migrants should sectors and groups – including migrants be addressed through broader reforms – is also critical to reducing the risk of to migration governance that will max- forced labour. Ensuring rights to freedom imise the benefits and minimise the risks of association and bargaining, and social costs of migration.47 While to enable at-risk workers to join workers’ the Global Estimates indicate that some organizations, is particularly important in three-quarters of forced labour victims this context. are abused in their home countries, a substantial number of them are likely to Ensuring rights for those vulnerable to have migrated internally, underscoring forced marriage is also essential. Evi- that the vulnerabilities faced by internal dence suggests, for example, that along- migrants should also not be neglected. side the development and enforcement of criminal laws, the promotion of the Addressing gender-related vulnerabili- helps to prevent ties. The Global Estimates indicate pro- forced marriage. Working with com- found differences between women and munities to deliver human rights-based men in terms of how they are affected education contributes to raising aware- by modern slavery. In particular, women ness of the rights of women and girls and girls are disproportionately victims and strengthens community resilience to of forced labour in the private economy forced marriage. (including in domestic work and in com- mercial sexual exploitation) and forced Ensuring fair and effective migration marriage. Men are disproportionately governance. The Global Estimates indi- subject to state-imposed forms of forced cate that almost a quarter of victims of labour, reflecting the impact of abusive forced labour are exploited outside their conscription and imprisonment on men, country of residence, thus confirming the as well as to forced labour in the con- relevance of good migration governance struction, manufacturing, and agriculture to prevention and protection efforts. Al- sectors. The Global Estimates also con- though most migration is voluntary and firm that the means of coercion depend

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 51 to an important extent on whether the aimed at addressing this oversight would victim is male or female. Female victims be an important step toward reducing of forced labour suffer much higher rates this form of coercion. of sexual violence, while male victims are subjected to higher rates of other forms Focusing on victim identification and of physical violence, threats of violence, protection. Ending modern slavery will and use of threats against family. An ef- require the effective identification of fective policy response must clearly re- victims and measures for ensuring their flect these patterns of abuse and the role safe removal from abusive situations and of gender more broadly as a determinant for promoting their recovery. There is of modern slavery. While prevention and an enormous gap between the estimat- protection efforts need to reflect and ed number of victims of modern slavery prioritize the generally higher risk profile – more than 40 million – and the much faced by females, they also need to make smaller number of victims that have been for male victims, who have to identified and assisted in recent years. date been overlooked in efforts against This points to the continuing need to pri- modern slavery in some countries. oritize and improve victim identification by understanding both the nature and Addressing debt bondage. The Global manifestations of modern slavery. The Estimates reveal a very high prevalence Global Estimates indicate that domes- of debt bondage as a means of coercion; tic work, the sex industry, construction, more than half the victims of forced la- manufacturing, and agriculture/fishing bour were in some form of debt bondage. are sectors where the risk of modern slav- This finding makes clear that prevention ery is especially high. This information and protection policies must also tackle provides an important initial indication the of debt bondage and bonded of where victim identification and broad- labour systems. Bonded labour practic- er protection efforts should be focused. es can be deeply embedded in age-old One of the most alarming findings of the patterns of discrimination and social modern slavery estimates is the extent to attitudes, as well as in unequal access which it affects children. Children are vic- to . In these contexts, tims of all forms of modern slavery and measures such as microcredit and micro- should be priority in all efforts to identify, initiatives, reforms, safely remove, and rehabilitate victims. and broader social protection measures are of particular relevance. However, Addressing the risk of modern slav- other forms of debt bondage, often re- ery in situations of state fragility, con- lated to shortcomings in migration gov- flict, and crisis. Globally, more than 1.5 ernance, are also gaining in importance. billion people live in countries that are These include cases of debt bondage affected by conflict, violence, and fra- arising from excessive fees charged by gility. These contexts – characterised by unregulated manpower, recruitment, income shocks, a breakdown in formal and brokering agencies. These more re- and family social support networks, mi- cent forms of debt bondage need to be gration, and disruptions in basic servic- addressed as part of broader reforms es provision – create the conditions for aimed at ensuring fair and effective mi- further violations of fundamental rights, gration governance, as discussed above. including an elevated risk of modern slavery. Modern slavery is often used as The estimates also provide other insights a tactic of modern warfare, where armed relating to coercion that are of relevance groups use sexual violence and forced to prevention and protection policies. marriage as a means to subjugate a pop- For example, while they show that with- ulation. We have also seen an increase in holding of wages is the most common the number of unaccompanied children means of coercing people into staying seeking to escape crisis situations and in forced labour, this conduct is not con- obtain asylum, a significant number of sidered serious enough under most legal whom have fallen victim to abuse. This systems to attract the attention of the discussion underscores the urgent need criminal authorities. Legal reforms to enhance responses to modern slavery

