Migrant Smuggling in Asia

Home , Human trafficking, Prostitution in Bahrain, Prostitution in Kuwait, Prostitution in Laos, Prostitution in Macau

An Annotated Bibliography

August 2012 2 Knowledge Product:

!"#$%&'()!*##+"&#("&(%)"%

"is publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-pro#t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNODC would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction, should be addressed to UNODC, Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c.

Cover photo: Courtesy of OCRIEST

Product Feedback: Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to: Coordination and Analysis Unit (CAU) Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci#c United Nations Building, 3 rd Floor Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200, "ailand Fax: +66 2 281 2129 E-mail: fo.thailand@unodc.org Website: www.unodc.org/eastasiaandpaci#c/

UNODC gratefully acknowledges the #nancial contribution of the Government of Australia that enabled the research for and the production of this publication.

Disclaimers: "is report has not been formally edited. "e contents of this publication do not necessarily re$ect the views or policies of UNODC and neither do they imply any endorsement. "e designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. !,-./01()23--4,0-(,0(%5,/

An Annotated Bibliography

A publication of the Coordination and Analysis Unit of the Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci!c

United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime

'/647(89(:8017015(

Acknowledgements ...... 1 Abbreviations and acronyms ...... 2 List of tables ...... 3 Introduction ...... 4 Annotated bibliography ...... 7

!"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

%;<08=47>-727015

"is publication was produced by the Regional Centre for East Asia and the Paci!c (RCEAP) of UNODC, under the supervision of Sebastian Baumeister, Coordination and Analysis Unit (CAU, UNODC).

Lead researcher: Fiona David (consultant).

Research conceptualization, coordination and report preparation: Sebastian Baumeister and Fiona David.

Critical abstracts in the Annotated Bibliography written by: Fiona David, Rebecca Miller (consultant), Rebecca Powell (consultant), Katherine Rogers (consultant), and Kenneth Wright (consultant).

Editorial and production team: Sebastian Baumeister, Julia Brown (UNODC intern), Fiona David, Karen Emmons (contractor, editing), Ajcharaporn Lorlamai (CAU, UNODC), Collin Piprell (contactor, editing), Siraphob Ruedeeniyomvuth (contractor, design), and Sanya Umasa (CAU, UNODC).

Particular appreciation and gratitude for support and advice go to Julia Brown, Elzbieta Gozdziak, Shawn Kelly (UNODC), Janet Smith from the Australian Institute of Criminology, Tun Nay Soe (UNODC), and to the sta# from the Library at the Australian National University.

"e publication also bene!ted from the work and expertise of UNODC sta# members around the world.

1 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

%66.7?,/1,805(/0>(%;.80@25

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BEFARE Basic Education for Awareness Reforms and Empowerment CIS Commonwealth of Independent States COMCAD Center on Migration, Citizenship and Development GDP Gross Domestic Product HIV/AIDS Human Immunode!ciency Virus/Acquired Immunode!ciency Syndrome HRCP Human Rights Commission of Pakistan IIED International Institute for Environment and Development ILO International Labour Organization IMISCOE International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion IOM International Organization for Migration ISS Institute of Social Sciences KWAT Kachin Women’s Association "ailand Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Migrant Smuggling Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing Protocol the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime MOU Memorandum of Understanding NGO Nongovernmental Organization NHRC National Human Rights Commission NRM National Referral Mechanism SEPOM Self-Empowerment Program for Migrant Women

Tra$cking in Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Tra$cking in Persons, especially Women Persons Protocol and Children, supplementing the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Paci!c UN.GIFT United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Tra$cking UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIAP United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Tra$cking UNODC United Nations O$ce on Drugs and Crime YCOWA Yaung Chi Oo Workers’ Association

2 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

+,51(89(1/6475(

Table I: Key words for subjects covered ...... 4 Table II: De"nitions of research methodology applied in allocating key words ...... 5

3 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"01.8>3;1,80

"e United Nations O$ce on Drugs and Crime mation about migrant smuggling (and to a lesser (UNODC) conducted the research in support of extent about irregular migration and tra$cking in the Bali Process, which is a regional, multilateral persons) in the project countries. "is was followed process to improve cooperation against migrant by a thematic review of all of the information that smuggling, tra$cking in persons and related forms was located. of transnational crime. "e research focused in particular on fourteen countries: Afghanistan, Cambo- "e research identi!ed 154 sources that met the dia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, research criteria, which are described in Tables I the Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri and II. "e sources were then used as the basis Lanka, "ailand and Viet Nam (the project coun- of a thematic regional review and thematic country tries). studies, which are published in UNODC (2012) Migrant Smuggling in Asia. A !ematic Review of "e research had three key objectives: Literature.

(1) identify existing knowledge about mi- A summary of each of these sources is provided grant smuggling with regard to the project in this publication. "e researchers allocated key countries; words for each of these sources that re%ect the re- (2) summarize and synthesize existing knowl- search criteria. "ese key words are part of the 154 edge about migrant smuggling, thereby mak- summaries. ing it easier for decision makers to access key data and information; and "e research was conducted within the frame- (3) identify knowledge gaps, thereby making work established by the United Nations Convention it easier to clearly identify research priorities. against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), supplemented by the Protocol against the Smuggling "e research involved a systematic search of mul- of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air (Migrant Smug- tiple bibliographic databases, library catalogues gling Protocol) and the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and websites, to locate empirically-based infor- and Punish Tra"cking in Persons, Especially Women '/647("A(B7@(=8.>5(98.(536C7;15(;8?7.7> !"#$%&'( ĞƐĐƌŝƉƟŽŶ ŵŽǀĞŵĞŶƚƚŚĂƚƚĂŬĞƐƉůĂĐĞŽƵƚƐŝĚĞƚŚĞƌĞŐƵůĂƚŽƌǇŶŽƌŵƐŽĨƚŚĞƐĞŶĚŝŶŐ͕ƚƌĂŶƐŝƚĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀŝŶŐ /ƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶ ĐŽƵŶƚƌŝĞƐ dƌĂĸĐŬŝŶŐŇŽǁƐ ŶƵŵďĞƌƐͬƋƵĂŶƟƚǇŽĨƚƌĂĸĐŬĞĚƉĞƌƐŽŶƐďĞŝŶŐŵŽǀĞĚ͕ĂŶĚͬŽƌĚŝƌĞĐƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞƐĞŵŽǀĞŵĞŶƚƐ ^ŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ĨĂĐŝůŝƚĂƟŶŐƚŚĞŝůůĞŐĂůĞŶƚƌǇͬƐƚĂǇŽĨĂŶŽƚŚĞƌĨŽƌƉƌŽĮƚ͕ĂŶĚĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚŽīĞŶĐĞƐƚŽĂĐŚŝĞǀĞƚŚŝƐ ƵƐĞĂŶĚƵƐĞĨƵůŶĞƐƐŽĨĐŽŶĐĞƉƚƐŽĨŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ͕ƚƌĂĸĐŬŝŶŐŝŶƉĞƌƐŽŶƐ͕ŽƌŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂ! ŽŶĐĞƉƚƐ ƟŽŶ DĞƚŚŽĚŽůŽŐǇ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŵĞƚŚŽĚŽůŽŐŝĞƐƵƐĞĚŝŶƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŽŶŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶŽƌŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ YƵĂŶƟƚĂƟǀĞĂƐƐĞƐƐŵĞŶƚ ƐŝǌĞŽĨŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶŽƌƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐŇŽǁƐ;ŶŽƚd/WŇŽǁƐ͗ƚŚĞƐĞĂƌĞĐŽǀĞƌĞĚĂďŽǀĞͿ ZŽƵƚĞƐ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚǇŽĨŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶŽƌŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĂů͕ĚĞŵŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐ͕ƐŽĐŝŽͲĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůĞƌƐ͕ĂŶĚͬŽƌƚŚĞŝƌŵŽƟǀĂ! WƌŽĮůĞƐŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůĞƌƐ ƟŽŶƐ WƌŽĮůĞƐŽĨŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĂů͕ĚĞŵŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐ͕ƐŽĐŝŽͲĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐŽĨŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ͕ĂŶĚͬŽƌƚŚĞŝƌ ŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ ŵŽƟǀĂƟŽŶƐ WƌŽĮůĞƐŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůĞĚ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĂů͕ĚĞŵŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐ͕ƐŽĐŝŽͲĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůĞĚŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ͕ĂŶĚͬŽƌƚŚĞŝƌ ŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ ŵŽƟǀĂƟŽŶƐ ^ŵƵŐŐůĞƌͲŵŝŐƌĂŶƚ ŚŽǁŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐƉŽƌƚƌĂǇŽƌƉĞƌĐĞŝǀĞƐŵƵŐŐůĞƌƐ͖ƚŚĞŶĂƚƵƌĞŽƌƋƵĂůŝƚǇŽĨƚŚĞƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉ͖ĂŶĚͬŽƌ ƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉ ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐƚŚĂƚŝŵƉĂĐƚŽŶƚŚĂƚƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉ

4 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

ƚŚĞŽƌŐĂŶŝƐĂƟŽŶĂůŽƌďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐŝŶƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐŽƉĞƌĂƟŽŶƐ͖ƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉƐďĞƚǁĞĞŶĂĐ! KƌŐĂŶŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ƚŽƌƐŝŶƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐŽƉĞƌĂƟŽŶƐ͖ŝŶǀŽůǀĞŵĞŶƚŝŶŽƚŚĞƌĐƌŝŵŝŶĂůŝƚǇ͖ƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶͬƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂůŝƐŵ ŽĨƐŵƵŐŐůĞƌƐ͖ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞƐŽŶŽƌŐĂŶŝƐĂƟŽŶ ŵĞƚŚŽĚƐŽĨƌĞĐƌƵŝƚŵĞŶƚ͕ƉĂǇŵĞŶƚ͕ƚƌĂŶƐĨĞƌŽĨĐƌŝŵŝŶĂůƉƌŽĐĞĞĚƐ͕ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂƟŽŶ͕ƵƐĞͬŵŝƐƵƐĞ DŽĚƵƐŽƉĞƌĂŶĚŝŽĨ ŽĨĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚƐŝŶƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ͕ƌŽůĞŽĨĐŽƌƌƵƉƟŽŶ͖ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐƚŚĂƚƌĞƐƵůƚŝŶĐŚĂŶŐĞƐƚŽŵŽĚƵƐ ƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ŽƉĞƌĂŶĚŝŽĨŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ &ĞĞƐĂŶĚƉĂǇŵĞŶƚĨŽƌ ĨĞĞƐƉĂŝĚďǇŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ͕ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐƚŚĂƚĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞĨĞĞƐ͕ŚŽǁŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐŵŽďŝůŝǌĞĨĞĞƐ ƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ,ƵŵĂŶĂŶĚƐŽĐŝĂůĐŽƐƚƐŽĨ ĚĞĂƚŚƚŽůů͕ƚƌĂƵŵĂ͕ƐƚƌĂŶĚĞĚŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ͕ƐŽĐŝŽͲĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐŝŵƉĂĐƚŽĨŵŽďŝůŝǌŝŶŐĨĞĞƐĨŽƌƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ͕ ƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐǀƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚǇƚŽƚƌĂĸĐŬŝŶŐ &ĂĐƚŽƌƐƚŚĂƚĨƵĞůŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌ ƉƵƐŚĂŶĚƉƵůůĨĂĐƚŽƌƐĨŽƌŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌŽƌƐŵƵŐŐůĞĚŵŝŐƌĂŶƚƐ͖ƚŚĞƌŝƐŬƐĂŶĚƌĞǁĂƌĚƐĨŽƌƐŵƵŐŐůĞƌƐ ŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶ ;ŝ͘Ğ͗͘ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐƚŚĂƚĚƌŝǀĞƚŚĞŵƚŽǁĂƌĚŐĞƫŶŐŝŶǀŽůǀĞĚŝŶƐŵƵŐŐůŝŶŐŽƌĂǁĂǇĨƌŽŵŝƚͿ tĞƐƚƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬǁŝƚŚŝŶͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ^ŽƵƚŚƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬǁŝƚŚŝŶͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ^ŽƵƚŚͲĂƐƚƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬǁŝƚŚŝŶͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ĂƐƚƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬǁŝƚŚŝŶͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ĨŐŚĂŶŝƐƚĂŶ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ĂŵďŽĚŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ŚŝŶĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ /ŶĚŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ /ŶĚŽŶĞƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ >ĂŽWZͬ>ĂŽƐ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ DĂůĚŝǀĞƐ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ DǇĂŶŵĂƌͬƵƌŵĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ DĂůĂǇƐŝĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ WĂŬŝƐƚĂŶ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ^ŝŶŐĂƉŽƌĞ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ^ƌŝ>ĂŶŬĂ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ sŝĞƚŶĂŵͬsŝĞƚEĂŵ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨŽĐƵƐ͗ĨƌŽŵͬƚŽͬƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ

7DEOH,,'H¿QLWLRQVRIUHVHDUFKPHWKRGRORJ\DSSOLHGLQDOORFDWLQJNH\ZRUGV !"#$%&'( ĞƐĐƌŝƉƟŽŶ ͞YƵĂŶƟƚĂƟǀĞ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ŝƐ Ă ŵĞĂŶƐ ĨŽƌ ƚĞƐƟŶŐ ŽďũĞĐƟǀĞ ƚŚĞŽƌŝĞƐ ďǇ ĞǆĂŵŝŶŝŶŐ ƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉƐ YƵĂŶƟƚĂƟǀĞ ĂŵŽŶŐǀĂƌŝĂďůĞƐ͘dŚĞƐĞǀĂƌŝĂďůĞƐĐĂŶďĞŵĞĂƐƵƌĞĚ͕ƚǇƉŝĐĂůůǇŽŶŝŶƐƚƌƵŵĞŶƚƐ͕ƐŽƚŚĂƚŶƵŵďĞƌĞĚ ĚĂƚĂĐĂŶďĞĂŶĂůǇƐĞĚƵƐŝŶŐƐƚĂƟƐƟĐĂůƉƌŽĐĞĚƵƌĞƐ͟;ƌĞƐǁĞůů͕ϮϬϬϵ͕Ɖ͘Ϯϯϯ"Ϳ͘ ͞YƵĂůŝƚĂƟǀĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŝƐĂŵĞĂŶƐĨŽƌĞǆƉůŽƌŝŶŐĂŶĚƵŶĚĞƌƐƚĂŶĚŝŶŐƚŚĞŵĞĂŶŝŶŐŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂůƐŽƌ ŐƌŽƵƉƐĂƐĐƌŝďĞƚŽĂƐŽĐŝĂů ŽƌŚƵŵĂŶ ƉƌŽďůĞŵ͘ dŚĞƉƌŽĐĞƐƐŽĨ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŝŶǀŽůǀŝŶŐ ĞŵĞƌŐŝŶŐ YƵĂůŝƚĂƟǀĞ ƋƵĞƐƟŽŶƐĂŶĚƉƌŽĐĞĚƵƌĞƐ͖ĐŽůůĞĐƟŶŐĚĂƚĂŝŶƚŚĞƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂŶƚƐ͛ƐĞƫŶŐ͖ĂŶĂůǇƐŝŶŐĚĂƚĂŝŶĚƵĐƟǀĞůǇ͖ ďƵŝůĚŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌƐ ƚŽ ŐĞŶĞƌĂů ƚŚĞŵĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŵĂŬŝŶŐ ŝŶƚĞƌƉƌĞƚĂƟŽŶƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĞĂŶŝŶŐ ŽĨ ĚĂƚĂ͟;ƌĞƐǁĞůů͕ϮϬϬϵ͕Ɖ͘ϮϯϮͿ͘ DŝǆĞĚ ŵŝǆŽĨďŽƚŚƋƵĂŶƟƚĂƟǀĞĂŶĚƋƵĂůŝƚĂƟǀĞŵĞƚŚŽĚƐǁĞƌĞƵƐĞĚ͘ /ƚŝƐŶŽƚĐůĞĂƌĨƌŽŵƚŚĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƉƌĞĐŝƐĞůǇǁŚĂƚƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŵĞƚŚŽĚǁĂƐƵƐĞĚ͘,ŽǁĞǀĞƌ͕ƚŚĞƌĞŝƐ hŶŬŶŽǁŶ ƐŽŵĞŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝŶƚŚĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƚŽƐƵŐŐĞƐƚŝƚŝŶǀŽůǀĞĚƉƌŝŵĂƌǇƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ͘

1 Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). "ousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

5 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

and Children (Tra$cking in Persons Protocol). As such, migrant smuggling is understood to mean:

the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a !nancial or other material ben- e!t, of the illegal entry of a person into a State of which the person is not a national or permanent resident;

and

enabling a person who is not a national or permanent resident to remain in the State concerned without complying with the necessary requirements for legally remaining, through any illegal means (Articles 3(a) and 6(1)(c) of the Migrant Smuggling Protocol).

Tra$cking in persons is understood to mean:

the recruitment, transportation, transfer, har- bouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or bene!ts to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs (see further, Article 3 of the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol).

Where the person is under 18 years of age, no deceptive means are required (Article 3(c) and (d) of the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol).

For further information about the research methodology, please refer to the UNODC (2012) report Migrant Smuggling in Asia. A !ematic Review of Lit- erature.

6 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

$QQRWDWHGELEOLRJUDSK\

Ahmad, A. N. (2008a). Dead men working: Ahmad, A. N. (2008b). #e labour market Time and space in London’s (‘illegal’) migrant consequences of human smuggling: ‘Illegal’ economy. In: Work, Employment and Society, employment in London’s migrant economy. 22(2), pp. 301–318. In: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34, pp. 853–874. Key words: Pakistan Key words: Irregular migration, Smuggling, Human and social Afghanistan, Pakistan costs of smuggling Concepts, Irregular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smug- Research method used: gling Qualitative Research method used: Summary: Qualitative "is report integrates the reviewed literature on irregular migration and the working conditions of Summary: smuggled migrants with in-depth interviews with "is paper challenges the notion that smuggled a group of Pakistanis working in London’s migrant migrants invariably are abused and exploited by economy. "e intent is to describe the speci!c forms both smugglers and employers. Although the au- of risk and “precarity” facing smuggled migrants in thor acknowledges that abuse and exploitation this particular context. "e report begins with a dis- represent the realities of many smuggled migrants, cussion of the methodology issues that ensued when an argument is made for a more nuanced portrait dealing with a population reluctant to be identi- of smuggling, especially when it is equated with !ed. Despite the problems, 21 semi-structured in- tra$cking in persons. "ree primary issues are terviews were carried out during the course of the explored: "e !rst focuses on labour market out- study, although this number included several regular comes for smuggled and/or irregular migrants and migrants as well as employers. "e inclusion of the how these experiences di#ered from migrants who latter two groups allowed for comparisons and dif- were not smuggled or were legal residents. "e ferent perspectives in the analysis. second is the issue of abuse as well as the usefulness of the terms “smuggling” and “tra$cking”, as Findings from the study delineate both similarities de!ned by the Tra$cking in Persons and Migrant and di#erences in the conditions endured by regular Smuggling Protocols. Finally, the author looks at and irregular migrants. Both migrant groups expe- the labour market and social relations in light of rience long hours, poor working conditions and a the situation encountered in London’s migrant certain amount of insecurity, but irregular migrants economy. must adapt to ever-changing circumstances, given the instability of life in their enclave. Although both "e research involved semi-structured interviews types of migrants experience similar di$culties, ir- with 20 individuals, including migrant workers from regular migrants’ problems are exacerbated due to Afghanistan and Pakistan, employers and migrant their status. For example, they need to pay o# smug- organizations. Participants were identi!ed through glers who facilitated their journeys as well as escape both snowball and direct approach techniques. "is notice of authorities empowered to deport them. group included seven smuggled migrants (Afghans "ese burdens are both psychological and material. and Pakistani) as well as seven employers, all Paki- In essence, they become “prisoners of monetized stanis. For contrast purposes, four regular migrants time”, which impedes the hope of upward mobility. were interviewed.

7 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e research results generated four issues relevant to 1980. "e second cohort is almost all men (there are understanding the experiences of migrants: (a) the two women) who migrated to Britain between 1991 context of reception: arrival and absorption, (b) em- and 2003. "e third cohort consists of men between ployment outcomes: the impact of legal status and the ages of 20 and 54 who left Pakistan in their early mode of entry, (c) job vs. work – the structure of the 20s and 30s for Italy. Only 10 interviewees in total labour market and (d) tra$cking: employer-employ- were women. Unlike the men, none of the women ee relations. Each issue supports the general argu- entered irregularly because, the author contends, the ment of the paper, that generalized depictions of ir- vast majority of smuggled migrants from Pakistan to regular migrants being coerced into forced labour are Europe are male. invalid. For example, regarding arrival and absorption, the researcher reveals the importance of social "e research reveals the importance of cultural and networks and how they “cushion” what might other- social norms, not just for deciding who is regular but wise be a di$cult arrival for smuggled migrants and also in terms of the agency of the people involved. facilitate movement into the labour market. Many of "ere is relatively little independent migration of the migrants in the study earned “normal” wages and women from or within Pakistan, even though it is even increased their earnings over time. "e research not explicitly forbidden. Women’s mobility is highly results are also discussed in terms of policy, especially restricted in Pakistani society, but at the same time, for the need to avoid homogenous answers to the is- growing numbers of middle and lower middle-class sue of irregular migration. men from rural Punjab set o# for Europe, in spite of the extensive laws in place to prohibit it. "e author also highlights how the consequences of migra- Ahmad, A. N. (2008c). #e romantic appeal tion for the women who stay behind are uncertain. of illegal migration: Gender, masculinity Women often experience greater seclusion and con- and human smuggling from Pakistan. In: M. !nement in their homes once their households are Schrover et al. (eds.), Illegal migration and lifted out of poverty by remittances. Some migrant gender in a global and historical perspective. men use their resources to impose stricter purdah (keeping women separate from men) and to increase IMISCOE research: Amsterdam University their own social position within their community, in Press. which con!ning women to the home confers honour and prestige to the household. Key words: Pakistan Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- regular migration, Methodology, Pro!les of irregular Akee, R. K. Q., Basu, A. K., Chau, N. H. and migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling Khamis, M. (2010). Ethnic fragmentation, con!ict, displaced persons and human traf- Research method used: "cking: An empirical analysis. Bonn: Institute Qualitative for the Study of Labor.

Summary: Key words: "is book chapter presents an analysis of Pakistani Afghanistan, Pakistan migration networks with a speci!c aim to illuminate Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- the intersecting dynamics of gender and smuggling regular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Pro- from Pakistan to the West. Based on qualitative re- !les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling search conducted between 2003 and 2006 in Eng- land (London), Italy and Pakistan, the main source Research method used: of data consists of 60 life stories from Pakistani mi- Quantitative grants from Punjab province and Mirpur district. "e data is divided into three cohorts; the !rst con- Summary: sists of Pakistanis who migrated to Britain, most of "ere are numerous reports that examine the issue them regularly, as young adults between 1960 and of ethnic con%icts and their impact on international

8 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

tra$cking in persons. Most of the studies focus on of the !ndings from medical screening examinations a speci!c country or area. Large-scale investigations conducted on 589 irregular migrants from China looking at the global situation are lacking. "e quan- who arrived on the West Coast of Canada by boat titative study described in this book on the links in 1999. "e group included smuggled migrants, among ethnic fragmentation, con%icts and internally smugglers and the ships’ crews. "e Canadian Navy displaced persons represents a !rst step in the needed conducted single-day medical screening exams to direction. A major goal of the research was to reveal identify and treat acute and urgent medical con- the impact of ethnic fragmentation and con%ict on cerns. According to the authors, the !ndings are a international tra$cking as a result of internal and reminder to medical personnel to look for unusual international displacements. marks, infectious diseases and signs of abuse. Addi- tionally, the !ndings provide lessons for policymak- Using multiple regression analysis, the researchers and decision makers to plan and improve the ers took datasets from several sources (such as the immediate medical responses that are provided to U.S. Department of State and UNHCR reports) to irregular migrants who arrive by boat. explore how such variables as ethnic, linguistic and religious fragmentation are related to tra$cking in "e authors reviewed all the medical reports that persons in both host and source countries. Addition- were prepared for each migrant and created a non- al variables included GDP of host/source countries, identi!able database. "e descriptive analysis con- presence of internally displaced persons in source sists of frequency distributions and percentages of counties, commonality of borders and regions and demographic data, medical examination !ndings the nature of con%icts (external/internal). Signi!cant and investigations. A Chi-squared test, which is a positive predictors were yielded by the analysis (such statistical hypothesis test, was used to test for the dif- as higher GDP in host countries, external con%icts ferences in frequency of common conditions (such in source countries, presence of internally displaced as tuberculosis) or potential abuse conditions (such persons or refugees in source countries, common as bruising) by age category, sex and ship. border and a non-landlocked host country); however, the authors note several paradoxical !ndings that "e analysis revealed that the migrants were pre- call for further study. For example, the researchers dominantly young male adults. According to the found that internal con%icts reduce the likelihood of medical !ndings, most of them appeared to be in tra$cking in persons, while external con%icts exac- relatively good health and free of serious illness. "is erbate the problem. No speci!c policy implications !nding, the authors argue, supports the assumption from the results are presented, although the !ndings that health and vitality play a role in the selection o#er promise in this direction. of smuggled migrants because many of them are expected to work long hours to pay o# the smuggling fee. "e most prevalent medical conditions were der- Allan, G. M. and Szafran, O. (2005). Health matological, head/neck and dental problems, trauma of Chinese illegal immigrants who arrived by and urogenital. Recently induced trauma was more boat on the West Coast of Canada in 1999. prevalent among the females than the males. Some In: Journal of Immigrant Health, 7(4), pp. of the migrants indicated that they had been threat- 233–238. ened, beaten or raped aboard the boat.

Key words: "e article focuses on the results of the medical China screening and is thus addressed to professionals in Human and social costs of smuggling, Pro!les of the medical !eld. However, it also provides infor- smuggled migrants, Smuggling mation on the smuggling process. According to the !ndings, (non-refugee) smuggled migrants travelling Research method used: by boat are predominantly young healthy men with Mixed good prospects for work, as opposed to the refugee population that appears to be in worse physical con- Summary: dition. Some details of the journey from China to "is article presents a review and descriptive analysis Canada are included (30+ days at sea) along with in-

9 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

sight on the living conditions and the abuse (physi- agent. "e research is presented in the context of the cal) on the boats. feminist debate about sex work/prostitution, which focuses on whether or not commercial sexual trans- According to the authors, the !ndings of the medical actions should be regarded as a form of “work” or a conditions are limited by a number of factors: the form of violence and the role of women’s agency in unexpected arrival and required rapid response led to decision making. challenges, including inadequate interpreter services, inadequate and inconsistent history taking (which "e research was based on the concept of tra$cking can provide valuable information about abuse and in persons from the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol. trauma) and a lack of clarity about responsibility for In addition to the 22 interviews conducted in "ai- following up. Additionally, migrants were diagnosed land and Japan, the researcher reviewed relevant sec- solely on the physical exam from a single encounter, ondary material. which likely led to some inaccuracy in diagnosis and excessive prescribing. "e researcher was introduced to her interviewees through volunteer work at two "ai NGOs (EM- "e article highlights the possible risks and hazards POWER in Bangkok, supporting sex workers in of smuggling that irregular migrants who undertake Bangkok and SEPOM in Chiang Rai Province, sup- boat journeys may encounter and the importance porting "ai migrants returning from working in Ja- of standardized migration screening exams to detect pan’s sex industry) and through visits to various sex both illness and injury. industry venues in Bangkok and meeting sex workers willing to be interviewed. "e researcher also conducted !eldwork in Tokyo, where she met three Aoyama, K. (2009). #ai migrant sex workers: "ai women who had worked or were working in From modernization to globalization. New the Japanese sex industry and who were willing to be York: Palgrave Macmillan. interviewed.

Key words: In terms of methodology, the researcher notes the in- "ailand %uence of Maggie O’Neill, a sociologist who under- Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Traf- takes research with sex workers in the United Kingdom !cking %ows using a participatory action-research method. "is is a feminist research method whereby the researcher par- Research method used: ticipates in the !eld, with a particular group of people Qualitative (the targets of the research) taking action regarding the research topic, develops methods for conducting Summary: the research, uses them and then presents the research "is book highlights the grey area that exists be- in cooperation with the group members. tween tra$cking for sexual exploitation and migrant sex work by looking at the sex trade in Japan and the "e researcher concludes that there is a middle road involvement of "ai women. "e author studied the between sex work and tra$cking for sexual exploi- parallel between tra$cking for sexual exploitation tation and that this is the empirical reality for "ai and women who migrate to work in the sex industry women working in the Japanese sex industry. Each to support them and their families. "e research in- "ai woman’s experience of the Japanese sex industry volved a series of interviews with current and former was di#erent. "e di#erences are more apparent be- "ai sex workers in the Japanese sex industry and tween women who were tra$cked and exploited and their relatives in an attempt to understand the sex women who had voluntarily entered the sex industry workers’ experiences in the international sex trade. to support themselves and their families, although "e examination of the complexity of the women’s grey areas existed between the two. "e research ar- lives and the factors that in%uenced their decision gues that there is no single pattern of agency in sex making regarding the sex work and/or migration work but multiple routes and experiences, underscor- sheds light on the problematic nature of being la- ing that grey area between sex work and tra$cking for belled as either a “victim” of tra$cking or a free sexual exploitation.

10 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Arif, G. M. (2009). Recruitment of Pakistani Key words: workers for overseas employment: Mecha- Myanmar, "ailand nisms, exploitation and vulnerabilities. Ge- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- neva: International Labour Organization. tion

Key words: Research method used: Pakistan Qualitative Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migration, Quantitative assessment, Pro!les of irregular Summary: migrants, Tra$cking %ows "is article provides an in-depth discussion of the situation of Myanmar migrant workers in Mae Sot, Research method used: "ailand. Included are several case studies that illus- Mixed trate the exploitive experiences and working conditions of the Myanmar migrants working in garment Summary: and textile factories in Mae Sot. "e central argu- "is report re%ects a study of regular and irregular ment is that Myanmar workers who are employed migrant workers from Pakistan to the Gulf States in low-skilled sectors, including factories, !sheries, that relied on surveys, focus group discussions and plantations, agriculture and other areas, are often in-depth interviews with returning workers. "e pri- exploited by their "ai employees due to their eco- mary purpose was to examine the recruitment pro- nomic and political vulnerabilities. cess in Pakistan and subtopics, such as how migrants were recruited, socio-economic pro!les and employer "e case studies describe the dynamics of particu- practices, as well as government policy, provisions and lar labour disputes between migrant workers and regulations for workers. "e results indicate that most their employers in Mae Sot. Information relating returnees worked more than one contract, earning an to the case studies was provided by the Yaung Chi income that was higher than what they had attained Oo Workers’ Association (YCOWA) and the Action in Pakistan. Respondents who migrated with assis- Network for Migrants. Both organizations assist My- tance from overseas employment promoters appear anmar migrant workers involved in labour disputes. to have prospered more than those recruited through other agencies or through irregular migration. De- "e authors note that although the case studies sum- spite the positive !ndings, however, the in-depth marize selected events in speci!c factories, they are analysis of the situation reveals several problematic not comprehensive in terms of discussing organiza- issues. A prime example is the tendency for employ- tional activities of the YCOWA and Action Network ers to change migrants’ contracts once they arrived at for Migrants, the workers’ actions or labour problems their destinations, typically to the detriment of the in Mae Sot. "e case studies are supplemented with workers. Others included migrants’ understanding of information derived from discussions and interviews their rights, special dangers for unauthorized workers with YCOWA and Action Network representatives, and recruiters’ disrespect of the laws. Recommenda- the workers, the media and other reports. tions emanating from the study include: the creation of working conditions agreements with both send- "e research exposed the vulnerabilities of Myanmar ing and receiving countries, increased transparency migrant workers in "ailand to labour exploitation. in contracts, improved control and supervision of re- "e authors argue that this vulnerability stems from cruiting agents and more active protection of workers migrant workers’ inability to organize in trade unions by Pakistani embassy o$cials in the Middle East. or bene!t from the protection of NGOs that work to enforce the labour rights of migrant workers. "is is due to gaps in "ai labour policy and practices regarding labour laws and the protection of migrant Arnold, D. and Hewison, K. (2005). Exploita- workers. Corruption among local "ai police also tion in global supply chains: Burmese work- contributes to the exploitation of migrant workers ers in Mae Sot. In: Journal of Contemporary in "ai workplaces. "e article notes that Myanmar Asia, 35(3), pp. 319–340. workers choose to migrate to "ailand regularly and

11 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

irregularly to work because of the greater economic conditions, including ethnic composition, if villages opportunity, the possibility of higher wages and/or were new (relocated) or old, the location of the vil- the %ee from political persecution. lage in relation to the "ai border and urban areas, if the village was on a main road or way o# the road; the village’s involvement with tourism (Sing District Asian Development Bank. (2009). Broken in Luang Namtha only) and other social factors (fac- lives: Tra$cking in human beings in Lao Peo- tories located in the village or red-light districts). "e ple’s Democratic Republic. Manila: Asian De- villages included were in the Meuang Moeng, Ton velopment Bank. Pheung, Pak "a and Houay Sai districts in Bokeo and the Sing and Long districts in Luang Namtha. Key words: Lao PDR, "ailand "e report argues that tra$cking in persons is linked Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- to economic development; speci!cally, forced relo- tion, Tra$cking %ows cation as a result of government policy associated with development has made some villagers more Research method used: vulnerable to tra$cking (those who migrate are thus Qualitative vulnerable to being tra$cked). "ose villagers not forced to relocate were found unlikely to migrate, Summary: whereas some ethnic groups subjected to relocation "is report presents !ndings from research that were more likely to migrate (there were other ethnic sought to clarify and expand on what is known about groups subjected to relocation who were not likely to tra$cking in persons in two north-western prov- migrate), given their close proximity to the "ai bor- inces of Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Bokeo der. "e report notes that modernization is a great and Luang Namtha) and to identify directions that pull factor for migration. Ethnicity and material and will help in promoting safe migration, reducing risk economic factors were prime determinants of migra- and preventing the tra$cking. "e research set out tion, particularly for women and girls. to identify the full range of social and ethnic conditions that in%uence migration and mobility among a number of targeted villages in the two provinces. Asis, M. M. B. (2004). Borders, globalization and irregular migration in Southeast Asia. "e research appears to have been detailed in an ear- In: A. Ananta and E. N. Ari"n (eds.), Inter- lier unpublished manuscript and an earlier partici- national Migration in Southeast Asia. Singa- patory poverty assessment. "e Asian Development pore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Bank report does not include methodology details used in the original research. However, it does in- Key words: clude an annex with interview guidelines that indi- Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, cate that semi-structured interviews were conducted Myanmar, Singapore "ailand, Viet Nam with villagers and migrants; it is not clear who was East Asia, South-East Asia interviewed or how many interviews were conduct- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- ed. "e interview guidelines also indicate that the tion, Quantitative assessment, Tra$cking %ows participants were asked about their cultural setting, gender status, socio-economic factors, health and Research method used: education levels, radio broadcasts, mobility, survival Qualitative skills in "ailand and personal experiences in migrating, observed signs of social upheaval, programmes Summary: that speci!cally target HIV and tra$cking in per- "is chapter argues that a stronger Asian approach sons, legal frameworks on tra$cking in persons and is necessary to address migration and, more speci!- tourism. cally, irregular migration %ows. "rough a study of the situation in two countries of origin, Indonesia "e targeted villages for the study were selected to and Philippines, and two countries of destination, achieve maximum diversity of situations and village Malaysia and "ailand, the chapter demonstrates

12 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

that irregular migration is the result of factors in Azam, F. (2009). Human tra$cking, human both source and receiving countries. "e analysis smuggling and illegal migration to and from is based on data derived through a survey, which Pakistan: Review of government policies and was carried out in all the four countries. In each programmes. Islamabad: Basic Education for of these countries 100 migrants were surveyed who Awareness Reforms and Empowerment, Ac- were in or had been in an irregular situation; in tionAid Pakistan and the European Commis- addition, 327 interviews were carried out in "ai- sion. land. "e respondents were not selected randomly, but the method of selection is not detailed. Addi- tional interviews were conducted with government Key words: o$cials, NGO sta#, community members, recruit- Pakistan ers and intermediaries. Most of the data collection South Asia took place in the last quarter of 2000. In addition Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and to the survey, a literature review was conducted. social costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Meth- "e author concludes that irregular migration may odology, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organiza- be the outcome of inadequate international norms, tion of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular migrants, which recognize the right to out-migration but not Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro!les of smugglers, in-migration. Quantitative assessment, Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows "e author points out that regular and irregular migration are driven by similar forces that occur in Research method used: both the country of origin and of destination. In Qualitative countries of origin, limited employment opportunities and poverty motivate people to migrate, but Summary: intermediaries, such as social networks and migra- "e policy review re%ected in this report relies on ex- tion services, are vital in actually bringing about the tensive interviews with government o$cials and in- migration. In destination countries, the demand for ternational development agency and NGO o$cers, migrant workers is regulated by migration policies. what limited data exists on tra$cking in Pakistan "e chapter largely dwells on policy issues and in- and a literature review to identify gaps in current cludes discussion of the migration policies of vari- policies and obstacles to their enforcement. It further ous countries in the region. includes analysis of the e#ectiveness of those policies by examining what results they have achieved. "e Various forms of irregular migration were recorded recommendations provided speak to how those ini- in the study, including overstaying and changing tiatives could be strengthened. "e review is part of passport information. "e study examined the esti- the project Promotion of Rights, Capacity Building mated magnitude and characteristics of the irregu- Measures and Initiatives to Curb Illegal and Tem- lar migration %ows between the selected countries porary Migration, Including Human Smuggling and and looked into individuals’ decision-making pro- Tra$cking and focuses on the current policies and cess in choosing to migrate irregularly. "e role of programming of the Pakistan Government on ir- social networks in facilitating migration is empha- regular migration. sized. "e study also found that irregular migration has been shown to encourage shadow service pro- "e review opens with core de!nitions and descrip- viders, including for forged documents. tions concerning tra$cking in persons, migrant smuggling and related drivers and then contextual- "e chapter provides a good basis for understand- izes the case of Pakistan in relation to global trends ing how irregular migration arises. It is also useful in irregular migration. "e author presents data and for insight on the broader characteristics of irregu- corresponding analysis that illustrates the challenges, lar migrants and the factors that motivate them to noting that while Pakistan is recognized to be a sig- choose irregular channels. Various forms of irregu- ni!cant area for tra$cking in persons, the lack of lar migration are discussed, but smuggling is not statistical information limits an understanding of the explicitly mentioned. scale of such practice.

13 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e review also outlines global and regional stand- working in local markets, agricultural plantations ards for government action on irregular migration, and construction sites. "e authors also interviewed policies and legal instruments to control tra$cking Russian o$cials and researchers in Moscow, Vladiv- in persons and migrant smuggling and the means ostok and Khabarovsk. available to support regular migration. "is information is complemented with a discussion on the ap- "e authors conclude that despite the rhetoric of propriateness of those strategies for Pakistan and the Russian political !gures and media, the scale of Chi- challenges in implementing current programming. nese migration to Russia has been quite modest. "ey "e review includes recommendations for both do- argue that the failure to establish a stable community nor and government actors on how to strengthen of Chinese migrants in Russia during a period when current and future initiatives, including Pakistan’s it might have been possible to develop mutual bene!- Draft National Migration Policy. cial and sustainable cross-border relationships makes future large-scale migration less likely. "us, the limited scale of Chinese labour migration to Russia rep- Balzer, H. and Repnikova, M. (2010). Migra- resents a missed opportunity rather than a threat. "e tion between China and Russia. In: Post-Sovi- limiting factors include restrictive and shifting Rus- et A%airs, 26(1), pp. 1–37. sian legislation, the availability of large numbers of alternative Russian-speaking foreign workers, lagging Key words: economic development in far eastern Russia, weak China cross-border economic relationships in North-East Irregular migration Asia and a tense atmosphere created by the exploitation of the migration issue by Russian politicians and Research method used: media. Despite a shared border that stretches 4,300 Qualitative kilometres and the apparent geographical ease, Chi- nese migrants prefer to take on the expense and risk Summary: involved in reaching destinations such as the Unit- "is article looks at what amounts to a timid level ed States or Europe, while the number of Russians of Chinese migration to Russia amid the alarmist working and living in China may already exceed the claims of Russian politicians and media since 1991 number of Chinese in Russia. that Russia has been the target of Chinese expansion through large-scale regular and irregular migration. "is article highlights the disconnect between Rus- "e article explores the reality of why a seemingly sian rhetoric and the reality of Chinese migration win-win migration situation did not generate more into Russia. Although it does not directly contribute labour migration. knowledge on migrant smuggling, it presents a good overview of Chinese migration to Russia since 1991, "e research involved !eldwork in China and Rus- with some reference to Chinese irregular migration. sia. Literature on migration issues was collected in the Chinese city of Harbin, from libraries, universi- ties, the provincial and the city academies of social Bartolomei, M. R. (2010). Migrant male do- science and government o$ces. Interviews were con- mestic workers in comparative perspective: ducted at the major border crossing points of Heihe, Four case studies from Italy, India, Ivory Manzhouli, Su!nhe and Donning in the far east of Coast and Congo. In: Men and Masculinities, China with local o$cials responsible for trade and 13(1), pp. 87–110. commerce; businessmen engaged in trade, the recruitment of contract labour and exports of labour Key words: to Russia; and Chinese vendors in the special com- India mercial zones. In the far east of Russia, in Vladiv- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- ostok, Khabarovsk, Blagoveshchensk, Ulan-Ude, tion Irkutsk and Birobidzhan, unstructured interviews were conducted with local o$cials, NGO workers Research method used: involved in migration issues and Chinese nationals Qualitative

14 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Summary: Research method used: "ese four case studies describe and analyse the dy- Mixed namics of domestic service by males. "e particular case studies presented involved the experiences of Summary: workers from Italy, Congo, India and Ivory Coast. "is report presents the baseline research required "e countries were selected to represent transnation- for the project “Promotion of Rights, Capacity al, intrastate and interstate migration, respectively. Building Measures and Initiatives to Curb Illegal "e case studies also re%ect interviews with 355 do- and Temporary Migration, Including Human Smug- mestic migrant workers and participant observation. gling and Tra$cking” (C-PRISM) in Pakistan. "e By focusing on the nature of the work, employee/ research was to help !ll the empirical research gap on employer relationships and reasons for leaving one’s irregular and smuggled migrants as well as tra$cked homeland to seek this type of work, the researcher persons; it provides information on estimated num- identi!ed four types, or models, of domestic service: bers, %ows, migrants’ reasons for moving and pro- the caregiver-economic model, the servant-social sta- !les of tra$cking victims. Primary data collection tus gap model, the cultural gap model and the cook- was carried out in Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta and ethnic gap model. Rahimyar Khan and Swabi districts. Semi-structured interviews with migrants and experts were used to Although the models are designed to capture the develop three questionnaires, one each for tra$cked uniqueness of each setting, they picked up the simi- victims, irregular migrants and organization o$cials. larities as well. For example, despite the nature and Data was then gathered from 131 irregular migrants circumstances of their employment situation, the and 172 victims of tra$cking. "e survey !ndings workers constructed “masculine” characterizations are supplemented with information from second- that supported their notion of being household ary sources, including national and international re- “breadwinner” by working in a domestic setting. "e search, media reports and reports from government analysis of the similarities also leads to a deeper and and local organizations. complex understanding of such issues as the role of ethnicity, hegemonic masculinity and social repro- "e report thus shows that the majority of irregular duction. "e research was not designed to produce migrants in Pakistan are from Afghanistan, Bangla- policy recommendations; rather, it set out to look desh and Myanmar. Karachi is a more common desti- at the relationship between migration and social re- nation due to urban labour market. "ere are no clear production. In the end, the report o#ers a di#erent estimates on the number of irregular Pakistani mi- perspective on how labour is viewed. grants abroad, although data suggests that most irregular migrants come from a few concentrated areas of Punjab Province, such as Gujrat, Gujranwala, Mandi Bahauddin and Sialkot. "e most common abroad Basic Education for Awareness Reforms and destinations are the United Arab Emirates, Greece, Empowerment (BEFARE). (2009). Baseline Islamic Republic of Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and study on illegal migration, human smuggling the United Kingdom. According to the numbers ana- and tra$cking in Pakistan. Retrieved from lysed through the research, more irregular Pakistani www.befare.org/Baseline%20Survey.pdf (ac- migrants have been deported from Turkey, followed cessed 10 January 2012). by Oman and the United States. In terms of tra$cking, the baseline !ndings suggest that the Bengali Key words: as well as Afghan Pashtun and Hazara migrants are Afghanistan, India, Myanmar, Pakistan more at risk than migrants from other areas. South Asia Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- "e research also reveals inadequacies in the policies ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of developed for irregular migration, migrant smug- smuggling, Irregular migration, Methodology, Mo- gling and tra$cking in persons; it also corroborates dus operandi of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular mi- the known gaps in research. "e concluding recom- grants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling, mendations urge the standardizing of data collection Tra$cking %ows and reporting and better coordination among agen-

15 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

cies. "ey also encourage a comprehensive nation- leads to an increasingly diversi!ed population in the wide assessment of capacity building needs for man- receiving countries and constitutes a major challenge aging irregular migration, migrant smuggling and for governments and societies. tra$cking in persons. Overall, the study provides useful information, although at times the results are "e author notes the debate as to whether this form confusing and not well articulated. of movement constitutes tra$cking in persons but does not come to any conclusion. According to the author, some governments, such as in Viet Nam, Belanger, D. (2010). Les mariages avec des approach all bride migration as either tra$cking in étrangères en Asie de l’Est: Tra"c de femmes persons or opportunistic desertion (taking advantage ou migration choisie? In: Population et Socié- of the system to settle abroad). "e author reports tés (469), p. 104–108. that cultural mores exist regarding arranged marriage and acknowledges the di#erence between marriages Key words: arranged between families and marriages brokered China, Viet Nam by commercial agencies. Because the author does East Asia not directly address the issue of whether or not these Tra$cking %ows marriages involve any element of exploitation, the article does not provide any insight as to whether or Research method used: not these marriages could in fact be categorized as Unknown tra$cking situations.

