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Home , Amblyomma hebraeum, Amblyomma maculatum, Amblyomma testudinarium, Argas walkerae, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis hystricis

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86761-0 - Ticks: Biology, Disease and Control Edited by Alan S. Bowman and Patricia A. Nuttall Index More information

Index

Page entries for headings with subheadings refer only to general aspects of that topic; page entries in bold refer to ﬁgures/tables

AAA (attraction–aggregation–attachment) African swine fever virus (ASFV) 134–135, Amblyomma cajennense 8 pheromones 471, 473, 473–475, 475, 258, 265–266 Rocky Mountain spotted fever vector 359 481 vectors 258, 266–267 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 acaricides 408–411, 418, 447; see also tick African tick bite fever (ATBF) 350–351 Amblyomma gemma 9, 473 resistance age, tick 45, 50 Amblyomma hebraeum 9 amitraz 410, 415 allomones 470, 471, 479, 479 AAA pheromones 473, 473, 474–475, 486 application/administration to cattle Amblyomma genus 1, 2, 8–11, 33 amitraz use on 410 411–413 and toxicosis 111–112, 117, 120 ecdysteroids 144, 152 arsenic dips 409, 413 Amblyomma americanum 8 embryogenesis 152 carbamates 410 allomones 479 engorgement factor 175 chlordimeform 410 ecdysteroids 77, 145–146 inactivation 151 diminazene 298 Ehrlichia chaffeensis vector 345–346 juvenile hormones 153, 154 fipronil 411 Ehrlichia ewingii vector 345 male factor 174, 176 fluazuron 411 enterovirus vector 357 neuroendocrine system 155 flumethrin 410, 411 four-poster method of control 236 oogenesis/oviposition 150 formamidines 410 fungal susceptibility 450 prostaglandins 177 future developments 86 genital sex pheromones 478 response to carbon dioxide 171 high/low dose strategies 417 genomic analyses 196 salivary glands 77, 78, 149, 171 history 408–411 host immune response 188 sperm maturation, adult males 148 imidocarb 298 immune-response mediation 190 sperm symbionts 179 for Lyme borreliosis prevention 236, immunoglobulin-binding proteins stages of feeding 172 237 429 Theileria transmission dynamics 316, 317 macrocyclic lactones 410, 411, 415 juvenile hormones 154 tick decoys 484–486, 486 mixtures 417–418 Lyme borreliosis vector, North America and toxicosis 111–112, 120, 121 organochlorines 409 222, 223 vitellogenesis-stimulating factor (VSF) organophosphates 409–410, 415, 416 macrophage migration inhibitory factor 180 permethrin 410 190, 213 voraxin 431 pyrethrum/pyrethroids 410, 415 Masters’ disease vector 354 Amblyomma lepidum 9, 473 spinosad 411 neuroendocrine system 155 Amblyomma maculatum 9 Theileria control 317 pathogen guilds 362 control of tick populations 483 tick control strategies xi, 413, 418 pheromones 471 genital sex pheromones 478 toxicity to host 418 prostaglandins 81–83 Amblyomma marmoreum 9, 473 accessory glands see male accessory RNA interference 83, 432 Amblyomma testudinarium 11, 155 glands; reproductive accessory saliva 93, 95, 98 Amblyomma variegatum 11 glands salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96, AAA pheromones 473, 474–475, 475, 486 Adlerocystis 173, 179 97 control 483 Advanced Very High Resolution salivary glands 74, 78, 82, 83–84, 427 Dugbe virus vector 272 Radiometer (AVHRR) 396, 401 salivary transcripts 102 ecdysteroids 144 Africa 54, 56 sensory perception 482 expressed sequence tag data 319, 320 R. appendiculatus population modelling sperm precedence 179 fungal susceptibility 450, 453, 455 54, 56 sperm storage 171 genomic analyses 196 South African cattle study, structured screening for antigens 432 host immune defence 190 host-attachment rates 53 as Theileria vector 309 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190, African bont tick decoys 484–486, 486 as tularaemia vector 360 211

492

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86761-0 - Ticks: Biology, Disease and Control Edited by Alan S. Bowman and Patricia A. Nuttall Index More information