52 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage among crisis-affected populations. Pre- nal law enforcement needs to be intensi- vention and protection measures should fied, particularly in response to cases of be systematically included during all severe abuse. It is equally important to phases of humanitarian action. This in- strengthen the administration of labour cludes in countries of destination, where justice to apply both sanctions for the the identification and protection of those offenders and remedies for the victims deemed most at risk of modern slavery of modern slavery. Systems of labour should considered part of the response administration and inspection also need to influxes of asylum seekers. to be strengthened to enable effective victim identification in the sectors of the Strengthening policies, , and economy where modern slavery occurs. enforcement. The establishment of a le- Further research and analysis at the na- gal consistent with interna- tional level, building on the results of the tional legal standards relating to mod- Global Estimates, is needed to help iden- ern slavery is another critical element tify the at-risk sectors where inspections of broader prevention and protection should be focused. Oversight positions efforts. This includes legislation dealing such as an independent anti-slavery with forced labour imposed by the State, commissioner or a national rapporteur which the Global Estimates show still af- can play an important complementary fects millions of individuals around the role. They provide a single point of con- world. It is also essential that relevant tact at the national level whose respon- legislation, including labour laws, apply sibility is to track modern slavery issues to all workers and sectors of the econo- as they evolve, and to ensure that legal, my so that certain vulnerable groups are policy, and operational gaps are quickly not left unprotected. The criminalisation identified. Only a few countries, however, of forced marriage and the extraterrito- have such oversight mechanisms already rial application of these laws is critical in place. to targeting forced marriage, which can affect citizens beyond national borders. . But laws alone are insufficient if not ac- companied by adequate enforcement. Despite the enactment of criminal laws on forced labour, slavery, and human trafficking in many countries, internation- al statistics indicate the number of inves- tigations, prosecutions, and is very small relative to the scale of the overall problem. This means that crimi-

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 53 to estimate the scale and prevalence of 2.2 Building the modern slavery.

evidence base The need for standard survey for measuring forced labour was recognized th International Conference of Substantial progress has been made in by the 19 Labour Statisticians (ICLS) in 2013. A res- terms of measuring modern slavery and olution was adopted at this conference building the evidence base on the issue. recommending “that the International The Global Estimates capture a large Labour Office set up a working group part of the spectrum of abuses related with the aim of sharing best practices on to modern slavery and provide the best forced labour surveys in order to encour- available data and information about the age further such data gathering exercis- scale and distribution of forced labour es in more countries.” The result of this and forced marriage today. But there re- international working group will be pre- mains a need for more and better data, sented and discussed at the 20th Interna- improved capacity of national data col- tional Conference of Labour Statisticians lection, and refinement and improvement in 2018. In parallel, discussions in the measurement of modern slavery. are ongoing to strengthen SDG indica- Not all situations listed in Target 8.7 are tors related to modern slavery. covered by the Global Estimates. The forced recruitment and use of children Knowledge and data sharing arrange- by armed groups and armed forces was ments are also vital. Hundreds of relevant excluded due to lack of reliable data. In and rich datasets, including administra- addition, while many cases of trafficking tive data, have not thus far been made in persons for forced labour were likely publicly available, thus limiting their use. to have been captured, the estimates did This includes IOM’s human trafficking not explicitly seek to measure all forms case database that has been used to of human trafficking. This should be a produce the global estimates in this re- priority for collaborative efforts by UN port. Part of the for this is that 48 agencies and Member States. datasets relating to modern slavery are Other key measurement priorities iden- often highly sensitive, raising a range of tified through the process of develop- and civil concerns where ing the Global Estimates include the the risk of identifying data subjects can improved measurement of specific be high and the consequences severe. sub-populations. There is a need to more Databases are diverse, dispersed, mostly effectively capture all forms of modern disconnected from each other, and are slavery affecting children, adult victims not standardized or comparable. IOM, of forced sexual exploitation, and victims Polaris, and other partners are working in conflict contexts. The ability to track to overcome these challenges and are changes in modern slavery over time will launching a global open data platform be critical for monitoring progress in the for researchers, lawmakers, , lead-up to 2030. funders, and other stakeholders. The Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative The most important priority is to (CTDC) publishes harmonized human strengthen and extend national research trafficking datasets from various organ- and data collection efforts on modern izations without identifying victims and slavery. While global measurement and using a new international standard. This monitoring of modern slavery is vital, is the first open data portal of its kind, information on the national and local di- with primary data contributed by an- mensions of modern slavery is needed to ti-trafficking organizations around the guide national policy responses. A num- world. ber of States are now preparing and pub- lishing annual reports on modern slavery, Given the near non-existent public avail- but only a small number of governments ability of human trafficking data to date, have started to use statistical methods CTDC will have a wide impact that will