Summary: "e article focuses on bride migration and its im- "is article examines the phenomenon of bride mi- plications for receiving societies, and thus does not gration in East Asia due to the growing number of directly contribute knowledge on migrant smug- men who have di$culty !nding a spouse in their gling. home country. "e demographic consequences are also evaluated. Bilecen, B. (2009). Human smuggling net- "e research method is not explained. "e study works operating between Middle East and compares various data sets on the issue and draws the European Union: Evidence from Iranian, from secondary sources. Iraqi and Afghani [sic] migrants in the Neth- erlands. In: COMCAD Working Papers (62). According to the research, a growing number of East Asian men marry a bride from a foreign country. De- Key words: spite a decline in recent years, these unions still rep- Afghanistan resent a signi!cant proportion of marriages. Women Concepts, Organization of smuggling, Smuggler- from China make up the largest group of foreign migrant relationship, Smuggling brides in all three countries (Japan, the Republic of Korea and Taiwan Province of China). Vietnamese Research method used: constitute the second largest group in Taiwan Prov- Qualitative ince of China and the Republic of Korea, while Fil- ipinas are the second largest group in Japan. Interna- Summary: tional matchmaking agencies have pivotal roles both "is report o#ers analysis on the involvement of in the sending and receiving countries and largely transnational networks in the process of migrant contributed to the strong increase in mixed mar- smuggling from the Middle East and West Asia riages from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s. Some into the European Union, with special reference to receiving countries have reacted by implementing the Netherlands. Iraq, Islamic Republic of Iran and control mechanisms for matchmaking agencies, such Afghanistan were chosen to represent the Middle as in Taiwan Province of China, where only non- East and West Asia because an increasing number pro!t agencies are authorized to operate. "e article of asylum seekers in Europe originate from these concludes that the phenomenon of bride migration countries.

16 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

To address the role of social networks in migrant tion: #e case of Southeast Asia. In: Women smuggling operations, the research analysed migrant and Criminal Justice, 20(1-2), pp. 105–126. smuggling from an organized crime perspective rather than a human rights, migration management or Key words: business perspective. According to the author, the Cambodia, "ailand organized crime perspective is most relevant for op- South-East Asia erational aspects. Tra$cking %ows

"e analysis draws on secondary data and informa- Research method used: tion from semi-structured interviews with smuggled Qualitative migrants conducted in the Dutch cities of Amster- dam, Rotterdam and Nijmegen. Of the 11 smuggled Summary: migrants interviewed, !ve were from Iraq, three from "is article reports on research that probed the com- the Islamic Republic of Iran and another three from plex problem of sexual exploitation of children in Afghanistan. "e report does not provide detailed Cambodia and "ailand. "e research explored the information on the variables or issues designated for factors that drive the sexual exploitation of children, data collection through the interviews. "ere is rec- locations where it is most prevalent, how handlers ognition, however, of the di$culty in interviewing sell sex with children, the di#erences and similari- smuggled migrants, particularly regarding how they ties between Cambodia and "ailand regarding the came into contact with their smugglers. sexual exploitation of children and government and NGO responses to the phenomenon. "e article concludes that within the sample examined, irregular migrants made extensive use of "e qualitative research relied on !eld observa- friendship and kinship networks rather than exclu- tions and interviews with law enforcement o$- sively using the services of transnational organized cials, NGO representatives and women and chil- crime groups. Most of the migrants interviewed re- dren victims of exploitation in the sex industries ported they had established contact with smugglers of Cambodia and "ailand: "e researchers con- in transit countries on their own and negotiated an ducted more than 100 interviews with government agreement for help in migrating; they connected o$cials between June 2004 and the end of 2006, with the smugglers, they said, by simply inquiring with follow-up interviews conducted until 2009. around and using their friendships and ethnic or Most of the government o$cials interviewed were kinship ties. police o$cers or from justice ministries primarily in Cambodia and "ailand but also in Australia, However, the author does not completely exclude Japan and the United States. "e researchers in- the involvement of organized crime groups. "e interviewed 80 NGO representatives working with terviews, for example, revealed that two Afghan mi- adult sex workers and child victims of tra$cking in grants used the services of large transnational organ- Cambodia and "ailand. "ey also interviewed 80 ized crime groups to get to the Netherlands. young women and children whom they met inside brothels or in police or NGO custody following a "e report highlights the importance of independ- police investigation and/or raid. ent smugglers and small criminal smuggling groups in the process of migrant smuggling from the Mid- For the !eld observation, the researchers visited dle East and West Asia. It also accents how migrants massage parlours, brothels and strip bars and even self-manage their travels through ethnic kinships and !lmed with video cameras. "e video footage was friendships. Due to the rather small sample, though, shown to government o$cials, which led to crimi- the !ndings are not considered representative. nal investigations and the prompting of law enforcement action.

Blackburn, A. G., Taylor, R. W. and Davis, J. "e researchers note some limitations of the research E. (2010). Understanding the complexities of methodology, including that the observations took human tra!cking and child sexual exploita- place over a relatively short period of time.

17 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e researchers conclude that the prostitution of chil- Summary: dren occurs across South-East Asia, particularly in "is multifaceted study describes the lives of 112 Cambodia and "ailand, where there are many busi- Bangladeshi girls and women who were sold as ness operations pro!ting, including brothels, strip wives, mostly to men in Uttar Pradesh, India. "e bars and massage parlours. "e research suggests that statistics derived from extensive interviews with the business of selling sex, including sex with minors, those girls and women reveal useful information, is being driven further underground due to the tight- such as age when migrated/tra$cked, destination, ening of laws and greater attention to the issue. "ere religious identity, education level, reasons for mar- is limited discussion on the role of police corruption rying and contact with natal family after marriage. in the operation of the sex industry. Data are also presented describing the dalals and da- lalis — persons who engage in matchmaking and/or "e researchers note how easy it was for them to the tra$cking of girls and women for marriage. “buy” sex with prostituted female children aged 7–16 for the relatively cheap sum of USD 2 to USD Although the statistics o#er insights into the issue, 35, but that such services were easier to purchase in it is the rich narratives of the girls’ and women’s life Cambodia than in "ailand. "ey found that most stories that speak to the complexity of the situation. of this type of business is conducted in a range of Using the reviewed literature and those stories, the venues associated with the sex industry, such as author shows how factors such as culture, religion brothels, strip bars and massage parlours, as opposed and economics interact in in%uencing who is sold, to openly on the street. "e researchers conclude that who buys girls and young women and how they are the demand for sexual services, including sex tour- treated as wives. Because the goal of the investiga- ism, compounded by poverty dynamics, continues tion was to describe and analyse the lives of girls and to encourage the tra$cking of women and children women sold as wives, there is no attempt to o#er into the sex industries in Cambodia and "ailand. policy recommendations. However, the depth of the report provides important insights for policymakers. "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling, but it does give examples of tra$cking %ows into and out of Cambodia, most- Brees, I. (2008). Refugee business: Strategies ly from Cambodia to Malaysia, "ailand and Viet of work on the #ai-Burma border. In: Jour- Nam as well as internally (rural to urban areas). "e nal of Refugee Studies, 21(3), pp. 380–397. report cites the estimates that put the number of women and children who are being prostituted or Key words: engaged in sex work in Cambodia as low as 40,000 Myanmar, "ailand and as high as 500,000; in "ailand, of the estimated Irregular migration 2 million women and children in the sex industry, some 30,000–75,000 are children being prostituted. Research method used: Qualitative

Blanchet, T. (2005). Bangladeshi girls sold as Summary: wives in North India. In: Indian Journal of "is article critiques the encampment policies of a Gender Studies, 12(2–3), pp. 305–334. number of countries hosting signi!cant, long-term populations of refugees. Under these policies, refu- Key words: gees are considered to be a burden and are restricted India to camps where they are taken care of by UNHCR Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and so- but cannot legally work. "e author draws on her cial costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Pro!les research on the situation of Myanmar refugees and of irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, irregular migrants living and working in "ailand to Routes, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows highlight the complex realities that result from encampment policies. Under "ai government policy, Research method used: Myanmar refugees, who have lived on the "ai side Mixed of the border for 20 years, are required to remain in

18 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

camps for protection and assistance; those who live Busza, J. (2004). Sex work and migration: #e outside of the camps are considered to be irregular dangers of oversimpli"cation: A case study of migrants. "e author argues, however, that this strict Vietnamese women in Cambodia. In: Health distinction between camp refugees and those who and Human Rights, 7(2), pp. 231–249. live outside is not re%ected in reality. She notes that camp refugees have found various strategies to access work outside of the camps, as have those living “il- Key words: legally” outside of the camps. She also acknowledges Cambodia, Viet Nam that other actors, including local government o$- Concepts, Tra$cking %ows cials and employers, have been complicit in either tolerating or facilitating refugees’ access to work, Research method used: thereby further undermining the strict distinction Qualitative between camp refugees and irregular migrants. "e author explains that rather than being a burden, My- Summary: anmar refugees have a strong and positive impact "is article explores the situations and experiences on the "ai economy because of their willingness to of Vietnamese sex workers in Svay Pak, a distinc- engage in low- skilled work. Additionally, Myanmar tively ethnic Vietnamese village just outside Phnom refugees and irregular migrants who are employed Penh in Cambodia. "e article uses the example of to work in the "ai economy could make an even Svay Pak as a case study to illustrate how some anti- greater contribution if they were a#orded labour tra$cking interventions fail to take into account the protection and rights. diverse realities of women’s lives.

"e article draws on !eldwork from the "ai bor- "e concept of tra$cking in persons used for the der towns of Tak and Mae Hong Son and interviews analysis is based on the Tra$cking in Persons Pro- with more than 150 Myanmar refugee households tocol. and !ve focus group discussions with Myanmar refugees. "e focus of the interviews and discussion "e article draws on data originally collected as part groups and the kind of information and data gath- of a larger study in 2000–2002 to evaluate the im- ered from these research methods is not explained pact of a social intervention (a drop-in centre and within the article. "e researcher does say that she associated health and community activities) for sex engaged in ethnographic observation of the refugees workers in the brothels in Svay Pak village. by spending time with them, both inside and outside of the refugee camps, including in some of the "e data was drawn from 28 in-depth interviews refugees’ homes. with sex workers as well as 15 participatory workshops (with 72 total participants) that addressed "e research demonstrates that there is a signi!- women’s pathways into sex work. "e in-depth in- cant number of Myanmar refugees and irregular terviews focused on individual experiences and opin- migrants working in "ailand with very limited ions relating to entering and engaging in sex work; human and labour rights protections extended to the workshops elicited group norms and common them under "ai law — despite the signi!cant con- discourse surrounding migration and conditions of tribution they make to the "ai economy. Many of sex work. "e data analysis focuses on prior knowl- them work illegally and are therefore vulnerable to edge and expectations of sex workers, entry into sex exploitation. work, views on sex work and the risk of exploitation and violation of human rights. "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling because it does not discuss "e author acknowledges some potential sources of migration methods used by Myanmar migrants to bias in the sample as well as possible issues with the travel (irregularly) to "ailand. However, it does pro- validity of some data. Given the marginalizing of the vide evidence of irregular migration from Myanmar sex worker community and the di$culty of accessing to "ailand and the plight that many Myanmar mi- potential participants, the sample for the study was grant workers experience after they arrive. self-selected. In addition, participants were generally

19 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

reluctant to discuss problems associated with brothel Key words: managers or to admit if they were younger than 18 China years. Irregular migration, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling "e research !ndings fuel the argument that some anti-tra$cking interventions harm rather than help Research method used: women who are vulnerable to tra$cking because Qualitative they do not take into account the women’s motivations or reasons for migration. Migration to Svay Summary: Pak is often an independent decision on the part of a "is chapter explores the labour exploitation of ir- young woman and supported by friends and family regular Chinese migrants in Italy. "e researchers networks. "e women often know that they will be focused on legal and illegal activities of Chinese mi- working in the sex industry. According to the author, grants to understand how non-conformity, illegality anti-tra$cking interventions often do not address and crime in%uence the life and work situations of this reality and consequently contribute to abuses migrants in Italy and how the development of ille- of sex workers’ human rights and exacerbate vulner- gality may be encouraged by the migratory phenom- abilities to HIV infection and other adverse sexual enon. health outcomes. "e report draws on multiple sources of informa- "e research indicates that many Vietnamese women tion, including analysis of legal and court docu- had prior knowledge of Svay Pak and its reputation ments, !eldwork on illegal and criminal activities, for employing Vietnamese sex workers. Although !eldwork on working conditions within the ethnic there is a general assumption that the majority of niche and among Chinese entrepreneurs and analy- the Vietnamese sex workers in Svay Pak were traf- sis of the interaction between migrants and the local !cked, the research shows that many of them chose society. "e qualitative !eldwork on illegal and crim- to engage in such work because it is !nancially lucra- inal activities of Chinese nationals (including irregu- tive, although the women were often held in debt lar migrants) in Italy was conducted from 1996 to bondage until they could repay their purchase price. 2006. It included several meetings with informants Working in the sex industry in Svay Pak is a reality and migrants involved in illegal activities as well as for many young southern Vietnamese women who regular interaction with law enforcement and crime come from situations of poverty; poverty and !nan- prevention institutions in Italy. To assess the living cial gain were the two most reported factors for Viet- and working conditions of Chinese migrants in Italy, namese women to migrate to Svay Pak. the authors reviewed the empirical results of research conducted by the “Spinner group” from 2000 to "e article does not directly contribute knowledge 2005, which particularly focused on businesses op- on migrant smuggling. It does serve to show a strong erated by Chinese migrants. "is group conducted and traditional migration route for many rural poor about 100 qualitative in-depth interviews, mainly on Vietnamese women from southern Viet Nam to the internal organization of ethnic workshops and Svay Pak, Cambodia. However, it is not clear if these irregular forms of work and labour and organized women are irregular migrants. "ere is some discus- multiple meetings with more than 30 Chinese entre- sion in the article of debt bondage and deception of preneurs each year. some women who migrate with the assistance of a brothel manager or intermediary. "e chapter also is based on some 100 in-depth interviews with Chinese entrepreneurs and labourers conducted by one of the authors between 2002 Ceccagno, A., Ratrelli, R. and Salvati, A. and 2006. "e interviews focused on new working (2010). Exploitation of Chinese immigrants trends among Chinese entrepreneurs, working and in Italy. In: G. Yun (ed.). Concealed chains: living conditions in ethnic workshops, interaction Labour exploitation and Chinese migrants with local entrepreneurs and the conditions of sec- in Europe. Geneva: International Labour Or- ond-generation migrants and their role in the family ganization (Vol. 1). business.

20 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e authors found that the relationship between and irregular migrant workers. "e report uses the Chinese migrants and smugglers can be character- bilateral Memoranda of Understanding on Coopera- ized as “business-like”. Smuggling groups operate as tion in Employment of Workers between "ailand service providers and often work side by side with and Lao PDR and "ailand and Cambodia (signed traditional family networks. Once in Italy, the con- 2002 and 2003, respectively) as a policy basis from nection between migrants and smugglers dissolves which to discuss the ine#ectiveness and ine$ciency and migrants have to !nd employment on their own. of formal recruitment methods for Lao and Cambo- "us, the authors argue that the smugglers are not dian migrant workers wanting to work in "ailand involved in the tra$cking of persons because their when compared with informal recruitment methods. relationship with the migrants ends upon entry into "e research focused on migrants working in the the country. However, migrants who are unable to construction, manufacturing and food processing rely on signi!cant social relationships may experi- sectors in "ailand. ence acts of violence by international networks, including kidnapping, ransom and coercion. "e report draws on research commissioned by the International Labour Organization in Cambodia, "e chapter reveals that Chinese migrants work- Lao PDR and "ailand on the implementation of ing within the “Chinese niche” are forced to work the bilateral MOUs to compare the processes of in precarious conditions with limited time for their regular and irregular recruitment of migrant workers personal lives. "ese labour arrangements allow em- between the two sending countries. "e research in- ployers to obtain a hugely competitive position in volved a quantitative survey as well as in-depth inter- the Italian market by circumventing local laws. "e views with regular and irregular Lao and Cambodian authors also detected a shared willingness and con- migrants in "ailand and those migrants who had sent from Chinese workers to accept any working returned home, migrant recruiters, government of- arrangements no matter how harsh and degrading !cials, NGO workers and other actors in the recruit- they may be. "e authors argue that the relationship ment process. A standard questionnaire was devel- between Chinese employers and employees evolves oped and used by three research teams based in each from exploitation to dependence and !nally to in- of the three countries for the interviews with 177 terdependence. "ey also argue that amnesties have regular and 160 irregular migrants from Cambodia contributed to a degeneration of the relationship be- and Lao PDR. tween Chinese migrants and local society and have encouraged illegality in relations between migrants. "e most signi!cant !nding is that irregular migration channels are more %exible and more e$cient than regular migration channels and recruitment Chantavanich, S. (2008). #e Mekong chal- processes. "rough the research and its analysis of lenge: An honest broker – Improving cross- the formal and informal recruitment processes, the border recruitment practices for the bene"t of researchers conclude that regular migration channels government workers and employers. Bangkok: did not a#ord better protection or working condi- International Labour Organization. tions for those wanting to migrate to "ailand for work. In addition, regular recruitment channels to Key words: facilitate migration and working opportunities in Cambodia, Lao PDR, "ailand "ailand often came at a high cost and with a long Irregular migration procedural time frame.

Research method used: "e report does not directly contribute knowledge Mixed on migrant smuggling. However, it provides information about the formal and informal recruitment Summary: and migration channels and methods used between "is report examines the e#ectiveness of the laws and Cambodia and Lao PDR to "ailand and some in- policies on the recruitment of migrant workers from formation on the cost of recruitment services. "e Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Cambodia researchers also present a strong argument as to why to "ailand by examining the experiences of regular current migration management policies between the

21 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

three countries are failing, primarily because the de- "e author notes that the viewpoints and data pre- mand for migrant workers in "ailand is high and sented in this chapter were mainly collected from the supply of workers is strong but the formal re- the author’s interviews, observations and informal cruitment channels are slow, cumbersome, expensive conversations with various people involved in ir- and not necessarily any safer for workers than the regular migration activities, including former ir- informal channels. regular migrants and their family members, migrant smugglers, border police o$cials, grocery store owners, peddlers, bank sta#, fortune tellers, taxi drivers, Chin, J. (2007). Patterns, trends and gov- motorcycle couriers, hotel doormen, !shermen and ernment policies: Understanding irregular local residents as well as government o$cials at vari- migration from China. In: E. A. D. Aryeetey ous levels. "e author explains that only a few rep- (ed.). Testing global interdependence: Issues resentative examples and !gures were selected from on trade, aid, migration and development. individual years. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. The study found that the irregular migrants from Key words: China mainly hailed from Fuzhou city (Fujian China Province), Wenzhou city (Zhejiang Province) Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- and three provinces in north-eastern China (Hei- ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Routes, longjiang, Jilin and Liaoning). The author de- Pro!les of irregular migrants, Smuggling tected three important similarities in the source regions in southern China: access to money (bor- Research method used: rowed from relatives or underground lenders or Mixed informal credit associations), clandestine transportation channels and international migration Summary: networks. Additionally, those geographic areas "is book chapter explores the patterns and trends have a long history of out-migration and locals in Chinese irregular out-migration and presents the seeking adventures abroad. In contrast, out-mi- Chinese Government’s response and policies towards gration is a relatively new phenomenon for the irregular migration channels and migration-sending north-eastern areas and is mainly driven by un- regions. employment.

"e chapter draws on the author’s ethnographic re- According to the author, there are at least three search in various coastal villages and towns in south- types of irregular migration from China: organized ern China, with a special reference to Fuzhou city, smuggling, overstaying a legal visit and marriages of which, according to the author, represents one of the convenience. New trends are also enumerated. "e major sources for irregular out-migration in China. study concludes that the current policies adopted Over several years, the author conducted face-to-face by both Western countries and China cannot ef- interviews with more than 150 people using a stand- fectively address or stop the waves of irregular mi- ardized questionnaire, which the author had drafted gration from China. Unless economic disparities and memorized. "e author carried a digital recorder between China and Western countries are greatly to help accurately document all informal conversa- reduced, the Chinese irregular migration %ows are tions. likely to continue.

All interviews and conversations were arranged and "e chapter provides a good overview of relevant is- conducted within the context of personal networks. sues concerning Chinese irregular out-migration and "e data collected through the interviews, conversa- smuggling, including migration %ows, regions and tions and observations were classi!ed and saved on a countries of destination, fees and payments, migra- computer. To identify further areas for closer examination patterns and trends, factors that fuel irregular tion and in-depth analysis, the author also systematical- migration and pro!les of irregular migrants along ly read and analysed news reports published in China, with the Chinese Government’s response and poli- Taiwan Province of China and Hong Kong (China). cies.

22 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Chin, J. (2008). Human smuggling and traf- fee and not report them to the police. However, the "cking in the Taiwan strait: Security pre- human costs of tra$cking operations are rising. "e dicament or political dilemma? In: M. A. W. snakeheads are reportedly respected by local resi- Curley (ed.). Security and migration in Asia. dents because they have assisted their fellow villagers New York: Routledge. in becoming wealthy.

Key words: "e chapter provides information on the smug- China gling process between China and Taiwan Province of Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- China. Various smugglers’ methods are described as ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of well as the relationship between smugglers and mi- smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of grants and the status that smugglers enjoy in their smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of communities. "e information on the evolution of smuggled migrants, Pro!les of smugglers, Routes, smuggling organizations since 1987 is also very rel- Tra$cking %ows, Smuggler-migrant relationship, evant. Smuggling fees are not described. Sometimes Smuggling it is unclear if the author is discussing smuggling or tra$cking methods because they seem to be related. Research method used: Qualitative Chu, J. Y. (2006). To be “emplaced”: Fu- Summary: zhounese migration and the politics of desti- "is book chapter examines migrant smuggling and nation. In: Identities, 13(3), pp. 395–425. the tra$cking of persons in the Taiwan Strait as a case study to test the utility of treating migration Key words: %ows and policies in East Asia as security issues. Sta- China tistics are used from the Taiwanese Immigration Of- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- !ce. "e chapter concludes that migrant smuggling tion and tra$cking in persons in the Taiwan Strait is a political dilemma rather than a security issue. Research method used: Qualitative "e historical background for irregular migration %ows from China to the Taiwan Province of China Summary: since the thawing of relations in the late 1980s is "is article explores what it means to be “emplaced” analysed. "ese movements have mainly been mo- (as opposed to being “displaced”) for both Chinese tivated by the gap in wealth between the China and migrants and people who remain behind. In doing Taiwan Province of China, which has fuelled waves so, the article intends to correct what the author per- of migrant smuggling and tra$cking in persons. "e ceives as an overemphasis on “displacement” in the author introduces the geographic origins of the ir- migration literature. By examining the experiences regular migrants and examines why the overwhelm- and perceptions of those who “remain behind” in ing majority hails from Fujian Province. China and comparing this with the experiences and perceptions of those who migrate, the author argues "e author explains that smuggling operations have that the greatest feelings of displacement are actu- evolved over time and provides detailed informa- ally experienced by those who feel trapped at home tion of the ever-transforming operations of smug- and unable to migrate. "e author explores non- glers. Since the late 1980s, smuggling activities have economic factors that fuel the desire of Chinese peo- shifted from small !shermen’s enterprises to criminal ple from Fuzhou city to migrate despite the physical syndicates. Smuggling from Fujian Province is typi- dangers and economic costs of travelling through cally organized by small migration or criminal net- migrant smuggling networks. works based on ethnic, kinship or friendship a$liations. "is is because the “snakeheads” (underworld Drawing on anthropological theories of exchange entrepreneurs) only trust relatives, fellow villagers or and value, the author broadens the existing econom- friends to pay the last instalment of the smuggling ic analysis of the risks and rewards of Fuzhounese

23 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

migration by demonstrating how the aspirations of tus. "e author argues that the irregular migration the subjects of the study were shaped by various and status has a negative impact on the ability of those often entangled regimes of values. migrants to in%uence and contribute to a sustainable development policy through which they could ben- "is ethnographic study draws on data collected e!t most. "e author states that the poorest popula- during 14 months of !eldwork in a migrant-sending tions are often the least able or likely to participate in rural village near Fuzhou city, where 85 per cent of the decision-making processes that a#ect them and households have at least one member living in the uses the case of irregular Myanmar migrants in "ai- United States. During this time, the author lived land to support the argument. "e lack of participa- and worked in the village and collected data through tion is attributed to lack of political and legal support taped interviews and informal conversations with for Myanmar migrants who want to become active relevant actors and from village and district reports participants in a community, a high level of mobility and self-published memoires. among the irregular Myanmar migrant population, a low level of trust in government and authorities due "e key !nding of this unusual research is that for to the threat of deportation and a lack of protection the Fuzhounese subjects in the study, the ultimate from exploitation and harassment from authorities. form of displacement was seen and experienced as a "e author discusses the importance of NGOs as result of immobility rather than physical departure “advocate guardians” in assuming a role in the com- from the home. In addition to economic motives, the munity on behalf of irregular Myanmar migrants in desire to migrate was shaped by values tied to state "ailand. building projects and local hierarchies of status, gender, kinship and religion. For example, Fuzhounese "e article is based in part on a meta-review of les- spend their overseas remittances predominantly on sons learned by a "ai-based NGO o#ering medi- the restoration and building of non-productive and cal and health support to Myanmar migrants. "e non-income-generating elaborate temples and hous- NGO could not be named because of the nature of es rather than investing in local economic activities. its work with Myanmar migrants. No other information on the research method is given. "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling; however, it highlights the "e author notes that irregular Myanmar migrants importance and role of non-economic factors that do not aspire to be active participants in the com- contribute to the irregular out-migration from Fu- munity despite the fact that doing so could work to zhou city. improve their livelihoods and living conditions in "ailand. "is is due to their irregular status and the need to remain as “invisible” as possible to escape the Clarke, M. (2009). Over the border and un- attention of "ai authorities and possible deporta- der the radar: Can illegal migrants be active tion. citizens? In: Development in Practice, 19(8), pp. 1064–1078. "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling; however, it provides insight Key words: into the frequency with which irregular migration Myanmar, "ailand routes from Myanmar to "ailand are used. "e Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- author notes that border crossing is more like mov- tion ing from one village to another, with some My- anmar residents crossing back and forth daily for Research method used: work. "e author also notes some of the push-pull Qualitative factors that prompts Myanmar migrants to cross the border to "ailand irregularly, including the Summary: political turmoil in Myanmar and "ailand’s eco- "is article highlights the inability of irregular My- nomic prosperity and employment opportunities. anmar migrants in "ailand to be active in their new "ere is a brief discussion on the methods used by communities because of their irregular migrant sta- Myanmar migrants to travel to "ailand, which are

24 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

mostly linked to networks of family and friends Although the article does not speci!cally address and not third parties, such as tra$ckers and/or migrant smuggling or irregular migration, the infor- smugglers. mation on regular domestic workers provides background for understanding the broader migration issues in the region. Constable, N. (2009). Migrant workers and the many states of protest in Hong Kong. In: Critical Asian Studies, 41(1), pp. 143–164. Crawford, M. E. (2010). Sex tra$cking in South Asia: Telling Maya’s story. New York: Key words: Routledge. China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, "ailand Routes Key words: India Research method used: South Asia Qualitative Concepts, Tra$cking %ows

Summary: Research method used: "is article analyses the factors that permit public Qualitative protests by migrant workers and shape their form and content. A case study examining the Consulate Summary: Hopping Protest and Hall of Shame Awards event Focusing on the case of Nepal, this book provides a in Hong Kong (China) are used as ethnographic ex- critical feminist analysis of tra$cking for sexual examples of domestic workers’ protests. Because pro- ploitation. Using the reviewed literature along with tests by migrants are rare in Hong Kong (China), stories collected during her !eldwork, the author the author looked into why it occurs. "e author ar- shows how the social construction of tra$cking for gues that migrant workers’ protests and activism are sexual exploitation is in%uenced by gender, caste and shaped by inter-ethnic worker a$liations and Hong social class. She asks whose voices are heard when sex Kong (China)’s situation as a post-colonial “global tra$cking is de!ned and described because, the au- city”. "e author concludes that migrants’ protests thor argues, structural forms of power disadvantage are tolerated in Hong Kong (China) because they do certain groups of women and girls, increasing their not threaten the broader economic interests of Hong vulnerability to tra$cking. "e concept of tra$ck- Kong (China) and its citizens, unlike other protests ing for sexual exploitation and its representation in in Asia. the discourse is the focus of her analysis. She discusses how the media and development practitioners Tr a $cking in persons and migrant smuggling are construct narratives of a credible victim, one who is not addressed and irregular migration is only brie%y blameless, naive and innocent and thus deserving of touched upon. However, the article does address re- assistance. "e author concludes that the dominant gional migration %ows and migrating routes that do- construction of the tra$cked women in Nepal re%ect mestic workers take to !nd jobs, which could include Western stereotypes of generic “third world women”. irregular channels. "e various motivations for seek- In the !nal chapter, she suggests a number of ways ing out domestic work are described and the use of forward, including the promotion of evidence-based regular processes is quanti!ed. Government involve- policies and programmes with rigorous outcome as- ment in promoting the migration of domestic work- sessments and evaluations, more re%exion in the re- ers (in particular focusing on Indonesia) is examined. search and the adoption of a human rights approach to tra$cking for sexual exploitation. In this regard, "e article’s main focus is placed on migrants’ situ- the book holds value for researchers and practition- ations within the country of origin. National poli- ers alike. cies governing migrant workers are also addressed. "e speci!c focus on Hong Kong (China) limits the article’s relevance for the Asian region, due to the Crinis, V. (2005). #e devil you know: Malay- uniqueness of conditions in Hong Kong (China). sian perceptions of foreign workers. [Paper in

25 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

special issue: A. Kaur and I. Metcalfe (eds.). "e paper mainly examines the country of destina- Migrant Labour in Southeast Asia: Needed, tion’s perception of migrant workers and does not ex- Not Wanted.] In: Review of Indonesian and plore the issue of irregular labour migration in detail. Malaysian A%airs, 39(2), pp. 91–111. While Indonesian workers reportedly prefer irregular routes through family connections and middlemen, Key words: the process of irregular migration itself is not further China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, "ailand, Singa- examined. "e role of the middlemen is not addressed pore in more detail and it is left open as to what role they Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- actually have. "e paper does not provide any new tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Routes data on irregular migration or migrant smuggling.

Research method used: Qualitative Crock, M., Saul, B. and Dastyari, A. (2006). Future seekers II: Refugees and irregular mi- Summary: gration in Australia. Sydney: #e Federation "is paper examines media representations of for- Press. eign workers in Malaysia from the 1970s to the present, speci!cally focusing on Indonesian work- Key words: ers. "e author argues that even though Indonesian Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Sri Lan- migrant labourers have signi!cantly contributed to ka, Viet Nam the economic development of Malaysia, they are Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- demonized by the Malaysian media. "ere is thus ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of a con%ict between economic interests in Malaysia, smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of which favour cheap foreign labour, and the percep- smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of ir- tion that foreign labour undermines Malaysia’s so- regular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro- cial stability and wages for national labourers. "e !les of smugglers, Quantitative assessment, Routes, research for the paper is based on Malay and Eng- Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows lish language newspaper sources and augmented by personal communication with employers of foreign Research method used: domestic workers. "e speci!c framework used to Qualitative analyse the articles is not speci!ed. Labour migration studies and national statistics are used as ad- Summary: ditional sources of data. "e article concludes that "e purpose of this chapter is to review the situa- undocumented labour migration into Malaysia re- tion of migrant smuggling and tra$cking of persons mains an issue. into Australia and the Australian policy response to these crimes. "e case study of the SIEV X (a !sh- According to the paper, Indonesians enter Malaysia ing boat with around 400 asylum seekers largely irregularly with the help of family and friends and from Iraq and Afghanistan travelling from Indone- middlemen operating illegally. Bilateral policies be- sia to Australia that sank in 2001, drowning 353 of tween Malaysia and Indonesia to combat undocu- them, including children) is used to demonstrate mented migration are examined, although Indone- how smuggling to Australia takes place, how the sians are described as preferring irregular channels Australian Government responded to the case, what to avoid bureaucratic processes. "e paper focuses kind of people were smuggled and what happened to mainly on the public discourse on the issue of for- the smugglers. Information on the SIEV X accident eign labour and emphasizes the feminization of la- stems from a transcribed interview with one of the bour migration %ows from Indonesia to Malaysia as survivors one week after the boat sank. Statistics are well as Malaysian policy for hiring maids. Since the cited from UNHCR and NGOs, but no methodol- 1990s, according to the author, the discourse on ogy is explained. "e chapter de!nes “people smug- Indonesian and Filipino maids has become increas- gling” according to the Australian Department of ingly sexualized and they are increasingly portrayed Immigration, whereas “people tra$cking” is de!ned as a threat to the family. according to the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol.

26 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e chapter provides information on alleged smug- grant smuggling into and through Switzerland and gling fees from various countries and regions of ori- related issues. In addition, the situation regarding gin. Smuggling is thought to be carried out by organ- migrant smuggling was examined in three cantons, ized criminal groups in southern China, Indonesia, at Zurich’s international airport and at the federal Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore level. and "ailand. Smugglers are usually involved in related criminal activities, such as document fraud, il- "e research !nds that Switzerland is a country legal prostitution and migration agent malpractice. of destination as well as a country of transit, and Risks and hazards to smuggled migrants are listed, smuggled migrants often arrive via the Balkans and using the case of the SIEV X as an example. "e Adriatic routes. From there, they try to cross the un- chapter also provides detailed information on why guarded border on foot, guided by a smuggler. "e migrants chose to migrate through smuggling chan- research found that unauthorized crossings have also nels — mainly attributed to long bureaucratic pro- increased at the western border of Switzerland, but cesses and the lack of access to the asylum procedure. the southern and eastern borders also remain attractive to migrants. Most of the smuggled migrants "e chapter sheds light on the methods of smug- originate from the Balkans and the Kurdish areas of gling operations to Australia, including !nancial and Turkey and to a lesser extent from Africa, the Cauca- human costs. Factors exacerbating smuggling %ows sus, the Middle East, Moldova and Ukraine. are also discussed. However, the SIEV X incident is the only speci!c case study of smuggling detailed, Often, migrants from China and Sri Lanka use Swiss and it is unclear whether the !ndings from this case airports as transit areas, where they are provided with can be applied to most smuggling %ows to Australia. new documents by smugglers and continue their jour- Although smugglers are stated as forming organized ney to Canada, the United Kingdom or the United criminal groups, it is unclear to what degree they are States. Experts in this study suspect that in about half organized and what form this organization takes. of the smuggling cases, the smuggler is either related to or acquainted with the smuggled migrant. "e remaining cases are predominantly characterized by D’Amato, G., Gerber, B. and Kamm, M. mom-and-pop organizations, which operate in border (2005). Menschenschmuggel und irreg- areas. According to the study, the Swiss authorities do uläre Migration in der Schweiz. In: SFM – not know of any professional smugglers or organized Forschungsbericht 37. smuggling “ma!as” operating in the country, with the exception of the Zurich airport. "e report identi- Key words: !es various problems concerning data collection and China combating migrant smuggling, such as the lack of le- Fees and payment for smuggling, Modus operandi gal protection for smuggled migrants willing to make of smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Routes, a statement and the prohibition of phone tapping, Smuggling which makes it di$cult to combat migrant smuggling. Furthermore, the lack of current data makes it Research method used: impossible to accurately assess the scope, pattern and Qualitative overall situation of migrant smuggling in Switzerland. "e inherent problem of the Swiss federal system, Summary: which demands that resolutions must be implement- "is paper analyses di#erent forms, backgrounds ed over several levels, produces unclear jurisdictions, and dynamics of migrant smuggling to and through which results in di#erent responsibilities and punish- Switzerland. "e paper uses migrant smuggling as ments for smuggling, depending on the canton. "e de!ned by the Swiss Aliens Act. o#ence of migrant smuggling is punished di#erently in the cantons. "e study concludes that Switzerland "e research involved more than 40 face-to-face lacks national coordination measures and necessary interviews with practitioners and experts of federal international cooperation. According to the authors, agencies, NGOs and research institutes. "e purpose Switzerland’s restrictive migration policy ensures that of these interviews was to gain knowledge about mi- the services of migrant smugglers remain attractive.

27 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e paper provides a pro!le of Chinese irregular mi- further, with percentages regarding the importance grants using Swiss airports as transit areas as well as and reasons why a given category was consequential routes, fees and misuse of documents. "e paper also in understanding the issue of migration. A brief list makes reference to smuggled migrants from Pakistan of possible policy implications is also presented. and Sri Lanka; however, no detailed information is provided. David, F. (2008). Tra!cking of women for "e paper is based on interviews with experts, which sexual purposes. In: Research and Public results in limitations regarding the knowledge gained Policy Series (Vol. 95). Canberra: Australian on migrant smuggling. "e study presents little in- Institute of Criminology. formation on root causes, motives, %ows of migrant smuggling and irregular migration in general. Key words: "ailand Tra$cking %ows Datta, P. (2004). Push-pull factors of undocumented migration from Bangladesh to West Research method used: Bengal: A perception study. In: Qualitative Qualitative Report, 9(2), pp. 335–358. Summary: Key words: "is report provides insight into the issues, barriers India and challenges that have arisen in the tra$cking of Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- persons cases in Australia to date, either in relation to tion, Tra$cking %ows victim detection or the investigation or prosecution of o#enders. Re%ecting the funding source (the Austral- Research method used: ian O$ce for Women), the research had a particular Qualitative focus on the tra$cking of women for sexual services.

Summary: "e research involved a literature review, a review Large-scale migration from Bangladesh to India has of court transcripts and semi-structured interviews been ongoing since the partitioning of Bengal in with individuals who have worked directly with 1947. Reasons for this migration, such as the political victims of tra$cking in Australia, including victim instability fostered by the Bangladesh liberation war support workers, investigators and prosecutors. In- in 1971, are well documented. What have not been terviews sought information on the issues, challeng- studied are the push-pull factors that in%uenced mi- es or barriers that have arisen in known tra$cking gration in recent years, especially since 2000. Using cases, along with lessons learned regarding victim qualitative methods, especially in-depth interviews, identi!cation and the investigation and prosecution the author of this paper used open-ended questions of o#enders. to glean respondents’ views on various issues relating to the impact and motivating factors in irregular "e report provides information about the available migration. Key informants included political lead- administrative data from the Australian Govern- ers, administrators, physicians and demographers. ment’s anti-tra$cking response, including the num- "e push-pull dichotomy was further delineated by ber of referrals from the Department of Immigration subcategories. Push factors were discussed in terms to the specialist police, the number of police inves- of economics and demographics as well as social, po- tigations and assessments and prosecutions. "e litical and law and order dimensions. Economic pull report notes a number of instances involving "ai factors were discussed as a single category; however, women tra$cked into Australia; 62 of the 88 victims an umbrella category was created to focus on demo- of tra$cking in the Australian Government’s victim- graphic, social and geographic factors. A unique cat- support programme were "ai women. egory, not found in the “push” analysis, was political and religious in%uences in migration. Each category, Findings of the research include that cases have in both the push and pull dimensions, was analysed primarily come to the attention of the Australian

28 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Federal Police specialist anti-tra$cking unit partly modate situations in which women (who are not in as a result of government activity (primarily refer- stable or regular migration situations) need help but rals from the Department of Immigration) but also do not want to talk to the police; clarifying the time through tra$cked persons having sought help. For frames for moving women into di#erent visa cat- example, in some cases, tra$cked persons called the egories; funding culturally appropriate services for emergency police number “000”, went to local po- women so that tra$cked women can access services lice stations, contacted their embassy in Australia or outside of the criminal justice system; and ensur- asked the men they met in brothels to help them. ing a level of quality control with the victim sup- While migration-compliance activities have led to a port service. "e authors also recommend develop- number of referrals, there are competing views about ing standard operating procedures for the Australian the impact of these activities. In particular, there is Federal Police specialist team working on tra$cking a concern that this has led to the “back-door” rein- issues, expanding police training to give more focus troduction of law enforcement involvement in the on working directly with victims of crime and moni- sex industry, a policy that was scrapped many years toring the impact of the anti-tra$cking response, earlier in favour of policies of decriminalization or including its impact beyond the target audience of legalization on harm-minimizing grounds. both victims of tra$cking and o#enders.

"e tra$cking cases have been complex and have not met stereotypical views about the experience of traf- David, F. (2010). Labour tra!cking. In: Re- !cking. Women have been detained and controlled search and Public Policy Series (Vol. 108). through subtle means, but some of their situations Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminol- have been far from clear-cut. In some instances, there ogy. was an unresolved tension between wanting to respect women’s agency and recognizing that women can be Key words: operating in situations of constrained choice, which China, India, Malaysia, Singapore, "ailand could be exploited. Police noted that the detected Tra$cking %ows cases did not match stereotypes about high-end organized crime and that cases of tra$cking had been Research method used: detected in both the legal and illegal sex industries. Qualitative

Investigators and prosecutors emphasized the impor- Summary: tance of a high-quality victim support programme, "is report examines what is known about labour giving examples of how the lack of it hindered early tra$cking in Australia, based on reported crimes and investigations. Other issues have included the need on information about unreported crime. It provides to increase the use of interpreters in the programme, an assessment of the known or likely incidence of a perceived variability in the quality and type of ser- tra$cking in persons that can occur in the agricul- vices o#ered, limited opportunities for family reuni!- ture, cleaning, hospitality, construction and manu- cation and the need for more legal advice for clients. facturing industries or in less formal sectors, such as domestic work and other home help. Prosecutors re%ected on a number of challenges that have arisen. In particular, prior inconsistent state- "e research involved a literature review, content ments (a victim’s initial statement di#ers from her analysis of court reports and court transcripts, a me- !nal signed statement) have been a major hurdle, al- dia search on alleged forced labour or slavery cases lowing the defence easy ammunition to discredit the and interviews with relevant government o$cials tra$cked person — the key witness in the prosecu- (police, prosecutors, labour regulators) and non- tion. Prosecutors also noted various gaps in the Aus- government organizations (unions, church organiza- tralian legal framework that led to inconsistent protections, community organizations and people within tion for victims of tra$cking giving evidence in court. ethnic community networks).

"e report includes recommendations, including a "e research !ndings indicate that while the degree of re-conceptualizing of the visa framework to accom- tra$cking for labour in Australia remains unknown,

29 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

there have been instances of unreported and unrec- Key words: ognized labour tra$cking, suggesting the existence of India both underreporting and a lack of awareness among Concepts, Tra$cking %ows front-line agencies and services that certain exploitive practices are criminal under Australian law. "e re- Research method used: port presents examples involving the abuse or exploi- Qualitative tation of migrants from many countries, including China, India, Malaysia and Philippines. "e author Summary: notes that the cases of unreported labour tra$cking Based on qualitative research conducted during her exist in an environment of broader unlawful conduct time with the International Organization for Migra- perpetrated against migrant workers in Australia and tion (IOM), the author of this book raises questions suggests that responding to this broader environment about the institutional responses to and de!nitions will help to curb the “breeding ground” for more ex- of tra$cking for sexual exploitation at the interna- treme instances, such as slavery and forced labour. tional and local levels. "ree countries — Armenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and India — are analysed as "e report notes the importance of intermediaries case studies to show how the global problem plays and agents in the travel and recruitment processes out at the local level and why millions of dollars in to Australia and also once migrants are working in aid is having little impact on the lives of women Australia, with situations in China, Malaysia and who are tra$cked into the sex trade. "e author Singapore singled out. "e broader context within interviewed a range of actors, from bar workers in which opportunities for o#ending and risks for vic- India to embassy o$cials in Armenia. From donor- timization appear to be present was also outlined. In driven agendas and restrictions imposed on NGOs particular, the role of intermediaries in facilitating to corrupt o$cials and the political motivations access to what might be described as risky migration that underlie counter-tra$cking initiatives, the au- pathways, involving payment of exorbitant fees to thor sheds light on the institutional %aws that en- brokers and agents overseas, and the role of diasporas able tra$cking for sexual exploitation to continue. as both a source of protection and as a site of poten- Victims of tra$cking, she argues, are often invis- tial exploitation are cited. ible to sta# of international organizations. Faceless !gures are constructed as hollow bodies to be !lled "e report highlights the importance of focusing with assumptions and stereotypes by agency sta# not only on extreme cases of exploitation but also and policymakers. Her ethnographic research illus- on more numerous, readily detectable cases that are trates that tra$cking victims do not share a mono- perhaps precursors to more extreme conduct or con- lithic set of experiences that can be addressed by the tribute to the creation of an environment that toler- same blueprint approach. ates exploitation. "e research also suggests that the e#ective regulation of this issue will likely require One of the reasons why counter-tra$cking interven- an approach that addresses a gradation of exploitive tions fail, the author argues, is because sustainable, practices, grounded not only in criminal law but in long-term economic support is not o#ered to traf- labour law. "e report emphasizes the importance !cking victims. "e author highlights the Economic of ensuring that front-line agencies (such as local Rehabilitation of Tra$cked Victims programme police, labour inspectors and unions) are aware of developed by IOM India as an exception. "e pro- the relevant federal anti-tra$cking response and that gramme is praised because it addresses the need to federal agencies are aware of the potential for cooper- provide !nancial independence to women forced ating with relevant state and territory agencies. into prostitution to ensure they do not become victims of tra$cking again. "e !nal chapter o#ers a discussion of how tra$cking is a global phenomenon highly localized in nature. "e author stresses Dewey, S. (2008). Hollow bodies: Institu- how neoliberal economic models have exacerbated tional responses to sex tra$cking in Armenia, social inequalities by creating a commodity culture. Bosnia and India. Sterling, Virginia [USA]: It is hardly surprising, she concludes, that individu- Kumarian Press. als also become commodities available for sale.