Index 493

inactivation 151 anticoagulants 430 sperm precedence 178 Jos virus vector 276 antigens of unknown function 432 toxicosis 111, 112, 120 kairomones 479 complement inhibition 429–430 Argas polonicus 4, 129, 131 natural killer (NK) cells 213 concealed antigens 425, 426 Argas radiatus 4, 111, 112 parasitoids 457 expressed sequence tag libraries 425 Argas reflexus 4, 111–112, 112 remote sensing 397 genome sequencing 426, 431 Argas sanchezi 4, 111, 112 saliva-assisted pathogen transmission haemostatic mechanisms 430 Argas triguttatum 11, 120 206, 210 histamine-binding proteins 430 Argas walkerae 4 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96 host immunomodulation 425, 429–430 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 salivary glands 84 hydrolases/hydrolase inhibitors 427–429 toxicosis, tick-induced 111, 112–113, 120 sensory perception 482 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 429 volatiles 473 T-cell proliferation modulation 190 proteinase inhibitors 428, 430 Argasidae family (soft ticks) 2, 8, 25 Theileria transmission dynamics 316 RNA interference 426, 431–432 Argas genus 3–4 Thogoto virus vector 258, 266 salivary gland/cement constituents Argasidae revision 33 tick decoy 484–486, 486 426–427, 439 Carios genus 4–8 and toxicosis 111–112, 120, 121 selection of critical tick factors 425 Ornithodoros genus 7 transcriptome analysis 100 serpines 428 Otobius genus 8 vaccines 437 structured screening for antigens 425, paralysis, tick-induced 111–112 virus vector 253 431–432 toxicosis, tick-induced 112–116 amitraz 410 thrombin inhibitors 430 Aride virus 275 tick resistance 415 TIGR website 425 arrestment pheromone-impregnated device ammonia 479 vitellin 430–431 483 Anaplasma marginale see anaplasmosis voraxin 431 arsenic cattle dips 409 Anaplasma phagocytophilum 345 anti-histamine see histamine binding tick resistance 409, 413 cDNA library screening 97 anti-inflammatory properties, tick saliva 73, Asfarviridae family (viruses) 258, 265–266 host immune modulation 195 82, 92, 96–97, 210–211; see also ASP (attractant sex pheromone) 476–477 saliva-assisted transmission 85, 208, 209 cytokine inhibition ASFV (African swine fever virus) 134–135, as vector of human granulocytic Apicomplexa 308 258, 265–266 ehrlichiosis (HGE) 345, 346–348 Aponomma see Amblyomma Astrakhan fever 350 anaplasmosis in cattle (Anaplasma apoptosis inhibition 309 ATBF (African tick bite fever) 350–351 marginale) xi, 325–326, 330 APQs (aquaporins) 80–81, 81 attachment process, tick 205, 255, 256; see bovine erythrocytes 327 apyrase 94 also feeding cell culture methodology 330–332 aquaporins (APQs) 80–81, 81 attractant sex pheromone (ASP) 476–477 classification 326 arboviruses see viruses transmitted by ticks attraction–aggregation–attachment (AAA) clustering analysis 392 Argas genus 3–4 pheromones 471, 473, 473–475, 475, electron micrographs, A. marginale Chenuda virus vectors 268 481 colonies 329, 330, 331 and toxicosis 111–112, 112–116 Australasian tick species 2–25 infection/development cycle 326–327, Argas africolumbae 3, 111, 112 Austria 361 332 Argas arboreus 3, 111, 112 AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution infection-exclusion 333 juvenile hormones 153 Radiometer) 396, 401 infectivity 332 oogenesis/oviposition 150 avians as tick predators 458–459 major surface proteins (MSPs) 327–330 paralysis, tick induced 110, 111 phylogeography/evolution 336 Quaranfil virus vector 275 Babesia genus 308 saliva-assisted transmission 84, 208 Argas cooleyi 3, 268 Babesia annulatus tick cell culture as biological assay system Argas lahorensis 3 acaricide resistance 409 332–333 paralysis, tick induced 110, 111 entomopathogenic nematodes 455, 456 tick-parasite interaction model 330–333, toxicosis, tick induced 111, 112, 113 fungal susceptibility 450, 453 336 Argas miniatus 4, 111, 112 toxicosis 111–112, 118 vaccines, tick antigen based 337 Argas monolakensis 4, 111–112, 114 vaccines 437 vectors 325–326, 328 Argas moreli 4, 120 Babesia bigemina 281; see also babesiosis angiogenesis, inhibition 190, 196 Argas persicus 4 host cross-protection 287 Anopheles gambiae 197 fungal susceptibility 454 infection pathology 289 anticoagulants 430 juvenile hormones 153 vaccine attenuation of parasites 291 antigen-based vaccines 337, 426, 432–433, pheromones 472 Babesia bovis 281; see also babesiosis 433; see also immunobiology; saliva-assisted pathogen transmission host cross-protection 287 recombinant vaccine development; 206 infection pathology 288–289 vaccines Slovakia virus vector 275 leukocyte modulators 213

494 Index

Babesia using live vaccine 295 host immune modulation 195 capreoli 353 vaccine-induced spread of infection host specificity 59 divergens 281, 352–353 294 leukocyte modulators 212, 213 duncani 352 bacteria as biological control agents 448, natural killer (NK) cells 213 lonestari 222, 223 455, 460 in North America 222–223, 225 major 281 Bartonella spp. 356–357 and parasitoid infection 458 Babesia microti 353–354 basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) pheromone treatment 486 pathogen transmission dynamics 61 121 predictive mapping 63 and tick parasitoid infection 458 Batken virus 258, 267 role of tick lectins 129, 130, 133 babesiosis xi, 281, 352–354 BCAs see biological control agents saliva-assisted transmission 84, 85, 186, acaricide residues 298 Beauveria bassiana 449, 453, 454, 454 206, 207 acquired immunity 287 virulence 450 saliva-assisted transmission factors 206, Babesia spp. cross-protection 287 Bio Pesticide Manual 448 208, 210 breed resistance/animal genetics 286, bioclimatic zones 387–389 saliva-assisted transmission mechanisms 296 biological control agents (BCAs) 447, 206, 209 diagnosis 289–290 459–460; see also fungi transmission 26 duration of immunity 287–288 bacteria 448, 455, 460 Borrelia duttoni 134–135, 220 economic impact 283 entomopathogenic nematodes 447, Borrelia garinii 206, 208 endemic stability 285–286 455–457 Borrelia hermsii 220 epidemiology 285–286 on/off-host control 447 Borrelia persica 381 future research 298 parasitoids 447, 457–458 Borrelia recurrentis 220 immunity 286–287, 288 pathogens 447, 448 Bos indicus 286, 296 integrated control 296 population control, Lyme disease Bos taurus 286, 296 life cycle/developmental stages 283–285, prevention 236 Bothriocrotoninae 1, 33 285 predators 447, 458–459 Bothriocroton genus 1, 11, 33 natural endemic stability model 295–296 biosecurity 417 BPTI (basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor) non-vaccine-based control 296 bioterrorism 360 121 parasites/distribution 281–282, 283 biotopes (habitats) 381 breed resistance 56, 286, 296, 424; see also pathogenesis/clinical signs/pathology birds innate immunity; tick resistance to 288–289 chickens 458–459 acaricides strain variation/infection persistence 288 oxpeckers 459 brown tick toxicosis 118–119 and tick parasitoid infection 458 pheasants 59, 60–61 BTV (bluetongue virus) 268, 269 treatment 290 seabird virus 261–262, 272 Bunyaviridae family (virus) 261–262, vaccines for see babesiosis vaccincs as tick hosts 231–232, 233 270–273 vector control 295 as tick predators 458–459 Buphagus spp. 459 babesiosis vaccines 290, 298 blackening disease 448 attenuation of parasites 291 blood; see also feeding calreticulin 190 Babesia bigemina 291 anticoagulants, salivary 94–95, 98 cancer syndromes 309 cattle born in vector-infested regions 293 cells see erythrocytes Candidatus approach to species designation chilled vaccine 292, 293 pressure rise 116 345, 348, 358 frozen vaccine 292, 293 bluetongue virus (BTV) 268, 269 canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis 345, hazards/precautions/severe reactions B-lymphocytes 190 346 294 Bm86 molecule 434; see also recombinant capacitation, sperm 172, 173–174 in vitro culture methods 296 vaccine development carbamate acaricides 410 loss of effectiveness 294–295 sequence variation 436–437 carbon dioxide loss of viability 294 boluses, intraruminal acaricide 412 response to 171, 479 non-living vaccines 296 bont tick decoy 484–486, 486 role in sperm transfer 173 origin/purification of strains 290–291 Boophilus subgenus 1, 33, 282; see also cardiac failure/sudden cardiac death and pathogen transmission 439 Rhipicephalus 355–356 propagation in splenectomized calves 291 Borrelia afzelli 206, 207, 208 Carios genus 4–8; see also Ornithodoros quality assurance 292–293 Borrelia burgdorferi 130, 133, 186; see also Chenuda virus vectors recombinant subunit vaccines 297–298 Lyme borreliosis Hughes virus vectors 272 soluble parasite antigen (SPA) vaccines B-lymphocyte inhibitory proteins 190 Carios maritimus 6, 268, 275 296–297 cytokine inhibition 212 cattle specifications 292–293 DNA library screening 97, 98 dips 409, 411–412 stabilites 291 in Europe 220, 221–222, 223–224 fever see babesiosis susceptible cattle imported into gene expression and infection 196 resistance see breed resistance vector-infested regions 293 histamine-binding proteins 211 rickettsia see anaplasmosis