54 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage support the work of Alliance 8.7, a mul- Target 8.7 through the alignment of ti-stakeholder partnership committed global, regional and national efforts, fo- to achieving Target 8.7 of the Sustain- cusing on accelerating actions, sharing able Development Goals.49 Alliance 8.7 knowledge, driving , and lev- also offers an important framework for eraging resources. strengthening knowledge management and sharing. Lessons learned from na- The Global Estimates indicate that the tional projects and programmes are vast majority of forced labour occurs in contained in large numbers of separate the private economy, underscoring the evaluations and studies, which, in the ex- importance of partnership with the busi- perience of many activists and practition- ness community – alongside employers’ ers, are scattered across the globe. There and workers’ organisations – in eradicat- is considerable value in drawing these ing forced labour in business operations learnings together.50 Alliance 8.7 part- and supply chains. National and inter- ners, including UN agencies and Special national organizations can Rapporteurs, workers’ and employers’ contribute strong local experience with organizations, civil society organizations, preventive approaches and the protec- and other stakeholders, have agreed tion of vulnerable groups. upon the need for data and knowledge Cooperation should also be strength- sharing platform and have begun work ened between and among governments towards creating it. The platform will pro- and with relevant international and re- vide users with a centralized access point gional organizations in areas such labour to information, statistics, and knowledge law enforcement, law enforcement, mi- products. Knowledge areas that will be gration governance, and fair recruitment, prioritized include: prevalence of forced to prevent trafficking, protect victims, labour, modern slavery, human traffick- and deal with forced labour across bor- ing and child labour; vulnerable groups, ders. Stronger national coordination ef- vulnerability, and risk factors; legislative, forts are needed to provide coherence regulatory, and normative frameworks; between different authorities dealing national action plans; monitoring and with education policy, social protection, of the impacts of public and migration, labour markets, and crime private sector interventions; and funding prevention, among others. patterns. In many countries, the of required

action far exceeds available resources, meaning that governments will not be 2.3 International able to adequately address modern slav- ery on their own. This underscores the cooperation and importance of international technical co- operation and support in mobilizing re- partnership sources for national action programmes. UN agencies, other multilateral and bilateral organizations, international The complex, global, and multi-dimen- non-governmental organizations, civil sional phenomenon of modern slavery society, private foundations, and a vari- cannot be resolved by national govern- ety of other groups involved can play an ments or other stakeholders acting on important role in this regard. This should their own. It requires an integrated, coor- include bilateral, regional, and interna- dinated strategy to address root causes, tional agreements on the exchange on consequences, and impacts, with a focus knowledge and experience. on cross-border strategies and bilateral, regional, and international cooperation.

Alliance 8.7 has an important role to play in this regard, in cooperation with other SDG initiatives, in that it seeks to achieve

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 55 © Lisa Kristine Annex: Note on methodology