30 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Düvell, F. and Jordon, B. (2005). Document- ing detection). Although no speci!c policy recom- ed and undocumented immigrant workers in mendations are presented, the authors question why the UK: Changing environments and shifting individuals are treated di#erently in spite of similar strategies. In: F. Düvell (ed.), Illegal immigra- features. tion in Europe: Beyond control (pp. 48–74). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Ferguson, S. (writer). (2010). Smugglers’ par- Key words: adise. On Four Corners. Australia: Australian India Broadcasting Corporation. Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants Key words: Afghanistan, Indonesia, Malaysia Research method used: Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- Qualitative ment for smuggling, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled Summary: migrants, Pro!les of smugglers, Routes, Smuggler- "is chapter centres on two groups of migrants in migrant relationship, Smuggling the United Kingdom, both regular and irregular, from Poland and India. "e authors were interest- Research method used: ed in why members of these distinct groups came (media – non-empirical) to the United Kingdom and how they arrived, their experiences in !nding work, how they avoided de- Summary: tection and what factors in%uenced their decisions. "is documentary from the Australian Broadcast- "e investigation was carried out during two time ing Corporation sets out to expose the business of periods, 1998–1999 (Poles in the United Kingdom) migrant smuggling from Indonesia to Australia. "e and 2000–2003 (Indians in the United Kingdom). research method was not empirically scienti!c but "e sample consisted of 25 interviews with Polish investigative journalism. With the assistance of a rec- migrants, plus 10 more at a later date. Eleven Indian ognized Iraqi refugee in Indonesia waiting to be reset- work permit holders were also interviewed. Data are tled with his family to Australia, the journalist team presented describing the sample in terms of age, gen- investigates the workings of the smuggling business der and employment. within Indonesia and records numerous smugglers and corrupt Indonesian o$cials on hidden camera. "e responses from each group are analysed sepa- Although this source is not an example of social sci- rately because the circumstances under which they ence research in the usual sense, it nonetheless serves entered the United Kingdom were di#erent; howev- to expose migrant smuggling routes and methods er, similarities are apparent along with the contrasts. never addressed by academic researchers. Some di#erences were expected because of the way in which the migrants entered the United Kingdom. To reveal the underground channel of smuggling For example, most Polish migrants came on tourist from Indonesia to Australia, the Iraqi refugee used visas whereas Indian migrants held work permits. In his contacts with other refugees to get in touch with terms of di#erences, a key !nding is that members of smugglers in charge of marine operations to Aus- both groups presented themselves as rational market tralia. Posing as an interested passenger, the Iraqi actors and their behaviours re%ected that position. refugee collected information about the organiza- Another similarity is the role that interpersonal relation of smugglers, their methods and various fees tionships played in making the decision to migrate charged for smuggling services. Smugglers spoke as well as providing support once they arrived in the openly of their cooperation with corrupt Indone- United Kingdom. "e authors also note that un- sian o$cials in the Department of Immigration or documented workers from both groups (Polish and police force. "e Iraqi refugee also met with several Indian) did not di#er markedly in their attitudes and of these o$cials, still feigning interest in gaining behaviours from those workers who held work per- passage to Australia. "e encounters were !lmed mits, except for obvious situations (such as avoid- on hidden camera and aired in the broadcast. Non-

31 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

English interviews were translated for the purpose In: A. Kaur and I. Metcalfe (eds.), Mobility, of the broadcast. labour migration and border controls in Asia. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 228–247. "e investigative documentary reveals that the migrant smuggling business from Indonesia to Austral- Key words: ia depends on corruption within such Indonesian Indonesia, Malaysia institutions as the Department of Immigration and Human and social costs of smuggling, Irregular mi- the police force and military. Although Australia and gration, Modus operandi of smuggling, Smuggling, Indonesia are cooperating to build detention centres Tra$cking %ows for asylum seekers and refugees to prevent them from travelling to Australia with the assistance of smug- Research method used: glers, Indonesian o$cials regularly accept bribes to Mixed release individuals or groups. In addition, o$cers from the police force and military are revealed to be Summary: directly involved in assisting with smuggling opera- In 2002, the Malaysian Government deported al- tions, including captaining boats. "e smugglers, all most 400,000 undocumented Indonesian workers, of whom were male, appeared to largely work on thus creating a humanitarian crisis. One of the af- their own, each with his own ties to corrupt o$cials. fected areas was Nunukan, a small island on Kalim- "e documentary did not display any evidence of antan’s east coast (Indonesia). "e humanitarian cri- hierarchical smuggling organizations. sis became a critical incident in the management of Indonesia’s migration %ows to Malaysia and a focal "e documentary provides a wealth of information point re%ected in this chapter. "e overall goal of the on a topic largely neglected by empirical literature: investigation was to examine the Malaysian Govern- the smuggling of Middle Eastern and West Asian ment’s management of Indonesian labour migration migrants from Indonesia to Australia. While men- and the Indonesian Government’s response. A spe- tion is made of this phenomenon in academic sourc- cial emphasis was placed on the Government of In- es, the topic is not addressed in detail and does not donesia and the provinces given newly implemented provide any insight as to the workings of these smug- regional autonomy. gling operations and migrants’ motivations for using the services. Most academic sources instead focus on "e initial section of this four-part chapter uses gov- smuggling within the context of labour migration to ernment data to describe labour %ows of both regular other South-East Asian countries. and irregular migrants. "e Malaysian Government’s migration policies that led to the 2002 mass depor- "e greatest strength of the documentary is its ex- tation are subsequently discussed. "e !nal sections posure of individual smuggling operations through describe and analyse the Indonesian Government’s the use of hidden cameras. "rough this technique, policies before and after the Nunukan incident. Data smugglers and corrupt o$cials are displayed talking in the !nal sections are drawn from government freely about their “business”. However, there is no sources, but NGO reports and interviews with key evidence that additional research was undertaken to informants are used as well. No speci!c information ascertain whether these interviews can be considered about the interview sample and data-gathering pro- representative of smuggling operations from Indo- cedures is provided. nesia to Australia. Because the method is journalistic as opposed to academic, its usefulness as empirical "e initial response of the Indonesian Government research is limited. Nonetheless, it clearly reveals was to transfer the expelled migrants who were liv- that a wealth of information exists regarding these ing in Nunukan to other locations; however, a large smuggling %ows that has not yet been adequately ad- number remained and were placed in camps run by dressed by academic research. labour-sending companies. "e ensuing problems for the migrants, such as health and security, were compounded by the stress placed on the local com- Ford, M. (2006). After Nunukan: #e regu- munity. "e Government ignored the issue until me- lation of Indonesian migration to Malaysia. dia reports prompted action, but subsequent action

32 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

was minimal. Because of pressure brought by activ- of the reasons for smuggling routes through Cen- ists, the Government eventually enacted a series of tral Asian countries include relatively low technical laws and policies to help migrants, and bilateral and capacity to detect irregular migrants, long porous multilateral negotiations also began. "e author then borders, the existence of diaspora communities in traces the progress of these e#orts, including their the countries of transit and destination and logisti- impact. An important !nding is that the Indonesian cal prerequisites, such as direct air routes through Government continues to respond in a centralized the region. Although it was not possible to quan- manner, to the detriment of transit provinces. tify the smuggling of migrants into the region, it was possible for the researchers to establish trends and patterns of the smuggling movement. However, Gembicka, K. (2006). Baseline research on Central Asian countries are not only transit coun- smuggling of migrants, in, from and through tries but also countries of origin and increasingly Central Asia. Vienna: International Organi- countries of destination for smuggled migrants from zation for Migration. China and Afghanistan. "is is due to the higher standard of living in some of those countries. "e Key words: governments of Central Asian countries have taken Afghanistan, China, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka some steps to manage and regulate migration and to East Asia, South Asia, South-East Asia prevent the violation of migrants’ rights. Neverthe- Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular Migra- less, the report points out that much improvement tion, Methodology, Modus operandi of smuggling, is needed. For example, none of the countries have Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled mi- criminalized the smuggling of migrants in their na- grants, Routes, Smuggling tional law.

Research method used: According to the report, assessing the extent of ir- Mixed regular migration is particularly challenging because of missing, unreliable or unavailable data. "us, the Summary: three country chapters in this report di#er due to "is report expounds on the trends of smuggling of varying availability of information. migrants in, from and through Central Asia, including the routes, patterns and most susceptible groups. "e country chapters provide valuable insights into In this study, Central Asia refers exclusively to Ka- the context of migrant smuggling and highlight zakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and smuggling routes, the organization of smuggling, Uzbekistan. fees and pro!les of smuggled migrants. Each country chapter includes a list of recommendations from "e speci!c method of “vector” approach (cross national migration authorities and local NGOs. referencing di#erent sources) was used within the "e report also provides general background infor- study, indicating the volume and patterns of smug- mation on the smuggling of migrants, distinguishes gling of migrants. "e primary research methodol- the phenomenon from tra$cking in persons and ir- ogy was based on a survey, including face-to-face in- regular migration and elaborates on its link to hu- terviews, mailed questionnaires, literature reviews, man rights. o$cial records and demographic surveys. "e data gathered through the surveys were evaluated by local researchers and their analysis composed in national Ghosh, B. (2009). Tra!cking in women and country reports. In Kyrgyzstan, the research was prolonged in order to assess additional phenomena, children in India: Nature, dimensions and such as the transit of Bangladeshi migrants through strategies for prevention. In: #e Interna- the country. tional Journal of Human Rights, 13(5), pp. 716–738. "e report concludes that Central Asian countries are mainly transit channels for migrants from South Key words: and South-East Asia on their way westward. Some India

33 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and lost at sea? In: Public Historian, 32(1), pp. social costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Mo- 13–30. dus operandi of smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows Key words: Afghanistan, Indonesia Research method used: Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and so- Mixed cial costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Summary: Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling "e major goals of this article are captured well by the title. Focusing on the country of India, the au- Research method used: thor is concerned with the nature of tra$cking, es- Qualitative pecially of women and children, as well its scope. "e author o#ers a large number of in-depth recom- Summary: mendations for ameliorating the situation. "e data "is article discusses the Australian debates sur- from which the analysis is built derives from gov- rounding the creation of a memorial for those who ernment sources to depict not only the breadth and died on the SIEV X, a small !shing vessel travel- depth of the problem but also such issues as the un- ling from Indonesia to Australia carrying about 400 derreporting of tra$cking and crimes against wom- asylum seekers that sank in international waters in en and children. "e o$cial statistics are contrasted 2001. Speci!c focus is laid on how supposed “en- with studies carried out by external researchers that emies” or “illegal migrants” are perceived as posing a dispute the government !ndings, especially the un- threat to Australian national borders. "e author is a derreporting. "ese latter investigations challenge public historian who took part in the campaigns to government reporting by examining such issues as erect the SIEV X memorial in Canberra. "e article police corruption, category de!nitions (for example, draws on the author’s experience in the campaign as what is kidnapping?) and problems with reporting well as interviews with SIEV X survivors, Australian (such as the reluctance of traumatized victims to tes- parliamentarian debates, secondary literature and tify or even report crimes). media sources.

With this background, the author then turns her at- "e author examines other maritime tragedies in tention to the speci!c area of West Bengal to delve Australian history, comparing the cases mourned more deeply into the topic. In this second level of by the Australian public with those that escaped analysis, case studies are used to explore both the public attention. Generally, European victims were reasons and the modalities of tra$cking. Another mourned while non-European nationalities were ig- research team reported the three cases, but no men- nored. "e article also provides insight on why the tion is made how the researchers worked. "e fac- passengers of SIEV X chose to migrate via irregu- tors regarding the tra$cking of women and children lar channels; many passengers’ fathers or husbands are discussed in terms of the push-and-pull nature had received asylum status in Australia but were not and they include economic, educational and socio- allowed and would never be allowed to bring their cultural reasons. family over, according to the national legislation. "us, irregular migration was seen by many of the "e !nal section of the article o#ers 11 strategies for SIEV X passengers as the only way to reunite their prevention. As the author points out, the changing na- families. Because of the poor condition of the boat, ture of migration and mobility means prevention can- some would-be passengers refused to board in In- not be handled by governments alone; proposals are donesia. Some were forced to board at gunpoint by made for both international and national e#orts and for the Indonesian police. "e author argues that !rst short-term and long-term measures to halt tra$cking. the Tampa case (in which shipwrecked asylum seekers were rescued by a Norwegian container ship, the M.V. Tampa, in 2001 and later refused entry into Gibbings, B. (2010). Remembering the SIEV Australian waters), followed by the terrorist attack X: Who cares for the bodies of the stateless, on the World Trade Center (one month before the

34 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

SIEV X sinking) led to an anti-refugee policy stance !cked for sexual exploitation lack autonomy; (2) in Australia. Also, the Temporary Protection Visa, the use of rape as a tool for sex work; (3) chron- which was introduced in 1999 as a way to deter mi- ic sexual violence and inability to refuse sex; (4) grant smuggling, denied refugees many of the rights chronic sexual violence and inability to negotiate guaranteed by the United Nations Convention on condom use; (5) substance use; and (6) inability Refugees, such as family reunion. "ese are seen as to access health care. Each category is elaborated reasons leading up to the SIEV X tragedy and exacer- to provide a fuller explanation of its signi!cance. bating the situation of irregular migration. "e research challenged some strategies currently used to combat HIV in the context of tra$cking Although the article provides detailed information for sexual exploitation (such as simply distributing about the SIEV X incident, it is not clear whether this condoms). "e authors recommend a more exten- provides insight into other cases of irregular migration sive HIV prevention programme, one that takes via sea to Australia or other destinations in the region. into account the multiple factors in%uencing risk.

Gupta, J., Raj, A., Decker, M. R., Reed, E. Hameed, S., Hlatshwayo, S., Tanner, E., Turk- and Silverman, J. G. (2009). HIV vulnerabili- er, M. and Yang, J. (2010). Human tra$cking ties of sex-tra!cked Indian women and girls. in India: Dynamics, current e%orts and inter- In: International Journal of Gynaecology and vention opportunities for #e Asia Founda- Obstetrics, 107(1), pp. 30–34. tion. San Francisco: #e Asia Foundation.

Key words: Key words: India India Tra$cking %ows South Asia Methodology, Routes, Tra$cking %ows Research method used: Qualitative Research method used: Qualitative Summary: "is succinct article discusses a well-documented Summary: qualitative study that explored the HIV vulner- "is report was produced for "e Asia Foundation abilities of women and girls who had been traf- to inform the creation of its anti-tra$cking in per- !cked to Mysore in India’s Karnataka state for sons programming in India. It presents a discussion sexual exploitation. Speci!cally, the authors ex- of the dynamics of tra$cking in persons in India, plored the existence and operation of mechanisms including drivers and root causes of the problem by which the risk of HIV infection is heightened as well as impacts and relevant legal frameworks. within this group. Data-gathering procedures in- "e !ndings demonstrate widespread occurrence of volved a sample of 71 persons who were presented tra$cking in persons and note that the issue is a as survivors of tra$cking for sexual exploitation. serious, national problem that requires further at- Sta# of the organization providing shelter inter- tention. viewed the women and girl survivors, who also were given HIV tests. Slightly more than 45 per "e research !ndings demonstrate serious %aws in cent of them tested positive. Both interviews and India’s legal framework on tra$cking. "ese weak- tests were normal procedures for the shelter. Sixty- nesses are further compounded by challenges in gov- one cases were analysed for the research in the end ernance and limited resources. Capacity to prosecute because 10 individuals turned out not to be at the cases is quite limited due to a lack of knowledge and shelter because of tra$cking for sexual exploita- awareness on how to register cases or collect evidence tion. appropriately; police in India are reported as not pri- oritizing tra$cking as an o#ence to be registered. A "e research revealed six themes regarding sources lack of support for prosecution is also re%ected in the of risk for HIV infection: (1) women and girls traf- !ndings of the review of government anti-tra$cking

35 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

initiatives, with the bulk of support classi!ed as for of di#erent areas of Pakistan and considers the issues prevention and protection. in the context of case studies from three small towns (Chiniot, Mithi and Uch). "e researchers from Stanford University used a two- stage process: Available data on tra$cking in persons Pakistan receives a larger number of migrants from were !rst reviewed, as was secondary information and other countries than the number of migrants who a preliminary review of the legal frameworks (an in- leave Pakistan. "is trend has led to the migration teresting contribution of the report is a graphic repre- phenomenon strongly a#ecting the sociology, econ- sentation of the strengths and weaknesses of the legal omies and politics of regions receiving the migrants. framework on tra$cking in persons). "e second While migration patterns in Pakistan are related to its stage involved interviews with o$cers from NGOs diverse physical geography, the number of migrants and donors (involved with the issue of tra$cking in moving from rural to urban areas is increasing. "e persons in India) to collect information on challenges paper highlights some of the social and physical im- and good practices. An appendix is included that de- pacts caused by this trend. tails both the interview scripts and results. "e paper discusses that while remittances from Both stages of research were supported by a litera- abroad have had a positive impact on the growth ture and policy review. "e research !ndings were of Pakistan’s GDP, the process has not bene!ted compiled and used to determine policy alternatives migrants and their families and has increased the and recommendations for "e Asia Foundation to rich-poor divide. Extended families of migrants were consider when developing its tra$cking in persons found to experience severe strains in relations, and programming and looking for prospective partner while the immigration and emigration processes organizations. "e recommendations focus on the were found to promote the education and emanci- goals and context of "e Asia Foundation speci!cally pation of women, they also led to the break-up of but can also be relevant to other organizations want- family structures and clans. ing to partner with the Foundation or strengthen their anti-tra$cking in persons initiatives in India. In Pakistan, the remittances were typically used to improve migrant lifestyles and infrastructure and strengthen social networks, particularly in urban are- Hasan, A. (2010). Migration, small towns and as, that are important in times of crisis. However, areas social transformations in Pakistan. In: Envi- with improved lifestyles and higher rates of education ronment and Urbanization, 22(1), pp. 33–50. su#ered from a loss of political power and future leadership as more individuals from families of migrants Key words: or migrants chose to move to larger cities to bene!t Pakistan from the urban physical and social environments. "e South Asia paper concludes with a call for addressing the issues Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- relating to the processes and repercussions of migration, Quantitative assessment, Tra$cking %ows tion, including corruption and tra$cking in persons.

Research method used: Qualitative Hastings, V. J. (2009). Illicit $ows in the Hong Kong-China-Taiwan triangle. In: Issues Summary: and Studies, 45(2), pp. 185–220. Pakistan has been experiencing massive migration from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and India. "is pa- Key words: per, which is based on a more extensive International China Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) East Asia report, explores the migration patterns and their so- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migration cio-economic and political e#ects. It further examines the links between immigration and emigration Research method used: patterns, poverty and social and ecological elements Qualitative

36 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Summary: "e paper highlights the threats that illicit %ows, in- "is paper examines the illicit movement between cluding migrant smuggling, pose to the security of Hong Kong (China) and Taiwan Province of China the region and to the world. It emphasizes the im- and discusses the e#ects on non-traditional security portance of cross-border police cooperation in com- problems. "e author argues that, because Hong bating illicit cross-border %ows. Kong (China) reverted to Chinese rule and Taiwan Province of China increased its investment in China, the political, economic and cultural characteristics of Heckmann, F. (2004). Illegal migration: What the triangle have encouraged illicit %ows of people can we know and what can we explain? #e and goods. case of Germany. In: International Migration Review, 38(3), pp. 1103–1125. "e paper draws on interviews with practitioners and experts in Taiwan Province of China and Hong Key words: Kong (China). Details about the sample size or selec- Afghanistan tion process are not provided. In addition, the au- Concepts, Methodology, Modus operandi of smug- thor examined police documents from Hong Kong gling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of smug- (China), Philippines and China. glers, Routes, Smuggling

"e author concludes that the illicit %ows of peo- Research method used: ple and goods within the Taiwan-China-Hong Kong Mixed triangle are shaped and exacerbated by several factors. First, political fragmentation combined with Summary: political hostility prevents e#ective communication "is article !rst examines the methodological prob- among the three entities, despite their economic in- lems in the study of irregular migration relating to tegration. "us, smugglers are able to make use of the the lack of indicators, with special reference to Ger- economic infrastructure between the States while, at many, and then looks at the social organization of the same time, the three States obstruct each other’s the various forms of smuggling. anti-smuggling measures due to mistrust and hostility. Second, the political nature of their borders is "e author has borrowed concepts from market and speci!cally problematic in the case of China and Tai- networks theory and applies them to the analysis of wan Province of China, speci!cally as China claims migrant smuggling and irregular migration. For the that Taiwan Province of China is part of the People’s analysis of migrant smuggling, the author draws on Republic of China while Taiwan Province of China three case studies that were reconstructed from 12 considers itself as “de facto” independent. in-depth expert interviews with police investigators.

"ird, the important roles the three States have with- "e author concludes that the possibilities to empiri- in the world economy means that the illicit %ows that cally trace migrant smuggling, such as through o$cial are exacerbated by conditions within the triangle are statistics on migration %ows and populations, depend exported to other countries in Asia. Ultimately, the on nationally and historically speci!c conditions. Re- author argues, the con%ict becomes a problem for the ferring to Germany, the author argues that o$cial rest of the world because of the export %ows of or- statistics on apprehensions, asylum applications and ganized crime and smuggling. "us, the hostility and criminal o#ences indicate trends of irregular migra- political fragmentation result in a problem not just tion and allow for the estimation of a minimum num- for the three States but also for much of the world. ber of irregular migrants in the country. "ese possibilities are related to the existence of a rather strict "e paper o#ers insight on irregular migration and border and an internal control regime in Germany. migrant smuggling from China to Taiwan Province of China. According to the study, 90 per cent of all ir- "e case studies outline the organization of the regular migrants from China originated from the prov- smuggling process used. "ey present a variety of ince of Fujian. "e study also points to the complicity forms of migrant smuggling: single actors, networks of some Fujian o$cials in migrant smuggling schemes. of smugglers and inter-organizational networks, each

37 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

of which operates under particular conditions, with gration with support of smuggling services, (2) visa particular implications for the smugglers as well as smuggling and (3) smuggling networks. Each type for their clients. Consequently, the author criticizes operates under particular conditions, with implica- the theory of organized crime as the dominating actions for the smugglers as well as for their clients. tor in the discussion on migrant smuggling. "e report contributes knowledge on migrant smug- Although the article has no particular reference to gling in a methodological and theoretical nature. migrant smuggling in or from Asia, it presents a case However, it highlights the importance of examining study that provides insight into Afghan smugglers the social organization of migrant smuggling. "e operating in Germany. report includes a brief case study that provides insight on Afghan smugglers operating in Germany.

Heckmann, F. (2005). #e social organisation of human smuggling. Warsaw: Centre for In- Hosen, M. N. (2005). Governance of Indo- ternational Relations. nesian labour and migration to Malaysia: An overview. [Paper in special issue: A. Kaur and Key words: I. Metcalfe (eds.). Migrant Labour in South- Afghanistan east Asia: Needed, Not Wanted.] In: Review of Concepts, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organiza- Indonesian and Malaysian A%airs, 39(2), pp. tion of smuggling, Routes, Smuggling 31–44.

Research method used: Key words: Mixed Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore South-East Asia Summary: Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- "is report examines the types of social organization of tion, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling operations, based on common characteris- smuggling, Routes, Smuggling tics. "e research looked to test the “ma!a hypothesis” (that smuggling is organized by “ma!a-like” organiza- Research method used: tions that are centrally organized and hierarchical). Qualitative

"e research involved analysis of case studies, using Summary: “dimensions” identi!ed by the research team. "ese "is paper provides an overview of migration govern- dimensions covered: nationality, education and so- ance in Indonesia, with speci!c focus on movements cio-economic status of smugglers; reconstruction of from Indonesia to Malaysia. Migration governance positions, functions and roles in the smuggling pro- is examined from 1960 to the present day. "e paper cess; ethnicity of smugglers; mobilization and mo- concludes that both Indonesia and Malaysia bene!t tivation of persons smuggled; ethnic composition from the economic contributions of regular and ir- of smuggled groups, forms of travelling, means of regular migrant workers from Indonesia. "e paper transportation; distances to be covered; forms of bor- draws upon data from the Indonesian Ministry of der crossing; and !nancial relations and transactions Manpower as well as academic literature. No speci!c among people smuggled and smugglers. Data were research methodology is detailed. collected from 20 interviews with experts and content analysis of 51 court cases on migrant smuggling. Factors for labour migration from Indonesia include the country’s lower per capita income compared "e author questions the idea of a single, transna- with Malaysia, higher unemployment and a larger tional and pyramid-like organized smuggling “ma- proportion of its population living below the poverty !a” and thus concludes that smuggling networks line. "e two main channels for Indonesians seeking represent a di#erent form of social organization. employment abroad are through labour recruitment "e research suggests there are at least three types of companies or through recruiters or middlemen with migrant smuggling: (1) self-organized irregular mi- ties to the labour recruitment company. Middlemen

38 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

play a very important role in remote rural areas and Key words: alert potential migrants to the possibilities of em- Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, ployment overseas. Middlemen also assist migrants Myanmar, "ailand to access the necessary paperwork for employment Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular mi- abroad and often falsify documents and information gration, Organization of smuggling, Quantitative so that it meets government requirements. "is in- assessment, Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, cludes falsifying a migrant’s age, forging permission Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows letters from parents or spouses, documents of residence, identi!cation cards and birth certi!cates. Research method used: Mixed Smuggled migrants from East Java go through similar processes. Before departing by boat to Malaysia, Summary: they are kept in holding centres and have to negotiate "is chapter presents an analysis of migration trends payment with the captain while on board the boat. A in the Asia-Paci!c region, including undocumented middleman in Malaysia takes over upon arrival and migration and the migration industry, both of which takes the smuggled migrants to potential employers. involve the smuggling of migrants. "e chapter con- "is network is supposedly safe, simple, reasonably cludes that international migration within Asia can priced, faster and better organized in comparison to be expected to become more institutionalized, both regular channels of migration. Good connections be- through government involvement and private sec- tween employers in Malaysia and middlemen assure tor agencies that facilitate migration to turn a pro!t. employment through this network. "is is especially notable for unskilled and semi- skilled workers who have been greatly limited in Attempts by the Indonesian Government to protect their migration opportunities in the past. "e chap- migrant workers, especially women, by placing re- ter is based on statistics from governments, interna- strictions on their movement have been counterpro- tional organizations, academic literature and print ductive and have led to irregular migration, in which media. Non-statistical information from academic migrants go without documentation and are more articles is woven in. No speci!c research methodol- vulnerable to exploitation. Such restrictions also lead ogy is detailed. to an increase in corrupt o$cials through the related increase in bribery. "e forging of documents, in- "e author states that undocumented migration in cluding birth and marriage certi!cates, identi!cation the region is especially notable in countries where cards and passports, is an industry in Indonesia. strict migration regulations are combined with serious unskilled labour shortages, as is the case of un- "is article provides detailed information on irregu- documented migration from Indonesia to Malaysia. lar migration processes from Indonesia to Malaysia Migrant smuggling has also increased from China; and is a good source for understanding the process an estimated 500,000 people have been smuggled of migrant smuggling in both countries. Motivations out of the country. "ailand is a major destination for smuggling, fees, methods and smugglers’ organi- for irregular migration from neighbouring countries. zation are discussed. However, it is not clear whether Estimated statistics are provided for the number of this can generally be applied to all migrant smug- irregular migrants thought to be residing in various gling from Indonesia because the information is only countries in the region during the mid to late 1990s. provided on smuggling from East Java. “Gatekeepers” have a major part in international migration in Asia; many migration %ows are facilitated by these agents. Gatekeepers include recruiters, law- Hugo, G. (2004). International migration yers, immigration o$cials and other agents and can in the Asia-Paci"c region: Emerging trends be involved in facilitating regular or irregular migra- and issues. In: D. S. Massey and J. E. Taylor tion. Due to the high pro!tability of migrant smug- (eds.). International migration, prospects and gling and tra$cking in persons, syndicates formerly policies in a global market. New York: Oxford involved in the drug trade have expanded their op- University Press. erations into migration. "e role of such groups can

39 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

be traced back to the slave trade and to the “contract policies have been implemented in the absence of coolie” trade. Recruiters have the lead role in con- empirical data, and there is little analysis of their vincing potential migrants to move, both regularly e#ectiveness. "e chapter draws on statistics pro- and irregularly. In migration from Indonesia to Ma- vided by the ILO, the World Bank, United Nations laysia, agents are highly organized and are crucial to agencies and academics. Non-statistical information facilitating migration. In cases of irregular migration derives from academic articles and print media. No between the two countries, the irregular migrant is research methodology is detailed. passed along a chain of contacts, each of which receives a payment. "is system is viewed as safe and is O$cial schemes to govern labour exportation also trusted more than o$cial migration routes because shape irregular migration %ows and in%uence mi- the recruiter in the home village must deal with the grant smuggling. Private labour export industries results of failure of the system or of exploitation. Of- composed of worker agencies, travel agents, lawyers !cial channels are also often more costly and time and middlemen now exist in many Asian countries consuming. to facilitate migration. "ese agents assist migrants to migrate legally but take an even larger role in helping Because this chapter addresses the broad topic of in- people to migrate irregularly. "e authors posit that ternational migration in the Asia-Paci!c region, only irregular migration could not exist without such pri- a small section relates to irregular migration and mi- vate sector activities. "e private labour export indus- grant smuggling. But it provides useful information try is highly developed and organized in many coun- about the involvement of smugglers in the migration tries and sometimes involves criminal organizations. process in Asia and brie%y addresses the organization Bans on migration of certain groups, even if they are of these agents and the motivation for using irregu- intended to protect migrants, tend to channel those lar channels over o$cial ones. However, the chapter %ows into irregularity instead of halting them. provides few details on migrant smuggling operations and limits itself to enumerating broader trends. Government intervention can also indirectly in%u- ence migration %ows, speci!cally in the case of irregular migration, when sending or receiving coun- Hugo, G. and Stahl, C. (2004). Labour ex- tries tolerate its existence. Migrants may choose to port strategies in Asia. In: D. S. Massey and migrate through irregular channels because they are J. E. Taylor (eds.), International migration, more economically competitive than o$cial migra- prospects and policies in a global market. New tion schemes, do not require upfront payments and York: Oxford University Press. are less time consuming. Additionally, many middlemen reside in the village of origin and provide local Key words: accountability and security. Governments’ inability China, India, Pakistan, "ailand, Viet Nam to develop and enforce e#ective schemes to combat Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- forged documents also contributes to irregular migra- ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Routes, tion. Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling "e chapter is very useful in highlighting the role that Research method used: government migration regulations have in in%uenc- Mixed ing both regular and irregular migration %ows. Smug- gling enterprises can even mimic regular migration Summary: %ows because of the established private labour export "is chapter examines the ways that governments in industries. "e chapter does not address smuggling Asia intervene to in%uence migration. Motivations activities, such as methods or associated risks. and strategies for exporting labour are analysed and such issues as migrants’ vulnerability, brain drain and reintegrating returning migrants are addressed. "e chapter concludes that government activities signi!- Huguet, J. W. and Punpuing, S. (2005). In- cantly in%uence the scale and composition of regular ternational migration in #ailand. Bangkok: and irregular migration; however, such migration International Organization for Migration.

40 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Key words: "e report does not directly contribute knowledge Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand on migrant smuggling. It does provide a compre- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- hensive study of migration patterns and reasons for tion migration, both regular and irregular, into and out of "ailand. Research method used: Mixed Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. Summary: "is research report presents an overview of inter- (2010). Human tra$cking through Quetta: national migration to, from and through "ailand. A report by Balochistan Chapter. Lahore: Hu- It discusses causes and consequences of migration man Rights Commission of Pakistan. trends through an exploration of regular and irregular migration to and from the country, refugees Key words: and asylum seekers and displaced persons within Pakistan "ailand and the migration of "ai people abroad. South Asia It highlights the interaction between policies con- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- cerning migration management and migration ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of trends. smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of ir- "e IOM de!nition of “irregular migration” is regular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro- used. "e de!nitions of “tra$cking in persons” and !les of smugglers, Quantitative assessment, Routes, “smuggling of migrants” are taken from the respec- Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling, Tra$ck- tive Tra$cking in Persons Protocol and the Migrant ing %ows Smuggling Protocol. Research method used: "e research draws on an analysis of data from the Mixed "ai government registrations of migration workers from 2004, information from studies on inter- Summary: national migration to "ailand and interviews with "is publication includes !ndings from a survey that members of the IOM "ematic Group responsible the Balochistan Chapter of the Human Rights Com- for the development of the study (international mission of Pakistan (HRCP) conducted on tra$ck- NGOs), government o$cials and migrant working cases handled by a designated court in Quetta ers. Field visits to Kanchanaburi and Samut Sakhon over a four-year period. "e data are supported with provinces, which have large migrant worker popula- additional analysis and studies conducted by the tions, were also conducted. HRCP Secretariat. "e report presents statistical information on the volume and frequency of cases as "e report notes that while making a major contri- well as case studies involving tra$cking in persons bution to the "ai economy, many migrant workers and exploitation. Perspectives from experts on these are vulnerable to abuse, lack adequate social protec- issues are also presented. tion and face exploitation at the hands of their employers. At the same time, the report notes that large "e report recognizes that the majority of cases in numbers of "ai migrants working abroad (mainly the study were victims of tra$cking from Punjab’s in the Middle East and East Asia) are subjected to Gujrat district and that this a#ected how repre- the same social and economic exclusion experienced sentative the !ndings are. However, the report also by foreign migrant workers in "ailand. "e report includes brief elements of supporting information, concludes that much more needs to be done at both including a discussion of engagement on tra$ck- the national and regional levels to optimize the con- ing in persons in the region and the handling of tribution of foreign migrant workers in "ailand and it in Pakistan. Detailed statistics on the tra$cking also of "ai nationals working abroad, while protect- cases handled by the Quetta court, including the ing their fundamental human rights. ages of the accused, number of agents also arrested

41 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

and punishments or decisions awarded on a case- nesian domestic workers migrate to Malaysia out by-case basis are included. of !nancial necessity. Licensed and unlicensed recruiters facilitate the migration by extorting money, Case studies of exploitation are presented in the falsifying travel documents and making misleading form of individual narratives, and although they of- statements to women and girls about work arrange- ten %ow together, many of the stories o#er detailed ments. Labour rights abuses are pervasive in many and personalized insights on the experience of traf- forms, which are reinforced by failings in both !cking. Discussions with !gures of authority are countries: Indonesia does not have an adequate identi!ed as experts’ views and contain a mix of quo- system for monitoring labour recruitment agencies tations, data and information on current initiatives, and training centres, and Malaysia’s employment including the establishment of anti-tra$cking units laws do not provide protection to domestic work- and mass awareness campaigns. ers.

"e annex material covers relevant international pro- Prospective migrants often !rst come into contact tocols and Pakistan’s Prevention and Control of Hu- with a local recruiter in their village. "e recruiter man Tra$cking Ordinance, the national Prevention promises them a certain salary and provides assis- and Control of Human Tra$cking Rules and the tance in the recruitment process. Agents receive a national Emigration Ordinance. commission from larger agencies or take a cut from the prospective migrant’s payment. Changing birth dates on migrants’ passports is common so that they Human Rights Watch. (2004). Help wanted: meet the Malaysian age criteria. A fee is not always Abuses against female migrant domestic work- charged for this service. It is estimated that thou- ers in Indonesia and Malaysia (Vol. 16, No. 9 sands of individuals are tra$cked from Indonesia (B), p. 112). New York: Human Rights Watch. to Malaysia each year. Tra$cking victims are often treated as undocumented migrants. Key words: Indonesia, Malaysia Although the report does not mention smuggling South-East Asia explicitly, unlicensed recruiters can be understood Irregular migration, Routes, Tra$cking %ows as smugglers because they assist individuals to cross a border irregularly for a pro!t. Modes of travel to Research method used: Malaysia with the assistance of unlicensed recruit- Qualitative ers are not addressed, and it is not clear whether the service provided by unlicensed recruiters is sig- Summary: ni!cantly di#erent from those o#ered by o$cial re- "is report gives a detailed description of the con- cruiters, such as the quality of falsi!ed documents, ditions that migrant domestic workers experience employment contacts, security, etc. Nonetheless, from the time of their recruitment in Indonesia to this is a very valuable source for understanding how the time of their return from Malaysia, illustrating recruitment processes draw individuals into the mi- the abuses they endured abroad. "e report draws gration cycle. on 115 interviews with female domestic workers and government o$cials from Indonesia and Malaysia as well as several months of background research. "e Human Rights Watch. (2005). Maid to or- report concludes that Indonesian migrant workers der: Ending abuses against migrant domes- in Malaysia are systematically discriminated against, tic workers in Singapore. New York: Human exploited and abused by labour agents and employ- Rights Watch (Vol. 17, No. 10 (C). ers. Recommendations are made to both Indonesia and Malaysia governments for curbing systematic Key words: abuses of domestic workers. China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Paki- stan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, "ailand Irregular migrant %ows from Indonesia to Malaysia South-East Asia are the second largest in the world, and most Indo- Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows

42 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Research method used: Asia, which provides a framework for understand- Qualitative ing regular and irregular labour migration %ows in the region. It also covers migrants’ motivations for Summary: labour migration. Migrant smuggling %ows are not "is report sheds light on the many abuses endured explicitly addressed, but unlicensed recruiters in by female domestic workers in Singapore. "e report sending countries can be classi!ed as smugglers be- is based on secondary research and !eld research in cause they assist migrants to irregularly enter anoth- Singapore in 2005. More than 100 interviews were er country for pro!t. "e cases of abuse in sending conducted with migrant domestic workers, employ- and receiving countries can be classi!ed as tra$ckers and representatives of Singapore’s Ministry of ing in persons in situations in which migrants are Manpower, employment agencies and civil society recruited, transferred and harboured for the purpose organizations. Additionally, case !les of 25 domestic of exploitation, but this is not speci!cally addressed workers were reviewed. "e report concludes with either. Details about the migration process are also recommendations for the Singaporean Government not covered. and the governments of sending countries to improve the legal protection of migrant domestic workers and avoid cases of abuse. Human Rights Watch. (2007). Exported and exposed: Abuses against Sri Lankan domestic "e report discusses present and historical labour workers in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Lebanon migration patterns in the region. For labour-sending countries, exporting labour has become a strategy and United Arab Emirates. New York: Hu- of combating unemployment, generating foreign man Rights Watch (Vol. 19, No. 16 (C). exchange and fostering economic growth. Remit- tances bene!t both sending and receiving countries Key words: but do not provide migrants with protection due to Sri Lanka the exclusion of domestic work from regulation or South Asia, West Asia the provision in the labour law of limited protection. Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Undocumented migrants are in an even more vul- tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Tra$cking %ows nerable position and may avoid contacting the authorities due to fear of detention and deportation. Research method used: Qualitative Abuses also take place prior to leaving the country of origin. In Indonesia, licensed and unlicensed recruit- Summary: ers are only monitored to a minimal extent by the Recognizing that there are limited viable options for Government. Abuses include deception, forced con- many women to gain employment in their home !nement, poor living conditions at training centres country, the study re%ected in this report examined and physical and sexual assault. Some recruiters over- the cases of female Sri Lankan domestic workers who charge or take payment without providing services, migrated to the Middle East and surrounding regions which creates cycles of debt. Corrupt immigration for jobs. "e “migration industry” is generally spo- o$cials in sending countries may be willing to allow ken of as exploitive and laden with abuse, although passengers to travel without proper documentation. the study does make mention that, for some women, migration can be a successful option to support their "e legal framework and forms of abuse in Singa- families back home and increase their power and in- pore are also examined. Labour agents reportedly %uence in family structures upon their return. con!scate passports, personal belongings and religious items. "ey may make threats, give danger- "e report, which is based on !ndings from 100 in- ous or illegal assignments and fail to remove women depth interviews with Sri Lankan migrant domestic from abusive employment situations. workers both at home and abroad, states that abuses against domestic workers are a recognized and docu- "e report gives detailed information about the la- mented occurrence, yet the governments of Sri Lanka bour-sending and receiving schemes in South-East and host countries are failing to protect them from

43 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

various forms and stages of abuse. "e interviews ligations of the Sri Lankan Government and desti- with domestic workers are supported with interviews nation countries under international human rights with other actors, including from relevant organiza- law. Countries of origin and destination have clear tions, unions, labour agents and government agen- roles in protecting women pre- and post-departure cies in Sri Lanka and in host countries. "e !ndings to prevent abuse, which includes taking complaints, demonstrate that women experience exploitive prac- providing consular and legal assistance when viola- tices from the moment of their recruitment through tions occur and investigating cases and prosecuting their experiences in the host countries. It is noted perpetuators after the abuse. that although the Sri Lankan Government actively promotes foreign employment schemes, including "e report presents proposals for action throughout domestic labour, the women who take up those jobs the text, but concludes with a set of recommenda- face signi!cant social, economic and physical risks. tions primarily aimed at government actors in Sri Migrant rights in Sri Lanka are directly hindered by Lanka and host countries. It stresses urgency in the the reliance of their Government on remittances to need for action to protect migrant domestic work- boost the GDP and lower trade de!cits. A lack of ers at all stages of the recruitment and employment legal protection limits women’s rights to both protec- processes at home and abroad. A !nal conclusion il- tion and post-abuse action. lustrates the advocacy-oriented position of the study by recommending that the Government of Sri Lanka "e report examines the push factors that in%u- receive and address complaints from migrant work- ence Sri Lankan women’s decisions to migrate for ers and follow such cases up with action, both within work, including the status of women and girls in the the country and through embassies abroad. country, as well as reasons for opting to go to the Middle East. "e report is not limited to discussing the plight of Sri Lankan domestic workers once Human Rights Watch. (2008). “As if I am they left their country but also examines abuses that not human”: Abuses against Asian domestic took place before their departure, including cases of workers in Saudi Arabia. New York: Human deception and the withholding of information on Rights Watch. the reality of job placements, the paying of fees and taking on of debt payments and realities surround- Key words: ing pre-departure medical testing. Each of those India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam discussions is framed by information provided on Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows the stages of the recruitment process and Sri Lanka’s regulatory framework. Research method used: Qualitative "e interviews complement the statistical information on Sri Lankan domestic workers in the Mid- Summary: dle East and surrounding region, with documented "is report examines labour migration %ows between cases of physical, psychological and sexual abuse and Asia and Saudi Arabia and the abuse of Asian domes- situations of exploitation involving wages, work- tic workers. "e research was conducted over two loads, work hours and inadequate living conditions. years, including meetings with government o$cials "e report also identi!es multiple cases with com- and interviews with domestic workers in Saudi Ara- mon circumstances, such as restrictions on commu- bia, recruiters and members of civil society. Additional nication and mobility, the con!scation of passports, sources of information include laws and regulations, denial of opportunities to return to Sri Lanka and press reports, studies, international organizations and forced con!nement. Of the included cases, 23 were civil society reports. "e speci!c focus is on women identi!ed as forced labour because the circumstances employed in homes as nannies, housekeepers and care- described by the women interviewed met the ILO takers for the sick and elderly. "e report concludes by de!nition of involuntary work. recommending that (1) recruitment systems in countries of origin and in Saudi Arabia be reformed; (2) Cases of exploitation and abuse are used as exam- labour and migration policies be changed to include ples to build the arguments and highlight the ob- domestic workers in labour laws; and (3) the Saudi

44 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Arabian criminal justice system, labour-dispute mech- 2006 on the abusive situations that migrant con- anisms and repatriation channels be improved. struction workers experienced in Dubai and Sharjah, the study re%ected in this report examined practices Human Rights Watch documented a number of cas- in Abu Dhabi to determine if foreign construction es of forced labour and tra$cking in persons, and the workers on Saadiyat Island experience similar chal- report provides a sample of the case studies. “Forced lenges. "e methodology for the study consisted of labour” is de!ned according to the ILO Abolition interviews with workers and representatives of agen- of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) and cies and companies involved in the development of “tra$cking” is de!ned according to the Tra$cking Saadiyat Island, organizations representing and/or in Persons Protocol. "e Saudi Arabian response to assisting foreign workers in the United Arab Emir- tra$cking in persons is reportedly very weak. Cases ates and its Ministry of Labour. "e report highlights of slavery or slave-like conditions have also been doc- challenges of obtaining interviews with workers due umented. Recruitment plays a large hand in labour to their fears of safety and threats on the security migration %ows and migrants’ vulnerabilities; agents of their jobs and with company o$cials, many of in sending countries recruit women for domestic la- whom did not respond to requests. bour and can place them at risk of abuse, forced labour and tra$cking through deception, charging ex- "e report presents statistics on the development cessive fees, threats and failure to assist workers when and operations of Abu Dhabi and Saadiyat Island, asked for help. Agents are involved in both regular noting the large number of foreign construction and irregular migration %ows. workers involved in the development of those areas. "e presence of foreign domestic workers is also "e report provides valuable information about re- brie%y mentioned, but the focus of the report is on cruitment processes between Asia and Saudi Arabia, those individuals involved in construction relating which can include tra$cking and smuggling agents. to the development of the island. It then details the Forms of tra$cking of domestic workers in Saudi sponsorship system, which Human Rights Watch Arabia are detailed and the case studies give !rst- argues, leaves the workers at severe risk of exploita- hand accounts of migrants’ experiences. Although tion. smuggling of migrants is not explicitly referred to, the information on tra$cking and irregular recruit- "e report discusses the process of securing jobs un- ment practices makes this report highly relevant for der the sponsorship system, reasons for entering into understanding routes, methods and human costs of those agreements and the ensuing conditions that regular and irregular migration %ows to Saudi Arabia. the researchers found the workers to be experiencing, including exploitive relationships with labour- support agencies. Examples of exploitive practices Human Rights Watch. (2009). “#e island of experienced by migrant construction workers are happiness”: Exploitation of migrant workers presented and framed into categories of challenges, on Saadiyat Island, Abu Dhabi. New York: including a lack of e#ective responses to problems Human Rights Watch. with labour agencies, coercive contractual circumstances and a limitation of freedom of movement Key words: supported by the con!scation of passports, which India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, "ailand contribute to practices of forced labour. South Asia, South-East Asia, West Asia Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- "e research identi!ed challenges of violations and regular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, deception regarding the payment and amounts of Quantitative assessment, Routes wages as well as limitations on bene!ts, overtime, leave, the right to strike or participate in unions, Research method used: physical and social services (including health care Qualitative and health and safety information) and opportunities for voicing complaints and concerns. Examples Summary: of cases relating to each challenge are drawn from Following up on a Human Rights Watch report from the research.