Index 495

South African study, host-attachment deer saliva-assisted pathogen transmission rates 53 pathogen transmission dynamics 59 207, 208 tick control see acaricides; population density 52 toxicosis 111–112, 120 semiochemicals role in Lyme borreliosis 231, 236 Dermacentor sinicus 12, 120 vaccines see recombinant vaccine deer tick virus (DTV) 263, 274, 362 Dermacentor variabilis 12, 173 development degeneration, salivary glands 77 allomones 479, 479 viruses 267 dengue virus 273 attractant sex pheromone 476 CCHFV (Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic Dera Ghazi Khan virus (DGKV) 261–262, as Ehrlichia ewingii vector 345 fever virus) 255, 261–262, 271–272 272 ecdysteroids 152 Cedecea lapagei 448 Dermacentor genus 11–12, 31 engorgement factor 175 CHART (Centre for Health Applications of host-finding/preferences 254 as enterovirus vector 357 Aerospace Related Technologies) 399 life cycle/longevity 253, 254 fungal susceptibility 450, 453 chemical communication 470 sex pheromone production 149 genital sex pheromones 478 Chenuda virus 259–260, 268–269 toxicosis 111, 117 histamine-binding/releasing factors 190 chickens, as tick predators 458–459 Dermacentor albipictus 11 host immune responses 187 chlordimeform 410 termination of larval diapause 145 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 429 Chobar Gorge virus 259–260, 269 toxicosis 111–112, 120 juvenile hormones 153–154 classification, ticks see systematics Dermacentor andersoni 11 kairomone perception 481, 481, 482, 482 Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies association with Bartonella spp. 356 mounting sex pheromone 477 for Human Health (WHO) 401 biological control agents 448 neuroendocrine system 154–155 climate; see also temperature cell-adhesion molecules 190 oogenesis/oviposition 150 changes 361, 377, 390, 401 Colorado tick fever vector 269 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 and pathogen transmission 41 complement system 188 parasitoids 457 and questing height 50 cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity 188, pheromones 470, 473 CLIMEX model 386, 387 189 prostaglandins 177 clustering analysis see spatial clustering genital sex pheromones 478 remote sensing 397 analysis genomic analyses 100, 196 RNA interference 432 co-infection 356, 361 host immune defence 100, 190–195, 429 Rocky Mountain spotted fever vector 359 Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV) 100, metalloproteases 189 saliva 93, 94, 98 259–260, 269 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 salivary glands 77, 427 Coltivirus genus 259–260, 269–270 pathogen transmission 187 sperm 148, 174 communication, chemical 470 pheromones 473 structured screening for antigens 432 competitive displacement hypothesis 360 Powassan virus vector 274 temperature dependence 42 complement system 128, 133, 188, 191–193 Rocky Mountain spotted fever vector as Theileria vector 309 inhibitors 96–97, 211, 429–430 359 thrombin inhibitors 430 and Lyme borreliosis 232 role of lymphocytes 187 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 confusants (mating disruption) 483 saliva 98 tick decoys 484, 485 control, tick see acaricides; decoys; saliva-assisted pathogen transmission 187 toxicosis 109, 111, 117, 120 pheromones; semiochemicals salivary transcripts 100–101 as tularaemia vector 360 Cosmiomma genus 11 sensory perception 482 DGKV (Dera Ghazi Khan virus) 261–262, crickets 176 T-cell proliferation modulation 190 272 Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus toxicosis 111, 116, 117 diapause 43 (CCHFV) 255, 261–262, 271–272 as tularaemia vector 360 age of tick/fat content dependence 45, CTFV (Colorado tick fever virus) 100, Dermacentor marginatus 12 50 259–260, 269 Omsk haemorrhagic fever vector 274 behavioural diapause, tropical ticks 43–44 cuticular hydrocarbon composition as TIBOLA vector 351 daylength dependence 45, 47 phylogeneny 1 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 morphogenetic and behavioural cystatins 190, 196, 211 Dermacentor occidentalis 12, 111, 117 diapause, temperate ticks 44–47 cytokine inhibition 190, 191–193, 194–195, Dermacentor reticulatus 12 temperature dependence 45 212, 213 cytokine inhibitors 212 termination of 145 Czech Republic 54, 55, 399–400, 401 Gene’s´ organ 166, 166, 167 digestion, function of lectins 130–132 host range/width 255 diminazene 298 data, spatial see spatial data louping ill virus vector 255 dips, cattle 409, 411–412 daylength dependence, tick physiology 45, natural killer (NK) cells 213 DNA diagnostic techniques 415–416; see 47–49 Omsk haemorrhagic fever vector 274 also genetics; genomic analyses DDT, resistance to 410 pathogen transmission dynamics 61–62 Dhori virus (DHOV) 258, 266–267 death rates, tick 53–56 salivary anti-inflammatory properties dopamine 73, 78–79, 81, 82, 83 decoys, tick 484–486, 486 96 Drosophila spp. 169, 170