The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery reference to the total flow. The es- cover two principal issues, forced labour timate is calculated by multiplying the to- and forced marriage. The estimate of tal flow by the average duration of a spell forced labour comprises forced labour of modern slavery. The average duration in the private economy (forms of forced of modern slavery was determined from labour imposed by private individuals, the database of the International Organ- groups, or companies, in all sectors ex- ization for Migration (IOM), containing cept the commercial sex industry), forced records of assisted victims of trafficking sexual exploitation of adults and all who were registered during or after 2012. forms of commercial sexual exploitation involving children, and state-imposed FORCED LABOUR IN THE PRIVATE forced labour. These estimates have been ECONOMY AND FORCED MARRIAGE derived from various sources, as no The estimates of forced labour in the one source is considered sufficiently private economy and forced marriage suitable or reliable. This section summa- are derived from 54 nationally represent- rizes the methods used to calculate the ative household surveys in 48 countries estimate. A more comprehensive tech- during the 2014-2016 period, using a nical description of the methodology is common set of questions on forced la- also available.51 bour and forced marriage (see Table 1). STOCK AND FLOW Only cases of modern slavery that oc- curred between 2012 and 2016 are in- All forms of modern slavery may be cluded in these estimates. measured as both a stock and a flow. A stock measurement refers to the The target sample for the national average number of persons in modern surveys was the entire , non-in- slavery at a given point in time during stitutional population, aged 15 years and the 2012-2016 reference period. A flow older. With the exception of areas that measurement refers to the total number were scarcely populated or presented of persons who were victims of modern a threat to the safety of interviewers, slavery during a specified period of time samples were probability-based and na- between 2012 and 2016. The estimates tionally representative. Typically, 1,000 calculate both the average stock and to- face-to-face interviews were conduct- tal flow of the different components of ed in each survey country, except for modern slavery. (n=2,000), (n=504), and countries where multiple surveys were The duration of forced labour (meaning implemented (n=2000 in each of Bang- the amount of time in which people were ladesh, , , Myan- trapped in forced labour) is the key fac- mar, , , and ; and tor in determining the average stock by n=17,000 in ).

Annex: Note on methodology 57 A total of 71,758 respondents were inter- cal parents, children, and siblings). The viewed across the 48 survey countries. combined size of the family network of The survey respondents were asked the 71,758 sample respondents included questions about their own experiences 575,310 persons altogether, correspond- of forced labour and forced marriage, ing to an average family network size of and those of their immediate family 8.02. The family network included chil- network. The family network includ- dren below 15 years of age as well as ed the respondent’s living immediate adults 15 years old and over. family (spouse or partner and biologi-

Table 5

Outline of questionnaire on forced labour in the ILO-Walk Free Surveys conducted as part of Gallup World Poll surveys 2016

Questions Description P1-P4 Identification of immediate family network Inquiry on forced labour experience by anyone among immediate family (e.g. forced to work by an employ- P5-P7 er or recruiter; forced to work to repay a debt; offered one kind of work, but forced to do something else) P8-P10 Who in the immediate family, sex and age P11 When last happened P11I Total duration during last 5 years P12 Country in which last spell happened Type of work forced to do (e.g. agriculture, fishing, mining and quarrying, manufacturing, commercial sexual P13 exploitation, domestic labour) Coercion (e.g. physical violence, threats of violence, withheld wages, withheld passport, locked in living P14 quarters, had to repay a debt) P15 Inquiry on forced marriage experience by anyone among immediate family P17-20 Who in the immediate family, sex and age at time of forced marriage WP1220 Current age P21 Whether consented to the marriage

As the estimate of forced labour riage. The data on forced marriage does exploitation of adults is based on house- not include child marriage because it hold surveys, respondents were inter- was insufficiently precise to determine viewed in their country of residence. Nev- which child marriages constituted forced ertheless, all situations of modern slavery marriages. However, as persons aged 15 were counted in the country where the and over were surveyed, the estimate exploitation took place, regardless of includes information on children (15-17 the worker’s or country of years) who indicated they were forced residence. For example, if a woman in- to marry without their consent in the terviewed in Indonesia reported that she last five years. The estimate of forced was forced into domestic work in marriage is presented as both a to- during the reference period, that case tal flow figure, representing all people would be attributed to Oman. forced to marry between 2012 and 2016, and a stock, representing all people liv- The global estimates of forced mar- ing in a forced marriage in the reference riage are based on those who reported period. Given the socio-cultural context having been forced to marry in the last of forced marriage, it was assumed that five years, without their consent, and such marriages are likely to last for at those who were forced to marry before least the five years of the reference pe- that time period but remain in the mar- riod.