45 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Recommendations throughout the text aim speci!- bouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of ex- cally at organizations, agencies, contractors and au- ploitation. thorities. "e report concludes with a section on the obligations of UAE authorities under international "e report does not address migrant smuggling law and international standards of corporate respon- or migration %ows to Indonesia. "e sole focus is sibility, noting that taking steps to ratify and com- placed on examining vulnerabilities and cases of ex- ply with such standards is the minimum action that ploitation of Indonesian children working as domes- should be taken to protect migrant workers. tic workers. Although it is stated that migrant child workers are in an even more vulnerable position, the subject is not examined further. Human Rights Watch. (2009). Workers in the shadows: Abuse and exploitation of child domestic workers in Indonesia. New York: Hu- Human Rights Watch. (2010). From the tiger man Rights Watch. to the crocodile: Abuse of migrant workers in #ailand. New York: Human Rights Watch. Key words: Indonesia Key words: Tra$cking %ows Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows Research method used: Qualitative Research method used: Qualitative Summary: "is report exposes the situation of child domestic Summary: workers in Indonesia and looks at the policies and "e purpose of this report is to highlight the abuse actions of the national and local governments. Hu- and exploitation su#ered by migrant workers from man Rights Watch argues that the overall o$cial Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and response is not su$cient to protect children from Myanmar in "ailand. It particularly focuses on abuse abuse. Within the course of the research, more than in%icted by the police and other authorities against 200 people in Indonesia were interviewed on the those workers and the powerlessness felt by many mi- topic of child domestic workers and !eld investiga- grant workers to stop such abuse, given their irregular tions were made to various urban areas and prov- migrant status. "e report uses personal accounts from inces. In total, 78 current or former child domestic a number of migrant workers to highlight their experi- labourers were interviewed. "e report concludes by ences and situations of abuse as workers in "ailand. making policy recommendations to various political bodies, civil society organizations and international "e report draws upon 82 interviews conducted organizations to ensure that child domestic workers with migrant workers in Bangkok and 10 provinces receive protection at all levels of policymaking. and interviews with representatives of national and international NGOs and government o$cials. A re- "e report provides an overview of the policies and view of literature on migration to "ailand, includ- mechanisms relevant to child domestic workers. ing NGO reports, and analysis of "ai laws and poli- It then tackles a number of myths about domestic cies on migration were included in the research. workers, demonstrating that these migrants should be treated as labourers with rights and not merely "e central !nding is that human rights violations as “helpers”. Lack of awareness of the issue, public against migrant workers from Cambodia, Lao PDR mistrust of the police, poor investigation procedures and Myanmar is widespread. "e abuse is often at and failure to follow through with investigations re- the hands of the police and local authorities who en- inforce cycles of abuse. In addition, it is argued that gage in violence, torture, extortion and other corrupt prosecuting cases of tra$cking in persons is di$cult practices against migrant workers. "e !ndings are because the Indonesian anti-tra$cking law does not supplemented in the report by a number of personal include recruitment, transportation, transfer, har- accounts of abuse from migrant workers.

46 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e report does not directly contribute knowledge ment practices may also be relevant to smuggling on migrant smuggling. It presents a discussion on methods in cases in which recruiters are not o$- tra$cking in persons for the purpose of labour to cially registered with a recruitment agency. Overall, "ailand from neighbouring countries and o#ers a very little information in this report is relevant to detailed portrayal of the experiences and situations the smuggling process due to its concentration on many migrant workers experience in "ailand, with the later phase of migration, after the migrant has a particular focus on abuse and exploitation in%icted already reached the sending country. against them by the authorities and their employers.

Hunter, C. (2004). #e ‘people in between’: Human Rights Watch. (2010). Slow reform: Indonesia and the failed asylum seekers to Protection of migrant domestic worker in Australia. In: Review of Indonesian and Ma- Asia and the Middle East. New York: Human laysian A%airs, 38(2), pp. 101–127. Rights Watch. Key words: Key words: Indonesia, Malaysia China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- Tra$cking %ows ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of smuggling, Routes, Smuggling Research method used: Qualitative Research method used: Qualitative Summary: "is report documents gaps in labour laws in the Middle Summary: East and Asia that should otherwise provide protection "is article examines the situation of failed asylum to domestic workers from abuse, exploitation and traf- seekers to Australia living in Indonesia. It is based on !cking. Recommendations are provided to governments three weeks of anthropological observations and in- of receiving countries to strengthen the policy framework terviews with failed asylum seekers living in Lombok, protecting domestic workers and allowing their labour to Indonesia. Failed asylum-seeking men, women and be recognized as “work”. "e report is based on Human children from four countries as well as the provincial Rights Watch’s ongoing research on migrant domestic police, UNHCR o$cials, IOM o$cials, hotel man- workers in 11 countries in Asia and the Middle East. agers in the area and taxi drivers were interviewed.

"e report outlines the need for the regulation of According to the article, one of the major routes domestic labour to ensure that migrants are able to from the Middle East and West Asia passes through seek redress in cases of abuse. In most countries in Indonesia, which has enabled facilitators to develop the study, domestic workers are excluded from labour sizable businesses transporting asylum seekers to In- protection a#orded to other workers. Recruitment donesia where they temporarily stay before moving and placement of workers is also poorly regulated; onward to Australia. Changes in Australian policy to recruiters in the sending country may give migrants stop migrant smuggling since the Tampa incident (in misleading or false information or charge them exces- which shipwrecked asylum seekers were rescued by a sive fees, which can lead to a cycle of debt and make Norwegian container ship, the M.V. Tampa, in 2001 a migrant less likely to report abuse. Recruiters in the but refused entry into nearby Australian waters) are receiving country may replace contracts signed in the discussed. Much of the article is devoted to the asy- home country with ones with poorer terms, compel- lum process in Australia, living conditions in Lom- ling domestic workers to stay in exploitive situations. bok and social and cultural tensions. "e interviews with the asylum seekers focus mainly on their rea- "e report focuses on the abuse experienced by mi- sons for leaving their countries and seeking asylum. grant domestic workers in the country of destination and does not directly address the issues of irregular "e article provides !rst-hand accounts of smug- migration or smuggling. Information about recruit- gling and how migrants experience the smuggling

47 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

process. However, asylum practices are the focus, young adults, village chiefs, commune chiefs, dis- and smuggling only plays a minor role within the trict directors, one commune police o$cer and two asylum context. Smuggling for economic reasons is NGO representatives. "e 31 villages were randomly not addressed. It is unclear how the interviews were selected. Two survey teams conducted the research. analysed and the method of choosing interviewees is Questionnaires were developed and each team un- not detailed. Comments made by interviewees are derwent training to understand the questionnaires not supported by additional sources. and the data collection methodology.

"e subsequent data analysis includes many statistics International Labour Organization. (2005). on the demographics of potential child and youth #e Mekong challenge: Destination #ailand: labour migrants from the surveyed villages and their A cross-border labour migration survey in reasons and motivations for seeking work in "ailand. Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia [Part of a series of studies on human tra!cking "e research found that there is a high incidence of child labour migration from Cambodia to "ailand. and labour migration in the Greater Mekong Migration often takes place through irregular chan- Subregion]. Bangkok: International Labour nels because many Cambodian migrants do not have Organization. the necessary travel documentation and have not registered to work in "ailand. Although there are Key words: a large number of Cambodian workers in "ailand, Cambodia, "ailand the research also found that not many families in Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Cambodia received regular remittances from them. tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants "e report concludes that in the absence of a labour migration information o$ce in Banteay Meanchey Research methods used: o#ering assistance and information on regular migra- Quantitative tion to "ailand, many people from the province who are looking to migrate to "ailand for work are made Summary: vulnerable to exploitation and human tra$ckers. "is report documents !ndings from research into the situation of irregular labour migration from "e report does not directly contribute knowledge Banteay Meanchey Province in Cambodia to "ai- on migrant smuggling. It does provide information land. Banteay Meanchey is a border province with on a migration route from Cambodia to "ailand "ailand and is a prime location for sending, transit- and the push factors that motivate many young ing and receiving Cambodian labour migrants. "e Cambodians to search for work across the border. report draws links between labour migration and It highlights the fact that many Cambodian workers vulnerability to tra$cking in persons and exploita- in "ailand are there irregularly, which makes them tion, considering many of the labour migrants cross vulnerable to being tra$cked and exploited. the border irregularly. "e report has a particular focus on children and youth who are identi!ed as the largest migrant group in Cambodia. Push factors International Organization for Migration. for migration to "ailand are discussed and include (2008). World migration report 2008. Gene- poverty, limited employment opportunities, natural va: International Organization for Migration. disasters and two decades of civil war, all of which have negatively impacted upon the development of Key words: greater economic opportunity for many people in Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Cambodia. Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, "ailand For the research, a survey was conducted in 31 Cam- East Asia, South Asia, South-East Asia bodian villages in Banteay Meanchey. Altogether, Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees 602 people were interviewed, including heads of and payment for smuggling, Human and social costs household, returned labour migrants, children, of smuggling, Irregular migration, Methodology,

48 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Modus operandi of smuggling, Quantitative assess- of months before trying to go back to Cambodia by ment, Routes, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows purchasing falsi!ed travel documents identifying him as a "ai citizen. "e report also includes sta- Research method used: tistics about irregular migration in South-East Asian Quantitative countries; the situation of tra$cking in persons in South Asia is also discussed. Summary: Within the report’s overall topic of labour mobility, Migrant smuggling is only addressed to a limited ex- one chapter discusses irregular migration across the tent within the chapter. No information on migrant globe. "e chapter examines methods of measuring smuggling in Asia is provided beyond the recruit- irregular migration, gives an overview of current pat- ment system in the Cambodian case study, which terns of movement and provides a survey of common actually turned out to be a tra$cking case. "e policy strategies against irregular migration. Case chapter emphasizes the importance of such recruit- studies from IOM missions worldwide are provided. ment networks in fuelling irregular migration, but Statistics are taken from the IOM Global Human the structure of recruitment agencies and their ser- Tra$cking Database and online academic sources. vices provided are not described in any more detail "e chapter also relies on sources from United Na- than the general overview. Motivations for choos- tions agencies, the European Commission, national ing to be smuggled and conditions that breed and governments and academia. No speci!c research support smuggling are not examined. Smugglers or methodology is described. Smuggling of migrants “recruiters” are not pro!led or further described in and tra$cking in persons are de!ned according to any way. the Migrant Smuggling Protocol and the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol. Irregular migration is de!ned as a multifaceted phenomenon determined by the Jayatilake, R. (2008). Women migrant work- norms of the country of destination or transit. ers and tra$cking in Sri Lanka. Colombo: Women’s Education and Research Centre. According to the chapter, the opportunities for irregular migration can be gauged by examining the op- Key words: eration of informal economies, their social networks Sri Lanka and the migrant-recruitment industries that feed Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- them. Social networks are vital to irregular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants; Tra$cking %ows tion because they provide migrants with information and contacts. Recruitment operations advertise and Research method used: recruit in countries of origin and have connections Qualitative with migration o$cers, transportation employees, migration brokers, employers and social networks in Summary: the countries of destination and transit. "e recruit- "is paper examines the links between tra$cking in ment operations are diverse enterprises and are not persons and migration in Sri Lanka, looking speci!- always large conglomerates. Irregular migration can cally at why and how women are tra$cked during be measured to a certain extent through exit controls, the process of migration. "e author interviewed 85 the number of people who apply for regularization tra$cked women migrants who were categorized in and census data, although all of these are limited. terms of internal (46) and external (39) migrants. Purposive and snowball sampling was used to recruit A case study of a Cambodia !sherman who went to women to interview from di#erent geographical work in "ailand demonstrates the role of migrant areas, di#erent ethnicities and religions. "e paper smuggling, tra$cking in persons and related crimes draws on the experiences of the migrant women, and in irregular migration in South-East Asia. "e Cam- their stories o#er detailed, personal insights into the bodian man was assisted by a broker who had con- complexities of tra$cking and migration. "e inter- tacts in "ailand and helped him cross the border for views are supplemented by case studies of migrant an additional fee. He was then sold to a "ai !sher- workers gathered through discussions with NGO of- man and endured labour exploitation for a number !cers.

49 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e research was based on the premise that migration "e purpose of conducting the research was to en- itself does not lead to tra$cking in persons, although hance the understanding of the speci!c dynamics of an increased number of persons are tra$cked in the tra$cking in persons. "rough the interviews, the process of migration. "e results show that most of the researchers sought to learn about the in%uence and women were from Colombo and between 26 and 45 control that women exercised in their choices con- years of age. "e pro!les of tra$cked migrant women cerning their own a#airs and the constraints on those as well as the push-pull factors for migration (such choices that stem from the place of women in the as poverty, family disorganization, abuse at home, re- "ai social structure. "e researchers also looked at quest of a boyfriend or spouse) are also discussed. "e the impact of social factors on each woman who was author concludes that the various actors need to work interviewed, including family, political, economic together to address the issue of tra$cking in persons and cultural systems, their tra$ckers, their clients in the context of migration. She proposes a multi- and any other victims of tra$cking that interacted actor approach aimed at prevention, the protection with them. "e researchers note the limitations of of vulnerable women and the prosecution of o#end- their research, given the small size of their sample. ers. Speci!c recommendations include addressing the root causes as well as the development of community- "e researchers developed their interview questions based mechanisms and protection networks. from the literature they reviewed and from discussions they had with "ai experts working to provide services to former victims of tra$cking in persons. Jones, L., Engstrom, D., Hilliard, P. and Sun- "e researchers asked each woman questions about gakawan, D. (2009). Human tra!cking be- her recruitment, transportation to Japan, living tween #ailand and Japan: Lessons in recruit- conditions and other experiences in Japan, how she ment, transit and control. In: International coped, how she exited from the tra$cking situation Journal of Social Welfare, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. and returned home and ideas on preventing the traf- 203–211. !cking in persons.

Key words: According to the researchers, the interviews with the "ailand four "ai women were conducted from an empower- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- ment perspective in which the women were regarded tion, Tra$cking %ows as experts on their tra$cking experience. Interviews were semi-structured, and the women were allowed Research method used: to answer the questions and tell their story in their Qualitative own way and in their own time. Female interview- ers were employed to conduct the interviews. "e Summary: researchers were put into contact with the women "is article focuses on the experiences of "ai wom- who were interviewed through an NGO in Chiang en tra$cked into the sex industry in Japan. It par- Rai Province in "ailand working to provide rehabil- ticularly focuses on the vulnerabilities of some "ai itative services to tra$cked persons. Due to the re- women and the strategies used by tra$ckers to researchers’ concerns surrounding the re-traumatizing cruit them, based on those vulnerabilities. "e article of the women in retelling their stories, the women gives some insight into the methods used for trans- selected to be interviewed had undergone extensive portation to Japan. "e article is based on research rehabilitation and voluntarily chose to share their that included a literature review, interviews with experiences. "ai tra$cking experts and semi-structured interviews with four "ai women tra$cked to Japan for "e article argues that there are many push-pull fac- the purpose of sexual exploitation. tors that lead "ai women to consider and engage in migration from their villages, sometimes into sex Although the article is about tra$cking of "ai work. Poverty, family dysfunction, gender expecta- women into sexual exploitation in Japan, there is no tions for women to support their families and greater de!nition or concept of tra$cking in persons pre- economic opportunity in Bangkok and overseas (in sented within the article. this instance Japan) are triggers for women from

50 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

rural villages to migrate. "e interviewed women described as held in “contract slavery”. A literature were all held in debt bondage, without their pass- search provided background for the discussion on port and had threats issued against them and their the concept of contract slavery, including its roots, families should they not work to pay o# their debts parameters and whether the term is appropriate as or attempt to escape. "e article also explains that a basis for the investigation. A second discussion fo- tra$cking routes from "ailand to Japan are largely cuses on previous studies of migrant domestic work- sta#ed by "ai nationals; however, the Yakuza (Japa- ers in other regions and countries. Although numer- nese organized crime syndicates) are in control of the ous studies have been carried out on this topic, none sex industry and exploitation of tra$cked victims in has centred on Lebanon. Japan. Women are often recruited by local recruiters who are connected to larger global organized crime "e authors planned to use snowball sampling to groups. "e article suggests that tra$ckers prey on gather data; however, due to the reluctance of em- the economic vulnerability of rural, poor women ployers to grant permission to conduct interviews, and that "ai tra$ckers are increasingly women who which was a requirement, alternative arrangements once worked in the Japanese sex industry. were made. "e Sri Lankan ambassador provided access to women who were runaways or who were in "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on need of diplomatic services (such as passport renewal migrant smuggling. It does suggest that "ai nationals and advice). A total of 70 interviews were carried sta# the tra$cking routes from "ailand to Japan and out, along with supplemental interviews with Leb- that "ai tra$ckers recruit locally but are often con- anese employers (10), diplomats from other coun- nected to organized crime groups. "e article claims tries, NGO sta# and human rights lawyers. No de- that tra$cking syndicates operating out of "ailand tailed information concerning the nature and scope are sophisticated and well !nanced and maximize the of these latter interviews is given. opportunity that "ailand provides as a sending country of tra$cked victims. It also argues that non-"ai "ree types of domestic workers are identi!ed: live- criminal organizations often use "ailand as a traf- in, freelancer and runaway, and a description of each !cking transit point. From the personal accounts of category is provided as well as the typical living and the four "ai tra$cked victims, the article gives some working conditions. "e research found, however, insight into the operation of tra$cking networks and that no matter which type a worker seemed to be, the transportation of victims from "ailand to Japan three factors of contract slavery were present, al- and their exploitation in the Japanese sex industry. though live-in workers su#ered the most indignities. Abuse or violence, the !rst factor, was prevalent, and numerous examples are presented to demonstrate its Jureidini, R. and Moukarbel, N. (2004). Fe- nature and scope. Physical abuse was common, but equally disturbing was how employers and agencies male Sri Lankan domestic workers in Leba- controlled the paperwork, including passports, or non: A case of ‘contract slavery’? In: Journal did not provide enough food. It appears that physi- of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 30(4), pp. cal abuse was also used by agents to keep the domes- 581–607. tic workers subservient.

Key words: Denial of freedom is the second factor, and ample Sri Lanka examples of restricted freedom are cited. Withhold- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- ing of paperwork again played a role because work- tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants ers could not travel outside the home without their documentation. Agencies abetted the restriction of Research method used: movement by encouraging employers to minimize Qualitative contact with the outside world. "e third factor, exploitive working conditions, builds on the second Summary: category in that workers were kept so busy that they "is study is based on the notion that most Sri Lan- had little time for outside movement. Examples are kan female domestic workers in Lebanon can be presented showing the breadth of work demanded,

51 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

along with the depth of labour. Many workers toiled Statistics from previous surveys are presented to il- up to 18 hours daily, and a typical workday was be- lustrate the numbers of migrants, numbers of re- tween 14 and 17 hours. "e study concludes with cruitment and placement agencies and the propor- a description of some steps that have been taken to tion of such agencies found to be operating in a improve the situation and recommendations for fur- deceptive manner. Data from previous studies are ther improvement. also discussed regarding violations of workers’ rights and human rights, including freedom of movement. Exploitive cases are described, as de!ned by the au- Jureidini, R. (2010). Tra!cking and contract thor, though he notes that measuring exploitation is migrant workers in the Middle East. In: Inter- a di$cult task due to the broad nature of the concept national Migration, 48(4), pp. 142–163. and lack of a de!nition of the term in the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol. Key words: Sri Lanka "e author questions the stage at which migrant West Asia domestic workers become victims of tra$cking for Concepts, Tra$cking %ows labour exploitation. He asks if there needs to be proven intent from agents and/or employers to traf- Research method used: !c and if workers can be considered as tra$cked if Quantitative they enter a country through o$cial channels. "e author then discusses core de!nitions of tra$cking, Summary: the roles and responsibilities of consent and recruit- "is article questions how the concept of tra$cking ment agents relating to tra$cking for labour exploi- in persons, as de!ned by the Tra$cking in Persons tation, challenges in practice and proving deception Protocol, can be applied to migrant domestic work- and the facilitation of placement agents, employers ers. It particularly focuses on those under the kafala and sponsors in those processes. sponsorship system in the Middle East who are ob- ligated to use a local sponsor. Based on the author’s "e author also notes that research on tra$cking in survey research carried out in 2005–2006 with 610 persons is di$cult due to limited levels of access to Ethiopian, Filipino and Sri Lankan female migrant migrant domestic workers, particularly those in the domestic workers in Lebanon, challenges relating kafala system. Information on cases of tra$cking in to de!nitions of tra$cking in persons and related persons is also limited by agencies that do not rec- terms, including exploitation, and how these classi- ognize employers’ intentions to exploit or tra$c mi- !cations a#ect the acknowledgement of tra$cking grants and by the fact that exploitive practices towards activities, are expounded. "e author suggests that domestic workers have become a cultural norm. "e although conditions of employment may be abu- article concludes with discussions on strengthening sive or exploitive and although migration agents anti-tra$cking and migrant rights conventions. "e may have misled or deceived prospective migrant author suggests that because the abuse that many workers about the conditions, the label of “traf- migrant workers experience may not necessarily fall !cking in persons” should not be rashly applied. under the de!nition of tra$cking in persons, the en- Simply crossing borders with the intent to exploit forcement of relevant conventions can also be sup- an individual, he maintains, does not constitute ported by awareness raising among recruitment and tra$cking. In short, the author argues that there placement agents regarding the responsibilities they must be evidence of systemic conspiracy between should be required to accept to prevent placing mi- middlemen and employers for it to be a tra$cking grant workers in exploitive settings. case. However, at times, his arguments are some- what confusing as he appears to misunderstand the concept of tra$cking in persons in a number of Kachin Women’s Association #ailand. ways (for example, that there needs to be a systemic (2008). Eastward bound: An update on migra- conspiracy for tra$cking to occur or that tra$ck- tion and tra$cking of Kachin women on the ing in persons must even include some element of China-Burma border. Chiang Mai: Kachin movement). Women’s Association #ailand.

52 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Key words: "e report does not directly contribute knowledge China, Myanmar on migrant smuggling. It provides some information Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- on factors that fuel irregular migration, although not tion, Tra$cking %ows in great detail. "e large number of case studies provides good insight into the problem. Research method used: Mixed Kara, S. (2009). Sex tra$cking: Inside the Summary: business of modern slavery. New York: Co- "e purpose of this report is to document the migra- lumbia University Press. tion and tra$cking of Kachin people from north- eastern Myanmar into China. It documents the !nd- Key words: ings of an assistance programme for Kachin women India, "ailand who had been tra$cked into China that the Kachin South Asia, South-East Asia Women’s Association "ailand (KWAT) initiated. Concepts, Tra$cking %ows It is a follow-up report to the 2005 report Driven Away. "e report refers to previous !ndings in a way Research method used: that requires knowledge about them. Qualitative

"e report is based on 133 veri!ed and suspected Summary: tra$cking cases that occurred between 2004 and "is book focuses on the global sex trade. Based on 2007 and involved 163 women and girls. "e report hundreds of interviews with victims in brothels and does not provide details of any research methodol- shelters, families of victims, brothel owners, men ogy. It appears likely that the cases were documented who purchased sex, NGO workers, police o$cers as part of the KWAT’s case work, which would have and attorneys, the author’s condemnation of traf- involved contact with both victims of tra$cking and !cking in persons for sexual exploitation is clear families of missing women or suspected victims of through the countless stories of the “slaves” he en- tra$cking. countered while carrying out research in Albania, the Balkans, India, the Greater Mekong Subregion, Of the tra$cking cases, most of the women were Moldova, Nepal, the former Soviet Union, the transported across China for the purpose of forced United States and Western Europe. Each chapter marriage in the eastern provinces, particularly Shan- is devoted to emotive stories of women and girls dong Province. Women described being shown to tra$cked into the sex industry, child labour and many men, sometimes in marketplaces, along with debt bondage. More often than not, the victims are other abuses, such as being tied up, forced to have presented as naïve, childlike, innocent and unin- abortions before the sale to a prospective husband formed, thus reinforcing the dominant discourse of and other horri!c treatment. Predominantly Chi- what constitutes a tra$cked victim. nese farmers bought women and paid an average of USD 1,900 for their bride. About a quarter of the What is di#erent about this book is the author’s focus tra$cking victims were minors. on the business side of the sex trade and his recognition that people are involved in tra$cking to make a According to the report, political and economic pro!t. He argues that the pervasiveness of tra$cking deterioration in Myanmar are the main drivers for in persons for sexual exploitation is a direct result an increasing number of Kachin women to migrate of the vast pro!ts derived from the sexual exploita- to China in search of employment. "e report also tion of women and girls. "e author discusses both raises concerns over Myanmar’s anti-tra$cking law the supply and demand side of tra$cking in persons passed in 2005. "e continuing high incidence of and argues that the best short-term tactic to combat tra$cking in persons indicates that the Myanmar the problem is to attack its immense pro!tability by Government’s anti-tra$cking law appears to be inef- making the risk of operating a sex slave operation far fective. Moreover, law enforcement o$cials do not more costly. To address the business of tra$cking for adhere to the provisions of victims’ rights protection. sexual exploitation in the long term, he argues that

53 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

the primary conditions that give rise to the phenom- was criminalized by the Malaysian Immigration Act enon — poverty and the inequalities of economic of 2002, according to which irregular foreign work- globalization — must be addressed. "roughout the ers can be imprisoned, !ned and caned. Employers of book, a number of solutions, ranging from a better- irregular migrants can also be imprisoned and caned. paid anti-tra$cking police force to community vigi- lance, are suggested. In the concluding chapter, the "e paper focuses mainly on how migrants are author presents a framework for abolition, which is perceived and therefore provides only limited in- based on the creation of an extra-governmental Coa- formation on how migration and migrant workers’ lition of Freedom dedicated to abolishing all forms situations are in reality. Migrant smuggling is not ad- of tra$cking in persons and slavery. dressed in the paper, and irregular migration is only mentioned within the context of undocumented employment. "e methods for irregularly entering Kaur, K. (2005). #e media and migrant la- Malaysia are not detailed. bour issues in Malaysia: A content analysis of selected Malaysian newspapers. [Paper in special issue: A. Kaur and I. Metcalfe (eds.). Kaya, K. (2008). Tra$cking in persons in Af- Migrant Labour in Southeast Asia: Needed, ghanistan – Field survey. Kabul: Internation- Not Wanted.] In: Review of Indonesian and al Organization for Migration. Malaysian A%airs, 39(2), pp. 69–90. Key words: Key words: Afghanistan China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- Irregular migration ment for smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Routes, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows Research method used: Mixed Research method used: Mixed Summary: "is paper examines the representation of migrant Summary: labourers in the Malaysian media. English and Malay "is report provides an in-depth analysis of the traf- language mainstream newspapers, some of which are !cking in persons phenomenon in Afghanistan. "e available online, as well as one online news agency research involved a multi-faceted approach, includ- and one alternative online newspaper were studied ing interviews with experts working on counter- from January to August 2003. From them, 104 news tra$cking, community informants and victims of stories were selected and analysed. Some preliminary tra$cking and of the relevant crimes as well as a content analysis using SPSS predictive software was literature review. "e !eldwork was !rst conduct- carried out on these articles to understand what is- ed in Kabul and then in nine border provinces in sues were represented in the print media. "e paper 2007. A total of 220 community informants were concludes that the media shows foreign workers as interviewed. Educated members of the community both victims who are abused and exploited and as were randomly selected and asked to share their troublemakers who contribute to crime and violence views and to help the research team identify pos- in the country. sible victims of tra$cking. As a result, 82 additional interviews were conducted with individuals who "e paper discusses the economic background of la- were designated, based on the information shared bour migration and recruitment and migration policies by community informants. "e interviews had vari- in Malaysia. Recruitment policy has swung between ous purposes: (1) to gain understanding about the liberal recruitment and a freeze on foreign workers, common perception and awareness level of tra$ck- and policies to control irregular migrants have including in persons and related issues, (2) to gain insights ed amnesty programmes and the legalization of irregu- from the tra$cking victims, their stories of persecu- lar workers. Irregular migrants have been allowed to tion and details concerning the tra$ckers and (3) exit the country without penalty. Irregular migration to learn about the major activities of anti-tra$cking

54 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

organizations in Afghanistan and their progress or Kim, E., Yun, M., Park, M. and Williams, H. achievements hitherto. (2009). Cross-border North Korean women tra!cking and victimization between North "e major !ndings include that cross-border tra$ck- Korea and China: An ethnographic case study. ing to Pakistan or the Islamic Republic of Iran is sig- In: International Journal of Law, Crime and ni!cant (most of the survey respondents were smug- Justice, 37(4), pp. 154–169. gled to or through Pakistan or the Islamic Republic of Iran), various human rights violations contribute directly or indirectly to tra$cking (such as forced Key words: marriage, child marriage, child abuse and domestic China violence), less-educated people are more prone to be- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- come victims and that most victims are taken by force tion, Tra$cking %ows or tricked by people they are already acquainted with. As well, there is a lack of legal provisions to prosecute Research method used: tra$ckers, and female victims of sexual exploitation Qualitative are currently criminalized and imprisoned. Ultimately the report concludes that the historical, economic and Summary: social factors that contribute to the prevalence of traf- "e study re%ected in this article worked to uncover !cking are deeply imbedded in Afghan society, which and describe the process of victimization and cross- makes a rapid improvement of the situation unlikely. border tra$cking of women from the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea into China. "e primary According to the author, a considerable number of research method was semi-structured interviews with cases referred to the research team as tra$cking cases 77 adult female victims of tra$cking. Eligible par- turned out to be cases of migrant smuggling and kid- ticipants were identi!ed using the de!nition of Traf- napping, re%ecting a lack of understanding among !cking in Persons Protocol. Participants were found the informants and their inability to distinguish with the assistance of an NGO and then by snowball between the three concepts. Of the total 82 cases, technique. All participants in the sample had experi- 20 were con!rmed situations of tra$cking while 43 enced victimization of tra$cking for sexual exploita- were cases of kidnapping for ransom and 19 were tion in China. "e purpose of the interviews was to migrant smuggling cases. "us, the majority of those gain knowledge about (1) the pro!les and character- interviewed were not victims of tra$cking. "e re- istics of victims, (2) the pro!les and characteristics of searchers decided to also analyse migrant smuggling tra$ckers and (3) the tra$cking routes and proce- and kidnapping cases for comparison. dural networks of tra$cking operations.

According to the author, the study encountered sev- "e article presents !ndings about the pro!le of eral cultural and social constraints, due to families tra$ckers and victims of tra$cking and the factors often not reporting a member tra$cked for sexual that impact on the vulnerability to victimization. In servitude in order to avoid stigmatization by the terms of the tra$ckers, the researchers found that community. Researchers were also confronted with tra$ckers involved in cross-border tra$cking came security issues. from three ethnic or nationality groups: Koreans, Chinese and Korean Chinese. Korean Chinese had "e research highlights the crucial issues that facili- a major role in tra$cking operations, serving as a tate tra$cking in persons and provides insight into bridge between the two distinctive cultural and lin- the impact of Afghan counter-tra$cking e#orts. "e guistic groups. study contributes knowledge on migrant smuggling in Afghanistan by presenting valuable information Regarding the characteristics of victims in the sam- on smuggling routes, fees and pro!les of smuggled ple, the researchers noted that the age range of the migrants. An excerpt of an interview with a smug- tra$cking victims from the Democratic People’s gled migrant further illustrates the hardships that Republic of Korea was much wider compared with migrants endure and provides brief insight into the tra$cking victims in other countries, with some vic- organization of smuggling. tims aged between 40 and 70; the authors compared

55 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

this !nding with previous studies dealing with traf- Summary: !cking issues in Central and Eastern Europe, China, "is article illustrates the migration of foreign work- India and Nepal. "e women in this study were ers into the Republic of Korea as a process situated trapped into victimization either by forced kidnap- “between the periphery and the semi-periphery” ping or voluntary consent under deception. Primary at the global level. For the research, the author re- facilitating factors for increasing the vulnerability of viewed several data sets regarding the number of for- Korean women were the economic conditions in the eign workers, their working conditions and policy Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and a high responses by the Korean Government. In addition, demand for tra$cked women in China. "e authors the author conducted interviews with two ethnic conclude that the problem of tra$cking of Korean Korean Chinese migrant workers. women is substantial and constitutes a signi!cant international problem. "e author concludes that migration of foreign Asian workers into the Republic of Korea may be regarded According to the authors, it is very di$cult to con- as a typical case of how labour forces in the global duct an empirical study on tra$cking of women in market move regionally from the periphery toward both the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea or the semi-periphery. "e rapid wage increases and la- in China, and it is thus di$cult to know the exact bour shortages since the late 1980s in the Republic nature and extent of the problem. of Korea forced the Government to permit foreign workers as a necessary solution. However, when the "e article does not directly contribute knowledge many foreign workers remained in the country ir- on migrant smuggling due to its focus on tra$cking regularly, the Government initiated a trainee system, in persons. It does provide some background infor- designed to maintain control over unauthorized la- mation on irregular migration and factors that facili- bour by imposing strict employment requirements tate irregular migration. on foreign workers. In reality, the author argues, those so-called trainees functioned as low-wage "e article highlights the process of victimiza- workers in the labour system and had few rights. "e tion of Korean women and cross-border tra$ck- trainee system underwent several amendments after ing between the Democratic People’s Republic of an increasing number of demands and call for re- Korea and China since 1990. It provides valuable forms were made from foreign workers, trade unions information regarding the demographic character- and civil organizations. Ultimately, the Government istics of tra$ckers and their victims, root causes maintained the Industrial Trainee System but also for victimization, cross-border tra$cking routes revised its migration and labour laws to guarantee and tra$cking networks. Furthermore, the di#er- more rights to regular and irregular foreign workers. ent stages in the tra$cking process are described "e author concludes that the Government now fac- in detail. According to the authors, this research es a dilemma: On one hand, small !rms are a#ected constitutes the !rst systematic empirical study on by a labour shortage that can only be resolved with this issue. an in%ux of foreign labour force, but on the other hand, the Government wants to shield the very same labour market from foreign competition. Kim, W. B. (2004). Migration of foreign workers into the Republic of Korea: From pe- "e study highlighted the social and economic con- riphery to semi-periphery in the global labor straints that foreign migrant workers experience in market. In: Asian Survey, 44(2), pp. 316–335. the Republic of Korea. "e article does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling. It pro- Key words: vides some information on irregular foreign workers China in the Republic of Korea who fall into irregularity by Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- deserting their original workplace for another job or tion, Tra$cking %ows by entering the country through travel visas with the motive to overstay and gain employment. Accord- Research method used: ing to the article, Chinese constitute the dominant Qualitative majority of unauthorized workers in the country, fol-

56 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

lowed by Bangladeshis, Filipinos and Vietnamese. In Lao PDR is mainly a country of origin for tra$cking addition, the article provides data sets regarding the in persons, with most %ows heading for "ailand. Be- number and nationality of foreign irregular workers cause national birth registration does not exist in Lao in the Republic of Korea in 2002. PDR, in addition to underreporting of the crime, it is di$cult to attain reliable data on the magnitude of tra$cking %ows. Interviewees reported that tra$ck- Kneebone, S. and Debeljak, J. (2010). Com- ing for forced labour was more common than traf- bating transnational crime in the Greater !cking for sexual exploitation. It is unclear whether recruiters only worked locally or whether they were Mekong Subregion: #e cases of Laos and part of larger criminal networks. Many recruiters Cambodia. In: L. Holmes (ed.). Tra$cking were known to the victims, but exploitation usually and human rights: A European and Asia-Pa- did not occur until the destination had been reached. ci"c perspective. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. "ailand is also a destination for Cambodian victims of tra$cking. Tra$cking in the region has been de- Key words: scribed as a cottage industry. "e research indicated Cambodia, Lao PDR, "ailand that family members, neighbours and friends were Tra$cking %ows involved in networks, which can be small or large- scale. As in the case of Lao PDR, the majority of Research method used: Cambodian male and female victims were tra$cked Qualitative for labour exploitation outside of the sex industry. In both cases, the evidence showed that most victims Summary: willingly crossed the border into "ailand, meaning "is chapter uses case studies of the anti-tra$cking that intermediaries may have a lesser role in the traf- e#orts of Lao People’s Democratic Republic and !cking process. Cambodia to draw attention to the strengths and limitations of criminal justice responses. "e case "e chapter provides insight into the gap between studies emphasize the need for stable institutions in policy intentions and the realities of tra$cking, order for counter-tra$cking e#orts to be e#ective. speci!cally focusing on the dearth of measures to "e methodology for the case studies was in-depth combat tra$cking for labour exploitation. It further interviews and content analysis. Data was used from provides useful information about the structure and experts, case reports, NGO and intergovernmental organization of tra$cking groups, although it attests reports and academic articles. In total, 40 interview that there are knowledge gaps in this area. "e fact sessions were conducted in Lao PDR and Cambodia that tra$cking victims initially cross the border into with 50 people. "e chapter examines potentially "ailand independently is also of great importance problematic areas of implementation of the Tra$ck- because it implies that tra$cking networks are more ing in Persons Protocol in Lao PDR and Cambodia, centred in "ailand, the country of destination, and the authors conclude that not enough emphasis rather than in recruiting and transportation schemes has been given to victim protection in either country. in the countries of origin. No details are provided on how migrants become victims of tra$cking in "ai- According to the authors, migration patterns in Lao land, although various vulnerabilities are discussed. PDR and Cambodia circle around both the labour and sex industries. Although the relative economic wealth of "ailand creates a strong incentive for regular and irregular labour migration %ows, initial anti- Koser, K. (2008). Why migrant smuggling tra$cking initiatives were solely developed to combat pays. In: International Migration, 46(2), pp. tra$cking for sexual exploitation. Implementation of 3–26. the United Nations Convention Against Transna- tional Organized Crime and the Tra$cking in Per- Key words: sons Protocol in the region has been overwhelmingly Afghanistan, Pakistan based upon law enforcement. Concept, Fees and payment for smuggling, Modus

57 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

operandi of smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled mi- smuggling process included the payment to a range grants, Smuggling of intermediaries by the migrants and their family members at home. Migrant smuggling, the author Research method used: concludes, constitutes a pro!table business. Mixed "e author points out that not all actors involved Summary: in migrant smuggling were interviewed because the "is article explores the !nancing of migrant smug- goal to speak to smugglers was achieved only with gling and presents new empirical data on the issue. limited success. "e author also notes that there is "e purpose of the study was to contribute to the a general consensus among researchers that inter- understanding of how migrant smuggling operates viewing smugglers in destination countries is nearly as a business and to enhance this particular concep- impossible and that the household survey cannot be tual approach. considered representative due to a signi!cant non- response rate. "us the results presented in this study "e article draws on two !eldwork periods between are considered indicative rather than conclusive. 2003 and 2004. "e !rst trip to Afghanistan and Pakistan included interviews with representatives "e article provides insight into the migrant smug- from governments, international organizations, gling process from a relatively new set of perspec- NGOs and law enforcement agencies as well as local tives: the !nancial risks for smugglers, the pro!ts researchers, journalists and activists in the !eld. In- made by smugglers and the reinvestment of those depth interviews were conducted with !ve smugglers pro!ts, the disbursement of payments for services and !ve agents variously involved in the process. "e facilitating cross-border smuggling o#ered by inter- purpose of the second !eldtrip to Pakistan was to in- mediaries and the !nancial risks and rewards for mi- terview families of smuggled migrants. A structured grants. "e study is unique for its approach to track- questionnaire was used, and a total of 50 households ing money throughout the smuggling process using were interviewed. "e purpose of the interviews was empirical research. to gain understanding about the context for migrant smuggling from Afghanistan and Pakistan, enhance the knowledge about the socio-economic context Kotiswaran, P. (2008). Born unto brothels: from which smuggled migrants originate and to Toward a legal ethnography of sex work in an learn about the implications for people who are pre- Indian red-light area. In: Law and Society Re- sumably often involved in smuggling activities and view, 33(3), pp. 579–629. may have to raise the money for them but who do not actually move. Key words: India According to the research !ndings, the means used South Asia to raise the capital to pay smugglers ranged from Concepts, Tra$cking %ows drawing on savings to selling property, land and jew- ellery. Payments were made to a third person, who Research method used: would not release the payment to the smuggler until Qualitative the migrant had arrived at the destination. "e study found that smugglers disbursed about half of the fee Summary: to intermediaries required to facilitate the smuggling Based on ethnographic work in Sonagachi, one of process, such as forgers, procurers of passports, air- the largest red-light districts of India, the article port o$cials and others. Most of the smuggled mi- examines the complicated nature of the relation- grants quickly found work in their destination and ship between criminal prostitution law and the sex began remitting soon after their arrival. On aver- industry. "e author maintains that advocates and age, migrants were able to pay o# their debt after abolitionists of the sex industry put too much faith two years, and thereafter remittances were on aver- in criminal legislation. For abolitionists, enforcing age more than twice the household income in their criminal laws can eliminate sex markets, whereas countries of origin. "e study concludes that the advocates claim that decriminalization can empower

58 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

sex workers. Her research highlights that the rela- egories of actors, a realization that legal rules are in- tionship between criminal law and sex markets is terpreted through complex local power relations and more complex. "e !ndings include an illustration structures and the development of a perspective of of the levels of actors operating in Sonagachi and sex work less embroiled in the bias that often comes the existence of an elaborate system of formal and with discussions surrounding the sex industry. informal legal and social norms, rules and markets. At the heart of this system is a locally manifested way of interpreting criminal law that limits the way Krebs, M. and Pechova, E. (2008). Vietnam- any changes in the formal legal rules would be im- ese workers in Czech factories – Research re- plemented. It is this challenge that leads the author port. Prague: La Strada Czech Republic. to suggest the need for a fundamental reassessment of criminal law’s central position in discussions of Key words: prostitution law reform. Viet Nam Irregular migration Using an experimental ethnographic approach that can be critiqued for the way in which sex workers Research method used: are portrayed as rational-choice actors, the article is Qualitative based on data collected from 50 interviews with individuals and organizations operating in and around Summary: Sonagachi over two periods (the summers of 2005 "is report is an outcome of a project implemented and 2006) of !eldwork. "e interview !ndings are by the NGO La Strada in 2008 and is a follow-up supported by secondary written sources, including report of a previously implemented project in 2007, surveys and project reports from a local sex worker which aimed at expanding the knowledge on traf- organization and HIV prevention projects. Most !cked persons and the prevention of it and exploita- sections of the article frame localized research !nd- tion within the Vietnamese community in the Czech ings within a thorough discussion of the legal and Republic. political acts, codes and guidelines. "e purpose of the research was to verify previously "e !ndings are presented !rst as they relate to the gathered information about the exploitation of Vi- sociology of sex work and the legal ethnography of etnamese workers in the Czech Republic by com- Sonagachi, identifying the brothel as an institution piling information about their working and living with a standardized protocol of labour organization, conditions and the circumstances related to their living arrangements and supporting practices and departure. "e research involved 23 semi-structured norms. Actors within Sonagachi as well as external interviews with Vietnamese workers. "e interviews actors interact with the brothels in a variety of ways, focused speci!cally on the respondents’ motivation and the article presents unique illustrations of com- to migrate, on services provided by job agencies, on plex networks formed around each brothel as well their working and living conditions in the Czech Re- as typical tenancy arrangements in the district. "e public and on their future prospects. In addition, 11 locally organized structures are then contextualized non-standard, unstructured interviews were carried in how they operate in relation to legal de!nitions out with relevant Czech and Vietnamese actors, such of labour relationships, the organization of sex work as representatives of job agencies, to gain an under- and rental and tenancy arrangements. standing of the overall situation and other related issues. "e report includes a brief discussion on traf- Final discussions revisit four regulatory options avail- !cking in persons, exploitation and forced labour as able for sex work and discussions on what each op- de!ned by Czech law. tion would mean for the district and relevant actors, including the sex workers. "e conclusions call for a According to the research !ndings, all interviewed mi- more complex perspective be taken on the develop- grant workers were heavily indebted at their time of ar- ment of an understanding of power relations within rival, after having paid between USD 6,500 and USD Sonagachi and other red-light districts, including a 14,000 to o$cial intermediary agencies or uno$cial disaggregation of the traditionally recognized cat- companies or individuals for travel arrangements.

59 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Corruption at the Czech embassy in Viet Nam con- (3) carriers who worked on a consignment basis. "e tributes to the high prices for travel arrangements. A interviews were supplemented by informal conversa- lack of information was identi!ed as a major driver tions on buses as they carried goods and by obser- of vulnerability, and various persons involved in the vations of their face-to-face meetings with customs process of agency employment intentionally create o$cials. and maintain circumstances of dependence, which they subsequently abuse for their personal gain. "e results showed that most of the women were Ben- "en Vietnamese workers in the Czech Republic suf- gali, the majority of whom were from Bangladesh. fer from substandard living and working conditions. Women were prompted to engage in smuggling by Nonetheless, nearly all respondents would choose to economic opportunities; however, earnings varied by remain in the Czech Republic if they lost their au- category, with leaders of their own syndicates earning thorization to stay. the most. Other !ndings focused on exploitation, domestic life and the women’s futures. Exploitation was "e report does not directly contribute knowledge a common occurrence, and there were three sources on migrant smuggling. Although it identi!es exploi- (customs o$cials and police, ringleaders and hus- tive practices and conditions, it is not clear whether bands). "e women made substantial contributions these conditions meet the requirements of tra$cking to their household, but husbands gave the women in persons or forced labour as de!ned by the Penal little say in how the money would be spent. Wean- Code of the Czech Republic or the respective United ing women from smuggling of goods has proven to Nations protocol and ILO convention. be di$cult because money is relatively easy to earn as a smuggler, and they are familiar with the work. Schemes to help these women have been sporadic. Lahiri, A. (2010). Women smugglers of Nax- albari. In: Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Although the paper does not address the issue of mi- 17(2), pp. 287–295. grant smuggling, it is useful because it highlights the push-pull factors that drive women in North Bengal Keywords: to engage in whatever occupations are available to India them. "e paper notes that northern districts have Factors that fuel irregular migration recorded higher migration rates than the state average as well as unaccounted migration from Bangla- Research method used: desh. It is possible that the pro!le of persons using Qualitative the services of smugglers would present similar characteristics. Summary: In this paper, the author examines a seldom-reported form of smuggling — the smuggling of goods by Lee, M. (2008). Policing Chinese migrant sex women. Poverty in North Bengal in India is com- workers in Hong Kong. In: International Mi- mon, and this reality has prompted an increase in the gration, 46(3), pp. 95–121. use of women as curriers of goods. Males previously dominated this activity, but police operations forced Key words: the heads of smuggling rings to seek other means of China transit. Women were recruited because they were Irregular migration perceived as more e$cient than men and more doc- ile as well as easy to exploit. Research method used: Qualitative "e research explored women’s working conditions in smuggling the goods. To carry out the investiga- Summary: tion, the author interviewed 60 women who were "is article examines the use of intense policing and categorized in terms of their work and payment. mass imprisonment as instruments of migration "ese were: (1) leaders who had their own syndi- management, using the example of the regulation cates, (2) carriers who were paid by a percentage and of sex workers from China in Hong Kong (China).