496 Index

DTV (deer tick virus) 263, 274, 362 human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) environment Dugbe virus 261–262, 271, 272 345, 346–348 biotic 40, 56 human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME) changes 377, 390, 401 ear tags, acaricide impregnated 412 345–346 constraints of, pathogen transmission 40, East Coast fever (ECF) 100, 308; see also secondary infections 345 47–50, 57–58, 59 Theileria spotless Rocky Mountain spotted fever EPI-MAP package 390 ecdysteroids 143, 144, 145, 156, 176 345 epidemiology of tick–borne diseases 377, ecdysone 143–145, 145 taxonomic revision 346–347 380, 390, 392, 389–393; see also embryogenesis 151–152 elementary foci 382–383 geographical information systems; inactivation 146–148, 147 elephant ticks 58 spatial clustering analysis inactivation in adults 151 EM (erythema migrans) 220, 223, 224, 225; EPNs see entomopathogenic nematodes inactivation in immature stages see also Lyme borreliosis ergot alkaloids 78 146–148 embryogenesis 151–152 erythema migrans (EM) 220, 223, 224, 225; moulting, larvae 143–145, 145 emergent infections 345 see also Lyme borreliosis oogenesis/oviposition 149–151 agents/emerging diseases 359 erythrocytes production sites 152 babesiosis 352–354 agglutination 127; see also lectins receptors, immature stages 145–146 Bartonella spp. 356–357 bovine 327 salivary glands 77, 148–149 Candidatus approach to species EST see expressed sequence tag sex pheromone production 149 designation 345, 348, 358 Euro-Asia 384–385 sperm maturation, adult males 148 co-infection 356, 361 Europe, tick-borne encephalitis in 361 termination of larval diapause 145 competitive displacement hypothesis evolution, tick 29 ECF (East Coast fever) 100, 308; see also 360 divergence of Ornithodorus savignyi and Theileria deer tick virus (DTV) 362 O. moubata 114–116 Ecoclimatic Index 386 ehrlichiosis 345–348 haematophagy (blood-feeding behaviour) ecology fallacies, new/rediscovered infections 33 I. hexagonus 221, 227, 231 344–345 ixodid ticks 32 I. pacificus 223, 230, 233 hepatitis C virus 357 ornateness 29, 30 I. ricinus 221, 227, 230 Masters’ disease 354–355 rhipicephaline ticks 30–32 I. scapularis 223, 228–230, 232 neglect of known infections toxicosis 108–109 I. uriae 227–228, 231 new tick–pathogen associations 357 truncation of life cycles 29–30 landscape 383–385 predicting 364 expressed sequence tag (EST) Lyme borreliosis 223, 226–230 rickettsiosis 348–351, 349 data/methodology 85–86, 98 physiological see physiological ecology Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) genomic analyses 195–197 of tick-borne diseases 377, 380 359–360, 363 libraries, antigen 425 economic impact of ticks sudden cardiac death 355–356 Theileria spp. 319, 320 babesiosis 283 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) 361–362 cattle tick control strategies 413, 418 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362–364, fallow deer, as tick hosts 231 vaccines 424 439 fat content, tick 45, 50 econoses 397 tularaemia 360 fecundity-enhancing substances 167–169, ecotones 382, 398–399 unknown agents 356 178 EF (engorgement factor) 175–176 encephalitis see Japanese encephalitis; feeding in ticks 171–172 egg toxins (ixovotoxins) 120 tick-borne encephalitis attachment process, tick 205, 255, 256 anti-protease kinetics 121 endocrinology 143, 156; see also evolution 33 basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) ecdysteroids feeding phases 171 121 critical weight 143 interrupted 257 clinical symptoms/histopathology 120 juvenile hormones 152–154, 153, 156 response to carbon dioxide 171 as protease inhibitors 120–121 nervous system 154 stages of feeding 172 Rhipicephalus microplus 121–122 neuroendocrine system 154–156 taking a blood meal 255, 256 eggs, fungal susceptibility 450, 453; see also engorgement factor (EF) 175–176 female accessory glands 166 oogenesis/oviposition entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) 447, fibrinogen-related proteins (FREPs) 135, Ehrlichia spp. 358 455–457 136; see also lectins chaffeensis 345–346 field trials 456–457 ficolins 128 ewingii 345, 346 influence of environmental conditions fipronil 411 ruminantium 206 456 FISF (Flinders Island spotted fever) 351 ehrlichiosis 345–348 laboratory assays 456 Flaviviridae family (virus) 263, 273–275 canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis 345, 346 Steinernema carpocapsae 456 Flavivirus genus (virus) 263, 273–275 enterovirus 357 tick–nematode interactions 455–456 Flinders Island spotted fever (FISF) 351