58 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage AGGREGATING NATIONAL SURVEY weights). In calculating the survey weights, ESTIMATES TO GLOBAL ESTIMATES population statistics are used to weight the data by gender, age, and, where The survey results are then expanded to reliable data is available, education or so- global totals with statistical adjustments cioeconomic status. The survey weights (weights) to ensure that the sample cor- also account for the average size of a rectly represents the global population. family (“network”) and the response error The sampling weights take into consid- that occurs due to the tendency for peo- eration both the probability of a country ple reporting on their own experiences to in a particular region being selected as a be more accurate than when talking about 52 survey country (country weights) and experiences of family members, by giving the probability that a person residing in a more importance to self-responses relative survey country will be interviewed (survey to proxy responses for family members.

Figure 16

Sample scheme for the global estimate of forced labour and forced marriage

World 199 countries and covering 99.7 per cent of world population in 2016

Region 11 ILO Broad regions (Strata)

Sample country 48 countries/54 surveys

Area sample within country 6,000 clusters (primary sampling units - PSUs)

Household sample 71,758 sample

Sample of individuals 15+ yrs old 71,758 respondents among household members 15+ yrs old

Family network 575,310 family members

Annex: Note on methodology 59 AGGREGATING NATIONAL SURVEY from the national surveys. For example, ESTIMATES TO REGIONAL ESTIMATES the estimate of the number of female adult victims of forced sexual exploita- In order to estimate forced labour at a tion in Latin America and the regional level, all countries in the world (407,724) was obtained by multiplying are grouped according to the ILO de- the odds ratio (0.435586) with the esti- fined region. The weighted national prev- mate of the number of female adult vic- alence estimates of forced labour in the tims of forced labour exploitation in Latin country of exploitation for all countries in America and the Caribbean (936,035). the region are then added up for each re- gion and applied to the total population FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION for that region. OF CHILDREN

FORCED SEXUAL EXPLOITATION For forced labour exploitation of children, the global estimate was de- Estimation of forced sexual exploitation termined in much the same way as for (and commercial sexual exploitation victims of forced sexual exploitation, giv- of children) required a different meth- en that only 5.6 per cent of cases in the odological approach, as too few cases survey data involved respondents under were reported across the 48 countries 18 years of age. A number of logistic re- surveyed. The estimates, covering both gression models, based on the IOM data children and adults, were calculated set, were tested to determine the odds using two datasets. The first is - ratio that a victim of forced labour ex- al survey data on forced labour of adults. ploitation was a child rather than an adult. The second is the case data collected by As with the estimate of forced sexual IOM in the process of the Organization exploitation, to obtain an estimate of providing direct assistance to victims of child victims of forced labour exploita- human trafficking since 2000. The IOM tion, the odds ratios were then multiplied dataset comprises cases of trafficking by the global estimate of adult forced for both sexual and labour exploitation labour exploitation derived from the na- and includes information on the profile tional survey estimates. of the victims of human trafficking (e.g. age, gender, income) and on the traffick- FORCED LABOUR IMPOSED ing situation (e.g. country of exploita- BY THE STATE tion, industry of exploitation). The esti- mates were calculated in two steps. First, For the purpose of this estimate, forced statistical models were used to estimate labour imposed by state authorities has the ratio of the odds of “sex” to “labour” been classified in six main categories: cases according to age and gender from 1. Abuse of conscription, when conscripts the IOM database. As an estimate of are forced to work for tasks which are labour exploitation cases was already not of purely military character. known from the survey data, the propor- tion was then used to derive the estimate 2. Obligation to perform work beyond of cases of forced sexual exploitation. normal civic obligations.

Three alternative logistic regression 3. Abuse of the obligation to participate models53 were then tested, examining in minor communal services, when the odds of being a victim of forced these services are not in the direct sexual exploitation relative to being a interest of the community and have victim of forced labour exploitation. The not benefited from prior consultation best fitting model was used to derive the of the members of the said community. estimates. Separate regression analyses were run for adult and child victims of 4. Prison labour forced sexual exploitation. These odds ▪▪ Compulsory prison labour of prisoners ratios were then applied to the corre- in or in administrative deten- sponding global estimates of forced tion. labour exploitation of adults derived

60 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage ▪▪ Compulsory prison labour exacted for the benefit of private individuals, companies, or associations outside the exceptions allowed by the ILO supervisory bodies.