60 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e main data for this research was collected during Summary: two exploratory !eld trips to Hong Kong (China) "is paper looks at the health and human rights between 2004 and 2006. "e research involved the concerns related to irregular Myanmar migrants in examination of o$cial statistics, relevant documents "ailand. It focuses on the experience of Myanmar and in-depth interviews with law enforcement o$- migrant women through an investigation of their cials, researchers and activists. living and working conditions and lack of access to HIV, AIDS and reproductive health services. Myan- "e author argues that Hong Kong (China) migra- mar women are characterized as especially vulner- tion control measures re%ect the aim of the local gov- able to HIV infection because of abuses su#ered as ernment to attract a&uent visitors through relaxed a result of migration to "ailand, including ethnic border controls while simultaneously discouraging and gender discrimination, violence, unsafe migra- needy migrants. For some women, crossing the bor- tion practices, vulnerability to tra$cking in persons, der and working in the sex industry constitutes the labour and sexual exploitation and a denial to health best or even only option for economic survival and care and labour protection. social advancement. "e author further argues that the migratory control regime in Hong Kong (China) While making mention of the concept of tra$ck- not only leads many migrant women into low-status ing in persons, the paper does not specify a working sex work but also criminalizes and stigmatizes them de!nition of the term. for doing so. "e research found that the reliance on intense policing and criminal justice sanctions to- "e research, conducted by Physicians for Human wards irregular migration has led to a massive increase Rights in 2004, aimed to (1) generate an under- in arrests and detention of migrant women in Hong standing of human rights abuses su#ered by Myan- Kong (China). However, there appeared to be little mar migrants in "ailand; (2) identify and under- evidence to suggest that such measures can provide stand factors, conditions and practices of tra$cking a solution to the root causes of migratory sex work. of these migrants; (3) assess the health consequences of migration, including HIV infection; (4) under- "e article does not directly contribute knowledge stand the relationship between the commercial sex on migrant smuggling. "e focus of the research industry and sexual exploitation to tra$cking in per- was on Chinese immigration violators who fall sons and other forms of unsafe migration and (5) to into irregularity by overstaying, pursuing unlaw- assess government responses to the health and hu- ful activities or taking up employment without the man rights of Myanmar migrant women. necessary authorization. "e study highlights the limited e#ectiveness of punitive migratory control Interviews were conducted with a number of Myan- measures. mar migrant women to allow them to explain and give insight into their migration experience, including tra$cking in some cases. "e interviews with the Leiter, K., Suwanvanichkij, V., Tamm, I., Ia- migrant women were designed to document their copino, V. and Beyrer, C. (2006). Human experiences of unsafe migration and tra$cking, la- rights abuses and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS: bour exploitation or sexual exploitation. "e women #e experiences of Burmese women in #ai- were introduced to the researchers by NGOs working land. In: Health and Human Rights, 9(2), pp. with former victims of tra$cking. "e research does 88–111. not specify the number of women interviewed. Inter- views were also conducted with government o$cials, Key words: national and international NGO representatives and Myanmar, "ailand researchers through a series of semi-structured ques- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- tions relating to human rights and the health of My- ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of anmar migrant workers. "e authors also conducted smuggling, Irregular migration a literature review to give context to the study.

Research method used: "e research presented a number of !ndings relating Qualitative to migration methods and consequences of irregular

61 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

migration to "ailand from Myanmar and provided grant smuggling and tra$cking in persons, for which a small amount of detail on migration routes and the use of safe houses is standard practice. "e au- !nancial costs of migrant smuggling. It identi!ed a thors compare their !ndings with those reported in number of push factors for migration from Myanmar the reviewed literature on safe houses, which mainly to "ailand, including a desire to escape poverty and examines Chinese migrant smuggling networks. political persecution, seeking a livelihood in "ailand, sending money home and pursuing education "e research involved examining 50 judicial dossiers opportunities. "e researchers note the importance for the period of 1995–2005. "e researchers identi- of smuggling in the migration process, considering !ed 22 safe houses associated with smuggling routes that smugglers had the best ability to facilitate irreg- across Eastern Europe. "ese can be traced to eight ular migration, facilitate the transportation of large East European networks. However, some of the Al- numbers of migrants and navigate safe migration banian case studies indicated alliances with Chinese routes that avoid police detection as opposed to mi- and Indian criminal organizations. gration without assistance. "ey also comment that tra$cking in persons from Myanmar to "ailand is "e authors conclude that safe houses are places a common migration practice because of the vulner- for numerous illegal activities, including !nancial abilities of Myanmar migrants. "e most signi!cant transactions, counterfeiting of documents, money !nding of the research is that irregular Myanmar laundering and transferring or “stowing away” of migrants in "ailand fall outside labour protections victims or migrants. "e authors also point out that and access to health services because of their irregular the term “safe house”, which is used quite generally status, which then makes them more vulnerable to in the literature, may, according to the !ndings, not exploitation and abuse. be the most accurate one because safe houses that are actually safe for clients are exceptional. Further, "e article o#ers insight into why irregular migrants there is a grey area between migrant smuggling and employ the service of smugglers to avoiding police tra$cking in persons due to some large-scale smug- detection. Some information is provided on the gling networks investing in tra$cking for prostitu- routes used and costs associated with the services of tion and some prostitution organizations also invest- migrant smugglers, although this is limited. ing in smuggling activities. Regarding the use and quality of safe houses, the authors also point to a possible di#erence between those used for migrant Leman, J. and Janssens, S. (2007). #e vari- smuggling and those used for tra$cking for female ous ‘safe’-house pro"les in East-European hu- prostitution. man smuggling and tra!cking. In: Journal Despite its focus on East European criminal net- of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(8), pp. works, the article provides some information on a 1377–1388. complex international joint-venture network con- sisting of Albanian, Chinese and Indian smugglers. Key words: In addition, the authors brie%y point to a large-scale China, India Afghan smuggling network operating a safe house in Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of Belgium. smuggling, Smuggling "e article points out that the explicit focus on crimi- Research method used: nal organizations and the link between Eastern Eu- Mixed rope and Belgium may make it di$cult to generalize about migrant smuggling and tra$cking, either on a Summary: small scale or outside Europe. "e study highlights "is article analyses the role and functions of safe the crucial role of safe houses in smuggling operations. houses in the process of migrant smuggling and/or tra$cking in persons from and via Eastern Europe to Belgium and the Netherlands. It examines a few Leung, H. C. and Lee, K. M. (2005). Immi- large-scale international networks involved in migration controls, life-course coordination and

62 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

livelihood strategies: A study of families liv- reunite. However, no particular details on the pro- ing across the mainland-Hong Kong border. cess of migrant smuggling are presented. As well, In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, all smuggling cases refer to the period before 1997, 26(4), pp. 487–507. when Hong Kong was still a member of the Brit- ish Commonwealth. "us, the article does not con- Key words: tribute knowledge about current migrant smuggling China methods and practices between China and Hong Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Kong (China). tion

Research method used: Li, M. K., Beck, M. A., Shi, Q. and Harru%, Qualitative R. C. (2004). Unexpected hazard of illegal immigration: Outbreak of viral myocarditis Summary: exacerbated by con"nement and deprivation Using the example of China-Hong Kong (China) in a shipboard cargo container. In: American cross-border families, this article examines the e#ects Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, of restrictive migration controls and the resulting dif- 25(2), pp. 117–124. !culties families encounter in pursuing a livelihood. Key words: "e research involved interviews with 24 families China who can be divided into two groups: (1) families Human and social costs of smuggling, Modus oper- who live in Hong Kong (China) but include family andi, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Smuggling members who do not have the right of abode there and (2) family members who live largely in China Research method used: but include members who work or study in Hong Mixed Kong (China). Respondents were interviewed in informal settings about their residence, work and Summary: family histories. In addition, other actors who were "e authors of this article describe an unexpected in regular contact with these families and possessed and potentially fatal hazard associated with irregular personal knowledge about their situations were also migration, based on an incident in which 18 Chi- interviewed. nese irregular migrants were smuggled into the Unit- ed States inside a cargo container. Of the 18 irregu- "e researchers conclude that the migration quota lar migrants, three arrived dead and one died four system that governs migration from China to Hong months later. "e authors present evidence showing Kong (China) complicates the e#orts of families to that the conditions su#ered inside the shipping con- secure their long-term viability and arrange for their tainer were responsible for all four deaths and that a intergenerational caring. "e cross-border families unique cluster of viral myocarditis, transmitted dur- studied apply di#erent coping strategies to take care ing transit, contributed to or caused the deaths. of their family members, including circumventing the law if necessary. However, strategies such as overstay- "e study included an evaluation of the two-week ing visits and irregular migration are costly in terms of ocean voyage, analysis of medical records and labo- !nancial loss and personal hardship. Family caregiv- ratory results of the survivors, autopsies on the de- ers who resort to irregular migration are often forced ceased and viral studies of their heart tissue. to stay in Hong Kong (China) as irregular migrants. "us, cross-border families are disadvantaged because "e incident represents an unexpected hazard in- they have to negotiate with migration controls to pur- sofar as viral myocarditis is usually regarded as self- sue their livelihood goals and lack access to the assets limiting and subclinical (below the surface of clini- that are necessary to cope with the restrictions. cal detection). "us, the authors conclude that the con!nement in a crowded cargo container and the "e article presents case studies of cross-border fam- su#ering from gastroenteritis, acute malnutrition ilies who relied on migrant smuggling in order to and dehydration increased the migrants’ susceptibil-

63 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

ity to viral infection and promoted rapid spread of and uno$cial approaches. Transnational brokerage the virus. In addition, the nutritional stress during fees vary from region to region in China and appear the con!nement may have been responsible for the to %uctuate with the wage level in the destination mutation of the virus into a more virulent form. market. "e author argues that participants consider illegal transnational practices acceptable for aver- "e article is aimed at specialists in the medical sec- age people, due to contradictions between o$cial tor and focuses primarily on the results of the autop- migration policies and the labour demand of send- sy examinations. However, it highlights some of the ing and receiving countries. China combats migrant potential risks and hazards of smuggling for both mi- smuggling on the one hand but welcomes successful grants and receiving countries. It also provides some migrant returnees on the other. At the same time, al- information on the pro!les of the smuggled migrants though receiving countries in Europe have strength- and describes the living conditions on board. ened o$cial controls on migrants, irregular migrant workers in low-paying jobs are tolerated and encouraged by amnesty regulations. Li, M. (2010). An overview of the migration mechanism of China and Europe. In: G. Yun "e chapter does not directly contribute knowledge about the mechanics of migrant smuggling. None- (ed.), Concealed chains: Labor exploitation theless, it provides insight into migrants’ perceptions and Chinese migrants in Europe. Geneva: In- of smuggling as a respectable, rational process. "e ternational Labour Organization (Vol. 1). study focuses on the legal and illegal aspects of the transnational brokerage market in China, gives good Key words: background information on the issue and compares China transnational brokerage fees for di#erent regions and Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- destination countries. ments for smuggling, Irregular migration, Smuggling

Research method used: Lin, S. and Bax, T. (2009). Irregular emigra- Mixed tion from Fuzhou: A rural perspective. In: Summary: Asian and Paci"c Migration Journal, 18(4), "is book chapter examines the transnational migra- pp. 539–551. tion brokerage market in China and its role in the migration mechanism between China and Europe. Key words: From the perspective of sending regions, it analyses China the main actors, compares transnational brokerage Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- fees, explains how and why potential migrants pay tion these fees and compares the resulting implications on migrants’ lives overseas. Research method used: Qualitative "e author conducted the interviews involved in the research, and the chapter draws on original research Summary: conducted over a period of 10 years. No further in- "is paper explores out-migration from Fuzhou city, formation about the research method is provided. China, and compares rural and urban communities. "e purpose of the research was to identify factors "e chapter concludes that transnational labour bro- that contribute to the fact that the majority of Fu- kerage in China has evolved from a service among zhou’s’ irregular migrants originate from rural-based friends and family into a repayment system. Using and county-based communities rather than urban- a complex migration loan and credit system embed- based communities. ded in a system of duties and mutual trust and bene- !t, prospective migrants are willing to pay extremely "e research involved semi-structured interviews high fees to migration brokers who resort to o$cial as well as long-term and short-term participant ob-

64 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

servation in the migrant-sending communities of "e paper explores factors that contribute to rural Fuzhou city. Respondents included village cadres, irregular migration and has no speci!c focus on the heads of the elderly association and leaders of lineage process of migrant smuggling. However, the paper and religious associations. According to the authors, demonstrates that values, such as trust, social solidar- the involvement of those informants was of particu- ity and reciprocal assistance operate between poten- lar importance because they are typically highly re- tial migrants and smugglers. spected individuals who are acquainted with nearly every member of the village and had knowledge "e paper highlights that irregular migration from about families that included migrants. Participants Fuzhou city is strongly in%uenced by speci!c fea- in the study were found via snowball sampling. More tures that characterize Chinese rural society and par- than 100 informants were interviewed over a period ticularly the unique structure of China’s social secu- of two years. rity system that favours urban residents. "e factors identi!ed through the study may complement the China’s dual social security system, which is charac- commonly held view that poverty is the main reason terized by a general non-availability of social security for rural irregular migration. for rural residents, is a contributing factor to rural migration. Contrary to urban areas, rural areas in China do not o#er health and old age insurance or Lin, W. T. and Tzu-Hsing Chen, C. (2007). unemployment and poverty relief systems. "us, ru- How the sex industry market determines the ral residents may consider migration to enable them distribution of smuggling hot spots in Tai- to cover for emergencies by accumulating and sav- wan: An empirical study of illegal immigra- ing capital earned abroad or to acquire foreign citi- tion of mainland Chinese females to Taiwan. zenship to bene!t from the receiving nation’s social In: Flinders Journal of Law Reform, 8(10), security system. "e authors further argue that in- pp. 775–793. ternal migration is considered a less attractive alternative to out-migration because rural residents are Key words: bound to their status by China’s dual system. Once China migrants acquire a foreign passport, they can return Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- to China with a new status as overseas Chinese, a tion, Organization of smuggling, Smuggling social category that local governments tend to highly respect. "us, irregular migration presents a shortcut Research method used: to social mobility and to contest a low social status. Mixed

"e researchers found that strong social norms in ru- Summary: ral communities, based on communal responsibility "is article investigates the causal link of crime hot and reciprocal relationships, function as a security spots and the sex industry in the Taiwan Province system for potential migrants against unreliable mi- of China. According to the authors, the purpose gration brokers. Smugglers, in turn, try to protect of this study is to extend the results of a previously their clients to avoid negative social consequences. conducted study, which showed that the majority of "e potential of social capital to perpetuate migra- women from China smuggled into Taiwan Province tion in urban communities is diminished by weak, of China are involved in the sex industry. impersonal and legalistic ties. "e study also suggests that the willingness of parents to sacri!ce their hap- "e study involved in-depth interviews with 14 ir- piness for the sake of their o#spring is speci!cally regular female migrants and the completion of self- strong in rural communities, which re%ects a tradi- administered questionnaires by 14 law enforcement tional feature of the Chinese family concept. "is o$cials (all male) with experience in investigating ir- traditional perspective increasingly changes in urban regular migration. "e irregular migrant participants communities due to the in%uence of globalization. were located at care centres for people from China "e display of material wealth by successful migrants in the Taiwanese cities of Hsinchu and Ilan. "e may push other villagers into migration in the hopes snowballing sample technique was used to !nd law of achieving the same material wealth. enforcement o$cers eligible for the study. "e pur-

65 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

pose of the interviews was to gain knowledge about and reintegration of "ai and Filipino female mi- the work experiences of female Chinese irregular migrants who had been tra$cked or subjected to labour grants and to collect the views of law enforcement exploitation. "e research provides insight into a o$cers on irregular migration, speci!cally about fea- number of exploitive conditions abroad experienced tures and locations of spots favoured by irregular mi- by "ai and Filipino women and highlights the com- grants, the di$culties of tracing irregular migrants plications that women face when they return home as and possible trends in irregular migration. a result of their pre- and post-migration experiences.

According to the research !ndings, a majority of the "e issue of tra$cking in persons is discussed widely irregular female migrants from China in the Taiwan in the report, and the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol Province of China are involved in the sex industry. de!nition is cited as a principal guide. Given the small sample size, it is not clear whether this !nding can be applied to all irregular migrants from "e research involved interviews with 59 returned China. "e !ndings also indicate that criminal gangs women from "ailand and the Philippines who were involved in irregular migration from China have spe- victims of tra$cking abroad (29 "ai women from cial characteristics that result in the di#erent geograph- the North and North-East of "ailand and 30 re- ical distribution of smuggling hot spots. For example, turned Filipino women who were tra$cked and gangs from the northern parts of Taiwan Province of abused). "e interviews were semi-structured and China are involved in migrant smuggling, while gangs were used to gain an understanding of individual ex- from the southern area specialize in the smuggling of periences and challenges of the returned migrants, goods. "e study con!rmed the correlation between both before leaving their homeland and following the distribution of irregular smuggling hot spots and their return. All interviews were quantitatively and the sex industry in Taiwan Province of China. qualitatively analysed to present a complete picture of the women’s experiences. Tables of data are pre- "e article highlights how the sex trade market in sented with information derived from the interviews Taiwan Province of China e#ects the distribution of on issues, including reasons for migrating, type of irregular migration hot spots. It provides brief infor- work before migrating, recruitment experiences, mation about the labour distribution of Chinese- types of exploitation and abuse su#ered in the desti- Taiwanese smuggling gangs, gives a short explana- nation workplace, the number of times the women tion on why irregular female migrants tend to choose had migrated abroad, ways out of exploitation and the sex business and why gangs in northern Taiwan the migrants’ experiences of returning home. Province of China choose to smuggle migrants. All women interviewed were referred to the researchers by NGOs and service providers. Informants from Lisborg, A. (2009). Going back moving on: A selected government o$ces and NGOs were also in- synthesis of the trends and experiences of re- terviewed to gain an understanding of the services turned tra$cking victims in #ailand and the available to women who had been tra$cked. Philippines. Bangkok: International Labour Organization. "e research found that the majority of women in the sample experienced the same problems upon their Key words: return home that had prompted them to migrate in "ailand the !rst place. Poverty, debt repayments, desire for Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- independence and trouble within family dynamics tion, Routes, Tra$cking %ows often still existed for returning women, although they had the added burden of trauma su#ered from Research method used: their tra$cking experience and di$culties in some Mixed instances of gaining social acceptance within their family and/or communities. "e report advocates for Summary: more e#ort, through a range of recommendations, "is report presents !ndings from research on the is- in the facilitation of return and reintegration of traf- sues, obstacles and opportunities related to the return !cked persons to overcome these challenges.

66 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Chapter two of the report o#ers good information tered and unregistered migrants and interviews with and insight into the tra$cking process, the reasons two to three provincial registration o$cials. "e case for using facilitators/tra$ckers and the role of fa- studies relied on the discussions as well as other data cilitators in the migration journey. "ere is a broad to examine the working conditions in the migrant outline of tra$cking routes from "ailand to desti- worker’s employment sectors, the potential to replace nations, including Japan, the Netherlands, South Af- migrant workers with "ai workers and the migrants’ rica and Italy. "ere is also a discussion of the work- experiences with the migrant registration process. ing conditions and experiences of women in their places of employment in relation to their vulnerabil- "e report concludes that foreign and low-skilled/ ity and subsequent abuse. unskilled workers have contributed signi!cantly in the "ai workforce, particularly since the 1990s when the "ai economy was experiencing a boom Martin, P. (2004). #ailand: Improving the period. Further, the report states that migrant work- management of foreign workers. Bangkok: In- ers will continue to be in high demand and a neces- ternational Labour Organization. sary workforce in many of the low-skilled industries to support the growing "ai economy. Key words: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand "e research does not directly contribute knowledge Irregular migration on migrant smuggling. Nonetheless, it highlights the demand for low-skilled and irregular migrant Research method used: workers in "ailand, focusing on typical migrant la- Mixed bour industries, including the agriculture, !sheries, domestic and manufacturing sectors. "e research Summary: highlights that, despite their irregular migrant status, "is report provides an analysis of the migrant work- the migrant workers bene!t the "ai economy and er situation in "ailand, particularly in relation to argues that current migration management policy Cambodian, Lao and Myanmar low-skilled (usu- fails to support this phenomenon. ally irregular) migrants. It o#ers forecasts for future migration trends and suggests a number of recommendations for improving the "ai Government’s Mehdi, S. S. (2010). Illegal migration, human migration management policy. "e report is divided smuggling and tra$cking: From Bangladesh into three sections. First, it presents a review of the to Pakistan and beyond. Geneva: Internation- demand for migrants and alternatives to migrants al Organization for Migration. in the context of the "ai labour force. Second, it provides an analysis of e#orts to regularize the sta- Key words: tus of unauthorized migrants. Last, it o#ers sugges- Afghanistan, Pakistan tions and recommendations linking the national South Asia, West Asia migration management policies with other labour, Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, economic and education policies, weaving in good Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migra- practices from other countries. tion, Methodology, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular mi- "e report draws upon reviews of relevant studies, in- grants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Quantitative terviews with actors and discussions with employers assessment, Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, and migrants as well as a number of case studies from Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows industries with a strong demand for migrant workers. Research method used: "e case studies examine migrant employment and Qualitative the impact it has on particular labour markets. Mi- grant issues are highlighted in an economic and in- Summary: stitutional context. Each case study was developed "is primarily qualitative research report uses data from discussions in focus groups of eight to ten regis- from interviews and !eld observations, combined

67 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

with secondary research reports, to develop a criti- Key words: cal perspective on the issues of irregular migration, Lao PDR, "ailand migrant smuggling and tra$cking in persons in Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Pakistan. Quantitative data supporting the study tion, Tra$cking %ows was drawn from two existing research projects. "e study’s objectives were to add the perspective of Ben- Research method used: galis/Bangladeshis in Pakistan to the dialogue on Qualitative these topics and to initiate discussions on the challenges between the governments of Bangladesh and Summary: Pakistan. "is article examines the notion of migration for economic advantage in the city of Vientiane in Lao Peo- "e research !rst examined general issues regarding ple’s Democratic Republic and Nong Khai Province irregular migration, migrant smuggling and tra$ck- in "ailand for women working in the sex industry. It ing in persons, including global trends and patterns. applies the concept of tra$cking in persons as a mar- It then moved on to provide an in-depth discussion ket-driven crime that is commonly used to describe of the contexts of Bangladesh and Pakistan as “mi- tra$ckers preying on the supply of women migrating grant states”, facing challenges of these issues but from Lao PDR to satisfy the demand in the "ai sex also recognizing that holding this status presents sig- industry. According to the author, economic incen- ni!cant opportunities for development, growth and tive is a prime motivator for the migration of Lao sex mobility. "is section of the report presents informa- workers to Nong Khai, but in reality, sex workers in tion on the political and policy trends in these coun- Nong Khai often earn less than sex workers in Vien- tries that in%uence perceptions and policies. tiane. "e research explored this Lao-"ai migration phenomenon and how it intersects with organiza- "e report concludes on the need to examine the case tions trying to work to prevent tra$cking in persons of Bengali/Bangladeshi migrants in Pakistan, with a as a cross-border migration issue. focus on issues of their identity and citizenship. It presents a unique dialogue on the need to examine "e concept of tra$cking in persons relies on the Pakistan as not only a destination but also a transit United Nations de!nition of human tra$cking. "e state for irregular migration, migrant smuggling and research entailed an ethnographic study of the Lao tra$cking in persons, considering that signi!cant and "ai sex industries in Vientiane and Nong Khai, numbers of individuals move from Bangladesh to respectively. "e ethnographic material deals predomi- the Middle East and surrounding regions. nantly with local sites visited by the researcher where mostly Lao and "ai clients were using the services of Constraints of the research included limited availabil- the women. "e researcher conducted 15 months (in ity of reliable data and a lack of analytical studies on 2005–2006) of !eldwork with the help of local research the issues relating to Bangladesh and Pakistan. "e assistants. Informants used as a part of the ethnographic studies that do exist are not widely circulated or dis- study included sex workers, recruiters and venue man- cussed. As well, discourse on tra$cking in persons be- agers within the sex industries. "e researcher relied on tween state actors and civil society in both countries is two related areas of enquiry, sparked by the story of a considered to be only in the preliminary stages. A core Lao sex worker who had crossed the border from Vien- conclusion of the research is the need for the discourse tiane to Nong Khai to work in the Nong Khai sex in- to be expanded and for Bangladesh and Pakistan to dustry — !rst, why would these women cross the bor- enter into negotiations to share what information is der (from Lao PDR to "ailand) to sell sex for a lower available, work on the issues together and create a co- price than back home (in Lao PDR) and second, what ordinated response to the formidable challenges. do such cross-border movements indicate in terms of risk and marginality produced by border zones?

Molland, S. (2010). ‘#e perfect business’: "e author built up rapport with the informants Human tra!cking and Lao-#ai cross-bor- through repeated visits to the same venues over time. der migration. In: Development and Change, Knowledge of regional anti-tra$cking programmes 41(5), pp. 831–855. stemmed from the author’s experience as a project

68 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

advisor on a United Nations anti-tra$cking project programmes. "ese assumptions include: that la- in the Greater Mekong Subregion. "is knowledge bour migration is always non-consensual, that is used as a basis for the author’s discussion on the borders are signi!cant in shaping labour migration intersections between organizations working to pre- %ows and that tra$cking in persons is operated by vent tra$cking and the realities of the tra$cking organized criminal gangs for pro!t that exceeds and migration situation for many Lao women work- what illicit drugs generate. "e anti-tra$cking pro- ing in the Nong Khai sex industry. grammes assume that tra$cking in persons involves a speci!c form of recruitment (non-consensual) of "e author concludes that tra$cking in persons certain types of bodies (young and beautiful) that is commonly assumed to be driven by supply and are pro!table. demand, through involuntary recruitment and for pro!tability. "e example of the sex industries and In the article, the author focuses on the assumption migration for sex work between Vientiane and Nong that tra$cking in persons is always highly pro!table. Khai shows that none of these factors are signi!cant Drawing on his research from Nong Khai (on the in relation to tra$cking in persons. In the case of Lao-"ai border), the author argues that while traf- migration from Vientiane to Nong Khai, recruit- !cking in persons can re%ect capitalist logic, it can ment is through interpersonal connections in the also re%ect other less market-driven factors, such as market place. "e research showed that while "ai- patron-client logic. Using his ethnographic research land holds an allure for many Lao sex workers who in Nong Kai, the author demonstrates that social re- believe that they can make more money in the "ai lationships (rather than simple deception) are crucial sex industry, the reality in Nong Khai is di#erent. In to recruitment practices and that pro!tability is not Nong Khai, sex workers are often paid less than what as simple as physical beauty. they were paid in Vientiane, although they have the opportunity to see more clients. "e author’s ethnographic research of the sex industry in Nong Khai examined such factors as "e article does not directly contribute knowledge price di#erentiation for sex services, pro!t among on migrant smuggling. It focuses on tra$cking in venue owners and commission levels for recruit- persons and labour migration from Vientiane to ers. "roughout the article, there are accounts from Nong Khai of women working in the sex industry. Nong Khai brothel owners/pimps (mamasans) and It does present a discussion on the methods and agents who are responsible for providing customers roles of recruiters in the migration of these women to some of the brothels to illustrate the experiences and identi!es that recruitment is largely conducted of Lao women working in the sex industry. "e through family and kinship networks. author also engages in a critique of anti-tra$cking literature, reports and programmes that assume correlations between physical beauty, pro!t and Molland, S. (2010). #e value of bodies: De- recruitment of tra$cked victims to emphasize his ception, helping and pro"teering in human argument. tra!cking along the #ai-Lao border. In: Asian Studies Review, 34(2), pp. 211–229. "e research !ndings show that recruitment into the sex industry in Nong Khai is often conducted Key words: by Lao women who are already working there. El- Lao PDR, "ailand ements of physical beauty or even pro!t are not Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- necessarily driving factors of recruitment for pro!t- tion, Tra$cking %ows ability. Rather, informal family and friend networks drive recruitment. It is often the case that those Research method used: involved in the recruitment and pimping of Lao Qualitative women in Nong Khai view themselves as “helping” the Lao recruits and not as tra$ckers. Many Summary: recruits come from poor Lao villages and aspire to "is article opens with the premise that a number travel to Nong Khai because of greater !nancial op- of assumptions typically underpin anti-tra$cking portunity.

69 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e research shows how Lao women are recruited to illustrate the numbers. "e irregular migrants are work in the sex industry in Nong Khai and includes not a#orded any protections under "ai labour laws insight on pull factors for migration. Recruitment and face additional arrest and persecution once they methods are discussed but only in relation to traf- arrive back in Myanmar for having left the country !cking in persons and not migrant smuggling. irregularly. "e author argues that the "ai Govern- ment needs Myanmar migrant workers to do the jobs shunned by "ai nationals and that this demand will Mon, M. (2005). Burmese migrants in #ai- continue in years to come. land. [Paper in special issue: A. Kaur and I. Metcalfe (eds.). Migrant Labour in Southeast Asia: Needed, Not Wanted.] In: Review of In- Monzini, P. (2004). Migrant smuggling via donesian and Malaysian A%airs, 39(2), pp. maritime routes. In: Centro Studi di Politica 129–150. Internazionale.

Key words: Key words: Myanmar, "ailand Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- Human and social costs of smuggling, Irregular mi- ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of gration, Modus operandi, Routes, Smuggling smuggling, Irregular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Routes Research method used: Mixed Research method used: Unknown Summary: "is article examines the development of maritime Summary: smuggling routes in the Mediterranean region and "is paper focuses on the plight of irregular Myan- the criminal organizations that control the smug- mar migrants working in "ailand. It provides in- gling of migrants to Italy. It highlights the evolution formation about Myanmar migration to "ailand, of the maritime smuggling phenomenon and illus- including push-pull factors, the migration routes trates the dynamics of the irregular migration market and fees, the experiences and working conditions in in Italy. "ailand and how both Myanmar and "ai migration policies negatively impact irregular Myanmar "e research is based on the examination of judicial migrant workers. documents and data provided by the police involved in controlling irregular migration. "e researchers In references to the economic and social conse- collected information about smugglers and organ- quences of migration, the author draws on !eldwork ized crime from specialist studies and general in- in "ailand from Mae Sot, Mahachai and Bangkok formation from newspaper articles (the article itself from 2002 to 2003. However, no further informa- refers to “tra$ckers”, but this likely re%ects a transla- tion is provided about the research method, data tion issue). sources or data that was collected or sampled. "e author observes that there has been a progres- "e author concludes that there are a large number sive shift since 1991 in the main landing places on of irregular Myanmar migrants working in "ai- Italian shores towards the West: from the coast of land. Migrants choose irregular channels to escape Apulia to the coast of Calabria and !nally Sicily. political turmoil and persecution in Myanmar and "e shift is linked to changes in criminal organiza- to take advantage of the greater economic oppor- tions as well as counter measures by the authorities. tunity in "ailand. Irregular migration is common While strengthened police controls in the region among Myanmar migrants who choose to cross the have diminished the importance of short distance border, and there is a larger number of irregular and routes, diplomatic agreements and extradition trea- undocumented Myanmar workers in "ailand than ties have proven to be the most e#ective actions for documented, regular migrants. Data is provided to prevention and control for long-distance routes.

70 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

For example, irregular migration via sea from the Summary: Indian subcontinent to the Sicilian and Calabrian "is empirically grounded book goes behind closed coast completely stopped in 2002 after the Suez doors to examine the relationship between Sri Lankan Canal had been “closed” to migrant smuggling fol- housemaids with their Lebanese employers. Survey lowing an agreement between the Italian and Egyp- data from 90 Sri Lankans were analysed, both quali- tian authorities. According to the author, migrant tatively and quantitatively, along with 20 interviews smuggling through the Suez Canal was fostered by with Lebanese housewives and 30 interviews with a high degree of corruption among the Egyptian other actors. Participant observation, case studies and authorities. "e organized smuggling groups in the a document review were also incorporated into the Mediterranean region operate on a short-time scale research. "rough a detailed account of the living (allowing them to respond to changing problems and working conditions of Sri Lankan housemaids in with %exible solutions) and undergo three evolu- Lebanon, the research found that regular and insidi- tionary phases: professionalization, articulation of ous forms of violence are used by Lebanese employ- new techniques and withdrawal from a route, and ers to control their Sri Lankan housemaids. "e book skills transfer to other geographical areas. also unveils the way housemaids have resisted this violence with the only means available to them and "e author concludes that the Mediterranean emerg- the limited (and at times negative) consequences. es as an “integrated space” for maritime migrant smuggling, which is shaped by three interdependent "e research revealed how women — both employ- variables: the policies carried out by the authorities, ers and housemaids — have a long way to go before the actions of the smuggling organizations and mi- relieving themselves of traditional expectations and gratory pressure. "us, the “making” of the landings responsibilities. It also revealed how racism, despite depend on both the e#orts made by criminal organi- all indicators, is not at the core of the abusive treat- zations as well as the counter actions carried out by ment of housemaids. Rather, it is the struggle for the authorities. power and control that creates a vicious cycle of violence. "e concluding chapter o#ers some possible "e article brie%y covers migratory %ows, which in- solutions relating to the Lebanese side, although the clude irregular migrants from Afghanistan and Sri author’s outlook is not overly optimistic. Neverthe- Lanka. It also points to migrants from China, Paki- less, the author gives a detailed account of a highly stan and Bangladesh, although no further informa- controversial and private subject, which makes the tion is provided. book valuable in and of itself.

"e author points out that the study of reports and accounts from authorities has only partly reduced Naro, N. (2009). Human tra$cking in Cam- the knowledge gaps on smuggling routes because a bodia: Reintegration of the Cambodian illegal great deal of information was not available due to its migrants from Vietnam and #ailand. Singa- con!dential nature. pore: S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies.

Moukarbel, N. (2009). Sri Lanka housemaids Key words: in Lebanon: A case of ‘symbolic violence’ and Cambodia, "ailand, Viet Nam everyday forms of resistance. IMISCOE Dis- Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- sertations. regular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Quantitative assessment, Routes, Tra$cking %ows Key words: Sri Lanka Research method used: Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Mixed tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants; Tra$cking %ows Summary: Research method used: "e purpose of this working paper is to assess the Mixed Cambodian Government’s response to return and

71 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

reintegration assistance for victims of tra$cking economic strength. "e author concludes that traf- returning from "ailand and Viet Nam. It examines !cking in persons from Cambodia will continue as how the Government, NGOs and the private sector long as such migration push factors as poverty, lack of help in the reintegration process and to what extent education and high unemployment remain. the process in Cambodia has been successful.

"e concept of tra$cking in persons is presented Nazaruk, M. (2010). Le tourisme sexuel en using the United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Asie du Sud-Est: Les marchés du désir. Paris: Human Tra$cking (2008) de!nition of tra$cking L’Harmattan. in persons as well as a de!nition taken from the U.S. Department of State (2007). Key words: Cambodia "e working paper draws on a mix of both quali- Tra$cking %ows tative and quantitative research methods. "e researchers engaged in !eldwork in two Cambodian Research methods used: provinces that border Viet Nam and "ailand, Svay Qualitative Rieng and Banteay Meanchey, respectively. "e researchers visited the locations twice. Interviews Summary: were conducted with Cambodian government of- "is book explores the issue of sex tourism in Cam- !cials, national and international NGO representa- bodia. "e author interviewed 50 sex workers from tives and with 50 returned victims of tra$cking re- Siem Reap, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville – areas ferred from some of the NGOs (30 of these victims where sex tourism is prevalent. Interviews were also were from NGO shelters and 20 of the victims had carried out with representatives from NGOs, medi- been reintegrated back into communities). A num- cal service providers and government o$cials from ber of case studies are presented throughout the pa- the Ministry of Health, Department of Tourism and per, with a focus on the tra$cking experiences of the police. Tra$cking in human beings for sexual some victims as well as the experiences from other exploitation is discussed. "e author concedes that former victims of their rehabilitation and reinte- sex tourism is not directly related to sexual exploita- gration through assistance provided from NGOs. tion. Drawing on secondary sources, she provides an In addition, the paper presents quantitative infor- overview of the phenomenon of tra$cking for sex- mation regarding the pro!les of Cambodian traf- ual exploitation. "e discussion does not o#er new !cking victims and their experiences of return and knowledge – empirically or otherwise. "e book is reintegration assistance provided by the NGOs. A more useful in understanding sex tourism from a literature review in the areas of root causes of traf- theoretical standpoint. "e author’s main argument !cking in persons, push-pull migration factors and is that sex tourism is a social and cultural practice prevention and reintegration policies relating to rooted in patriarchal norms. She examines the sexual Cambodia and Cambodian victims of tra$cking customs in Asia and puts forward a guide for respon- was also conducted. sible tourism.

"e research !ndings indicate that although the Cam- bodian Government has a range of measures in place Neske, M., Heckmann, F. and Rühl, S. (2004). to support the return and reintegration of tra$cking Menschenschmuggel. Bamberg: European Fo- victims, it is failing to e#ectively assist returned vic- rum for Migration Studies. tims. Limited funding from the donor community, reliance on NGOs for implementing programmes Key words: and projects to assist returned victims and the poor Afghanistan, China, India, Pakistan, Viet Nam quality of education and employment training for re- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and so- turned victims surfaced as reasons why tra$cking in cial costs of smuggling, Smuggling persons continues to exist from Cambodia. Viet Nam and "ailand are popular destinations for the tra$ck- Research method used: ing of Cambodian persons because of their relative Mixed

72 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Summary: "e researchers also believe that a connection to "is paper examines the phenomenon of migrant other forms of crimes is the absolute exception. No smuggling from di#erent angles, with special refer- threat to public safety and order by commercial mi- ence to Germany. It looks at the general conditions grant smuggling was found. However, risky smug- that lead to migrant smuggling, the legal provisions gling methods often endanger the life and health of concerned with the issue, data sets on the apprehen- migrants. sion of migrants and smugglers and the organizational features of smuggling groups and actors who "e paper identi!es several dilemmas for policymak- smuggle migrants into Germany. ers and law enforcement in Germany: Relaxing immigration regulations will reduce migrant smuggling "e paper draws on interviews with 19 police experts cases, but immigration would be less manageable. to expand the knowledge about the organization and At the same time, relaxing immigration regulations structure of migrant smuggling into and through would not necessarily lead to less irregular migration, Germany. "e researchers found that migrant smug- while making entry more di$cult would increase ir- gling exists because regular migration is only possible regular migrants’ dependency on migrant smugglers. under certain conditions de!ned by the country of destination, although the o$cial possibilities are ex- Better border security at the European Union or na- ceeded by the global drive for migration. "e study tional level would reduce irregular migration but not di#erentiates between migrant smuggling and traf- migrant smuggling. "e authors conclude that mi- !cking in persons, as tra$cking in persons involves grant smuggling and irregular migration may never the exploitation of irregular migrants. Smuggling be prevented as long as extreme global inequalities into Germany and Germany’s function as a destina- exist. tion country has declined in recent years due to fewer global hot spots, resulting in fewer asylum seekers, Brief excerpts of interviews with the police experts such as from the former Yugoslavia. According to the provide information on migrant smuggling activities authors, however, Germany has increasingly become and irregular migration from Afghanistan, China, a country of transit for smuggled migrants. "e re- India, Pakistan and Viet Nam. searchers note that there is a lack of personal and family ties as well as work opportunities in Germany for migrants from signi!cant countries of origin, Neske, M. (2006). Human smuggling to and such as Afghanistan and China. through Germany. In: International Migra- tion, 44(4), pp. 121–163. "e researchers contend that an “arms” race between the authorities and smugglers has developed in recent Key words: years. Smugglers have reacted to increasing pressure Afghanistan, China, Viet Nam from law enforcement by innovating smuggling meth- Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Hu- ods. Smugglers generally do not convince prospective man and social costs of smuggling, Irregular migra- migrants to leave the country but merely advertise tion, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of their logistical capabilities. In many cases, the smug- smuggling, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro!les of gling of a migrant is requested and funded by relatives smugglers, Smuggler-migrant relationships, Smug- already residing in the country of destination. Among gling the di#erent processes, stage-to-stage smuggling is the dominant form of international smuggling. Research method used: Mixed "e organizational form of smuggling depends on the methods used; the duration, the number of mi- Summary: grants and the means of transport. "e researchers "is paper explores the organizational principles of consider the smuggling network as dominating and migrant smuggling. Based on a data review drawn found no evidence for ma!a-like hierarchical struc- from police investigations, it outlines the organiza- tures. Central positions within the smuggling net- tional mechanisms of migrant smuggling processes works are characterized by ethnic homogeneity. to and through Germany.

73 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e paper relies on the concept of migrant smug- activities in Germany that involved smugglers from gling as de!ned by the Migrant Smuggling Protocol. Afghanistan, China and Viet Nam. Smugglers are categorized as “service providers” and “stage coordinators”. It draws on semi-standardized, "e paper contributes to understanding the organi- checklist-guided interviews with 22 experts from the zation of migrant smuggling and more clearly di#er- police and NGOs. In addition, the author analysed entiating between the various practices that together copies of 51 court proceedings, including police re- constitute migrant smuggling. ports and judgements of the courts, interrogations of smugglers and smuggled persons as well as transcribed and translated smugglers’ telephone conver- Neske, M. (2007). Menschenschmuggel. sations. "e purpose of the interviews and research Deutschland als Transit- und Zielland irreg- was to !nd answers to the following questions: (1) Is ulärer Migration. Stuttgart: Lucius and Lu- there evidence that large international criminal net- cius. works are involved in migrant smuggling through and to Germany? (2) Are networks characterized by Key words: a commonality for reasons of family, friendship or Afghanistan, China, India, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam ethnicity? (3) Do pure market forces of demand and Concepts, Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregu- supply determine the picture with interchangeable lar migration, Methodology, Modus operandi of providers? (4) Is it possible to systemize the cases of smuggling, Pro!les of smugglers, Routes, Smuggling smuggling to identify individual types of smuggling? (5) If that is the case, what are the main criteria of Research method used: distinction? Mixed

"e primary !nding of the study is the elaboration Summary: of a typology of migrant smuggling processes. Ac- "is book explores the organizational mechanisms cording to this work, there are three main types of of migrant smuggling processes to and through Ger- migrant smuggling processes: (1) individual smug- many. "e purpose of the research was to analyse the gling with a high degree of self-responsibility; (2) organizational principles of migrant smuggling in hidden smuggling based upon obtaining visa by arti- order to construct a typology of smuggling processes. !ce; and (3) pre-organized stage-to-stage smuggling. "e author uses the concept of migrant smuggling as "e third type includes pre-organized smuggling de!ned by the Migrant Smuggling Protocol. processes from crisis regions like Afghanistan or Iraq. "e research drew out data from 51 court !les and In terms of the situation in Germany, the third corresponding police reports, including interroga- process was found in the majority of cases that the tion reports and documented phone conversations of researcher examined. "e study turned up no evi- smugglers. Interviews with various experts and nine dence that one individual or a criminal organiza- smuggled migrants were conducted. "e purpose of tion oversees the entire smuggling process. Instead, the interviews and research was to !nd answers to single members of an almost entirely mono-ethnic the following questions: (1) Is there evidence that network function as stage coordinators. "ese stage large international criminal networks are involved coordinators assign the smuggling actions to local in migrant smuggling through and to Germany? (2) gangs. Modern communication systems are impor- Are networks characterized by any commonality for tant in this process. While the coordination level reasons of family, friendship or ethnicity? (3) Do of the migrant smuggling process appears to be the pure market forces of demand and supply determine entire part of the migration network, the actions of the picture with interchangeable providers? (4) Is it local smugglers are entirely determined by market possible to systemize the cases of smuggling in order conditions. to identify individual types of smuggling? (5) If that is the case, what are the main criteria of distinction? "e paper presents a few data sets on the apprehen- sion of migrants and smugglers for the period 1990– Neske examined the !les from the perspective of col- 2004 and provides some information on smuggling lecting data on 44 variables, covering the initiating

74 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

and steps in the smuggling process, modes of trans- liquidate their assets. Family, relatives and acquaint- port, role of document fraud, method of payment ances play a signi!cant role in the smuggling process, and fees paid, the in%uence of ethnic groups and and trust as a means of coordination is vital. Fees whether the smugglers had any connection to other however, are still charged for this kind of smuggling. criminal !elds. "e combination of elements led to the identi!cation of three main typologies (with In “large scale stage to stage smuggling to bring indi- various sub-categories) of migrant smuggling, each viduals at a later date”, the same ethnic background of which involves distinct forms of organization, mi- is shared by smugglers and migrants but some stages grants and risk. "e three typologies are: and services are outsourced to “fellow countrymen”, who act as “stage coordinators”. "e group that “Individual smuggling with a high degree of self- uses this service tends to be young men who are ex- responsibility”: In these cases, individuals travel on pected in the country of destination, and the peo- their own, mostly legally and by public transport. At ple commissioning the smuggling are the migrants a certain point in their journey, they cannot proceed themselves. Pro!t, rather than family or kinship, is without assistance so they may engage the services of the dominant motivator of this kind of smuggling. a local smuggler who guides them across the border "ose involved in the process may be recent mi- on foot, or get assistance to remain undetected from grants themselves. a taxi driver or other service provider. "is type of smuggling is described as “poverty smuggling” as it is In “large scale migration with pioneers sent ahead”, carried out by those who have no !nancial or logisti- the people commissioning the migration are not the cal options to try another way. migrants themselves but their family or village, typically su#ering poor living conditions, without any “Visa smuggling as a pure service”: In this category, members as yet in the West. Migrants in this group migrants seek the assistance of a service provider are almost exclusively individual travellers, with a (“travel agents”) to get a visa through fraudulent low level of education, a low social status and they means (for example, the service provider takes care of come from an “underprivileged background”. Peo- the “cover” for the journey, such as issuing a fraudu- ple smuggled in this way know they have to work in lent business invitation). In this category, visas are the destination country to pay o# debts but typically, obtained at the start of the journey, and migrants the conditions under which they have to work are then travel independently. not known to them. "ese “pioneer” migrants do not have connections in the destination country so “Pre-organized stage-to-stage smuggling”: In this are perhaps the most vulnerable to exploitation, as category, migrants conduct almost the entire journey they do not have an existing social network to rely accompanied by smugglers. "e routes may be the on for support in their destination. same as those used in the other categories but the organization is di#erent, with various “stage coordina- "e book highlights the organizational mechanisms tors” used along the entire route. "ere are di#erent of migrant smuggling processes to and through Ger- sub-types within this category, largely re%ecting the many. In addition to a detailed presentation of the motivation and intention of the smuggled migrants. conception and design of the research, the book provides an overview of the legal framework in Germany In “stage to stage smuggling from crisis areas”, the and discusses data sets on the apprehensions of smug- smuggler and migrants typically come not only from glers and smuggled migrants, which include subjects the same country, but the same region in that coun- from Afghanistan, China, India, Sri Lanka and Viet try, and relatives or family members may have in%u- Nam. In addition, the book illustrates the di#erent ential positions among the smugglers. "e fact that smuggling processes based on detailed case studies. these journeys involve travel over thousands of kilometres (not simply getting to a refugee camp) re%ects the speci!c situation of those being smuggled: they Nozina, M. (2010). Crime networks in Viet- are typically members of the middle class with a high namese diasporas: #e Czech Republic case. level of education, and they tend to %ee in the early In: Crime, Law and Social Change, 53(3), pp. stages of war breaking out when it is still possible to 229–258.