Index 497

fluazuron 411 EPI-MAP package 390 macrophage migration inhibition factor flumethrin 410, 411 Fourier transformation 389 190 formamidines 410 future perspectives 401–402 oogenesis/oviposition 151 four-poster method 236 Land Surface Temperature (LST) index proteinase inhibitors 428 Fourier transformation 389 389 saliva 93, 95, 98 fox, as tick host 231 landscape epidemiology 377 salivary glands 77, 426 Francisella tularensis 187, 206, 207, 360 landscape pattern analysis 377 salivary transcripts 101 FREPs (fibrinogen-related proteins) 135, medium/large scale maps 385–386 Haemaphysalis punctata 15, 111, 117, 255, 136; see also lectins population denominator 390, 390 256 fungi as biological control agents 449–455, pre-GIS data-mapping/analysis 380–386 Haemaphysalis spingera 16, 255 459 real-world description 378 Haemaphysalis truncatum 17 Beauveria bassiana 449, 450, 453, 454, validation of predictive models 389 anticoagulants 430 454 zoogeography, small-scale maps 385 saliva 95, 98 comparative susceptibility of tick species GIS see geographical information systems toxicosis 110, 111, 117–118, 120, 121 450 Gomphocerus rufus 170 haematophagy (blood-feeding behaviour), egg susceptibility 450, 453 grasshopper (Gomphocerus rufus) 170 evolution 33 formulation 455 Great Island virus 259–260, 268, 269 haemocytes 132–133 laboratory assays 450 GSP (genital sex pheromone) 478 haemolymph Metarhizium anisopliae 449, 450, 454, 455 Ixodes ricinus 132, 132–133, 134 off-host field trials 450–454 habitats (biotypes) 381 Ornithodorus moubata 134–135 on-host field trials 454–455 haemagglutination 127, 129–130; see also haemostasis 99, 196 prevalence of tick–fungi interactions lectins anticoagulants 430 449–450 Haemaphysalis genus 17, 111–112, 117 mechanisms 430 sublethal effects 450 Kyasanur Forest disease virus vectors 274 response inhibition 92 temperature effects 56 Haemaphysalis asiaticum 12 thrombin inhibitors 430 Verticillium spp. 449, 454 B-lymphocyte inhibitory proteins 190 Haller’s organ 481, 482, 482, 483 Isfahan virus vector 258, 267 hard ticks see Ixodidae family GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) 78 leukocyte modulators 213 HBPs (histamine-binding proteins) Gallus gallus 458–459 Haemaphysalis bispinosa 12, 120, 121 210–211 Gavac 418, 433, 436 Haemaphysalis concinna 13, 255, 256 heart failure/sudden cardiac death 355–356 Gene’s´ organ 166, 166, 167 Haemaphysalis detritum 16, 275 heartwater 100; see also Amblyomma genetic resistance 56, 286, 296, 424; see also Haemaphysalis dromedarii 120, 121 variegatum immunobiology; tick resistance to Dera Ghazi Khan virus vector 272 hedgehogs, as tick hosts 231 acaricides ecdysteroids 143 hepatitis C virus 357 genital sex pheromones (GSP) 478 host immune responses 187 HGE (human granulocytic ehrlichiosis) genomic analyses, tick–host pathogen inactivation 151 345, 346–348 interactions 195–197 juvenile hormones 153–154 histamine 188–189 angiogenesis inhibition 196 moisture stress 49 anti-histamine properties, tick saliva 96 antihaemostasis 99, 196 mounting sex pheromone 478 binding proteins (HBPs) 190, 191–193, gene expression and infection 196–197 oogenesis/oviposition 150 210–211, 430 vector genome sequencing 197 ornateness, evolution 30 historical zoogeography, rhipicephaline genome sequencing 197; see also pheromones 149, 470, 472 ticks 30–32 mitochondrial genomes; salivary tick decoys 484 HME (human monocytic ehrlichiosis) transcripts vaccines 437 345–346 Ixodes scapularis 426, 431 Haemaphysalis excavatum 16, 450 host density (deer) 52 Boophilus microplus 426 Haemaphysalis hystricis 14, 17, 358 host finding/preferences, tick 254–255 Theileria parva/T. annulata 313 Haemaphysalis inermis 14 host range/width 255 geographical information systems (GIS) 63, natural killer (NK) cells 213 three-host species 254 377; see also natural focus of disease salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96 two-host species 255 theory; predictive mapping of TBDs; vector ecology 255, 256 host phylogeny 32 remote sensing; spatial clustering Haemaphysalis kutchensis 14, 111, 117 host specificity, pathogens 58–59 analysis; spatial data Haemaphysalis leachi 14, 120 biogeography/ecological specificity 58 computing risk maps 392–393, 460 Haemaphysalis leporispalustris 14, 360 deer/Lyme borreliosis 59 ecology and epidemiology of TBDs 377, Haemaphysalis longicornis 14 Kyasanur Fever disease 59 380 antigens 425, 432 and reproductive success of pathogens 59 epidemiological data mapping/analysis ecdysteroids 144 zooprophylaxis 59 389–393, 390, 392 host immunomodulation 425, 426 Hughes virus 261–262, 272