▪▪ Compulsory prison labour exacted from persons under certain circum- stances, such as punishment for ex- pressing political views, labour dis- cipline, or peaceful participation in strikes.

5. Compulsory labour for the purpose of economic development.

6. Forced recruitment of children by governments.

The forced recruitment of children by armed groups and armed forces was ex- cluded from the estimate due to a lack of reliable data. For the remaining forms of state-imposed forced labour, data was identified through a systematic review of secondary sources, following a thorough assessment of each identified case by reference to the relevant indicators. For each country where there was an indi- cation of the violation of the ILO forced labour conventions by state authorities, an estimate of the extent of the violation was built on the basis of available relia- ble sources. The total number of people who have experienced some forced la- bour imposed by the authorities during the last five years (total flow) and the average number of victims in this situ- ation at any moment of time between 2012 and 2016 (average stock) are pre- sented.

Annex: Note on methodology 61 © Lisa Kristine End notes

1. A total of 63,251 victims were detected in 106 coun- 8. This is the position taken by the Committee on the tries and territories between 2012 and 2014. Based Elimination of Discrimination against Women and on the 17,752 victims detected in 85 countries in the Committee on the Rights of the Child, with some 2014 for which sex and age were reported, a clear exceptions allowed in exceptional circumstances for majority were females – adult women and girls – children aged at least 16 years. See: Joint general comprising some 70 per cent of the total number of recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the detected victims. UNODC, Global Report on Traffick- Elimination of Discrimination against Women/gen- ing in Persons, , 2016, 23. eral comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on harmful practices, 14 2014 2. Estimates of children in forced labour exploitation, (CEDAW/C/GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18). and of all victims of forced sexual exploitation, made use of administrative data held by the IOM on all re- 9. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slav- ported cases of human trafficking since 2012. ery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practic- es Similar to Slavery, Adopted by a Conference of 3. Methodology of the global estimates of modern slav- Plenipotentiaries convened by Economic and Social ery: forced labour and forced marriage. International Council resolution 608(XXI) of 30 1956 and Labour Organization (ILO) and Walk Free Founda- done at Geneva on 7 September 1956. tion, Geneva, 2017 10. For a detailed discussion of this point, see Meth- 4. International Labour Organization, Forced Labour odology of the global estimates of modern slavery: Convention, 1930 (No. 29). forced labour and forced marriage, International La- bour Organization (ILO) and Walk Free Foundation, 5. ILO: Hard to see, harder to count: survey guidelines Geneva, 2017. to estimate forced labour of adults and children, Ge- neva, 2012. 11. For example, only two national surveys were under- taken in the Arab States, and none in the Gulf Co- 6. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human operation Council (GCC) countries, despite the inci- Rights has noted, “Women and girls in situations dence of forced labour reported by different sources of child and forced marriage may experience con- in such sectors as domestic work and construction ditions inside a marriage which meet ‘international in the GCC countries. The regional estimate for Arab legal definitions of slavery and slavery-like practices’ States is therefore built mainly from respondents including servile marriage, , child ser- who were interviewed in their country of residence vitude, child trafficking and forced labour ….” United and reported about their forced labour situation Nations General Assembly, Preventing and Eliminat- while working in that region. It is likely that this led ing Child, Early and Forced Marriage, Report of the to underestimating the extent of modern slavery in Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for this region. Moreover, the estimates of forced sex- Human Rights, A/HRC/26/22, 2 April 2014, http:// ual exploitation and forced labour of children were www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSes- based on the IOM database of registered victims sions/Session26/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?- and the regional distribution of registered victims sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/ reflects where IOM has programming to provide di- Session26/Documents/A-HRC-26-22_en.doc&ac- rect assistance to victims of trafficking. This has his- tion=&DefaultItemOpen=1. torically led to an overrepresentation of Europe, in particular , and underrepresentation 7. According to the Committee on the Elimination of of Latin America where IOM has fewer direct assis- Discrimination against Women and the Committee tance activities for victims of trafficking. The figures on the Rights of the Child, “A child marriage is con- on prevalence are inevitably more robust in regions sidered to be a form of forced marriage, given that where more survey work has been conducted, and one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free databases are more developed, at the national level. and informed consent. As a matter of respecting the child’s evolving capacities and autonomy in making 12. See Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari, decisions that affect her or his life, a marriage of a Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gender mature, capable child below 18 years of age may be perspective, (European Parliament, 2016), pp. 60– allowed in exceptional circumstances, provided that 68, [accessed 13 Apr. 2016], http://www.europarl. the child is at least 16 years of age and that such europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/ decisions are made by a based on legitimate IPOL_STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf. exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evi- dence of maturity, without deference to culture and 13. This comprised all forced labour imposed by private .” Source: Joint general recommendation agents other than for commercial sexual exploita- No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Dis- tion. It included, among other things, bonded labour, crimination against Women/general comment No. forced domestic work, and forced labour in agricul- 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on ture and remote rural areas. harmful practices, 14 November 2014 (CEDAW/C/ GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18). 14. This included women and men who have involuntar- ily entered a form of commercial sexual exploitation,