75 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Key words: called “respectable men” who are simultaneously Viet Nam legal businessmen and criminal bosses. Highly re- Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migra- spected within their communities, these actors cre- tion, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization ate parallel power structures and merge the legal with of smuggling, Smuggling the criminal spheres in the Vietnamese diaspora. "is symbiosis of legal and criminal spheres in the Research method used: Vietnamese community is one of the main factors Qualitative restricting e$cient measures against Vietnamese criminality in the Czech Republic. Summary: "is paper analyses the structure and methods of Vi- "e paper focuses on organized Vietnamese crime etnamese criminal networks in the Czech Republic. in general. However, it provides insight into the "e study argues that the Vietnamese diaspora in the migrant smuggling activities of Vietnamese crimi- Czech Republic is characterized by a fusion of legal nal groups as well as the smuggling of Vietnamese and illegal activities. "e author explores the sym- migrants into the Czech Republic since the 1990s. biosis of the Vietnamese criminal underground and It describes semi-formal and irregular migration pat- the migrant community in the Czech Republic. terns and points to a connection between Vietnam- ese and Chinese migrant smuggling groups. "e study drew on !ndings of a research project on Vietnamese organized crime in the Czech Republic. "e !rst phase of the project was implemented from Oishi, N. (2005). Women in motion: Globali- 1999 to 2002 and involved structured interviews zation, state policies and labor migration in with members of law enforcement to examine the Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press. geographical expansion, structure and impact of international and Vietnamese organized crime in the Key words: Czech Republic. In 2007, a follow-up project was India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, "ailand, Viet Nam launched to collect new data from law enforcement Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- and NGOs. In addition, ethnographic interviews tion were conducted with various members of the Vi- etnamese community. Possible respondents were Research method used: found via snowball sampling. "e purpose of the Mixed ethnographic interviews was to enhance the knowledge acquired by taking into account the views with- Summary: in the Vietnamese community. "is book examines the cross-border patterns and causal mechanisms of international female migra- Vietnamese criminal networks in the Czech Republic tion in Asia. "rough !eldwork in nine countries have roots in the Communist era, when employees of (Bangladesh, India, Japan, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri the Vietnamese embassy in Prague and other actors Lanka, "ailand, the United Arab Emirates and Viet started to smuggle goods into and out of the country. Nam) and Hong Kong (China), the author carried "e democratic reforms in the Czech Republic pre- out 249 interviews, which included 116 migrant sented new opportunities for criminal businesses and women, 22 non-migrants and 111 informants (from resulted in a new wave of Vietnamese semi-formal and recruitment agencies, NGOs, international organiza- irregular migration in the 1990s. Vietnamese migra- tions and research institutions). "e qualitative data tion agencies, which specialized in the procurement of is supplemented by quantitative data on macroeco- visas and the transport of Vietnamese nationals, had a nomic indicators (GDP per capita, unemployment signi!cant role because they were able to abuse gaps in rates, women’s labour participation rates and levels the migration laws on a “legal” basis and to facilitate of foreign direct investment) as well as demographic smuggling activities of organized crime groups. pro!les of migrant women.

Vietnamese criminal groups are engaged in a broad "e author compares data from migrant-sending, spectrum of crimes. "e central actors are the so- migrant-receiving and non-sending countries to

76 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

identify the factors that encourage and discourage fe- tion is provided about the !eldwork or what it in- male migration. It is the !rst study of its kind to pre- volved other than to investigate the working and liv- sent a comparative perspective on female migration ing conditions of Myanmar migrant workers in the %ows from multiple countries. "e author examines border town. how women’s increasing rural-to-urban mobility has transformed gender norms within communities "e author argues that there is little incentive on and helped establish a more acceptable environment the part of the "ai Government to give migrant for women to migrate to foreign countries. In do- workers citizenship because stateless migrants are ing so, the author illustrates the di#erential impact easier to exploit and therefore are a bene!cial con- globalization has had on the experiences of women tribution to the development of the "ai economy. in developing countries in terms of internal and in- "e article also brie%y discusses push-pull factors ternational migration. "e author concludes that for people in Myanmar to migrate to "ailand, international female migration is determined by the including the political unrest and high unemploy- interactions of state migration policies, women’s au- ment and the greater economic opportunity in tonomy and social legitimacy (social norms that en- "ailand. dorse particular behavioural patterns). Although the book focuses on the regular migration of women, the "e article does not directly contribute knowledge author argues that her research !ndings can be ap- on migrant smuggling. It does o#er some insight plied to forms of irregular migration. She cautions, into the experiences of irregular Myanmar migrant however, that they cannot be generalized to the phe- workers in "ailand working in low-skilled indus- nomenon as a whole. tries.

Pangsapa, P. (2007). Global social policy fo- Papadopoulou-Kourkoula, A. (2008). Transit rum: Enslavement in #ailand: Southeast migration: #e missing link between emigra- Asia as the microcosm of 21st century slavery. tion and settlement. Basingstoke: Palgrave In: Global Social Policy, 7(1), pp. 10–14. Macmillan.

Key words: Key words: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand Afghanistan, China, India, Pakistan, Viet Nam Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migration tion, Routes, Smuggling

Research method used: Research method used: Unknown Qualitative

Summary: Summary: "is article highlights the poor conditions and ex- "is book explores the experience of transit migra- ploitive experiences of migrant workers, particularly tion within and outside European borders and exam- from Myanmar (but also from Cambodia and Lao ines its impact on people and states. "e author ar- People’s Democratic Republic), working in "ailand. gues that transit migration is a complex process that "e research focuses on Myanmar migrants working puts states and neighbours under pressure and makes in the "ai border town of Mae Sot in low-skilled migrants and refugees especially vulnerable. "e au- industries, including factories, farms and construc- thor has analysed national policies and strategies for tion sites. It highlights the plight of the workers and cooperation at the regional and bilateral levels as well the lack of motivation on behalf of the "ai Gov- as migrants’ decision-making processes and their ex- ernment to develop and enforce policies to protect periences while in transit. workers from exploitation and abuse. "e term “transit migration” is understood in this "e article states that it draws on research conducted book as the situation between migration and set- in Mae Sot in 2005. However, no further informa- tlement that is characterized by inde!nite migrant

77 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

stays, regular or irregular, and may or may not de- (!nancial, networks or other) allow them to travel velop into further migration, depending on a series further westwards. of structural and individual factors. "e author also discusses the migration and asylum "e analysis draws on in-depth interviews with 50 policy of the European Union and provides various Kurds (from Turkey) in Athens about their experi- recommendations for its improvement. ences and decisions made while in transit and semi- structured interviews with 20 policymakers and "e book provides !rst-hand insights on migrant discourse analysis. In addition, background research smuggling from Turkey to Greece, based on the ex- was conducted on the selected regions. periences of the Kurdish interviewees. Based on the analysis of secondary sources, the book also provides "e book shows that transit migration is happen- some information on migrant smuggling (routes and ing in Member states of the European Union, such fees) and irregular migration in the CIS countries, as Greece, which receives substantial and sustained with reference to Afghanistan, China, India, Paki- migration %ows, facilitated by its weak migration stan and Viet Nam. policy framework. "e author demonstrates that transit migration is experienced in a similar fashion, although more acutely, on the outside of European Pearson, E. and Punpuing, S. (2006). #e Me- borders. North African countries are simultaneously origin, transit and destination countries and two kong challenge: Underpaid, overworked and thirds of the migrants crossing irregularly into Eu- overlooked: #e realities of young migrant rope are locals from the Maghreb region. "is serves workers in #ailand. Bangkok: International as a reminder of the direct correlation between de- Labour Organization. velopment and migration. "e author adds that the more di$cult it gets for migrants to reach Europe, Key words: the more transit migration increases in North Africa. Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand "e author also identi!es common characteristics of South-East Asia the di#ering policy frameworks and asylum proce- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- dures in North Africa: all countries maintain a re- tion, Organization of smuggling, Smuggler-migrant strictive approach, lack the necessary infrastructure relationship, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows and resources to host migrants and refugees, resort regularly to arrests and deportation of irregular mi- Research method used: grants (including asylum seekers) as a way to allevi- Mixed ate the problem and they all lack a proper system for asylum. "is situation renders refugees to be the Summary: most vulnerable group in North Africa. "is research report examines the level of labour exploitation experienced by migrant workers in four With a long history of (internal) cross-border employment sectors in "ailand: !shing (work on movements dating before the collapse of the Soviet !shing boats and !sh-processing factories), domes- Union, transit migration is a common and large- tic work, agriculture and manufacturing. It looks scale phenomenon for Eastern Europe and Central at how much of the work in these sectors is under- Asian countries. After the collapse of the Soviet Un- taken by persons recruited into situations of forced ion, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) labour and who have been tra$cked. "e report also and Eastern European countries were transformed examines the pro!le and attitudes of employers of into popular transit countries for irregular migrants migrant workers in these sectors and recruiters of from the Caucasus and Central and East Asia. "e migrant workers who facilitate entry to and employ- author found that migrants and refugees on their ment in "ailand. "e report states that "ailand is journey to Europe might spend a long time in the number one destination country for women and transit, in part because of the enormous distances. children who are tra$cked in the Greater Mekong "us, many migrants are forced to travel in stages, Subregion. "ailand was selected for this study to and work in the informal economy until conditions better understand the vulnerabilities of children and

78 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

young people to exploitation at points of destination grants with remittance services and communication and their workplace conditions. with family members back home. "e report reveals that some of the surveyed recruiters take responsibil- "e de!nition of tra$cking in persons used in this ity for the protection of the migrant workers, whom research was taken from the Tra$cking in Persons they protect from exploitation in the workplace. Protocol. "e report provides insight into the role of informal "e report draws on both qualitative and quantita- recruiters in the facilitation of regular and irregular tive research. Beyond a review of the relevant litera- Myanmar migrants’ entry into "ailand for work ture, the research involved surveys conducted with (and a small number of Cambodian and Lao mi- migrant children and young people, employers and grants in the manufacturing and agriculture sectors). recruiters in the four employment sectors. A total It also highlights the role of recruiters in terms of of 376 migrants were surveyed in the !shing, agri- helping migrants !nd employment and their o#er of culture and manufacturing sectors. A further 316 other services, including facilitating remittances and employers were surveyed and in-depth interviews to communications with family and friends at home. It obtain supplementary information were conducted provides information on the relationships between with 97 migrants, 44 employers and 10 recruiters. migrants and their recruiters and concludes that Data gathered by the Institute for Population and many recruiters are family or friends of people want- Social Research from interviews with 320 migrant ing to migrate. Informal, family-based networks are domestic workers is also used in the report. usually those responsible for the facilitation of entry into "ailand. "e authors note that the surveyed "e surveys and interviews revealed evidence of ex- recruiters were only a small pool of 10 Myanmar ploitation of migrant workers in the four sectors and recruiters and that their recruitment methods are the role and pro!le of recruiters who help to facilitate not necessarily representative of all migrant recruit- their entry into "ailand and employment. Across ment practices. "e report provides a comprehensive the four sectors, the most exploitive area of work ap- discussion of workplace conditions experienced by peared in the !shing industry, particularly work on many migrant workers, particularly children and !shing boats. One !fth of workers in !sh-processing young people, in "ailand’s !shing, manufacturing, factories were found to be children younger than 15 agriculture and domestic service industries. years. Domestic workers had the longest working hours, the greatest restriction on movement, no regular days o# and were the most vulnerable to abuse Petros, M. (2005). #e costs of human smug- because of their “invisible” status. Workers in man- gling and tra!cking. In: Global Migration ufacturing also su#ered long working hours. "e Perspectives (31). migrant workers surveyed in agriculture reported slightly better working conditions, although many Key words: cited issues concerning underpayment, lack of steady Afghanistan, China, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Sri working days and no regular days o#. Lanka, "ailand Fees and payments for smuggling, Routes, Smug- Based on the sample of 10 recruiters, the report gling, Tra$cking %ows shows that recruitment of migrant workers, mostly from Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic Research method used: and Myanmar, is conducted informally and through Quantitative migrant networks that largely rely on family ties and connections. Many recruiters were once migrant Summary: workers in "ailand. Recruiters have good and re- "is paper is concerned speci!cally with the !nan- liable knowledge of "ailand in terms of its geog- cial costs of migrant smuggling and tra$cking in raphy for transport and entry, can speak "ai and persons. "e author set out to show how costs vary have an understanding of the employment context. across the world, how they have changed over time Many recruiters go beyond providing the service of and what factors other than origin and destination facilitating entry and employment and also assist mi- determine their level.

79 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e research involved the analysis of 538 secondary Summary: sources (cases) dealing with migrant smuggling and "e purpose of the research described in this report tra$cking in persons. "e data collection was con- was to provide a preliminary assessment of “illegal ducted during 2004 and entailed a systematic search labour migration” and tra$cking of women and for information about the costs and routes of mi- children from Lao People’s Democratic Republic to grant smuggling and tra$cking in persons. "e au- "ailand. "e author argues that the demand for thor !rst grouped countries of origin and destination cheap labour in "ailand and low levels of educa- into !ve broad regions. On the basis of these regions, tion and employment opportunities in Lao PDR has 14 broad routes were identi!ed that encompassed all led to the existence and operation of tra$cking net- of the cases documented, such as Asia to Australia. works and labour recruitment services to facilitate Each of the 538 cases covered in the research was irregular migration to "ailand. then categorized according to those routes. Finally, mean prices were calculated for each route. "e au- "e concept of tra$cking in persons uses the de!ni- thor indicates that this analysis cannot be considered tion provided by the 1999 Regional Conference on conclusive and that there are a number of methodo- Illegal Labour Movements: "e Case of Tra$cking logical and analytical reservations to consider. in Women and Children (prior to the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol). "e research was conducted "e research !ndings include the identi!cation in 2000, the same year that the Tra$cking in Per- of approximate mean costs of migrant smuggling sons Protocol was drafted, which included the !rst for the main interregional movements around the internationally accepted de!nition of tra$cking in world, trends in those costs and some of their main persons. determinants, such as distance, mode of transport and number and characteristics of “travellers”. "e research relied on a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods. It involved a review of the relevant "e author points out that the distinction between literature, including research and reports, policy, migrant smuggling and tra$cking in persons proved laws, project documents, statistics and press clip- to be subjective and di$cult to !nd in practice. Some pings. Interviews were conducted with 38 inform- sources used in the research made little distinction ants, such as Lao government o$cials, provincial and between the two concepts and used the terms “smug- district governors of the targeted provinces, social gling” and “tra$cking” interchangeably. Routes were workers, immigration police, security o$cers, village not always described in great geographic detail and leaders and villagers to develop an understanding of costs were often presented without providing speci- the experiences of irregular Lao migrant workers in fying details of the journey. "ailand. Where possible, the interview team interviewed returned migrant workers who had experienced living and working in "ailand irregularly. Phetsiriseng, I. (2003). Lao PDR preliminary assessment of illegal labour migration and A structured survey was conducted in the three Lao tra!cking in children and women for labour provinces of Khammouane, Savannakhet and Cham- exploitation. In: ILO Mekong Sub-Regional pasak. Each of them borders with "ailand and has Project to Combat Tra$cking in Children a large number of irregular Lao migrants moving to and Women. Bangkok: International Labour "ailand for work. "e worst a#ected villages for po- Organization. tential migrants and migrant workers were targeted within these three provinces. Some 1,614 families Key words: of migrant and returned migrant workers were sur- Lao PDR, "ailand veyed, including 21 child returnees. Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- regular migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, "e research resulted in a number of !ndings, the Routes, Tra$cking %ows most signi!cant of which is clarity on the factors behind the demand for cheap labour in "ailand and Research method used: the prevalence of labour recruiters and tra$cking Mixed networks between the two countries. "e push-pull

80 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

factors provide the incentive and the means for Lao rights organizations and workers’ and employers’ people to migrate to "ailand irregularly in search organizations, including those organizations that of work. "ere are a number of well-established traf- employ female Lao migrant workers. "e interviews !cking networks. "e author argues that many Lao were used to analyse the general policy environment migrants know where they are traveling to in "ai- and the e#ects of policies relating to female migrant land and what terms of employment they can expect workers and their families and the activities tak- on arrival. Because of this, the author contends that ing place to improve the situation of Lao migrant the tra$ckers often don’t have to resort to coercion workers in "ailand. In addition, 20 interviews in or deception to recruit. "e research also indicates eight villages were conducted with returned female that prevention policies concerning irregular mi- migrant workers and their families in the Lao prov- gration of Lao people to "ailand are ine#ective inces of Savannakhet and Champasak to identify on both sides of the border. "e author concludes, problems that the women faced in returning and drawing on the discussions with local Lao villagers, reintegrating after working in "ailand. During the that improving access to and increasing the quality !eld visits, the researchers organized !ve focus group of education, vocational training and income-gener- discussions with returned female migrant workers. ating activities and awareness raising could prevent the irregular migration of Lao people to "ailand. Statistical data from relevant Lao government ministries in the three provinces of Khammouane, Savan- nakhet and Champasak are presented throughout Phetsiriseng, I. (2007). Gender concerns in the report to highlight the situations and experiences migration in Lao PDR: Migration mapping of returned female Lao migrants. A number of case studies of individual female Lao migrants and their study: A review of trends, policy and pro- experiences of migration and working in "ailand gramme initiatives. Vientiane:United Nations are also included. Development Fund for Women, Regional Programme on Empowering Women Migrant "e report presents an in-depth discussion on a num- Workers in Asia. ber of push-pull factors that in%uence Lao women in their decision to migrate to "ailand. "e main push Key words: factors refer to poverty, low education levels and lack Lao PDR, "ailand of employment opportunities. Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus op- "e author concludes that the policies and practices erandi of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular migrants, initiated by the Lao and "ai governments to regu- Smuggling late and make migration safer are too slow and expensive and are often avoided by Lao migrants who Research method used: then choose to migrate through irregular channels. Mixed "e author argues that women are increasingly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse in the irregular Summary: migration process, including the dangers of using "is report presents the results of a mapping study smugglers to facilitate migration. of the trends, policies and programme initiatives regarding labour migration from Lao People’s Demo- "e research found that a majority of Lao women em- cratic Republic to "ailand. It was developed from a ployed in "ailand are in the domestic sphere, where gender perspective and provides information on the their rights and labour standards are not protected by risks and practices that migration from Lao PDR to "ai labour laws or policies. "is leaves Lao migrant "ailand has on female Lao migrants. women particularly vulnerable to abusive and exploitive employment practices. In addition to the Lao "e research involved a literature review and analysis and "ai policies on labour migration, the in-depth of data from interviews and focus group discussions. analysis and critique includes the MOU between the Forty interviews were conducted with government countries on employment cooperation that was de- o$cials, experts and representatives from women’s signed to regulate labour migration to "ailand.

81 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Along with the women’s experiences, the report dis- migrate to and work legally in the United Kingdom cusses the methods of migrant smuggling networks, remain severely restricted, the overwhelming major- characterizing them as well organized and well es- ity of migrants only have irregular options available tablished along the border. A map and short discus- to them. "e authors conclude with a discussion of sion of migration routes and information on smug- how Chinese migrants to the United Kingdom of- gling fees are also provided. "e report contains an ten enter into a “neo-proletarian” sector that acts as a insightful discussion contrasting irregular migration transitional sector before integration into the main- through smuggling networks with the regular migra- stream labour market, even though the conditions tion channels directed under the Lao-"ai MOU. are often exploitive. "is contrast highlights the reason why irregular networks are favoured, which is that they are cheaper and more e$cient than the o$cial channels. "e re- Pieke, F. N. (2010). Migration journeys and port also touches on the role of family networks in the irregular migration movement to "ailand and working conditions of Chinese irregular im- assistance in seeking and providing reliable employ- migrants in the United Kingdom. In: G. Yun ment on arrival. (ed.), Concealed chains: Labour exploitation and Chinese migrants in Europe. Geneva: In- ternational Labour Organization (Vol. 1). Pieke, F. N. and Biao, X. (2009). Les Chi- nois au Royaume-Uni, ou l’illusion de Key words: l’immigration choisie. In: Critique interna- China Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migra- tionale, 4(45), pp. 97–117. tion, Routes, Smuggling

Key words: Research method used: China Qualitative Fees and payment for smuggling, Human and social costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus Summary: operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, "is paper explores the living and working conditions Pro!les of irregular migrants, Smuggling of irregular Chinese migrants in the United Kingdom. It draws on qualitative interviews with 35 Chinese mi- Research method used: grants and a background study of British media coverage Qualitative of Chinese migration, forced labour and exploitation.

Summary: According to the study, current Chinese migration to Based on ethnographic research carried out in both the United Kingdom is much more diverse than in China and the United Kingdom, the authors argue the past, regarding areas of origin and employment. that migration policies of the West, such as Great While Fujian Province is still the major sending area Britain’s, lead to a hidden agenda on migration. Poli- in China, migrants increasingly originate from other cymakers speak of halting migration while making areas and are mainly from urban centres. "e author decisions that in practice have the opposite e#ect. found that Chinese migrants from Fujian continue Demand for cheap labour stimulates migration and to rely on the services of smugglers, while urban Chi- the employment of undocumented workers, skilled nese pay travel agencies to arrange for business visas. or unskilled, from around the world. More than 100 "is method revolves around a loophole in British interviews were conducted with irregular migrants immigration laws and allows migrants to enter the in the United Kingdom, migration agents in China, United Kingdom through authorized channels. "e British police, lawyers in China and London and author did not !nd any evidence for forced migra- Chinese taking steps to migrate to Britain. "e au- tion or tra$cking in persons. thors illustrate how selective migration policies only result in limiting the number of entrants, with no Recent migrants tend to work outside the Chinese bearing on their quality. Because opportunities to hotel and restaurant sector. "ey are employed in

82 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

unskilled or semi-skilled jobs, often under highly Research method used: exploitive circumstances (health and safety). None Mixed of the respondents experienced physical violence from Chinese employers; however, Chinese mi- Summary: grants working for British or other non-Chinese "is article analyses the e#ect that the global eco- employers said they frequently fear verbal or physi- nomic crisis has had on irregular Myanmar migrants cal abuse, general ill treatment, withholding of working in "ailand. It uses the example of Myanmar wages and arbitrary deductions of fees. According workers in Mae Sot, "ailand to illustrate the negative to the various responses, those problems seem to impacts the economic crisis has had on those work- have become standard in the sectors of the Brit- ers. It analyses the situation for Myanmar migrant ish economy that employ low-skilled and irregular workers from a gendered perspective, comparing the migrant labour. "e author notes that employment impacts of the crisis on both men and women. opportunities combined with the low exchange rate of the Chinese yuan is the most important pull fac- "e research involved both qualitative and quantita- tor for Chinese migration. "e author concludes tive methods. "e article draws upon the !ndings that the presence of a large population of irregular of a research report from early 2009 that explored Chinese in Britain is an employment as well as an the gendered implications of the economic crisis on migration issue. migrant workers in "ailand. It also makes use of the grass-roots expertise and knowledge of the MAP Although migrant smuggling is not the main focus Foundation, a "ai NGO with activities in Mae Sot of this paper, it does provide some information on that supports Myanmar migrant workers and the the issue within the context of migration methods protection of their rights. In addition, the article re- that are used by Chinese migrants. "e author does lies on insights from four focus group meetings, 15 not describe the methods employed by Chinese interviews with Myanmar migrants and 331 surveys smugglers in detail and points to the reviewed lit- completed by Myanmar migrant workers in Mae Sot erature on that matter. However, the paper does pre- from June to August 2009. sent interview excerpts that highlight the hardships and dangers that some of the migrants experienced "e insights show that Myanmar migrant women in while in transit. "e interviews also attest to the fear Mae Sot have experienced decreases in already low of retaliation against family back in China and the wages and an increase in lay-o#s. "ere is a growing gap risk of sexual abuse of female migrants. Some of the between wages and the cost of living, with the result interview excerpts also contain information on fees, that many migrant workers now struggle to support routes and transportation. "e study con!rmed that themselves. A large number of women (and men) are the period of highest risk of abuse and violence oc- not able to support their family back at home, which is curs during detainment in safe houses. "e author often the reason for migrating in the !rst place. draws attention to the fundamental di#erences in the method of migration used by Chinese migrants, "e article does not directly contribute knowledge depending on their area of origin, but points out on migrant smuggling, but it highlights the working that there is currently no su$cient explanation for conditions of many irregular Myanmar migrants in this phenomenon. "ailand, which have worsened since the global economic crisis, particularly for women.

Pollock, J. and Soe Lin, A. (2010). Critical times: Gendered implications of the econom- Pro Asyl. (2007). #e truth may be bitter, but ic crisis for migrant workers from Burma/My- it must be told: #e situation of refugees in the anmar in #ailand. In: Gender and Develop- Aegean and the practices of the Greek Coast ment, 18(2), pp. 213–227. Guard. Frankfurt: Pro Asyl.

Key words: Key words: Myanmar, "ailand Afghanistan Irregular migration Irregular Migration

83 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Research method used: Key words: Qualitative Indonesia Irregular migration, Routes Summary: "e study re%ected in this report explored the re- Research method used: ception and detention conditions of newly arrived Qualitative irregular migrants landing on the Greek islands of Chios, Lesbos and Samos. It considered and ana- Summary: lysed the human rights situation at the Turkish- "is paper examines the techniques and networks Greek border, the practice of detention and the that enable the transnational movement of migrant shortcomings of the Greek asylum system. "e re- labourers from Indonesia and argues that those %ows search included a visit to Greek detention centres are dependent on patron-client networks. In addi- and interviews with local authorities, representation to relying on secondary literature, the author tives of the coast guard and human rights groups in 2001 and 2002 interviewed returned migrant and more than 100 irregular migrants, of whom labourers, employees of human resource companies a signi!cant number originated from Afghanistan and NGO activists. "e author does not provide de- and Iraq. tails on the methodology of the interviews or how many individuals were interviewed. Migrant smug- Most of the interviewed migrants had attempted to gling is not explicitly addressed. reach one of the Greek islands o# the Turkish coast, or by crossing the land border in the Evros region "e paper explains that Indonesia has become one of between Turkey and Greece. "e study found se- the largest exporters of migrant labour in the world rious human rights violations by the Greek coast within the past 15 years and that the movement of guard. "ese included refoulement of irregular these labourers to other countries is regulated to a migrants at sea, detainment without o$cial regis- high degree. Maids from Indonesia are mainly sent tration and systematic abuse and torture, which is to Kuwait, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Singapore. illustrated through several interview excerpts. "e Remittances from them are an increasingly impor- report characterizes the conditions in detention tant source of revenue in Indonesia. centres as inhuman and degrading. It states that no special provisions are made for minors, torture Localized patron-client relations are critical in al- victims, victims of tra$cking, disabled persons or lowing Indonesian women to gain access to the persons with physical and psychological problems. transnational domestic labour market. Within these "e report concludes that the conduct of the Greek networks, clients willingly consent to a level of ex- authorities violates international refugee and hu- ploitation by patrons with the expectation that the man rights laws. patron will ensure their livelihood in the event of hardship. "e local broker is crucial in facilitating "e focus of this study was on the reception and transnational labour migration from Indonesia. "e detention conditions of newly arrived irregular mi- broker is usually respected in the community and grants in Greece and the conduct of Greek law en- provides small loans to migrants unable to !nance forcement and did not speci!cally address the transit their journeys as well as contacts with human re- phase. Interview excerpts indicate that some of the sources companies in Jakarta. Because of a broker’s migrants had paid for their travel by sea, but the good reputation within the community, migrants report does not explore that issue. "us the report and their families often feel more comfortable en- does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant trusting their physical and !nancial welfare to them. smuggling. "e broker’s relationship with the migrant often ends with the provision of funds and contacts. If problems arise in the workplace, such as abuse, the Rudnyckyj, D. (2004). Technologies of servi- broker may not know how to assist the migrant. tude: Governmentality and Indonesian transnational labor migration. In: Anthropological "e rationale for working abroad is overwhelmingly Quarterly, 77(3), pp. 407–434. the motivation for an improved standard of living.

84 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Sending companies rarely need to recruit workers from 2001 to 2002. Tra$cking is de!ned according because many prospective migrants seek them out to the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol. Within the after seeing the relative wealth of returned labourers. author’s conceptual framework, economic activities While waiting for their necessary paperwork, pro- constitute the most vital component of social struc- spective migrants are trained on the skills and dispo- tures, meaning that urban centres draw people hop- sitions expected of them. All domestic workers who ing to get a job and secure a better life. Market forces migrate through regular channels are required to at- determine the lives of individuals. tend these trainings, which last for months and leave migrants indebted to the company. "e migrants’ "e selected case study focuses on the tra$cking of !rst six months of earnings are sent directly to the Filipinos to Sabah, a state in East Malaysia. In total, human resources company to repay that debt. 30 victims and 19 experts were interviewed; all the victims were young women, most of whom were from Although the paper focuses on regular channels for poor, rural areas. "e article describes the process of labour migration and does not directly address mi- tra$cking used and which actors were involved. grant smuggling or irregular migration, it provides important !rst-hand information on labour migra- According to one of the experts interviewed, there tion processes from Indonesia. "e detailed descrip- are 11 criminal groups in West Malaysia involved in tion of potential migrants’ reliance on local brokers tra$cking and smuggling people from the Philip- is also of relevance, considering that some brokers as- pines. "e criminal groups range in numbers from sist migrants to migrate irregularly by providing con- fewer than 5 up to 20 members. "e author charac- tacts and funds. Because o$cial migration channels terized the groups in four levels: level one includes involve invested time and money and limited free- persons about which very little is known other than dom, as detailed by the paper, many migrants seek that they are well known and powerful; level two to migrate irregularly to avoid the costs, a behaviour includes individuals who receive orders, pass infor- that can feed into smuggling %ows. mation and give directions to the third level; level three organizes on-the-ground work, works closely with the fourth level and has close ties with govern- Saat, G. (2009). Human tra!cking from the ment o$cials in the police and immigration depart- Philippines to Malaysia: #e impact of ur- ments (they may be pimps, madams or small brothel banism. In: South Asian Survey, 16(1), pp. owners); level four includes errand boys who arrange 137–148. transportation, buy food for women and pass information. "ey also look for potential clients and areas Key words: of expansion and pass this information to level three. Malaysia People working on the fourth level usually know the South-East Asia local sex workers and deal in hard, illicit drugs and Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular mi- pharmaceutical drugs. grants, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows "e structure of organized criminal groups in Sabah Research method used: has three levels: level one consists of the sponsors Mixed who receive the tra$cked women and force them into prostitution; level two includes groups of peo- Summary: ple, almost always working in employment agencies, "is article presents an explanatory model for traf- who recruit, sell or hand over the women to sponsors !cking in persons through urbanism and explores in Malaysia or agents in the Philippines; level three the underlying forces leading to tra$cking in per- consists of recruiters who are hired by level two to sons through the case study of tra$cking from the recruit the young women in the Philippines. "ey Philippines to Malaysia. “Urbanism” refers to the target young women from poor families and others economic forces of the urban world and assumes that looking for opportunities abroad. illegal economic activities always exploit the legal structure in order to secure their sustainability. Em- "e case study describes tra$cking routes from the pirical data for the one-year case study was collected Philippines to Malaysia via air, land and sea. Estimat-

85 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

ed costs for travel and job placement are also listed. sian census. "e author suggests that the conclusions Due to the costs, most women are indebted upon ar- of the case study can be applied to other developing rival. All the women interviewed were tra$cked into countries, considering that many of them share simi- the sex industry and were frequently rotated among lar elements of irregular migration and citizenship. locations. "e case study concludes that there is not enough monitoring of the tra$cking situation in the According to the author, in many developing coun- Philippines and Malaysia. Some high-level o$cials tries, including Malaysia, citizenship is weakly insti- maintained when interviewed that tra$cking does tutionalized, and legal documentation is either absent not exist in their country. or barely present among native populations. Weak documentation systems leave countries vulnerable "e article provides unique information about the to the irregular entry of migrants through document structure of organized crime syndicates in the Phil- fraud and also to electoral fraud because non-citizens ippines and Malaysia involved in both tra$cking in can easily acquire citizen status in such systems. "is persons and migrant smuggling. Although the focus has serious implications for national security because is tra$cking, much of the relayed information can people can acquire visas to other countries through also be applied to smuggling operations. their alleged citizenship in Malaysia.

Geographic proximity between Sabah and the Philip- Sadiq, K. (2005). When states prefer non-cit- pines enables irregular migration %ows. Many irreg- izens over citizens: Con$ict over illegal immi- ular migrants then become seemingly legal through gration into Malaysia. In: International Stud- fake documents, which they procure from smugglers ies Quarterly, 49(1), pp. 101–122. or “towkays”. Towkays receive the initial earnings of the migrants as payment for their services. Key words: Indonesia, Malaysia Although the article provides some information on Irregular migration, Modus operandi of smuggling, the migrant smuggling process, most of its focus is Pro!les of irregular migrants, Smuggling devoted to political integration into Malaysian society through falsi!ed documentation of migrants who Research method used: have entered the country irregularly. "e origins of Mixed such falsi!ed documents in the smuggling process, such as through forgery or illegal procurement, are Summary: not discussed beyond the fact that they are procured "is article demonstrates how Malaysia incorporates by smugglers. Migrants’ motivations for entering Sa- irregular migrant populations into its society and of- bah irregularly or through smuggling channels are ten excludes its own citizens through a case study of also not discussed. irregular migration from the Philippines to Sabah, Malaysia. As the article points out, irregular Filipino migrants are able to vote in large numbers and there- Saha, K. C. (2007). Smuggling of Indian by in%uence the politics of their receiving country citizens: Preliminary "ndings. In: Journal of because they illegally procure documents that secure Immigrant and Refugee Services, 5(1), pp. them the privileges of citizenship. At the same time, 55–69. many true citizens are not able to procure documentation to prove their citizenship and thereby realize Key words: their rights. "e author conducted primary research India on Filipinos in Sabah through interviews with Filipi- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- no migrants and Malaysian politicians located there. ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Pro!les of No explanation of the methodology used for con- irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, ducting the interviews is given. Secondary literature, Pro!les of smugglers, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows government reports and media sources were reviewed to complement the interviews and provide a broader Research method used: political context. Data was also taken from the Malay- Mixed

86 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Summary: Saha, K. C. (2009). Smuggling of migrants "is article tries to examine the smuggling of Indi- from India to Europe and in particular to an citizens to other countries and o#er insights into the UK. A study on Tamil Nadu. New Delhi: the methods of smugglers. "erefore, two sources United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. of information were used in the investigation. First, the deportation records of Indian citizens from Key words: other countries to the international airport in New India, Sri Lanka Delhi were accessed and this open source docu- South Asia ment constituted the main data resource. Second, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- six in-depth telephone interviews were carried out ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of with deportees from Punjab. Although the author smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of describes the six interviewees as randomly selected, smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of ir- no further details concerning the process of selec- regular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro- tion of interviewees is given. !les of smugglers, Quantitative assessment, Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling "e !ndings of the study are broken down into three categories: (1) the migrants, (2) the smugglers Research method used: and (3) the duration of the stay. All deportees were Mixed male; more than 51 per cent were aged 18–25 years and almost 28 per cent were aged 26–30 years. Summary: Slightly more than 14 per cent of the migrants said "is report presents !ndings from a study on the they used the services of smugglers, although the scope and magnitude of irregular migration from In- author suspects that the rate was actually higher. dia’s Tamil Nadu state, drawing the conclusion that "e supposition, based on this statistic, was that the level of such migration is both substantial and on migrants tend to attempt this task on their own the rise. Two main categories of irregular migrants before turning to smugglers. No information is re- are described, with the !rst being unskilled migrants ported as to how the percentages used in this dis- bound for the Middle East and South-East Asia and cussion were determined, only overall numbers are the second being migrants heading to Europe, with given. "e author does make reference to di$cul- the United Kingdom the most common destination ties — government reluctance to release statistics country. "e study drew upon new data gathered — in obtaining records, so it is possible that some from interviews with government o$cials, travel and data were analysed but not reported in the study. migration agents, representatives of relevant organi- Final observations focus on the geographical ori- zations and villagers, including irregular migrants, gins of deportees as well as their families’ involve- deportees and family members. Other existing data ment in the process. was used to guide the research and support the interview content and was gathered from enforcement Smugglers are discussed in terms of how the mi- authority records in Tamil Nadu. grants/smugglers met, the location of those meetings, the costs of irregular migration, routes taken Trends and volumes of irregular migration were ana- and conditions under which migrants were smug- lysed, including routes to !nal destination countries gled. Some statistics are included (for example, 12 (most irregular migrants to the United Kingdom per cent of the deportees contacted smugglers in travelled through France), types of visas and issues Punjab), but there is no explanation of how the nu- with their use during the journey (tourist visas were merical data were obtained and analysed. "e !nal commonly used illegally for migration) and hubs in section discusses the nature of the work in which Tamil Nadu where migrants often organized their the deportees engaged, how long they stayed and travels and departed from. Suggestions are made for the amount of money earned. Conclusions and im- further studies based on some of these trends, in- plications for further study were based on general cluding irregular migration by overstay, how knowl- knowledge about the nature of migrant smuggling edge of migrant hubs could be used in the processing rather than the study itself. of visa applications and the use of Tamil Nadu as a

87 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

transit point for Sri Lankan nationals attempting to Samarasinghe, V. (2008). Female sex tra$ck- reach Europe through irregular migration means. ing in Asia: #e resilience of patriarchy in a changing world. New York: Routledge. Irregular migrants are pro!led according to the study !ndings, including an analysis for the drivers Key words: of their irregular migration and the choice of des- Cambodia tination countries. Signi!cant discussions are also South Asia, South-East Asia presented on the roles of agents and subagents facili- Concepts, Routes, Tra$cking %ows tating travel, including an acknowledgement that although these organizations are known to undertake Research method used: illegal activities encompassing document forgery, Qualitative agents appear to be overlooked by law enforcement o$ces, particularly in more rural settings. Services Summary: provided include the issuing of passports, visas and Drawing on !eld visits to red-light districts as well other travel documents but can also often be based as interviews with victims of tra$cking, sex work- on informal understandings, particularly concerning ers, brothel owners, managers, pimps and NGO fees. Because of this, documentation of transactions activists, this book examines why female tra$ck- is rarely found. "e author notes that when law ening for sexual exploitation occurs and how place- forcement bodies do examine travel agents, it is often speci!c historical and political factors shape its form those facilitating travel for lower fees (therefore for and structure. Using three country case studies — poor migrants) who are caught, leaving the higher- Cambodia, Nepal and Philippines — the author end agencies operating with a success rate of almost presents a detailed analysis of the di#erences among 100 per cent. the countries to illustrate how the premise of female tra$cking for sexual exploitation is grounded in pa- Government responses to irregular migration from triarchal norms and female subordination. She ex- Tamil Nadu were found to include dialogues and ac- amines the di#erent de!nitional and analytical ap- tions on protecting the interests of those who want proaches (gender, development, criminal networks, to legally pursue unskilled labour opportunities over- labour, migration, abolitionist and health) used by seas because these migrants were perceived as need- scholars, advocates, policymakers and practitioners ing assistance in negotiating appropriate terms and and proposes a generalized model that maps both conditions for travel and employment. "e Govern- the supply and demand side of the phenomenon. ment of India was also found to be active in tight- "e book further highlights the evolving discourse ening immigration clearance at airports, including of female tra$cking for sexual exploitation, the in Tamil Nadu, thus preventing would-be irregular methodological challenges in carrying out research, migrants from leaving the country. However, even the theoretical underpinnings of female vulnerabil- when individuals are intercepted, it is recognized ity and subordination, the demand side of the sex that limited actions can be taken against the travel industry and the di#erent patterns, causes and con- agents who organized their documents or work ar- sequences of tra$cking for sexual exploitation in rangements due to the di$culty proving involve- the three countries. ment without any formal documentation or receipts of transactions. Using reviewed literature as well as qualitative data, the author argues that the vulnerability of the traf- Case studies of individual migrants and recom- !cked victim arises from his or her gendered po- mendations for future actions conclude the report. sitioning across historical, social, economic and Suggested actions are relevant to future UNODC political situations. In the concluding chapter, she programming in Tamil Nadu as well as other actors discusses gaps in knowledge and highlights some of interested in irregular migration. Recommendations the shortcomings of current anti-tra$cking strate- include more studies on irregular migration from gies being implemented by development organiza- di#erent areas of India as well as relating to Sri Lan- tions. She recommends that greater attention be paid kans of Tamil origin and an additional study inves- to location-speci!c dimensions of sex tra$cking in tigating the use of sea routes by irregular migrants. the design and implementing of interventions.

88 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Santhiago, A. (2005). Human smuggling, forcement agencies. Much undocumented migration migration and human rights: A Malaysian results from overstayers from other ASEAN coun- perspective. [Paper presented at the Review tries, particularly Indonesia and Philippines. Meeting Migration: Human rights protection of smuggled persons, Geneva, 25–26 July "e paper de!nes migrant smuggling according to 2005.] Retreived from www.ichrp.org/"les/ the Migrant Smuggling Protocol and states that in papers/140/122_Santhiago.pdf (accessed 16 Malaysia, the terms “tra$cking” and “smuggling” January 2012). are legally interchangeable because relevant laws (at the time this paper was written) only distinguish be- Key words: tween “legal” and “illegal” migrants. Smugglers or Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myan- organized groups provide a variety of services, such mar, Singapore, "ailand as transportation, obtaining documents, extending Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- visas and providing contacts with local employers. ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of Within the author’s research, smugglers were some- smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi times referred to as good people who helped migrants of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Routes, from regions of con%ict travel to safety. Smugglers Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling, Tra$ck- operate by land, sea and air and constantly devel- ing %ows op new routes when the authorities discover other routes. "e relationship between smuggler and mi- Research method used: grant normally ends upon reaching the destination Qualitative country, unless the smuggler provides assistance in !nding employment. Smuggling routes from coun- Summary: tries in the region also %ow through "ailand, where "is paper examines human rights issues related to migrants are often hidden in cars or cross jungle bor- migrant smuggling and whether Malaysia’s migra- ders on foot. "e author lists various smuggling fees tion system e#ectively protects migrants from hu- for di#erent smuggling routes. Criminal organiza- man rights abuses. "e paper is based on secondary tions also facilitate the use of forged documents and research and interviews with economic migrants, stolen passports. asylum seekers, refugees, lawyers, law enforcement o$cers, UNHCR o$cers and relevant civil society "e paper is an excellent source of information re- actors. "e author does not specify how many in- garding smuggling activities to Malaysia. Routes and terviews were carried out or how interview partners methods from various countries are detailed, and were chosen. Case studies of irregular and smug- payment and the relationship between smugglers gled migrants are provided. "e author concludes and migrants are also described. "e organization of that there is no comprehensive migration policy smuggling syndicates is not explained, although it is to protect and promote human rights and that the stated that smugglers can either be individuals or or- current policy of deporting migrants feeds into the ganized groups. Motivations for choosing smuggling smuggling cycle. Policy recommendations for a services are provided in various case studies, however, more comprehensive and e#ective migration policy no overarching motivations for enlisting smuggling are listed. services are addressed.

An estimated 2.6 million economic migrants reside in Malaysia, about half of whom are undocumented Sarkar, K., Bal, B., Mukherjee, R., and most of whom are from Indonesia. Most irregu- Chakraborty, S., Saha, S., Ghosh, A. and Par- lar entries take place in the state of Sabah, where the number of undocumented workers is estimated to sons, S. (2008). Sex-tra!cking, violence, ne- be twice that of documented workers. Increases in gotiating skill and HIV infection in brothel- irregular migration from Indonesia to Malaysia are based sex workers of eastern India, adjoining attributed to recruiting agents, labour tra$cking and Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. In: #e Jour- migrant smuggling, which includes a highly organ- nal of Health and Popular Nutrition, 26(2), ized trade in documents and corruption of law en- pp. 223–231.