498 Index

human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) salivary immunosuppressive proteins 73, host immune defence 187, 194 345, 346–348 100, 101–102, 190, 195 as human granulocytic ehrlichiosis human infection, and tick population size tick immunoglobulin excretion system (HGE) vector 345, 346–348 50 212 Lyme borreliosis vector, North America human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME) T-cell proliferation modulation 190 100, 222 345–346 vaccine development 425, 429–430, 435 salivary transcripts 100 Hyalomma genus 16–22, 31–32 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190, Ixodes persulcatus 21, 264–265 Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever 211–212, 429 association with Bartonella spp. bacteria virus vector (CCHFV) 255 India 59 356 host finding/preferences 255 infections; see also emergent infections as enterovirus vector 357 renaming/reclassification see also human, and tick population size 50 genital sex pheromones 478 Haemaphysalis spp. transmission cycle 40; see also pathogen Kemerovo virus vector 268 toxicosis 111–112, 117–118, 120 transmission dynamics Lyme borreliosis vector 220, 223 Hyalomma anatolicum 16 Infectious Diseases Society of America 226 mapping tick distribution 386 antigens 432 influenza 266 Omsk haemorrhagic fever vector 274 host immune response to 187, 188 innate immunity 129; see also remote sensing 397 life cycle 311 immunobiology tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vector prostaglandins 177 to babesiosis 286–287 274, 384–385 salivary glands 84 lectins, role 128, 129, 130, 135 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 vaccines 437 insect transmission of viruses 256 vector ecology 255 virus transmission dynamics 316 integrated pest management (IPM) 237 West Nile virus vector 275 Hyalomminae 1, 2, 26–27, 33 International Tick-Borne Encephalitis Ixodes pilosus 21, 120 hydrolases/hydrolase inhibitors 427–429 Study Group 401 Ixodes redikorzevi 21, 110, 111–112, 116 Hymenoptera 457–458 IPM (integrated pest management) 237 Ixodes ricinus 21 Ireland 54, 55 antihaemostasis salivary factors 189 Ikonos satellite 437 Isfahan virus 258, 267 aquaporins 80, 81, 85 imidocarb 298 ixodegrin 100 association with Bartonella spp. bacteria immunization see vaccines Ixodes genus 17–22, 25–26 356 immunobiology 186, 191–193, 197; see also host finding/preferences 254 B-lymphocyte inhibitory proteins 190 antigen based vaccines; genomic toxicosis 111–112, 116–117 babesiosis vector 283 analyses; innate immunity; lectins; Ixodes arboricola 255 Colorado tick fever vector 270 pathogen transmission; saliva and see Ixodes cookei 18, 361, 362 complement inhibitors 211 specific diseases Ixodes dammini see Ixodes scapularis cytokine inhibition 212 B-lymphocyte inhibitory proteins 190 Ixodes dentatus 18 diapause 46, 47, 44–47, 48 complement system 188, 191–193, Lyme borreliosis vector, North America ecology 221, 227, 230 429–430 222 gene expression and infection 196 cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 genomic analyses 196 188–189 Ixodes hexagonus 19 gut 130–132 cytokine inhibition 190, 191–193, complement inhibitors 211 haemolymph 132, 132–133, 134 194–195, 212, 213 ecology 221, 227, 231 host-attachment rates 52 haemocytes 132–133 histamine-binding proteins 211 host immune responses 187, 188, 429 histamine-binding proteins 188–189, immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190 host range/width 255 430 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 97 host specificity 58, 59, 382 host immune defence 82, 92, 187–189, toxicosis 111–112, 120, 121 host testosterone levels 60 190–193, 195, 211–213 vector ecology 255 immune-response mediation 190, 194, host immunity/acquired resistance 56 Ixodes holocyclus 19 195 immortalization of host immune responses 188 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 211 lymphocytes/macrophages 308 pheromones 472 integrated pest management 237 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190, paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 kairomones 480 211–212, 429 saliva 93 Kemerovo virus vector 268 immunity, against toxicosis 117 toxicosis 111, 116–117, 120, 121 Langat virus vector 257 leukocyte modulators 212–213 Ixodes neitzi 20, 480 lectins 129, 130–131, 133, 135 lymphocytes, role 187–188 Ixodes pacificus 21 life cycle/longevity 253 macrophage suppression/inhibition 190, association with Bartonella spp. bacteria louping ill virus vector 255, 274 208, 213 357 Lyme borreliosis vector 220–224 modulation by tick-borne pathogens 195 ecology 223, 230, 233 macrophage migration inhibitory factor natural killer (NK) cells 213 genomic analyses 196 213