End notes 63 or who have entered this form of forced labour vol- gained from quantitative surveys of forced labour untarily but cannot leave. It also included all forms of at the country level. The indicators are broadly commercial sexual exploitation involving children. grouped under the three dimensions of unfree re- cruitment, work and life under duress, and impossi- 15. This included forced labour exacted by the military, bility of leaving the employer. compulsory participation in public works, and forced prison labour, which included not only forced labour 29. Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary camps but also work imposed in modern semi-pri- manifestations of slavery, its causes and conse- vatized or fully privatized prisons. quences, United Nations Human Rights Council, thir- ty-third session, Agenda item 3, July 2016 (UN Doc. 16. Defined as “all work or service which is exacted from A/HRC/33/46). any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself 30. South Asian laws generally define bonded labour voluntarily”. See International Labour Organization, systems as those where workers provide work or , 1930 (No. 29), http:// services to a landlord or employer in exchange for www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPU- a monetary advance and incur restrictions on their B:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C029. or occupation until this debt has been worked off. The concept therefore overlaps 17. Only international migration was measured through with, but is not the same as, debt bondage, which is the household surveys. The location of forced mar- defined in the United Nations Supplementary Con- riage was also not captured. vention on Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956) as “the status 18. In particular, the estimate relating to forced sexual or condition arising from a pledge by a debtor of his exploitation is drawn from the IOM database, while personal services or those of a debtor under his con- the estimate relating to forced labour exploitation is trol as security for a debt, if the value of those ser- based on national datasets and the estimate relating vices as reasonably assessed is not applied towards to state-imposed forced labour is based on the anal- the liquidation of the debt or the length and nature ysis of secondary sources collected by the ILO. of those services are not respectively limited and defined”. The Supplementary Convention also refers 19. IOM: IOM Global Compact Thematic Paper: Combat- to debt bondage as a “servile status” and requires ing Trafficking in Persons and Contemporary Forms member States to carry out national measures to of Slavery (2017), https://www.iom.int/sites/de- abolish its practice. fault/files/our_work/ODG/GCM/IOM-Thematic-Pa- per-Trafficking-in-persons.pdf. 31. These estimates, however, should be interpreted with caution, particularly as the regional distribution 20. ILO: Addressing governance challenges in a chang- of victims in the IOM database used in the methodol- ing labour migration landscape, Report IV, Interna- ogy reflects where IOM has programming to provide tional Labour Conference, 106th Session (2017). direct assistance to victims of trafficking.

21. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 33. As explained in the methodology annex, this figure 2016. is derived from examination of specific cases across countries, representing different types of forced la- 22. IOM: Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Traffick- bour imposed by the State. ing and Other Exploitative Practices Prevalence In- dication Survey, 2017, http://migration.iom.int/ 34. With regard to abuse of conscription, the estimate europe/. does not cover recruitment of children for armed services. 23. UNICEF and IOM: Harrowing Journeys: Children on the Move Across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of 35. More information is available through reports from Trafficking and Exploitation (2017), https://www. the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary De- iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/Har- tention. rowing_Journeys_Children_and_youth_on_the_ move_across_the_Mediterranean.pdf 36. In 2006, the United Nations -General stat- ed, “A forced marriage is one lacking the free and 23. Information on the industry was available for 65 per valid consent of at least one of the parties”. In-depth cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation. study on all forms of . Report of the Secretary-General, UN document A/61/122/ 24. ILO: Global Estimates on Migrant Workers: Results Add.1. and Methodology: Special focus on migrant domes- tic workers, ILO, Geneva, 2015. 37. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has noted, “Women and girls in situations of 25. Marie José Tayah, for Migrant Domes- child and forced marriage may experience condi- tic Workers: Moving the Agenda Forward. ILO, Gene- tions inside a marriage which meet “international le- va, 2016. gal definitions of slavery and slavery-like practices” including servile marriage, sexual slavery, child ser- 26. D. Shields, World Disposable Gloves Market - Oppor- vitude, child trafficking and forced labour ….” United tunities and Forecasts, 2013-2020, Portland, USA. Nations General Assembly, Preventing and Eliminat- Allied Market Research, 2014, quoted in In good ing Child, Early and Forced Marriage, Report of the hands, Tacking labour rights concerns in the man- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for ufacture of medical gloves, British Medical Associ- Human Rights, A/HRC/26/22, 2 April 2014:http:// ation, BMA Medical Fair and Group, www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSes- European Working Group on Ethical Public Procure- sions/Session26/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?- ment, 2016. sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/ Session26/Documents/A-HRC-26-22_en.doc&ac- 27. ILO: Hard to see, harder to count: Survey guidelines tion=default&DefaultItemOpen=1. to estimate the forced labour of adults and children”, ILO, 2012. The guidelines share the ILO experience

64 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage 39. Forced marriage is estimated based on national 49. SDG Target 8.7 calls for “immediate and effective household surveys conducted in 48 countries, in- measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern volved interviews with over 71,000 respondents slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohi- aged 15 years or older. See methodological annex bition and elimination of the worst forms of child la- for further details. bour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms.” 40. See Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari, Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gen- 50. See for example “The Promising Practices Data- der perspective, (European Parliament, 2016), pp. base”, a systematic review of these evaluations 60–68, accessed 13/04/2016, http://www.europarl. helps to identify some of these lessons about what europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/ works, and just as importantly, what doesn’t work to IPOL_STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf. eradicate modern slavery. See www.walkfreefoun- dation.org/resources for more information. 41. These consist of coercing a to marry a rela- tive of her deceased husband. 51. Methodology of the global estimates of modern slav- ery: Forced labour and forced marriage. Internation- 42. UNODC, Op. Cit., as above al Labour Organisation and Walk Free Foundation, Geneva, 2017 43. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016. 52. Note that while the methodology assumes the set of surveys constitutes a random sample of countries, in 44. According to the Committee on the Elimination of the survey countries were selected for spe- Discrimination against Women and the Committee cific reasons. So the assumption is made but is not on the Rights of the Child, “A child marriage is con- realized. sidered to be a form of forced marriage, given that one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free 53. Regression models are used to assess the nature of and informed consent. As a matter of respecting the a relationship between an outcome variable and one child’s evolving capacities and autonomy in making or more independent variables. decisions that affect her or his life, a marriage of a mature, capable child below 18 years of age may be allowed in exceptional circumstances, provided that the child is at least 16 years of age and that such decisions are made by a judge based on legitimate exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evi- dence of maturity, without deference to culture and tradition.” Source: Joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Dis- crimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on harmful practices, 14 November 2014 (CEDAW/C/ GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18).

45. Social protection, or social security, is a human right and is defined as the set of policies and programmes designed to reduce and prevent poverty and vulner- ability throughout the life cycle. Social protection includes nine policy areas: child and family benefits, maternity protection, unemployment support, em- ployment injury benefits, sickness benefits, health protection, old-age benefits, disability benefits, and survivors’ benefits. Social protection systems ad- dress all these policy areas by a mix of contributory schemes (social ) and non-contributory -financed benefits, including social assistance. Social protection floors are nationally defined sets of basic social security guarantees that should ensure, as a minimum, that over the life cycle, all in need have access to essential and to basic in- come security, which together secure effective ac- cess to and services defined as necessary at the national level. See http://www.ilo.org/secsoc/ areas-of-work/policy-development-and-applied-re- search/social-protection-floor/lang--ja/.htm.

46. The ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) provides a key framework for ensur- ing social protection for all.

47. The Global Compact for Migration aims to provide for an overarching framework. See also: New Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, 2016.

48. Trafficking for the purpose of forced labour is cov- ered by the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (2000) and the ILO Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930.

End notes

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