89 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Key words: Key words: India "ailand Tra$cking %ows Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migration, Routes Research method used: Quantitative Research method used: Qualitative Summary: Although this paper focuses on a health issue – HIV, it Summary: provides useful information on a range of topics relat- "is research report provides an update to the 2005 ed to sex workers, including tra$cking in persons in International Labour Organization report on inter- general. Data were gathered from a sample of 580 sex national migration in "ailand by Huguet and Pun- workers in brothels who voluntarily agreed to respond puing. "e purpose of the report is to assess the state to a questionnaire designed to elicit responses related of knowledge on international migration in order to socio-demographic variables, tra$cking, violence, to provide the "ai Government with input for fur- negotiating skills and risky behaviours. Blood sam- ther international migration policy development. It ples were drawn because HIV was the prime focus of provides an analysis and assessment of regular and the investigation. Univariate and multivariate analy- irregular migrants, asylum seekers, refugees and dis- ses were carried out, with HIV considered an inde- placed persons in "ailand and of the migration of pendent variable and such factors as age, tra$cking, "ai migrants abroad. violence and negotiating skills as dependent variables. Tr a $cking for sexual exploitation was assessed by ask- "e concept of irregular migration is presented as ing such questions as, How did you join this profes- de!ned by the International Organization for Mi- sion? Response options included: (a) voluntarily, (b) gration. "e concept of tra$cking refers to the Traf- forced by family member(s) and (c) misguided/forced !cking in Persons Protocol. by other less known/unknown/distant relative(s). "e research involved a desk review of relevant litera- "e paper describes the nationalities of origin as well ture, including NGO and government studies on in- as ages of the sex workers along with the incidence ternational migration in "ailand and analysis of both of HIV. Regarding push-pull factors, the research published and unpublished data on migration trends found that the majority of women joined the pro- issued to the researchers by the "ai Government. A fession due to poverty, a !nding that is congruent number of informal interviews to gain di#erent per- with other studies. Violence was another dominant spectives on migration issues were conducted with theme of the investigation, with 29 per cent experi- representatives of national and international NGOs encing violence in various forms. Even the sex work- and the multi-agency "ematic Working Group on ers who entered the profession “voluntarily” reported International Migration based in "ailand, "ai Gov- violence. A unique facet of the research was revealed ernment o$cials and other relevant actors. regarding negotiating skills. Negotiating skills relate speci!cally to condom use, and the portrait was bleak Several !eld trips were also conducted in the prov- in that numerous sexual encounters were carried out inces of Phuket and Phang Nga, which were targeted without condoms. A !nal analysis centres on alcohol on the basis of having a large number of internation- consumption in general and its relationship to con- al migrants and because they have provincial decrees dom negotiation in particular and that the group of on migration and are hubs for further migration to tra$cked sex workers had the highest rate of HIV the south of "ailand and onwards to Malaysia and infection. No recommendations emanated from the Singapore. "rough the !eld visits, the researchers research, but areas for further study are suggested. observed day-to-day living conditions experienced by migrants and interacted with them for additional information gathering. Sciortino, R. and Punpuing, S. (2009). Inter- national migration to #ailand. Bangkok: In- "e report points out that "ailand is a major hub ternational Organization for Migration. for international migration as a country of origin,

90 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

transit and destination for migrants, and that "ai- "e article concludes that the emblematic prosecu- land is struggling to !nd the right balance between tion of Sister Ping will not necessarily signi!cantly security, socio-economic development and humani- disrupt the Chinese migrant smuggling industry. tarian concerns in its responses to international mi- "e reason for this is seen in the powerful monetary gration, particularly from neighbouring countries incentives for smugglers and the high demand for to "ailand. "e report states that "ailand is still their services. "e most distinguishing feature of confronted with a large number of irregular migrants modern Chinese migrant smuggling groups, such and is pressured nationally, regionally and globally to as the one controlled by Sister Ping, is their lack of better govern migration because the current manage- formal structure. "e author argues that this may al- ment policies are inadequate to address the magni- ter the manner in which Chinese organized crime tude and diversity of the phenomenon. groups are prosecuted (in the United States). Ef- fective prosecutorial tools against traditional crime "is report does not directly contribute knowledge groups and gangs may be of little use against decen- on migrant smuggling. It does provide a useful and tralized and formless Chinese migrant smuggling comprehensive discussion on related issues, includ- groups. "e study con!rms the need for cooperation ing irregular and regular migration patterns and among international law enforcement agencies. Co- trends into "ailand from neighbouring countries operation particularly with Interpol and Hong Kong and the out%ow of "ai migrants in search of work (China) authorities helped to facilitate the successful abroad. "e report also presents a discussion on the investigation and prosecution of Sister Ping. development of "ai migration management policy and o#ers a series of recommendations to the "ai "e article analyses the case of Sister Ping with a fo- Government on how to strengthen and improve cus on the process of investigation and prosecution this policy. "ere is some discussion on "ai policy and thus describes in detail the investigation, indict- against tra$cking in persons as well. ment and trial of Sister Ping. It provides insights into the organizational structure and the methods of Sis- ter Ping’s migrant smuggling organization. Sein, A. J. (2008). #e prosecution of Chi- nese organized crime groups: #e Sister Ping case and its lessons. In: Trends in Organized Sen, S. and Ahuja, J. (2009). Tra$cking in Crime, 11(2), pp. 157–182. women and children: Myths and realities. New Delhi: Concept. Key words: China Key words: Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of India smuggling, Smuggling Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- regular migration, Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows Research method used: Qualitative Research method used: Qualitative Summary: "is article analyses the investigation and prosecu- Summary: tion of contemporary Chinese criminal organiza- Based on research carried out by a joint National tions in the United States in order to draw lessons for Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and Institute understanding Chinese organized crime and its con- of Social Sciences (ISS) team as well as data from trol. "is is done through the analysis of one major the Action Research on Tra$cking in Women and migrant smuggling case (which involved a woman Children, this book discusses the myths and realities smuggler): the trial of Chen Chui Ping, commonly associated with tra$cking in women and children in known as Sister Ping. "e article draws on interviews India. Although 1,500 victims of commercial sexual with parties familiar with the case, court documents exploitation were interviewed across 12 states in In- and media reports. Beyond this, no particular infor- dia as part of the NHRC-ISS study, the book does mation about the methodology is provided. not include su$cient detail on how the research was

91 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

carried out to enable an accurate critical appraisal of as the Middle East typically was the destination of the evidence. Insights are o#ered on aspects of traf- choice, more migrants are choosing destinations in !cking in persons, such as push-pull factors, pro- Europe (such as Italy) and Asia (such as the Republic !les of victims and tra$ckers and experiences of sex of Korea). Reasons for these changes are discussed. workers with law enforcement and other agencies. "e survey and interview data were examined using Tra$cking for non-sex-based exploitation, including two categories of analysis — destination choice and domestic labour, begging, camel jockeys and adop- incomes of migrants (including remittances). tion, is also discussed. "e authors fail to contrast the myth and realities of tra$cking in women and Destination choices can be broken down into two children as the title suggests. "e book does provide subcategories — preferred destination country and a general (although uncritical) overview of tra$ck- reality. "e surveyed men and women preferred ing in persons. countries such as Italy because of higher salaries, a large Sri Lankan expatriate community and the prospect of permanent residence. Other countries Shaw, J. (2010). From Kuwait to Korea: #e were desired because of such factors as safety (Cy- diversi"cation of Sri Lankan labour migra- prus for domestic workers) and the Republic of tion. In: Journal of the Asia Paci"c Economy, Korea (higher wages for males). "e reality of the 15(1), pp. 59–70. situation is that many workers, especially women engaged in domestic work, continue to migrate to the Key words: Middle East because the procedures are formalized Sri Lanka and costs to obtain work are relatively cheap. "e Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- e#ects of migration in the household economy are tion both straightforward and complex. For example, a large proportion of families with a member working Research method used: abroad depend on remittances, which is a predict- Mixed able outcome. Other !ndings are more problematic: males make more money than females but remit Summary: less. Reasons for this disparity are described, as are "is paper probes changing migration patterns of Sri the general e#ects of money management while one Lankan migrant workers, especially those related to household family member is working abroad. "e geographic areas and gender. Existing data are used study does not o#er speci!c recommendations as to to examine these patterns in general, but the author how the !ndings could a#ect policy, but possible im- goes further by carrying out !eldwork in February to plications may be seen from the conclusions. March 2006 in the district of Kurunegala to pro!le rural migrant-sending households and to examine di#erences in socio-economic characteristics, desti- Sheehan, J. (2009). Human tra$cking be- nations and occupations, remitting behaviours and tween China and the UK. Nottingham: China the role of remittances in the household economy. Policy Institute, University of Nottingham. Using a snowball sampling technique, the researcher secured a sample of 153 remittance-receiving house- Key words: holds. Surveys were conducted to gather data on pre- China and post-migration living standards and livelihood Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows activities, while in-depth interviews with both returned workers and remittance recipients were made Research method used: to explore the personal, social and economic e#ects Unknown of migration. Summary: Recent data reveals the changing nature of migration "is discussion paper focuses on the phenomenon of patterns, with low-wage women dominating, in con- tra$cking in persons between China and the United trast to data since the 1990s that showed that almost Kingdom. It examines the e#ects of the introduction half of migrants had been male. Moreover, where- of the National Referral Mechanism (NRM) in the

92 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

United Kingdom on identifying suspected victims including the gender imbalance resulting from the of tra$cking and to discuss problems that Chinese Government’s one-child policy and the cultural phe- victims of tra$cking face despite having their needs nomenon of male preference. "e author suggests identi!ed and protected in the United Kingdom. that British-Chinese cooperation e#orts should be "e paper also discusses some of the push factors in improved. China as well as the availability of repatriation and protection measures for tra$cking victims in China. "e paper does not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling. It brie%y points out that, al- "e paper refers to tra$cking in persons as de!ned though fees for smuggling services are lower com- by the 2005 Council of Europe Convention on Ac- pared to the past, fewer migrants rely on smuggling tion against Tra$cking in Human Beings. services to reach the United Kingdom because alternative channels are available. "e paper does not "e research method, data sources and sample are provide further information on this issue. not explained in detail. "e paper refers to accounts from 12 Chinese tra$cking victims and notes research conducted by the University of Nottingham. Silverstone, D. and Savage, S. (2010). Farm- "e paper points out that the 12 tra$cking cases on ers, factories and funds: Organised crime and which the comments are based may not be consid- illicit drugs cultivation within the British ered representative. Vietnamese community. In: Global Crime, 11(1), pp. 16–33. According to the author, Chinese victims of tra$cking appear to be disadvantaged in the asylum sys- Key words: tem, due to its focus on detail and consistency of Viet Nam a claimant’s story in asylum interviews. Certain fea- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- tures of the tra$cking process as well as cultural and ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Organi- social norms around sexual behaviour often lead to zation of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular migrants, discrepancies and gaps in the stories of Chinese vic- Routes, Smuggling tims. As a result, some tra$cking victims have been detained and fast-tracked for removal, without being Research method used: identi!ed as tra$cking victims until late in the pro- Qualitative cess of removal to China, even after the introduction of the NRM. "us the author suggests making more Summary: frequent use of the NRM 45-day re%ection and re- With particular reference to the cultivation of canna- covery period. bis, money laundering and migrant smuggling, this article explores the growth of organized crime within "rough the research, the author found that Chinese the Vietnamese community in the United Kingdom. victims of tra$cking face certain risks after repatriation, due to insu$cient prevention and protection "e research involved two sets of qualitative data: measures in China. Victims of tra$cking in China one set was based on 45 interviews with law en- are still not proactively identi!ed as such, which in- forcement personnel in Viet Nam and the United cludes repatriated victims of transnational tra$ck- Kingdom as well as with actors in the Vietnamese ing. As a result, repatriated victims may be crimi- community; the interviews were conducted main- nalized as irregular migrants or sex workers. Further, ly through translators. "e other set was based on they face the risk of being re-tra$cked or punished structured questionnaires issued to 34 London- by their original tra$ckers. based members of the Vietnamese community, 24 of whom were irregular migrants living in the United "e author argues that, although China is making Kingdom. Vietnamese community workers assisted progress in combating tra$cking in persons and the researchers in putting together a non-random seeks cooperation with international organizations, sample by means of snowballing. According to the e#orts are often hampered because Chinese authori- authors, the interviews were used to gather informa- ties are reluctant to address some of its root causes, tion on issues concerning irregular migration from

93 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Viet Nam into the United Kingdom and to identify terminal are assessed to theorize the concept of the the means of subsistence of Vietnamese irregular mi- Indonesian State and its spatiality through the con- grants, including their possible involvement in the tact between o$cials and low-income workers. "e business of cannabis cultivation. author concludes that, although the re-entry system was established to protect migrants and their rights, "e authors conclude that Vietnamese organized in practice it reproduces social inequalities through crime in the United Kingdom and in Viet Nam is the selective and irregular application of regulatory characterized by networks of independent small procedures. groups or individuals operating locally but engaging with global activities. Actors operate in mono-ethnic "e article is based on multi-site research carried out criminal networks, which are almost exclusively Vi- between 1995 and 2004. In 1995, the author con- etnamese. "e primary incentive for those involved ducted interviews with migrants regarding their per- in cannabis cultivation, money laundering and mi- ceptions and experiences with gender development grant smuggling is to make a pro!t. "ey are not and migration. Follow-up interviews were carried prone to run their businesses through violence or the out in 1998 within the same community regarding threat of violence but rather through trust, informal the e#ects of the Asian economic crisis on gendered contacts and the exploitation of corrupt Vietnamese migration politics and labour organization. In 2000, o$cials. a broader survey with 185 respondents was carried out in two villages in West Java, based on a random "e study discusses various activities of Vietnamese sampling through village registers. In 2002, a sub- organized crime in the United Kingdom, including sample of respondents was interviewed to analyse migrant smuggling. Based on empirical results, it the politics of transnational migration. In 2004, the provides insights on migrant smuggling from Viet author worked with NGOs in the area of migrant Nam into the United Kingdom, including pro!les rights for two months in Jakarta and conducted an- of irregular migrants, smuggling routes, smuggling other round of interviews in an original !eld site. fees and the business relationship between smugglers Government o$cials in Jakarta in the areas of mi- and migrants. It discusses the irregular migration of gration and women’s human rights were also inter- minors, points to possible drivers for irregular migra- viewed. "e author visited the Jakarta international tion and provides background information on the airport in 2004 to observe the practices in terminal di#erent phases of Vietnamese immigration since 3, which is reserved for returning migrants. At the 1975. terminal, the author interviewed police, employees and returning migrants. In total, the author spent !ve days at the terminal. Silvey, R. (2007). Unequal borders: Indone- sian transnational migrants at immigration "e author found that data collected on migrants control. In: Geopolitics, 12(2), pp. 265–279. upon re-entry were often inaccurate because both migrants and o$cials pay little heed to ensuring that Key words: the information is correct. Data such as age, reason Indonesia for return and overseas earnings were often changed Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- by border o$cials either out of boredom or because regular migration they did not believe the information provided by the migrants. "e migrants often had passports with in- Research method used: correct ages in order to bypass age requirements. Qualitative Although the article does not provide speci!c infor- Summary: mation about the migrant smuggling process, it of- As a way of analysing the Indonesian State’s strategy fers valuable information about informal recruiting for managing return labour migration, this article processes in Indonesia, which can be interpreted as examines Indonesia’s practice of segregating return- migrant smuggling. "e author states that most mi- ing migrant workers from other passengers at the Ja- grants at some point in the migration process turned karta International Airport. Everyday practices in the to an informal middleman or were assisted by an un-

94 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

licensed broker. It is often impossible for migrants Most Indonesian migrant workers in Macao (China) to di#erentiate between formal and informal brokers originally worked in Hong Kong (China), where because individual brokers can be active in both reg- their work contracts were either terminated or ex- ular and irregular recruitment. pired. To avoid returning to Indonesia, where the “one door exit policy” subjects migrants to con- "is article provides solid information about the !nement in training camps and leads to a cycle of Indonesian State’s handling of migrant workers and debt, they decided to try their luck at !nding work the migration process experiences by Indonesian in Macao (China). High fees for o$cial recruitment migrant workers. While migrant smuggling is not agencies motivate both women and men to migrate explicitly addressed, the article provides important irregularly. Most undocumented migrant workers in information on informal recruitment practices as Macao (China) are overstayers who hope to !nd em- well as vital background knowledge on the recruit- ployment, but their work opportunities are limited ment process. and insecure. Overstaying is a result of the ease of legal entry — without needing to show an exit %ight or proof of employment. Irregular workers are tol- Sim, A. and Wee, V. (2009). Undocumented erated and the authorities expect them to earn the Indonesian workers in Macau: #e human money necessary for their plane ticket back to Indo- outcome of colluding interests. In: Critical nesia, which can take a considerable amount of time. Asian Studies, 41(1), pp. 165–188. "e article exposes the vulnerabilities of female mi- Key words: grant domestic workers in Macao (China). "e dis- China, Indonesia played migratory patterns are useful, but the overall East Asia relevance of the source is limited because the de- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- scribed irregular migration %ows do not involve mi- tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants grant smuggling operations.

Research method used: Qualitative Soudijn, M. R. J. (2006). Chinese human smuggling in transit ("rst edition). Den Haag: Summary: Boom Juridische Uitgevers. "is article focuses on female labour migration from Indonesia to Macao (China) and demonstrates how Keywords: labour export policies in Indonesia and migration China policies in Hong Kong (China), are important fac- Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migra- tors in creating a pool of irregular Indonesian over- tion, Human and social costs of smuggling, Modus stayers in Macao (China). It further argues that operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, undocumented female migrant workers are subor- Pro!les of smugglers, Smuggler-migrant relationship dinated through patriarchal class relations, which are reinforced by Indonesia’s policy of limiting le- Research method used: gal sectors of employment for women. "e article Mixed concludes that labour migration %ows from Indo- nesia to Macao (China), even exploitive %ows, are Summary: reinforced by both the interest of Macao (China) to "is book explores the phenomenon of Chinese mi- remain competitive and the interest of Indonesia in grant smuggling to and through the Netherlands to receiving remittances. Field research was conducted provide more information on this issue through em- for this article from August 2006 to March 2007, pirical research. "e focus of the research primarily during which 66 undocumented female Indonesian targeted the organizers of the smuggling process. workers in Macao (China) were interviewed. Due to the sensitivity of the topic, the interviews were "e research involved the analysis of 88 court !les, carried out by Indonesian migrant workers and the corresponding to 172 defendants, regarding the questions they posed were open-ended. smuggling of Chinese migrants between 1999 and

95 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

2003. "e cases were chosen on the de!nition of and forced prostitution, drugs, extortion or robbery migrant smuggling according to article 197a of the in the Netherlands, suggesting that there is little Dutch Penal Code. "e author drew up a checklist connection to other forms of organized crime in the to guide the process of analysing the case !les. It was country. then tested by means of a pilot study and altered to adapt it speci!cally to the phenomenon of migrant "e research also found that any e#ective govern- smuggling rather than organized crime in general. ment approach to resolve the problems connected "e author had access to tapped telephone calls of to Chinese irregular migration are obstructed by the corresponding court cases. certain issues that date back to the 1970s. Because the Chinese Government seldom recognizes Chinese In addition to the case !le analysis, the author con- irregular migrants as citizens, it is di$cult or impos- ducted interviews with 22 Dutch government o$- sible for the Dutch Government to deport them. cials involved in the investigation of migrant smug- Furthermore, the study found holes in the Dutch gling. Interviews were also conducted with German system that may encourage small-scale smuggling, and British police o$cers who worked with the such as the lack of a criminal law against false guar- Dutch authorities on smuggling cases as well as two antors. A guarantor can operate at a small scale and o$cers from Europol. General information on Asian fraudulently “invite” one or two migrants per year crime in the Netherlands was obtained from the au- without the risk of being detected or prosecuted. thor’s prior work and contact with members of po- "e author concludes that migrant smuggling to lice specialized on this topic. the Netherlands is best countered by e#ective “post- border” (internal) controls instead of more stringent Data was analysed against three primary models: a border controls. "is approach entails closely moni- hierarchical approach, characterized by smugglers toring the work sectors in which irregular Chinese working in !xed settings under one central man- migrants are known to be active, such as Chinese agement; a network approach, in which smuggling restaurants. "e author argues that if employers us- activities are characterized by loosely connected ing unauthorized labour face a high risk of detection networks of individuals; and a migratory approach, and conviction, it will lead to a reduction in demand de!ning smuggling merely as migration by illicit for illegal labour and thus gives irregular migrants means. less incentive to go to the Netherlands. However, the author notes that internal controls have no ef- According to the author, the network approach is the fect regarding smugglers who use the Netherlands as most applicable concerning the organization of Chi- a transit country. "us e#ective and comprehensive nese migrant smugglers. Several separate groups lo- police investigations remain an important part in cated in di#erent countries organize each stage of the combating migrant smuggling. journey and pass on the migrants to the next group, after ful!lling their part of the deal; for example, mi- "e research !ndings are limited by the fact that 44 grants are smuggled from China to Russia, from where of the 172 defendants in the corresponding court they proceed to the Czech Republic, Germany or the !les turned out to be non-Chinese. "e author also Netherlands and then possibly to the United King- notes that the information in the !les concerned the dom. At times, these groups form a loose network, smugglers and provided little information on the which enables one group to take over should another socio-economic background of the smuggled per- group encounter problems with law enforcement. sons or their reasons for migration. "is made it dif- "e court !les revealed that the smugglers altogether !cult for the author to study the social relationship were responsible for smuggling some 250 migrants between the smugglers and the migrants. to and through the Netherlands each year. However, most of the migrants in this study were subsequently "e book provides in-depth insights into the pro- smuggled out of the country, which underlines the !les of Chinese smugglers, the organization of their Netherlands primary role as a transit country. smuggling activities in the Netherlands and gives some information concerning the relationship be- "e research did not !nd any evidence of an exist- tween smugglers and migrants. In addition, the ing relationship between Chinese migrant smugglers study examines to what extent actors in Chinese

96 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

smuggling operations are involved in other criminal hundred Chinese suspects in the Netherlands as well activities and discusses whether Chinese smuggling as abroad. Researchers of the National Crime Squad has evolved over the past years. Finally, the study then interpreted the data set. elaborates on the implications and consequences regarding law enforcement policies. "ere are empirical similarities and di#erences between the two criminal activities. For example, they are characterized by di#erent criminal pro!les. While Soudijn, M. R. J. and Kleemans, E. R. (2009). the migrant smugglers were in their 20s or 30s and Chinese organized crime and situational con- often used Mandarin to communicate, the synthetic text: Comparing human smuggling and syn- drug smugglers were in their 40s and 50s, had lived thetic drugs tra!cking. In: Crime, Law and in the Netherlands for a longer period of time and Social Change, 52(5), pp. 457–474. originated from Cantonese-speaking areas. In both cases of migrant smuggling and synthetic drug traf- Key words: !cking, Chinese women sometimes had a major role China as organizers. "e authors found that the migrant Concepts, Pro!les of smugglers, Modus operandi of smuggling showed less violence between smugglers smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Smuggling than between those active in the drug market. Fur- thermore, both forms involved non-Chinese actors. Research method used: In migrant smuggling businesses, however, the non- Qualitative Chinese actors can be characterized as contractors. "e research found no indication of the involvement Summary: of pyramid-structured organized crime in migrant "is article explores Chinese organized crime and smuggling cases. Rather, the term “temporary busi- compares !ndings from two transnational criminal ness alliance” seems the more appropriate descrip- activities that were carried out by Chinese o#enders tion when migrant smuggling groups operate on an in the Netherlands — drug smuggling and migrant international level. However, at the local level, mi- smuggling. "e purpose of the study was to identify grant smuggling groups tend to be quite cohesive. major theoretical and empirical similarities and dif- "e authors suggest that ethnicity as an explaining ferences between the two criminal activities and to factor should not be rejected but it should be placed discuss the relevance of the main !ndings for theory in a situational perspective. development and future research. "e article points out that data such as suspects’ "e authors criticize the “ethnic” conception of or- backgrounds or motives was missing from the ana- ganized crime and argue that it produces a kind of lysed information due to the fact that it was primar- “lock-in e#ect”. "ey propose an alternative view ily collected in the interest of criminal prosecution. that focuses on social networks and situational con- "e authors do not consider the sample as represent- texts. ative and therefore opt for a more qualitative way of describing the data rather than making quantitative "e research drew on empirical data from police statements. investigations in the Netherlands, which included intercepted telecommunications. Two sets of data were collected: "e !rst set (based on police investi- Tenaganita. (2008). #e revolving door: Mod- gations) was collected in the context of prior research ern day slavery refugees. Kuala Lumpur: Tena- into Chinese migrant smuggling and covers the pe- ganita SDN BHD. riod of 1996–2003. "at data set contains information on 178 suspects who were brought to trial on Key words: charges of Chinese migrant smuggling. "e second Malaysia, Myanmar, "ailand data set concerns drugs and precursors and covers Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows the period of 2004–2006. During this three-year period, an investigation team from the Dutch National Research method used: Crime Squad collected information on more than a Qualitative

97 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Summary: #ongyou, M. and Ayuwat, D. (2005). Social "is book is a collection of testimonies of Myanmar network of Laotian migrant workers in #ai- refugees in Malaysia that expose abuse at the hands land. In: Working Paper Series (80). of Ikatan Relawan Rakyat o$cers (Rela), corruption within law enforcement and immigration and cases Key words: of tra$cking in women, children and refugees. In Lao PDR, "ailand addition to the !rst-hand accounts, the book pro- Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular mi- vides general background information on the migration, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Pro!les of gration system in Malaysia and non-recognition of smuggled migrants, Smuggler-migrant relationship, refugees, the refugee situation in Myanmar and the Smuggling global dynamics of migration. Research method used: The interviews with Myanmar refugees in Ma- Mixed laysia were carried out by staff of the Malaysian NGO Tenaganita, with the assistance of transla- Summary: tors. The refugees had approached Tenaganita for "is working paper focuses on the experiences of ir- assistance and were willing to share their stories. regular Lao migrant workers in "ailand. It particu- Secondary literature is used for the introductory larly focuses on the social networks that facilitate the background information that precedes the inter- migration of many Lao workers to "ailand and that views. have a signi!cant impact on their lives once they arrive. Most of the social networks consist of friends "e interviews primarily refer to raids by Rela, and family of the migrant. "e paper !rst presents which is the People’s Volunteer Corps that assists a series of social and economic demographics of ir- with arresting irregular migrants. Because Malaysia regular Lao migrants. "en it examines the role and does not o$cially recognize refugees, even individ- signi!cance of two social networks that facilitate and uals with UNHCR refugee status are considered to assist with the irregular migration of many Lao mi- be irregular migrants and are often subjected to ar- grants wanting to travel to "ailand. "e two social rest, detention and even deportation. According to networks include those in the community of origin various accounts, UNHCR cards are disregarded in Lao People’s Democratic Republic used for !nd- and/or con!scated by Rela o$cials during raids. ing information on migration routes, employment "e refugees said that when interviewed by Rela and housing in "ailand and the social networks in o$cers or other Malaysian o$cials, they were sel- "ailand that help the individual to reduce settle- dom provided with an interpreter and thus had no ment costs and deportation risks, o#er social and idea what was being asked of them. In detention emotional support and better assimilate into their centres and prisons, refugees and undocumented new environment. migrants were often beaten, provided with insuf- !cient sustenance and denied basic hygienic needs, "e concept of migrant smuggling is not used ex- such as showers and toilet breaks. Rela is also cited plicitly within the text, although the paper focuses as tra$cking detainees into neighbouring coun- on what can be interpreted as the smuggling of Lao tries or the jungle and demanding ransom for their migrant workers to "ailand through Lao social net- return. works based in both countries.

"e book does not address the issue of smuggling "e research involved a series of structured inter- of migrants. However, it does provide !rst-hand ac- views, conducted using a questionnaire with 276 ir- counts of refugee %ows, irregular migration and traf- regular Lao migrant workers from across !ve "ai !cking in persons. "rough the concise and com- provinces who participated in the "ai Government’s prehensive introduction to the topic of migration in 2004 migrant worker registration process. "e inter- Malaysia and Myanmar, the book balances second- views were conducted at the registration site. It was ary sources with individual interviews, which pro- easiest for the researchers to interview those Lao mi- vides a general account of the refugee and tra$cking grants willing to register as opposed to irregular Lao situation in Malaysia. migrants who were not as willing to be interviewed

98 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

because of their irregular status in "ailand. "e in- Key words: terviews were used to collect information on the pre- China migration experiences of Lao migrant workers and Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- their living and working experiences in "ailand. tion "e paper gives particular attention, including data, to the role of social networks in both Lao and "ai- Research method used: land in the migration process and as a social sup- Qualitative port for Lao workers in "ailand. More detailed and open-ended interviews were conducted with 10 Lao Summary: migrant workers in "ailand to gain more informa- "is article discusses the prevalence of large-scale mi- tion relevant to the research. gration from a small region in the Chinese province of Fujian to Europe. According to the authors, that "e paper provides many statistics related to the large movement has associated Chinese migration gendered experience of irregular Lao migrant work- with organized crime, exploitation and opportunism ers in "ailand and their reliance on social networks. in a number of popular and academic writings in "is was concluded largely from a survey conducted China as well as abroad. "e authors argue that mi- with 276 irregular Lao workers. "e survey results grant smugglers should not be seen as the root cause indicate that the majority of irregular Lao workers for migration from Fujian. "e purpose of the study in "ailand are women younger than 24 who have was to identify the factors that are responsible for the lived in "ailand for an average of 6.5 years, that large-scale migration from Fujian. many were unmarried at the time of migration, that most had completed at least primary level education, "e study involved !eldwork conducted in two vil- that most were from rural communities and that lages in central Fujian, both characterized by large- poverty was the main push factor for leaving home. scale migration to Europe but re%ecting very di#er- Most signi!cantly, the research highlighted the im- ent economic and social environments. A total of portance of and reliance on social networks for many 106 Interviews with o$cials at all administrative Lao migrants looking to work in "ailand. Social levels and with migrant households were conducted networks are important for the purpose of providing in 1999 and 2000. In addition, a questionnaire sur- information on the migration route, assistance with vey was conducted in one of the villages. "e sample crossing the border, helping to !nd or provide ac- of 81 migrant households represents 50 per cent of commodation and employment in "ailand, facili- all migrant households in the two villages. "e arti- tating or assisting with the remittance of earnings to cle does not provide details about the data collected; the family back home, social and emotional support however, it notes that a book-length report on the in "ailand and return to Lao PDR. project was published.

"e paper helps to develop an understanding of Lao "e authors conclude that migration from Fujian is social networks in the migrant smuggling process. strongly embedded in local political, socio-cultural "ese social networks can be responsible for the or- and economic institutions and histories. For exam- ganization and facilitation of the migration of many ple, research in one of the villages revealed the fac- Lao migrants wanting to migrate irregularly to "ai- tors that generate, direct and perpetuate the %ow of land for the purpose of work. "e roles and purposes migration include a lack of government investment, of social networks are explained regarding the facili- the prominence of smuggling between 1949 and tation of unauthorized entry and stay in "ailand. 1978, the late start of government investment in Fujian, the promotion of overseas Chinese links and migration by the village leadership as well as a tradi- tion of migration. "ese in turn have been created #unø, N. and Pieke, F. N. (2005). Institu- or transformed by sustained migration. According to tionalizing recent rural emigration from Chi- the authors, population mobility from each area in na to Europe: New transnational villages in China is highly speci!c. "erefore, they point out, Fujian. In: #e International Migration Re- generalizations about the causes, nature and direc- view, 39(2), pp. 485–514. tion of the Chinese migration will ultimately lead

99 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

to misinterpretation. Yet the migratory %ows from "ai policy towards migrants since 1997 and how it Fujian are also part of the “new Chinese migration” has impacted the most vulnerable migrants. that commenced after the onset of the reforms in 1978. Against this backdrop, the authors propose "e author conducted initial ethnographic !eldwork that migrant smugglers should be viewed as merely a on transnational migration among minorities along part of the local institutions that have come to play a the "ai-Myanmar-China border from 1994 to critical role in mediating the scope and the nature of 1997. Part of this !eldwork concentrated on survey- international mobility. ing Myanmar ethnic minorities working in northern "ailand, mainly in Chiang Mai. "e author received "e study highlights the local political, socio-cultur- 1,647 responses to the initial survey (790 males, 857 al and economic factors that have led to large-scale females), which provided the foundation of infor- migration from Fujian. "e article does not directly mation for the research paper. Follow-up research contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling, but it on the issue of Myanmar domestic maids working discusses in detail the factors that contribute to regu- in "ailand was conducted in January 2003, which lar and irregular migration from China. involved conducting semi-structured interviews with Myanmar domestic maids and "ai employers (12 maids, 8 employers). From those interviews, three Toyota, M. (2006). Health concerns of ‘invis- individuals who were identi!ed as having health ible’ cross-border domestic maids in #ai- problems were selected for another interview (in land. In: Asian Population Studies, 2(1), pp. March 2004), with a focus on their health issues. 19–36. "e author had known these individuals since the time of the initial ethnographic !eldwork and thus Key words: the !ndings are based on the rapport established over Myanmar, "ailand time. "e interviews were used as the basis for three Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- case studies. tion "e author notes that the research does not claim to Research method used: represent the types of health problems that all domes- Qualitative tic maids may experience; however, the case studies do focus on speci!c health problems, including HIV/ Summary: AIDS, reproductive health and sexual abuse. "is research paper examines the plight of Myanmar domestic workers in "ailand and their vulnerabili- "e research shows that although "ailand has devel- ties as irregular migrants who fall outside of the "ai oped policies concerning the protection of the most Government’s migration and migrant health poli- vulnerable migrant workers, including their access to cies. It highlights the health vulnerabilities experi- health care, Myanmar domestic maids fall outside of enced by irregular Myanmar migrants, with a partic- the policy coverage because they are “invisible” work- ular focus on the experiences of Myanmar domestic ers in "ai society. "ese maids are often not under maids. While the "ai Government extends a degree any formal contract with their employers, are residing of health support to “high-risk” irregular migrant irregularly in "ailand and are isolated and out of pub- workers, including factory workers, workers in the lic and political sight. "ey are largely out of reach of !shing and agriculture industries and sex workers, NGOs, labour organizations and public health services domestic maids are not covered by the policy. Do- because of their place of employment, which makes it mestic maids are “invisible” in "ai society because nearly impossible for them to access health services and they often live in isolation from others outside their support. Other groups of irregular migrants are also employer’s household and are thus not considered vulnerable to exploitation and health risks, but they are for protection under the Government’s migrant more “visible” than domestic maids and are therefore worker health and labour protection policies. "e targeted more easily by these policies. paper explores the socio-historical context of the migration of Myanmar women and girls to "ailand "e research paper does not directly contribute to work as domestic maids and the development of knowledge on migrant smuggling. "e paper’s ab-

100 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

stract brie%y mentions the recruitment of Myanmar tion of the methodology other than the reference to domestic workers through informal channels that are the ethnographic moments. linked to regional transnational networks that smuggle them into "ailand. But this issue is not explored No speci!c recommendations emerged from this ar- within the paper. "ere is some discussion of push- ticle; instead, the author points out that the United pull factors speci!c to the migration of Myanmar States needs a clearer understanding of who these domestic maids to "ailand, including poverty, the children are and knowledge of the paths they take. drain of "ai domestic maids and the appeal of My- Arguments are made supporting the notion that a anmar domestic maids to "ai employers. more humane, egalitarian and socially just response is needed to deal with the issue of unaccompanied irregular migrant children. Uehling, G. L. (2008). #e international smuggling of children: Coyotes, snakeheads and the politics of compassion. In: Anthropo- United Nations Economic and Social Com- logical Quarterly, 81(4), pp. 833–871. mission for Asia and the Paci"c. (2007). Per- spectives on gender and migration. Bangkok: Key words: United Nations. China, India Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- Key words: tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Pro!les of smug- Cambodia, China, "ailand gled migrants; Organization of smuggling, Smug- South-East Asia gling Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and payment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Pro!les of Research method used: irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Qualitative Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling

Summary: Research method used: "is advocacy-based article focuses on two con%ict- Qualitative ing aspects of how to deal with smuggled unaccompanied children: security and a compassion for their Summary of two chapters: plight. "e author takes the stance that security cur- Within the overall context of this UNESCAP report rently is the dominant force in dealing with irregu- on migration from a gendered perspective, the chap- lar migration in general, and this situation does not ter “Female labour migration in Cambodia” focuses change when the tra$cked persons are unaccom- on the regular and irregular migration of Cambodian panied children. Moreover, the author argues that women within Cambodia (rural to urban migration) migration from China, India, Mexico and Central and beyond to such destinations as Malaysia, Repub- America reveals a racially and ethnically coded sys- lic of Korea, Saudi Arabia and "ailand. "ere is a tem that protects some children more than others. strong emphasis on the discussion surrounding the irregular migration of Cambodian women to "ai- "e author combines analysis from a literature re- land. "e chapter argues that Cambodian women view with accounts of three ethnographic visits: (1) have limited economic opportunities in Cambodia a facility housing unaccompanied or undocumented and abroad because they often have a low education migrant children; (2) the case of an undocumented and literacy level and are low skilled, which makes child who received a heart transplant in the United them a vulnerable migrant group. States; and (3) a speech given at the Keeper of the American Dream Awards Dinner. Other data gather- "e research methodology appears to have including included interviews with children in shelters, in- ed a review of relevant literature and an analysis of terviews with residents a#ected by smuggling routes quantitative data obtained from a variety of sources, and discussions with government o$cials. Unfortu- including government and non-government sources. nately, there is no evidence that the data were collect- "e chapter also refers to interviews, but no further ed in a systematic manner and no detailed descrip- information is provided.

101 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"ree distinct areas are discussed in relation to Cam- Within the same book, the chapter “Female migra- bodian migrant women: (1) gender dimensions of tion in "ailand: A study of migrant domestic work- international migration (including regular and irreg- ers” focuses on the experience of female labour mi- ular migration), (2) gender dimensions of internal grants in the sphere of domestic work in "ailand. migration and (3) a review of the legal and policy "e research provides a review of the migration situ- frameworks on migration. "e author notes that ation in "ailand and "ai migration policies. "e many Cambodian migrant women are employed in chapter additionally discusses the conditions and the domestic sphere but also in factories, restaurants, experiences of female labour migrants in the domes- as shop assistants, in the sex industry and in seafood tic sector from Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic processing. Regarding internal migration, the chap- Republic and Myanmar. Recommendations for im- ter notes that Cambodian women are known to mi- proving the protection of migrant workers in "ai- grate for seasonal or more permanent work. land are provided.

"e research shows that regular migration of Cam- A recruiter is de!ned as someone who facilitates do- bodian women is often facilitated by private recruit- mestic workers to !nd employment with or with- ment agencies, while those who migrate irregularly, out a service fee. Domestic workers are de!ned as particularly from Cambodia to "ailand, are likely to someone who performs duties in a private house- employ the services of labour brokers, smugglers and hold, according to the "ai Labour Protection Act intermediaries. "e author argues that cross-border of 1998. "e chapter draws on a number of studies networks, including kinship networks, have %our- and reports on the issue of migration to "ailand ished to help facilitate entry into "ailand in recent and the experiences of female domestic migrant years and that irregular female Cambodian migrants workers. Data are provided from "ai government are more vulnerable to exploitation in "ailand be- and international NGO reports, including the num- cause they are not protected by "ai labour laws. bers and percentages of registered migrant workers by nationality and sex between 1998 and 2004, the "e chapter brie%y discusses smuggling fees from numbers of irregular migrant workers who registered Cambodia to "ailand as well as the fact that smug- from 1996 to 2006 and the number of registered mi- glers are often former irregular migrants. "e chap- grants in "ailand and type of employment and na- ter argues that cross-border irregular migration from tionality in 2006). A series of quotes are taken from Cambodia to "ailand is facilitated by networks of migrant domestic workers regarding their experi- family and friends, labour brokers, migrant smug- ences of working in "ailand. It is not clear if these glers and intermediaries, although limited informa- quotes were taken from interviews conducted by the tion is presented about their recruitment techniques researcher or how they were obtained. No research and operations. methodology is provided for the chapter.

"e chapter sheds light on some migration routes Many migrant domestic workers were found to suf- used by Cambodian women migrants who travel to fer from varying degrees of exploitation and abuse overseas destinations for employment, through regu- within their employers’ households. "ai labour lar and irregular migration channels. "e chapter has protection does not cover migrant domestic work- a strong focus on the irregular migration of Cambo- ers, who are often isolated and not considered to dia women to "ailand and does not o#er the same be migrant workers due to their work in private level of detail on the migration of Cambodian wom- homes and the perception that they do not en- en to Malaysia, Republic of Korea or Saudi Arabia. gage in productive work. "e research also found that the majority of migrant domestic workers in "e chapter also provides some insight into the ex- "ailand are from Myanmar, with a large number periences and conditions that irregular Cambodian also from Cambodia and Lao PDR. Push-pull fac- migrant workers endured in "ailand, including tors for domestic migrant workers in "ailand stem low salaries, loneliness, homesickness, long work- from poverty and the search for greater economic ing hours, communication di$culties, lack of hu- opportunity, capitalizing on the Asian perception man rights and labour protections and exploitation that domestic work is women’s work and ful!lling and abuse. the demand for domestic workers in "ailand.

102 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e chapter provides some insight into the role of include statistics on the number of people tra$cked recruiters in facilitating general labour migration to and the number of perpetrators prosecuted for traf- "ailand and their abilities to assist migrants with !cking o#ences in 2009, patterns of cross-border securing employment, including work in the do- tra$cking, trends in tra$cking, data on anti-traf- mestic sphere. "e chapter also sheds light on the !cking laws, o#ences, penalties and general demo- attitudes of recruiters by explaining that some seek graphic and migration information for each country. purely to pro!t from labour migrants at any cost, often exploiting them and treating them harshly in "e datasheets also include an analysis of statistics the migration process. Some migrants end up being provided by the relevant government ministries tra$cked and/or held in debt bondage to their re- from each country. Information is also drawn from cruiters because of the costs associated with recruit- research and reports produced by anti-tra$cking ment, travel, facilitation of entry and !nding em- NGOs and their partners at both the country and ployment. Other recruiters are shown to sympathize regional levels. Additionally, the datasheets present with the migrants they assist, even going so far as !ndings concerning the various tra$cking routes to, to help protect them from exploitive working situ- within and from each country and the kind of em- ations through reliable and trusted connections and ployment tra$cked persons engage in at their point networks with employers. Recruiters can also assist of destination. with sending remittances and communication from the migrants to their families back home. Although the datasheets do not directly contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling, they help to identify trends in terms of migration movements and United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Hu- routes. man Tra!cking. (2010). #e Mekong region human country datasheets on human tra$cking 2010. Bangkok: UNIAP. Retrieved from United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime www.no-tra!cking.org (accessed 18 August and United Nations Global Initiative to Fight 2011). Human Tra!cking. (2009). Global report on tra$cking in persons. Vienna: UNODC and Key words: UN.GIFT. Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand, Viet Nam Key words: South-East Asia Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Routes, Tra$cking %ows Lao PDR, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, "ailand, Viet Nam Research method used: East Asia, South Asia, South-East Asia, West Asia Mixed Tra$cking %ows

Summary: Research method used: "ese datasheets include maps with information Mixed and statistics relating to tra$cking in persons and associated issues in the six countries of the Greater Summary: Mekong Subregion (Cambodia, China, Lao People’s "e purpose of this report is to catalogue and pro- Democratic Republic, Myanmar, "ailand and Viet vide analysis of the global responses to tra$cking in Nam). "e reference to tra$cking in persons uses persons, based on criminal justice and victim assis- both the United Nations Inter-Agency Project on tance data from 155 countries. "e research for the Human Tra$cking and the Tra$cking in Persons report was undertaken in 2007 and 2008, within Protocol de!nitions. the framework of the United Nations Global Ini- tiative to Fight Human Tra$cking (UN.GIFT). "e datasheets provide a snapshot of tra$cking in "e report provides a summary of the information, persons in the six countries to inform counter-traf- discussion on the global and regional !gures and !cking e#orts. "e sheets are country speci!c and country pro!les.

103 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

"e available data suggest that women are more active United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. as perpetrators of tra$cking in persons than they are (2009). Smuggling of migrants from India to in other areas of violent crime. In the East Asia and the Europe and in particular the UK: A study on Paci!c region, females accounted for 35–50 per cent Punjab and Haryana. New Delhi: UNODC. of (identi!ed) tra$cking o#enders in three countries. In two countries they accounted for more than 50 per Key words: cent of (identi!ed) o#enders. Twenty-two countries China, India, Sri Lanka in the region did not have enough data available to Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- provide information on this topic. Most o#enders ment for smuggling, Human and social costs of were nationals of the countries where they were ar- smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi of rested, suggesting that local tra$cking networks re- smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of ir- cruit victims and sell them to criminal networks based regular migrants, Pro!les of smugglers; Quantitative in destination countries. Local tra$ckers attempt to assessment, Routes, Smuggling win the trust of victims and use their connections to threaten the victim’s family members if he or she re- Research method used: sists. "us local tra$ckers have greater control over Mixed victims than those not familiar with the victim’s home community. However, arrests that take place in high- Summary: income countries are more likely to involve a non-na- "is report examines the scope and magnitude of tional. Diaspora populations in destination countries irregular migration as well as the organization and are also involved in tra$cking networks. methods of smuggling processes from the northern states of Punjab and Haryana in India. "e study is "e vast majority of identi!ed victims of tra$cking largely based on law enforcement records, including are females who have been tra$cked for sexual ex- 340,276 immigration o$ce-related records; 196 im- ploitation. "is high level of sexual exploitation may migration cases from Indira Gandhi International also be due to local legal priorities, meaning that Airport in Delhi (2005–2007); 39 immigration of- other forms of tra$cking may go undetected. In fence related records from the international airport most cases, victims are tra$cked across international in Amritsar, Punjab (2007); and 103 police records borders, but this does not necessarily correlate with against migrant smuggling agents, based on com- long distances. plaints made by migrants or their families in the districts of Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Nawanshahr and Individual country reports provide speci!c informa- Hoshiarpur. Eighteen interviews were also carried out tion about counter-tra$cking activities and criminal with deportees or family members, six with o$cers justice statistics. "is includes data on victims assist- who investigated cases against the smuggling agents ed and the number of tra$ckers convicted. and 18 interviews with villagers or public representatives in more than 30 villages. Twenty-six cases from "e report is useful in its broad overview of tra$ck- Punjab and nine cases from Haryana on irregular ing responses across the globe. It can assist in under- migration were collected and analysed. Focus group standing tra$cking patterns in various regions and discussions were also conducted with law enforce- countries and States’ e#orts to suppress the %ows. ment o$cials, district and village o$cials, public But the report is limited by gaps in data, especially representatives and journalists. Additionally, a 10-day in countries where tra$cking in persons is known to study tour was undertaken to the United Kingdom exist but where there are few legislative or executive and France for discussions with senior government responses or attempts to combat it. Also, the level of o$cials, police and border control o$cers. national legislation or number of arrests or convic- tions of tra$ckers does not necessarily correspond Analysis of the data reveals that an estimated 20,000 with the level of tra$cking in the country at hand. youth attempt to migrate irregularly each year be- Finally, because the data for this report was originally cause regular migration options for unskilled mi- collected independently by the participating coun- grants are limited. Over half of the cases examined tries, it cannot be systematically compared due to the from Indira Gandhi International Airport related to di#erent methods for collection that were used. destination countries in Europe; the United King-

104 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

dom was the preferred destination, with most irreg- to migrants. In addition, an extensive review of rel- ular migrants arriving via France. Punjab emerged evant literature was conducted. "e purpose of the as the hub of activities for agents and migrant research was to gather information about factors that smugglers, although Delhi was also an important in%uence migrants’ choices about which route to centre for irregular migration. Agents adopted vari- take and which criminal organizations to engage and ous methods, including the use of forged Indian to investigate the crime and criminal networks that and foreign passports, visas and residence permits. facilitate migration. Agent fees ranged from USD 50,000 to the United States and Canada to USD 15,000 to USD 30,000 A thriving migrant smuggling industry was found for European destinations. High success rates of (mainly located in Pakistan) that relies on a range agents in Jalandhar, Kapurthala and Hoshiarpur of complementary criminal services, such as identity were noted. If a migrant fails to reach his or her fraud and money laundering. "e research found destination, the money paid is either returned by that economic opportunities, security fears, educa- the agent after the costs incurred are deducted or a tional ambitions and family reunion in%uence mi- second attempt is made to the same or an alterna- grants’ choices of routes and criminal service provid- tive destination. ers. "e major in%uences for choosing a destination consist of diaspora connections, geographical acces- "e recommendations included in the report in- sibility and costs. "e research found that criminal clude a conceptual framework for future UNODC organizations o#er a range of services, including technical assistance initiatives pertaining to the over- transport, identity fraud and maintenance of a guar- all !ght against irregular migration from the South antee system. Compared to Pakistan, there is a lack Asia region. of demand for sophisticated services in Afghanistan, mainly due to the fact that Afghans are able to exit their country easily. "us, networks serving Afghans United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. migrants are located in the Islamic Republic of Iran, (2010). Crime facilitating migration from Pa- Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. Pakistan kistan and Afghanistan. Vienna: UNODC. and the Islamic Republic of Iran serve as de facto exit points for Afghans. "e paper assumes that the Key words: land route to Europe and air services are the main Afghanistan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan revenue pools. Compared to the drug trade, migrant Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- smuggling is characterized by a better risk-reward ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus ratio, less market competition, and less use of vio- operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, lence. "e research further assessed that the structure Pro!les of smuggled migrants, Pro!les of smugglers, of migrant smuggling is evolving and that there are Routes, Smuggling important gaps in current legislative frameworks and law enforcement. Research method used: Qualitative In addition to including recommendations for actions in Afghanistan and Pakistan, the study pro- Summary: vides information on the costs of various smuggling "is paper presents an investigation of the crimes services, maps a number of the signi!cant migrant and criminal networks that facilitate irregular mi- smuggling routes, proposes a method by which to gration from Pakistan and Afghanistan, with a focus estimate the overall size of the industry and presents on migrant smuggling. "e paper draws on qualita- a detailed case study using the example of Hazara tive research involving a total of 166 human sources, migration to Australia. with the majority in Afghanistan and Pakistan but also in Australia, the United Kingdom and the Unit- ed Arab Emirates. "e human sources included cur- United Nations O!ce on Drugs and Crime. rent and former government o$cials, international (2011). #e role of organized crime in the organizations, NGOs, migrants, migrants’ families, smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the community leaders and criminals o#ering services European Union. Vienna: UNODC.