Index 499

moisture stress 49, 51 gene expression and infection 197 Haemaphysalis genus 17 mortality rates 40, 54, 55 genomic analyses 196, 197, 426, 431 historical zoogeography 30–32 natural killer (NK) cells 213 as hepatitis C virus vector 357 Hyalomma genus 31–32 neuroendocrine system 155 histamine binding proteins 190, 211 Ixodes genus 17–22, 25–26 pathogen transmission 61–62, 186, 187 host immune responses 187, 194, 195 Margaropus genus 23 pheromones 472 host specificity 58, 59 monophyly/paraphyly 2 population modelling 41, 53 human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) Nosomma genus 23 predictive mapping 63, 385–386, 389 vector 345 paralysis from 111–112 remote sensing 397, 399–400, 401 hydrolases/hydrolase inhibitors 428 phylogeny 2–27 reservoir of TBE virus 382 immune-response mediation 190 Rhipicephalinae 2, 26–27, 33 Rift Valley fever virus vector 272 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 211, Rhipicentor genus 23 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96, 429 Rhipicephalus genus 23–25, 32 97 kairomones 480 sister-group 2 saliva-assisted pathogen transmission 85, Lyme borreliosis vector 220, 222, 225, toxicosis from 116–120 133, 186, 187, 207, 208, 209 226, 229, 235, 236 Ixodiphagus hookeri 457, 457–458 salivary glands 76, 77, 79, 80, 133, 427, macrophage migration inhibitory factor ixolaris 95 439 213 ixovotoxins see egg toxins salivary immunosuppressive proteins 195 Masters’ disease vector 354–355 salivary transcripts 101 metalloproteases 189 Japanese encephalitis virus 273 and sudden cardiac death 355–356 neuroendocrine system 156 Japanese (Oriental) spotted fever (JSF) 350 temperature dependence 42, 42, 43, 47, oogenesis/oviposition 150 Johnston Atoll virus 264, 275 48 parasitoids 457, 458 Jos virus 264, 275 Thogoto virus vector 266 pathogen transmission 186, 187 JSF (Japanese spotted fever) 350 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vector pheromones 470, 472 juvenile hormones 153, 152–154, 156 130, 133, 274, 382, 384–385 population control 236 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 population model 63 kairomones 470, 471, 480 tick size 49 Powassan virus vector 361 Kelsall–Diggle relative-risk estimation toxicosis 111–112, 120, 121 resistance to Borrelia burgdorferi 187 method 392, 393 transmission dynamics, Lyme borreliosis RNA interference 432 Kemerovo virus 259–260, 268 234 saliva 92, 94, 95, 98 kernall estimator 392 tularaemia vector 360 saliva-assisted pathogen transmission KFDV (Kyasanur Forest disease virus) 206, vector ecology 255 186, 207, 208, 209 255, 263, 274–275 virus vector 253, 264–265 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96, Kharagysh virus 268 volatiles 473 97 kininase 97 West Nile virus vector 275 salivary glands 85, 86, 427 Koch’s postulates 357–358 Ixodes rubicundus salivary proteins 206 kridging 392–393 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 salivary transcripts 98–99, 100, 102 Kulldorff–Nagarwalla clustering analysis toxicosis, tick-induced 111, 120 sperm precedence 177–178 392 Ixodes scapularis 21 STARI vector 354–355 Kyasanur Fever disease 59 allomones 479 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 Kyasanur Forest disease virus (KFDV) 206, angiogenesis inhibition 190 vaccines 438 255, 263, 274–275 antiqens, screening for 432 Ixodes spinipalpis 22, 222 antihaemostasis salivary factors 189 Ixodes texanus 22, 361 lactones, macrocyclic 410, 411 arrestment pheromone-impregnated Ixodes uriae 3, 21, 22 Land Surface Temperature (LST) index device 483, 486 complement inhibitors 211 389 cell-adhesion molecules 190 ecology 227–228, 231 Landsat satellite 396, 397 clustering analysis 392 host finding/preferences 254, 255 landscape co-infection with Borrelia burgdorferi and salivary anti-inflammatory properties 97 ecology 383–385 B. microti 356 virus vector 253, 268, 272, 275 epidemiology 377 complement inhibitors 211, 430 Ixodidae family (hard ticks) 1, 2–25, 26, 27 pattern analysis 377 cystatins 190, 211 Amblyomma/Aponomma genus 1, 2, 8–11, Langat virus 257, 263, 275 cytokine inhibition 212 33 Langerhans cells 213 DNA library screening 97, 100, 101 Bothriocrotoninae 1, 33 larvae ecdysteroids 152 Bothriocroton genus 1, 11, 33 diapause termination 145 ecology 223, 228–230, 232 Cosmiomma genus 11 moulting 143–145, 145; see also entomopathogenic nematodes 456 Dermacentor genus 11–12, 31 ecdysteroids fungal susceptibility 450 evolutionary origins 32 larval adult immersion test (LIT/AIT) 415

500 Index

larval packet test (LPT) 415 pathogen transmission 59, 186 sperm capacitation factor 172, 173–174 LBRF (louse-borne relapsing fever) 220 personal protection 237 vitellogenesis-stimulating factor (VSF) lectins xi, 127–128, 129–130, 131, 135–137 predictive mapping 389 174, 176, 178, 180 arthropod 128–129 prevention 235–238 voraxin 175, 178, 179 Borrelia burgdorferi 129, 130, 133 remote sensing study 399 metalloproteases 189 coiling phagocytosis 129 reservoir hosts in Europe 230–232 Metarhizium anisopliae 449, 450, 454, 455 complement system 128, 133 reservoir hosts in North America Mhlosinga 117–118 deﬁnition 127 232–234 microspheres, injectable acaricide 412 digestive function 130–132 saliva-assisted transmission 186, 206, 208 mitochondrial genomes, inferred phylogeny ﬁbrinogen-related proteins (FREPs) 135, tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) 220 27–28 136 tourism as risk factor for 390 gene translocation/inversion 28 haemagglutination 127, 129–130 transmission dynamics, Europe 234–235 genome sequences 29 haemolymph 132, 132–133, 134–135 transmission dynamics, North America idiosyncratic markers 28 Ixodes ricinus 129, 130–131, 133, 135 223, 229, 235 Mono Lake virus 259–260, 268 innate immunity/defensive function 128, vector ecology in Europe 226–228 Moran’s I statistic 392 129, 130 vector ecology in North America 223, mosquitoes 168–169 Ornithodoros moubata 127, 131, 134–135 228–230 moubatin 94 pathogen transmission 128, 129, 132, vegetation management 236 moulting, larvae 143–145, 145; see also 133, 134 white-tailed deer management 236 ecdysteroids salivary glands 133 lymphadenopathy, tick-borne 351 and virus transmission 257 scavenger receptors 128 lymphocytes, immortalization 308 mounting sex pheromone 477–478 types 127–128 MSPs (major surface proteins) 327–330 vector molecules 257 macrocyclic lactones 410, 411 myotropins 168, 179 life cycle, tick 29–30, 253–254 resistance 415 lipocalins 114–115, 116, 210 macrophage Nairobi sheep disease virus (NSDV) 271, LIT/AIT (larval/adult immersion test) 415 immortalization 308 272 LIV (louping ill virus) 255, 263, 274, 361 migration inhibitory factor 213 Nairovirus genus (virus) 261–262, 271–272 lizards, as Lyme borreliosis vectors 233 suppression 190, 208 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Lone Star ticks see Amblyomma americanum Magudu 117–118 Administration) 397 longevity, tick 50, 253–254 major surface proteins (MSPs) 327–330 Centre for Health Applications of louping ill virus (LIV) 255, 263, 274, 361 malaria 308 Aerospace Related Technologies 399 louse, genome sequencing 197 male accessory glands 166–167, 179; see also natural focus of disease theory 381–385 louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) 220 mating; sperm biotopes (habitats) 381 LPT (larval packet test) 415 antimicrobial proteins 170, 179 components of 381–382 LST (Land Surface Temperature) index fecundity-enhancing substances ecotones 382, 398–399 389 167–169, 178 landscape ecology applications 383–385 Lyme borreliosis (Europe/North America) myotropins 168, 179 latent/active foci 382 xi, 130, 133, 220; see also Borrelia mating plugs 170, 171 reservoirs 382 burgdorferi protease inhibition/sperm storage structure 382–383, 384 acaricides 236, 237 170–171 natural killer (NK) cells 213 biological control 236 receptivity-inhibiting substances 167, necrotic stomatitis nephrosis syndrome 110 bull’s-eye lesion 225 169–170 nematodes see entomopathogenic clinical characteristics/diagnosis/ male factor 174–175, 176 nematodes treatment in Europe 223–224 mapping, ticks/tick-borne diseases see nervous system, tick 154 clinical characteristics/diagnosis/ predictive mapping neuroendocrine system, tick 154–156 treatment in North America 224, 226 Margaropus genus 23 nidicolous/non-nidicolous ticks 227 clustering analysis 392 Masters’ disease 354–355 nitric oxide 286 co-infection with TBE 361 mate guarding 178, 180, 212 NK (natural killer) cells 213 diagnostic issues 223–224, 226 mating, ticks 172–173; see also mating NOAA series satellites 396, 397, 401 erythema migrans (EM) 220, 223, 224, factors normalized difference vegetation index 225 disruption chemicals (confusants) 483 (NDVI) 63 four-poster method of control 236 plugs 170, 171 North America, Lyme disease see Lyme host complement system 232 mating factors 176; see also male accessory borreliosis integrated pest management (IPM) 237 glands; sperm Nosomma genus 23 Lyme encephalopathy 225 engorgement factor (EF) 175–176 NSDV (Nairobi sheep disease virus) 271, nidicolous/non-nidicolous ticks 227 male factor 174–175, 176 272 and parasitoid infection 458 site of action 176 Nuttalliellidae family 2, 3