105 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Key words: United States Department of State. (2010). China, India, Pakistan Tra$cking in persons report. Washington, South Asia D.C.: U.S. Department of State. Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and payment for smuggling, Human and social costs of Key words: smuggling; Irregular migration, Modus operandi Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular migrants, Pro- Lao PDR, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, !les of smuggled migrants, Quantitative assessment, Singapore, Sri Lanka, "ailand, Viet Nam Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling Tra$cking %ows

Research method used: Research method used: Qualitative Qualitative

Summary: Summary: Although this report examines the smuggling opera- "is report is based on information from US embas- tions of West African migrants to Europe, it contains sies, government o$cials, NGOs and international some references to Asia. "e report was prepared organizations, journalists, academics, tra$cking sur- through desk and !eld research conducted in Mali, vivors, reports, and research trips to every region. Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Spain. Inter- views were conducted with more than 200 people in According to the report, Afghanistan is a source, Africa and Europe belonging to three main groups: transit and destination country for tra$cking in migrants, migrant smugglers and national authori- men, women and children, speci!cally for forced la- ties and NGOs. bour and prostitution. Domestic tra$cking is more prevalent than cross-border tra$cking. Children are "e study revealed that irregular migrants from tra$cked for forced prostitution and forced labour. South Asia who tried to reach Europe travelled !rst Forced begging is organized by ma!a-like groups. to West Africa by air and then overland to North Af- Boys are subjected to forced prostitution and forced rica before crossing into Europe by sea. "e research labour in the drug smuggling industry. Women and also found that Asian syndicates were involved in girls are subjected to forced prostitution and forced the smuggling of Asian migrants who entered Eu- marriage, which can lead to prostitution or invol- rope via West Africa and the Sahara. Data from untary domestic servitude. Some families knowingly Spain showed that most South Asian migrants who sell their children into forced prostitution. Men are travelled along the South Asia-West Africa-North subjected to forced labour and debt bondage in vari- Africa route were from Bangladesh, India and Paki- ous countries, including Pakistan and South-East stan. Most were young men who were urged by their Asian countries. Male migrants from India, Nepal families to earn a better income and had an older and Sri Lanka who willingly migrated to Afghani- relative who had previously worked in Europe. On stan have been subjected to forced labour. Females average, the migrants were from families of modest possibly from China have been forced into prostitu- income, and in many instances, parents sold land tion in Afghanistan. Brothels and prostitution rings or borrowed money to pay the 15,000–18,000 euro are sometimes run by foreigners and sometimes by smuggling fee. "e report claims that migrants are larger criminal networks. often deserted in North Africa by the smugglers and become trapped, unable to continue their journey According to the report, Cambodia is a source, tran- to Europe or return to Asia because their funds have sit and destination country for men, women and run out. Because Asian migrants travel the great- children who are tra$cked for forced labour and est distances, they pay the highest fees. Chinese forced prostitution. Cambodians who migrate to smuggling rings are also discussed, but the report "ailand, Malaysia and other countries to work may acknowledges that the routes that involved West Af- be subjected to forced labour. Debt bondage increas- rican countries, including the Canary Islands, are es victims’ vulnerability. "e number of Cambodians less popular now as a result of more stringent law travelling to Malaysia through recruiting companies enforcement strategies enacted by Spain. tripled in 2009. Recruiters charge USD 500 to USD

106 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

700, which includes compulsory pre-departure train- country for women and girls who are tra$cked into ing. Cambodian children are tra$cked to "ailand forced prostitution and women, men and children and Viet Nam for begging and forced labour. Parents tra$cked for forced labour. Lao citizens are traf- sometimes knowingly sell their children into forced !cked to "ailand for forced labour. Brokers receive labour. Domestic tra$cking for sexual exploitation fees ranging from USD 70 to USD 200 for job place- is a problem. Children are also forced into begging ments in "ailand, which often lead to tra$cking. A domestically. "e selling of virgins continues, and small number of Lao women and girls are tra$cked the country is a child sex tourism destination. to China as forced brides. Ethnic minorities are more vulnerable to tra$cking to "ailand. "e country is According to the report, China is a source, transit increasingly a transit country for Chinese, Myanmar and destination country for men, women and chil- and Vietnamese women tra$cked for sexual exploi- dren tra$cked for forced labour and forced prosti- tation and forced labour to "ailand. tution. Women from Lao People’s Democratic Re- public, Myanmar, Viet Nam and other countries According to the report, Malaysia is a destination are tra$cked to China for forced labour and sexual and, to a lesser extent, source and transit country for exploitation. Tra$cking is coordinated by interna- tra$cking in women and children for forced prosti- tional criminal syndicates and local gangs. "e ma- tution as well as men, women and children who are jority of tra$cking is domestic. Debt bondage is also subjected to forced labour. "e majority of victims an issue. are migrants from Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philip- According to the report, India is a source, destina- pines, "ailand and Viet Nam who encounter forced tion and transit country for tra$cking in women, labour and debt bondage. Tra$ckers are mostly in- men and children for forced labour and commer- dividual businesspeople, but organized crime syndi- cial sexual exploitation. Domestic forced labour and cates are also involved in the tra$cking of foreigners. debt bondage are the biggest problem — 90 per cent Malaysian citizens are tra$cked internally as well as of tra$cking is internal. People from disadvantaged to Hong Kong (China), France, Singapore and the social classes are especially vulnerable. Major cities United Kingdom for commercial sexual exploita- and towns are destinations for child sex tourism. La- tion. Almost two million people are estimated to be bour tra$cking of Indian citizens occurs to Europe, residing without documents in Malaysia. the Middle East and the United States. According to the report, Maldives is primarily a According to the report, Indonesia is a source coun- country of destination for migrant workers from try and to a lesser extent a destination and transit Bangladesh and India, some of whom are subjected country for tra$cking in men, women and children to tra$cking for forced labour. Women are also traf- for forced prostitution and forced labour. Many In- !cked for forced prostitution. Fraudulent recruit- donesian migrant workers are subjected to forced ment practices include con!scation of identity and labour and debt bondage in Malaysia, Singapore travel documents, withholding or non-payment of and other Asian and Middle Eastern countries. It is wages or debt bondage. Regular and irregular mi- estimated that 43 per cent of Indonesia’s expatriate grant workers are vulnerable to forced labour. Mi- workforce are victims of tra$cking. Labour recruit- grant workers pay USD 1,000 to USD 4,000 to mi- ers are responsible for more than 50 per cent of fe- grate to the Maldives, which increases vulnerability male workers who experience tra$cking conditions to forced labour. Tra$ckers are either (1) families in destination countries. Recruiters work either in- who subject domestic servants to forced labour; (2) dependently or for recruitment labour companies, employment agents who assist migrants to the Mal- some of which operate similarly to tra$cking rings. dives under false pretences; or (3) employers who Sixty per cent of children younger than 5 years do subject migrants to forced labour. not have birth certi!cates, which places them at a higher risk for tra$cking. According to the report, Myanmar is a source country for men, women and children who are subjected According to the report, Lao PDR is a source coun- to tra$cking in persons for forced labour and forced try and, to a lesser extent, a transit and destination prostitution in other countries. Children from My-

107 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

anmar are subjected to forced labour as hawkers and According to the report, Sri Lanka is primarily a beggars in "ailand. Many people who migrate to source and, to a lesser extent, a destination coun- China, India, Malaysia and "ailand are tra$cked. try for tra$cking in men and women for forced la- Poor economic conditions in the country have led bour and forced prostitution. Sri Lankans migrate to increased out-migration from Myanmar through to the Middle East and some are subjected to forced regular and irregular channels. Men are tra$cked for labour. Sri Lankan migrants pay about USD 1,500 forced labour. Women who migrate to China, Ma- in recruitment fees and often take on debt, which laysia and "ailand are often tra$cked for forced increases their vulnerability to tra$cking. "ere is labour and forced prostitution. Domestic tra$cking evidence of government complicity in tra$cking is also a serious issue, especially in the case of child through modi!ed documents or real documents soldiers and compulsory labour. with false data. Domestically, women and children are tra$cked to brothels. Boys are more likely than According to the report, Pakistan is a source, tran- girls to be forced into prostitution for child sex tour- sit and destination country for tra$cking in men, ism. Children are also subjected to bonded labour in women and children for forced labour and prosti- the agriculture sector. tution. Bonded labour is the largest problem and victims are estimated to exceed one million. Boys According to the report, "ailand is a source, des- and girls are subjected to forced begging, domestic tination and transit country for tra$cking in men, servitude, prostitution and bonded labour in the ag- women and children for forced labour and forced riculture sector. Illegal agents charge exorbitant fees prostitution. "e majority of migrants in "ailand to parents and give false promises of decent work. are from Myanmar. "e majority of tra$cking vic- Girls and women are sold into forced marriages, tims have been forced, coerced or defrauded into some of whom are forced into prostitution by their forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation. husbands. Non-state military groups kidnap chil- Tra$ckers who bring foreigners to "ailand gener- dren or coerce parents through fraudulent promises ally work alone or in unorganized groups. Tra$ckers into giving their children away to act as spies or sui- who enslave "ai citizens abroad are generally more cide bombers. Pakistani migrants become victims of organized. Undocumented migrants are particularly labour tra$cking through false job o#ers and high vulnerable to being tra$cked. Children from neigh- fees charged by authorized and unauthorized labour bouring countries have been tra$cked for forced agents. begging, selling %owers or working as domestic servants. Most repatriated "ai victims had worked in According to the report, Singapore is a destination Bahrain, Malaysia, Maldives or Singapore. "ai men country for tra$cking in women and girls for forced and women are tra$cked domestically for forced la- prostitution, and some migrant workers experience bour. Sexual exploitation generally involves women forced labour. Migrants from India, Indonesia, My- and girls. Sex tourism is a serious problem in the anmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, "ailand, Viet Nam country. and other countries constitute a third of Singapore’s workforce. Many domestic workers are indebted According to the report, Viet Nam is a source and for six to ten months of their wages, due to their destination country for tra$cking in men, women employment, which increases their vulnerability to and children for forced prostitution and forced la- forced labour. Foreign women are recruited with of- bour. Vietnamese men and women migrate abroad fers of legitimate employment but are forced into through state-a$liated and private labour export prostitution. Some women intend to engage in pros- companies to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Republic titution but are tra$cked into forced prostitution for of Korea, Taiwan Province of China, "ailand and the pro!t of others. Most victims enter the country other countries. Some of these workers experience with a tourist visa organized by the tra$ckers. Or- conditions of forced labour. Vietnamese women and ganized criminal groups may be involved in tra$ck- children who are tra$cked into prostitution in Asia ing for sexual exploitation. Substantial recruitment are often misled about job opportunities and then networks may be operating to supply women for the sold to brothels in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Ma- sex trade. Singaporean men are a source of demand laysia, "ailand and other countries. Labour com- for child sex tourism in South-East Asia. panies charge up to USD 10,000 for job placement

108 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

abroad, which often leads to debt bondage. Recruit- number of persons persecuted for hiring, hosting or ment companies have reportedly withheld work smuggling migrant workers. It is not clear from the contracts until migrants have paid signi!cant fees report if this is primary or secondary data. and workers have signed contracts in languages they could not read. Vietnamese children are tra$cked According to the report, the MOUs have neither domestically and abroad for forced labour. Brokered been e$cient nor e#ective. "e report also concludes marriages, which lead to forced labour or prostitu- that the ongoing social, political and economic situation, are also an issue. tion in Myanmar, high costs charged by recruitment agencies in Lao PDR and Cambodia to facilitate migration to "ailand, restrictive migration policies Vasuprasat, P. (2008). Inter-state cooperation in the sending and receiving countries and ongoing on labour migration: Lessons learned from labour shortages among low-skilled jobs in "ailand MOUs between #ailand and neighbouring are likely to further increase the number of irregular countries. Bangkok: International Labour migrants entering "ailand for work. Organization. "e report gives some insight into the reasons why Key words: many Lao and Cambodian migrants turn to smug- Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand glers to facilitate their journey and entry into "ai- Fees and payment for smuggling, Human and social land for work. Under the MOUs, the services pro- costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Smuggling vided by recruitment agencies are expensive and slow in terms of facilitating transport to and employment Research method used: in "ailand. "ere is some discussion surrounding Unknown the fees associated with smuggling in comparison to the fees charged by recruitment agencies to illus- Summary: trate how a#ordable smuggling services. "e report "e purpose of this report is to analyse the bilateral highlights that many Lao and Cambodian people memoranda of understanding (MOUs) on employ- migrate irregularly to "ailand using the services of ment between Lao People’s Democratic Republic smuggling networks and concludes that the slow im- and "ailand and Cambodia and "ailand. "e aim plementation of the MOUs, coupled with the high of each MOU is to promote the orderly %ow of mi- costs of formal recruitment agencies, means that the grants to "ailand from Lao PDR and Cambodia business of migrant smuggling will increase. and back again. "e analysis is presented by looking at the scope and objectives of the MOUs, the administrative procedures and consultative mechanisms, Vijeyarasa, R. (2010). #e state, the family return and repatriation of Lao and Cambodian mi- and language of ‘social evils’: Re-stigmatising grant workers in "ailand and measures against un- victims of tra!cking in Vietnam. In: Culture, authorized border crossings and employment. "e Health and Sexuality, 12(SUPPL. 1), pp. 89– MOUs are not legally binding, but they are a state- 102. ment of intent, carrying commitments on behalf of both parties in the co-management of migration. Key words: China, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, "ailand, "e report does not include information on the Malaysia, Viet Nam research methodology or data sources. It includes Irregular migration, Tra$cking %ows a number of tables with statistics drawn from various sources on such issues as demand for migrant Research method used: workers, estimated recruitment costs, the number Qualitative of irregular migrants from the MOU countries detected by "ai immigration authorities, the number Summary: of nationals from the MOU countries who passed "e objective of this paper was to examine the re- through "ai immigration, the number of migrant sponses of the Vietnamese Government to tra$ck- workers arrested by "ai immigration police and the ing in women and girls and the associated social

109 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

stigma of tra$cked returnees. According to the pa- in the trade of women and children, yet they con- per, tra$cking in persons is not widely perceived as vey stigma by their inability to ignore the State’s a human rights violation but rather a form of “social social evil approach and to create an environment evil” that badly a#ects Vietnamese society, customs, that facilitates the reintegration and return of their traditions, social morals and laws. According to the family members. Dishonoured and labelled as dis- Government, the “problem” of tra$cking (along ease transmitters by society, returned victims often with other social evils such as sex work) is destroying decide not to return home or may not be able to re- family happiness, increasing the risk of transmission integrate. Ultimately, the author concludes that the of HIV and resulting in potential impacts on nation- ability of returned victims of tra$cking to reinte- al and social security. "e Government’s “social evil” grate is undermined by the social evils approach and approach to tra$cking in persons has thus negatively the responses of the State and family. "us, the au- in%uenced attitudes towards victims of tra$cking as thor recommends that the Vietnamese Government well as sex workers. According to the author, this withdraw from its social evils approach, implement approach serves to de%ect attention away from the support measures for sex workers, review its prostitu- structural inequalities that foster tra$cking in per- tion regulations and actively foster gender equality. sons and prostitution rather than addressing them. "e paper does not directly contribute knowledge on Regarding the de!nition of tra$cking in persons, migrant smuggling due to its focus on tra$cking in the author acknowledges the importance of the Traf- persons, state responses and social stigma. However, !cking in Persons Protocol in providing some con- push factors for irregular migration and destination sensus at the international level. However, the de!ni- countries (Cambodia, China, Lao People’s Demo- tion according to the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol cratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar and "ailand) is criticized for its failure to recognize tra$cking as are mentioned. a form of migration, due to its focus on the use of illicit means. Wai, M., Bhumiprabhas, B. and Kerdmong- "e paper draws on relevant literature and !eldwork kol, A. (eds.) (2004). A memoir of Burmese in Viet Nam conducted from 2008 to 2009. Dur- workers: From slaves labour to illegal migrant ing the course of research, the author identi!ed !ve workers. Bangkok: #ai Action Committee shelters that speci!cally o#er support to tra$cked for Democracy in Burma. returnees, located in South, Central and North Viet Nam. A questionnaire was distributed among shel- Key words: ter management and sta# on the issue of stigma and Myanmar, "ailand challenges faced in providing support to returnees; Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and so- three of the !ve shelter sta# responded. "e author cial costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus does not provide details about the data collected. In operandi of smuggling, Smuggling addition, the author attended meetings and a work- shop organized by the Reintegration Network in Research method used: Hanoi. Qualitative

"e author argues that although the Vietnamese Summary: Government recognizes that many women migrate "is book highlights the experiences of exploitation abroad for employment and takes steps to address and abuse su#ered by irregular Myanmar migrant tra$cking in persons, it places tra$cking prevention workers in "ailand. It is a compilation of memoirs measures in line with the prevention and combating taken from Myanmar migrants working in "ailand of “criminal and social evils”. "is approach char- in agriculture, garment factories, construction, !sh- acterizes returning tra$cking victims as criminals ing and domestic housemaids and their experiences and has direct socio-economic consequences for the of arrest and treatment by the "ai police. "e book’s victims. "e author also found that the ambivalent intent is to expose the reality endured by many My- position of the Vietnamese family contributes to the anmar workers in "ailand. "e research primarily impact of stigma. Families increasingly participate involved direct accounts of experiences taken from a

110 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

number of Myanmar migrant workers in "ailand. lets, the author concludes that from the media reports analysed (748 articles), the media has demonstrated a "e author found that irregular Myanmar migrants high level of understanding of human tra$cking. working in "ailand are abused and exploited by both their employers and the police. "is is exempli!ed by "e study focused on human tra$cking cases report- a number of case studies and accounts of Myanmar ed in the Chinese print media from 1 January 2006 migrant workers in "ailand who have experienced to 31 December 2007, speci!cally to: (1) look for such exploitation and abuse. Although many Myan- which groups are most vulnerable to tra$cking and mar migrant workers in "ailand su#er mistreatment the speci!c risks they face; (2) establish a baseline for and violation of their human rights on a daily basis a longitudinal study on tra$cking trends; (3) analyse within their work, the book demonstrates that most the nature of reporting on tra$cking and the por- choose not to return to Myanmar and continue to trayal of victims in the Chinese print media; and (4) return to "ailand to work even after they have been provide recommendations on tra$cking prevention arrested and deported by the "ai authorities. for policymakers and for working with the media.

"e book does not contribute directly to knowledge From the media analysis, the report provides some on migrant smuggling. It gives a brief discussion of !ndings on the pro!les of reported tra$cked victims the role of brokers in the facilitation of Myanmar in China, identifying that nearly 30 per cent were migration to "ailand in terms of managing the trip, male and nearly 62 per cent were female (the oth- arranging accommodation and helping to !nd em- ers were not clear in terms of sex). Based on the de- ployment in "ailand. tails that were given, the most at-risk to tra$cking are girls and young women aged between 14 and 20, and there appears to be a correlation between age, sex Wei, B. (2008). Reporting human tra$cking and di#erent forms of tra$cking (for example, young in China’s print media. #e Institute of Jour- women and girls are more likely to be tra$cked for nalism and Communication and the Chinese sexual exploitation). "e study also concluded that Academy of Social Sciences. Retrieved from the majority of victims were tra$cked through de- www.notip.org.cn/UserImages/00001691. ceptive means or an abuse of their vulnerability as pdf (accessed 18 August 2011). opposed to physical violence. However, many were controlled by restricting their physical movement or Key words: by physical violence. "e media articles reported on China tra$cking into forced prostitution (19 per cent), into Tra$cking %ows the entertainment industry (9 per cent), for brick kilns work (9 per cent), for manufacturing work (4 Research method used: per cent), for domestic labour (3 per cent) and for Quantitative forced begging (3 per cent). Two thirds of the articles reviewed referred to actual tra$cking cases. Summary: "e author provides an analysis of Chinese media reports (both public and government) on human traf- Woman and Child Rights Project and the Hu- !cking cases in China to learn more about human man Rights Foundation of Monland. (2009). tra$cking in China and how the media reports on the Nowhere else to go: An examination of sexual crime. According to the author, this is the !rst study tra$cking and related human rights abuses of its kind in China and was developed by the Project in Southern Burma. Bangkok: Woman and to Prevent Tra$cking in Girls and Young Women for Child Rights Project and the Human Rights Labour Exploitation within China, implemented by Foundation of Monland. the ILO and the All-China Women’s Federation. "e author notes that the media was identi!ed as a source Key words: to reveal the scale and nature of tra$cking in China. Myanmar, "ailand While acknowledging that the study is not de!nitive Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- because it only covers a fraction of China’s media out- tion, Tra$cking %ows

111 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Research method used: ing of women and girls from southern Myanmar to Qualitative "ailand and how tra$ckers exploit and abuse them in the tra$cking process. "e report gives some val- Summary: uable insight into why Myanmar migrants employ "is report details the experiences of a number of the services of smugglers or tra$ckers to facilitate Myanmar migrant women and girls from Mon State their migration to "ailand. at the southern Myanmar-"ai border who were tra$cked to "ailand. Many of the women and girls were promised work in factories or restaurants but Yang, B. Y. F. (2007). Life and death away were instead tra$cked into prostitution. "e report from the golden land: #e plight of Burmese uses a number of individual case studies to high- migrant workers in #ailand. In: Asia-Paci"c light the abuses and sexual exploitation su#ered by Law and Policy Journal, 8(2). a number of Mon women and girls. "e report uses the Tra$cking in Persons Protocol de!nition. Key words: Myanmar, "ailand "e qualitative research method relies on a number Factors that fuel irregular migration, Irregular migra- of interviews and case studies with women and girls tion, Pro!les of irregular migrants who were tra$cked. In total, 40 interviews were conducted by the Women and Child Rights Project Research method used: team in partnership with the Mon News Agency Qualitative from 2003 to 2004. "e team interviewed survivors and witnesses of tra$cking in persons and sexual Summary: violence and Myanmar women who had worked as "is article outlines the situation that Myanmar sex workers in "ailand. migrant workers experience, both documented and undocumented, in "ailand. "e article particularly "e report contains a number of in-depth case studies focuses on the human rights abuses and deprivation taken directly from the interviews with the tra$cking of civil liberties. "e article gives a comprehensive victims. "e case studies detail the interviewees’ ex- discussion of the many factors in%uencing the con- periences associated with recruitment and the abuse ditions of Myanmar migrant workers in "ailand, and exploitation su#ered in their "ai workplace. "ai migration management and social welfare policies, and the impact they have on Myanmar migrant "e main !nding of the research is that many wom- workers. en and girls who wanted to migrate to "ailand for the purpose of work were ultimately tra$cked into "e article draws on relevant research and reports as sexual exploitation. It is often the case that the only well as interviews with a number of Myanmar mi- means for Myanmar women and girls to migrate to grant workers, although the number interviewed is "ailand is by using the services of a smuggler or not given. "e interviews were carried out at Inter- tra$cker. Regular migration is impossible for many national Organization for Migration outreach events women and girls (and indeed Myanmar men and (the author was an intern at IOM Bangkok in 2005) boys) because of the Myanmar Government’s re- and during !eld visits in a number of neighbour- strictions on providing travel documentation. Many hoods, workplaces, community centres and ethnic women and girls are promised work in restaurants enclaves in "ailand. "e interviews and !eld visits or factories in "ailand but often end up forced into were used to supplement the existing literature on prostitution. Many are deceived by their tra$ckers Myanmar migrant workers in "ailand. with false promises of factory or restaurant work. "ose who are tra$cked into "ailand to factories or "e research highlights the plight of Myanmar mi- restaurants are also frequently exploited and abused grant workers in "ailand and their vulnerability in their workplaces, including sexual abuse. to exploitation and abuse at the hands of their "ai employers and "ai authorities. "e author criticizes "e report does not directly contribute knowledge "ai migration management policy and social wel- on migrant smuggling. It focuses on the tra$ck- fare policy and the implementation of these policies

112 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

to the detriment of many Myanmar migrant workers and forced labour in Europe. "e study focused on whom the policies are designed to protect and sup- newly arrived migrants who work in several sectors port. Registration as a migrant worker is expensive of the underground economy: manufacturing, ca- and is often beyond the means of many migrant tering, construction and leather working. "e re- workers, which means that many of them migrate to search con!rmed that their irregular status and thus "ailand by irregular channels. Employers sometimes their vulnerability was a main factor leading to their pay for the registration and use this as a form of debt involvement in those sectors. bondage against the workers. Migrants often simply go unregistered and work irregularly because they "e report !rst outlines de!nitions and the research cannot a#ord to pay for registration. In addition, ac- methodology. "e authors present an overview and cess to health services and education is often di$cult analysis of what they consider to be the most reli- for many Myanmar migrant workers because of their able quantitative and qualitative secondary research irregular migrant status. Push-pull factors for migra- on Chinese migrants in France. "e analysis includes tion are discussed, including better economic op- data collected by the International Organization for portunity in "ailand, a gap in the "ai low-skilled Migration, the French O$ce for the Protection of employment sector and ongoing political unrest and Refugees and Stateless Persons and the French Min- poverty in Myanmar. "e article does not directly istry of the Interior as well as independent research- contribute knowledge on migrant smuggling. ers. Data stems from participant observation and 59 semi-structured interviews with government authorities, independent researchers, irregular Chinese Yun, G. and Poisson, V. (2005). Le tra"c et migrants and NGOs. Nine case studies were also l’exploitation des immigrants Chinois en developed, which included one broker and eight ir- France. Geneva: Bureau International du Tra- regular migrants. vail. "e report then follows the migratory path of Chi- Key words: nese migrants, including the push factors for migra- China tion, methods for entry and routes of migration. "e Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees conditions upon arrival in the host country are also and payment for smuggling, Human and social costs discussed, such as working conditions, the need to of smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus operandi repay debts and fear due to their irregular status. of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les Drawing on the case studies, the qualitative ap- of irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, proach provides valuable insights into irregular mi- Smuggling, Tra$cking %ows gration and tra$cking from China to Europe. "e !nal sections examine French policies and legislation Research method used: related to migration. Qualitative

Summary: Yun, G., Levy, F. and Poisson, V. (2006). De la European countries are increasingly concerned migration au travail: L’exploitation extrême about the problem of irregular Chinese migration des Chinois-e-s à Paris. In: Travail, Genre et and the di$cult conditions that they encounter in Sociétés, 16, pp. 53–74. the destination country. At the same time, there are few studies that examine Chinese migration to Eu- Key words: rope, including methods of recruitment and work- China ing conditions. In 2003, the International Labour Factors that fuel irregular migration, Human and so- Organization undertook research on contemporary cial costs of smuggling, Irregular migration, Pro!les forms of slavery in France. "e focus of the study of irregular migrants, Pro!les of smuggled migrants, was the population of Chinese migrants in this Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling country, one of the largest in Europe. "e study built on a previous report by one of the authors Research method used: written on the broader topic of Chinese migrants Qualitative

113 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Summary: The chapter is based on a field survey and quali- Drawing upon a number of di#erent empirical re- tative studies and research. The field survey in- search studies, this article highlights the vulnerabil- cluded semi-structured interviews with 59 mi- ity of irregular Chinese migrants in France. Two re- grants from the Chinese provinces of Zhejiang, gional groups are examined in particular, migrants Dongbei and Fujian. In addition, interviews from North China and migrants from Zhejiang and with 20 experts in the field of Chinese migra- Dongbei provinces. "e authors argue that the vul- tion were conducted. According to the authors, nerability of these groups is characterized by three this approach enabled them to obtain first-hand elements: their irregular status, their debts incurred information and to compare migrants’ accounts, and isolation (due to language barriers, their lack official reports and academic discourse. The pur- of education, a fear of eviction and a lack of under- pose of the interviews was to expand the knowl- standing of French society). "e article o#ers infor- edge about the factors that create a situation of mation about the push-pull factors that in%uence a vulnerability for Chinese migrant workers, abu- Chinese person to migrate irregularly and why an ir- sive practices used by employers and the differ- regular migrant chooses to stay in France at all costs. ent challenges faced by policymakers and law en- Trapped in an irregular situation, irregular migrants forcement agencies. !nd it impossible to secure a legal work permit to pay back their debts. "e only alternative is unau- "e research found that Chinese migrants reach thorized work within the Chinese community. "e their destination country by direct %ight, by using a authors illustrate how Chinese employers exploit ir- visa or a combination of genuine and forged docu- regular migrants, pro!ting from their vulnerability. ments and/or via an overland route, which often In conclusion, the authors stress how current legisla- passes through a number of countries. "e journey tive measures do little to protect the exploitation of often lasts many months and involves various means migrants in France. of transport. Most migrants are aware of the risks, but smugglers who have provided e$cient service are well known and respected. "e research pointed Yun, G. and Poisson, V. (2010). Exploita- to di#erent organizational relationships, ranging tion of Chinese migrants’ vulnerabilities in from smuggling by relatives and friends to transpor- France. In: G. Yun (ed.), Concealed chains: tation by internationally operating crime groups. Labour exploitation and Chinese migrants Organizers are involved in all stages of the smug- in Europe. Geneva: International Labour Or- gling process. Sometimes the agreed fee is increased ganization (Vol. 1). during travel, and migrants may be held in detention en route until their debts have been paid. Ac- Key words: cording to the research, the repayment period for China migrants in France is likely to be from three to ten Factors that fuel irregular migration, Fees and pay- years. However, one of the case studies shows that ment for smuggling, Irregular migration, Modus repayment of debt can take much longer. "e re- operandi of smuggling, Pro!les of irregular mi- search found that all migrants from Zhejiang were grants, Routes, Smuggler-migrant relationship, in debt. In some cases, the migrants, unable to pay, Smuggling had to work under exploitive conditions with their wages withheld. Research method used: Qualitative "e authors note that Chinese crime gangs are developing in parallel with organized irregular migration Summary: in France and that Chinese prostitution increased "is book chapter explores the situation regarding considerably with the arrival of migrants from forced labour and possible tra$cking in persons in Dongbei. Chinese migrants in France experience France, based on empirical research. "e aim of the harsh working conditions. "e garment industry, for research was to identify the circumstances that pro- example, has implemented a system that uses an ex- mote the practice of labour exploitation of Chinese tremely %exible labour force, which can work up to migrants in France. 20 hours a day to produce goods within a very short

114 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

time. Employers also adopt strategies to avoid in- province of Fujian. A total of 129 interviews were spections and checks, including moving production conducted, of which 89 per cent were formal, semi- into workers’ homes. Additionally, a complex system structured interviews. "e focus of the interviews of multiple subcontracts serves to protect employ- was to gain knowledge about organizational and ers from labour responsibilities and makes it nearly operational characteristics of Chinese migrant smug- impossible for law enforcement agents to trace the gling. real employers responsible for exploiting the most vulnerable groups. "e authors conclude that Chinese migrant smugglers come from diverse backgrounds and form "e chapter provides !rst-hand insights on migrant temporary business alliances with little hierarchi- smuggling, despite its focus on forced labour. It cal organization. Despite this, the research revealed makes extensive use of case studies and interview that specialization and division of labour was well excerpts, which provide valuable insight into the developed among smugglers and that the smuggling methods of smuggling operations, the !nancing of process was composed of a series of one-on-one net- the journey and the possible risks while in transit. works, each contributing to the goal of landing cli- It also provides information on the sending regions, ents in the United States. "e research also found migrants’ motivation to migrate and highlights the that smugglers do not perceive themselves as crimi- vulnerabilities as well as life and work experiences of nals but rather as businesspeople providing a valu- Chinese irregular migrants in France. able service to their communities.

According to the authors, their inability to !nd a Zhang, S. X. and Chin, K. (2004). Character- connection between migrant smugglers and tra- istics of Chinese human smugglers. Washing- ditional organized crime could be related to their ton, D.C.: US Department of Justice, O!ce sampling strategy. It is thus possible that the full of Justice Programs, National Institute of Jus- range of smugglers may not be represented by the tice. Retrieved from www.ncjrs.gov/pd!les1/ research because subjects were identi!ed through nij/204989.pdf (accessed 16 January 2012). personal contacts and the snowball sampling technique. Key words: China "e report provides insights into the pro!les of Fees and payment for smuggling, Modus operandi smugglers, types of arrangements and business of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!le of structures, roles of actors within the network, the smugglers, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smug- power structure and the links to government o$- gling cials.

Research methods used: Mixed Zhang, S. X., Chin, K. L. and Miller, J. (2007). Women’s participation in Chinese Summary: transnational human smuggling: A gendered "is report explores the operational and organiza- market perspective. In: Criminology, 45(3), tional characteristics of Chinese migrant smuggling pp. 699–733. organizations operating between China and the United States. A “smuggler” in this report is de!ned Key words: as anyone who, for a fee, facilitates unauthorized en- China try into the United States. Human social costs smuggling, Modus operandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of "e research drew on data collected from formal and smugglers, Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smug- informal face-to-face interviews with self-identi!ed gling smugglers residing either in China or the United States. Primary sites for data collection were New Research method used: York, Los Angeles and Fuzhou city in the Chinese Mixed

115 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Summary: tors include the limited place of violence and turf According to the authors, despite extensive sociolog- as organizing features of migrant smuggling, the im- ical research on gender and organizations, criminol- portance of interpersonal networks in de!ning and ogist have paid insu$cient attention to how the or- facilitating smuggling operations, gender ideologies ganizational context and market demand may shape about work and care giving and the impact of safety the extent and nature of women’s participation in as an overriding concern for clients. "e !ndings of illicit enterprises. "eir study used an organizational this research suggest that organizational and market framework to examine the case of Chinese migrant contexts are signi!cant explanations for gender strat- smuggling to the United States and the involvement i!cation in illicit enterprises. of women. Due to the use of snowball sampling, the researchers "e authors use the enterprise model of criminal or- do not claim precise knowledge of the gender distri- ganization, which suggests adaptive and %exible net- bution of migrant smugglers. After all, women con- works that can easily react to the uncertainties of the stituted only 18 per cent of the sample. "e research- illicit market. "ey propose a “gendered market per- ers argue that although women are clearly in the spective” as a theoretical framework for understand- minority in the study, the !ndings suggest greater ing the nature of women’s participation and their involvement by women in migrant smuggling than place within Chinese migrant smuggling enterprises. is found in other illicit enterprises, including tradi- "e authors base this model on three prerequisites tional organized crime. for women’s entry into the smuggling organization (social connections, entrepreneurial spirit and the "e paper provides valuable insights on how women compatibility with cultural expectations of women) enter the smuggling business and their roles in the and on a set of market conditions, which according business. It discusses market conditions and emerg- to the authors have reduced the traditional gender ing opportunities for women and explains their im- barriers commonly found in organized criminal ac- pact on the smuggling industry. tivities.

A “human smuggler” is de!ned as anyone who par- Zhang, S. X. (2007). Smuggling and tra$ck- ticipates in assisting a person to enter a country (in ing in human beings: All roads lead to Amer- this case the United States) irregularly for a fee. ica. Westport, Connecticut [USA]: Praeger Publishers. "e paper draws on data from interviews with 129 individuals (including 106 men and 29 women) who Key words: were directly or indirectly involved in organizing China and transporting Chinese nationals into the Unit- Fees and payments, Irregular Migration, Modus oped States. "e researchers recruited study subjects erandi of smuggling, Organization of smuggling, through their personal contacts and those of their Smuggling research assistants. "e interviews were conducted in New York, Los Angeles and Fuzhou city (China) and Research method used: included informal as well as formal face-to-face in- Qualitative terviews, based on a set of semi-structured and open- ended questions. "e interviews were conducted to Summary: gain knowledge about the participation of women "is book presents research on how pro!t-oriented in Chinese migrant smuggling and to compare the migrant smuggling and tra$cking in persons activi- backgrounds, entry requirements and roles of men ties into the United States are carried out and explores and women in migrant smuggling organizations. the legal and policy challenges for counter-measures. It aimed to provide a criminological analysis of the "e researchers conclude that although migrant strategies employed to gain unauthorized entry into smuggling operations are still predominately a male the United States. "e research emphasized the or- enterprise, certain factors create market niches that ganized and business nature of unauthorized entries some women may use to their advantage. "ese fac- facilitated by enterprising agents.

116 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

Data sources include published government and "e book also deals with the phenomenon of traf- non-government agency reports, academic studies, !cking in women and children, particularly for news media reports and personal interviews with sexual exploitation. In addition to discussing the irregular migrants, migrant smugglers and law en- di#erent aspects of tra$cking in persons, such as forcement representatives. Information on the sam- causes, the role of corruption and the business side ple size or selection is not provided. of tra$cking, the book presents two case studies to illustrate how Korean sex tra$ckers operate in the "e book begins with an overview of the scope and United States. Referring to the organization and ex- patterns of global migration and migrant smuggling ecution, the book claims that few human tra$ckers activities. It describes some of strategies and methods come close to the level of sophistication of Korean employed by various groups to bring individuals into sex tra$ckers. the United States through authorized channels, such as marriage fraud and temporary visas. "e study discusses the nexus of terrorism and organized crime, including migrant smuggling. Ac- "e book further addresses the acquisition of iden- cording to the author, organized criminal activities ti!cation documents by smugglers. Acquiring a possess the optimal structural and operational facili- passport is an elaborate and cautious process, which ties for terrorist activities. "e author argues that the involves scouting, approaching, persuading, nego- unauthorized movements from countries with links tiating and purchasing. Moreover, it is an ongoing to Islamic extremists are likely to present opportuni- process, with Chinese smugglers constantly looking ties to terrorist groups to place members into tar- for prospective sellers and buyers. geted countries.

"e book also examines migrant smuggling through "e last chapter of this book discusses issues and unauthorized entry channels (in contrast to “legal” challenges of combating migrant smuggling. It channels, such as visa overstaying) and describes looks at two basic approaches used to halt migrant three major smuggling strategies: overland, maritime smuggling activities, from the perspective of the and by air. Chinese smugglers, for example, have United States: macro-level changes initiated by the changed their seafaring strategies. Instead of landing US Government and tactical or micro-level strate- migrants directly on US mainland shores, they often gies devised and implemented by law enforcement drop their clients at peripheral locations, such as US agencies. territories in the Paci!c or Mexico or Canada, hop- ing to gain entrance through a series of land-and- "e book focuses on di#erent aspects of migrant ocean relays. smuggling into the United States. It also provides good information on Chinese migrant smuggling or- One chapter of the book is dedicated to the rise ganizations and their activities. "is book highlights and fall of the most famous female Chinese mi- how various smuggling and tra$cking activities into grant smuggler known as Sister Ping, who built a the United States are carried out and explores policy smuggling empire stretching to di#erent parts of challenges in combating the problem. the world. "e book shows that female smugglers are not uncommon in Chinese migrant smuggling activities. Zhang, S. X. (2008). Chinese human smuggling organizations: Families, social networks Migrant smuggling as a business is a further topic of and cultural imperatives. Stanford: Stanford the study. Drawing on original research on Chinese University Press. migrant smugglers conducted in a prior study by the author, this chapter describes general patterns re- Key words: garding the individuals involved in the business and China their organizational and operational attributes. "e Concepts, Factors that fuel irregular migration, Ir- author argues that most migrant smugglers are enter- regular migration, Modus operandi of smuggling, prising agents who form groups with loose member- Organization of smuggling, Pro!les of smugglers, ships and limited command structure. Smuggler-migrant relationship, Smuggling

117 2*-.&"%#345--,*"-#*"#!6*&

Research method used: research team gained access to information mainly Mixed through personal connections, which may have resulted in systematically biased !ndings; second, the Summary: organizational characteristics of Chinese smuggling "e research for this book had two objectives: !rst, groups presented in the book derive from the data to expose the inner workings of Chinese migrant collected from individual smugglers who were not all smuggling organizations based on empirical data part of the same organization; and last, the research- and second, to conduct a conceptual analysis to ex- ers could not rule out dishonest information pro- plain the process by which ordinary individuals have vided by the interviewees, despite personal contacts. been able to turn migrant smuggling into a global business. "e book identi!es three basic prerequisites for forming a transnational Chinese migrant smuggling "e book focuses on migrant smuggling and di#er- organization: an existing market demand, a tight so- entiates the terms “tra$cking in persons” and “mi- cial network and an opportunity to build a relation- grant smuggling” according to the respective Traf- ship with other smugglers (each oriented towards !cking in Persons Protocol and Migrant Smuggling speci!c tasks, such as client recruiter, document ven- Protocol. dor, transfer organizer or payment collector).

"e author introduces the “dyadic cartwheel net- Additionally, the book describes the main operation- work” framework, explaining small group transac- al and organizational features, based on the empiri- tions and smugglers’ ability to thrive in a hostile and cal research results. According to this, most migrant uncertain market environment. According to this, smuggling groups consist of a smaller group of peers smugglers’ relations with each other are secretive and arranged in simple hierarchies. Transactions among entail mostly one-on-one (dyadic) transactions. Each smugglers are mostly one on one. Migrant smug- individual smuggler develops and maintains an ad- glers typically participate in smuggling activities on ditional circle of clandestine and dyadic contacts and a part-time basis, and most of them have legitimate resources. "e book places this approach within the businesses apart from their smuggling activities. context of the “corporate model” and the “enterprise Control over crucial resources determines the degree model”. "e book demonstrates three advantages of of authority (in%uence on the direction and pace of such an organizational structure: business contracts a smuggling operation) within a smuggling organiza- are of verbal rather than written nature due to the tion. Smuggling operations involve highly di#eren- shared origin and language of the core members tiated and specialized roles, which cannot be easily (such as the Fuzhou dialect); information gathering duplicated or eliminated. Smugglers make extensive and sharing is fast paced, due to the groups’ small use of corrupt o$cials. Being dependant on the size; and the dyadic “cartwheel” network provides a availability of clients and the socio-legal conditions higher level of security for its members because of of the market, smuggling organizations are mostly of the restricted %ow of information and the limited a %uid and temporary nature. contact with other members along the smuggling chain. "e book provides valuable insights into the socio- demographic characteristics of migrant smugglers "e book draws on !ndings based on prior research and their business operations. It describes strate- conducted by the author and a co-researcher as well gies and methods used by smugglers to recruit and as researchers from China, including interviews with prepare their clients. Information on smuggling ac- 129 Chinese smugglers. Data on organizational and tivities in transit is provided. "e book reveals the operational characteristics of Chinese migrant smug- pro!ts made by smugglers and highlights the role of gling was gathered in New York, Los Angeles and Fu- female smugglers in the business, which traditionally zhou city (China). Multiple data collection strategies has been dominated by men. Migrant smuggling’s were employed, including face-to-face interviews, links to traditional Chinese organized crime is also !eld observation and researching government docu- examined. Finally, the author discusses the future of ments and press reports. "e book points out several migrant smuggling and provides recommendations limitations in the data-collecting methods: First, the for policymaking.

118 !"#!""$%&%'(#)*+,*$-.&/01

"e book o#ers !rst-hand insight into Chinese smuggling organizations, illustrated by numerous case studies and, moreover, provides a new model to explain migrant smuggling operations.

119

%((6+,84/,(8&48+&<84*50,0&!8,/&=% ?.7,(84*&%.8/6.&3(6&@40/&<0,4&48+&/:.&A42,3,2 !"&B),*+,87C&D6+&E*((6C&B&B*(2- ?4F+4G8.68&"(-&

!"#$%&'()*+&*,-.&/(&01.2,3,24**5&6.2(78,9.&/:.&2(8/6,;)/,(8&(3&<)0/64*,4&,8&0)11(6/&(3&/:.&%