Index 501

Nuttalliella spp. 3 toxicosis 120 biotic environment 40, 56 Nuttalliella namaqua 3, 21, 22, 171 vitellogenesis-stimulating factor (VSF) climate 41 Nyamanini virus 264, 275 174, 176, 178, 180 coincident aggregations of different tick Ornithodoros parkeri 7 stages 61–62 Odocoileus virginianus 232–233; see also ecdysteroids 143–144, 152 deer/Lyme borreliosis 59 Lyme borreliosis juvenile hormones 153, 154 host size 59–60 OHFV (Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus) neuroendocrine system 154–155 host testosterone levels 60, 61 263, 274 oogenesis/oviposition 150 infection transmission cycle 40 Omsk haemorrhagic fever (OHFV virus) prostaglandins 177 interspecific patterns 58–59 263, 274 Ornithodoros porcinus 7 intraspecific patterns 59–63 oogenesis/oviposition 149–151 ecdysteroids 143, 144 Kyasanur Fever disease 59 Orbivirus genus 259–260, 268–269 juvenile hormones 153 lectins, role 128, 129, 132, 133, organochlorines 409 toxicosis 114 134 organophosphates 409–410, 415, 416 Ornithodoros savygni 7; see also sand tampan and longevity 50 Ornithodoros genus 7 toxicosis parasitoids, effect on pathogen Chenuda virus vectors 268 anticoagulants 430 transmission 458 complement inhibitors 211 evolution 114–116 pathogens as biological control agents paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111–112 mating plugs 170 447, 448 sex pheromones 478 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111–112 pheasants and pathogens 60–61 toxicosis, tick induced 110, 111–112, saliva 94, 95, 98 potentiation by vector saliva 186–187 113–116, 120 salivary glands 76, 84 reproductive success of pathogens 59 vitellogenesis-stimulating factor (VSF) sperm 171, 179 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) 40, 180 Ornithodoros tholozani 7, 129, 131, 134, 381 61–63 Ornithodoros coriaceus 7, 153 inhibition of sexual receptivity 177 tick–host interactions, toxicosis 113, 120 sperm precedence 179 ecological/epidemiological Ornithodoros erraticus 7 Ornithodoros tartakovskyi 7, 129, 131, 134 consequences 58–63 African swine fever virus vector 258, Orthobunyavirus genus (virus) 261–262, 271 transmission dynamics/vector 266–267 Orthomyxoviridae family (virus) 258, competence, Theileria parva 317 Qalyub virus vector 272 266–267 and vaccines 439 sperm symbionts 177–180 Otobius genus 8 zooprophylaxis 59 Ornithodoros moubata 7 toxicosis 111–112, 116 PCR (polymerase chain reaction) African swine fever virus vector 258, Otobius megnini 8, 111–112, 116 sequencing 345, 348, 358 266–267 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111–112 subtraction 98 allomones 479 oviposition 149–151 Pediculus humanus 220 anticoagulants 430 oxpeckers, as tick predators 459 pentlaris 95 biological control 448 perception, semiochemicals 481, 483 ecdysteroids 143–144 paralysis, tick-induced 110–111, 111–112, permethrin 410 embryogenesis 152 112; see also egg toxins; toxicosis pesticides see acaricides evolution 114–116 association with definite feeding phases phagocytosis 129, 286–287 feeding 171 110–112 pheasants 59, 60–61 haemolymph 134–135 hard ticks 111–112 pheromones 412–413, 470–471, 479; see also inactivation 146–148, 151 soft ticks 111–112 semiochemicals inhibition of receptivity 177 parasitoids 447, 457–458 arrestment/assembly 471 juvenile hormones 153 effect on pathogen transmission 458 attraction–aggregation–attachment lectins 127, 131, 134–135, 257 paternity, tick 165, 166; see also mating; (AAA) 471, 473, 473–475, 475, life cycle/longevity 254 sperm 476–477, 481 oogenesis/oviposition 150 pathogen transmission xi, 41, 40–42, 65; see biosynthesis 487 pheromones 472 also physiological ecology; population chemical communication 470 prostaglandins 177 modelling; predictive mapping; saliva chemical composition 474 saliva-assisted pathogens transmission assisted transmission and specific definition 470–471 208 pathogens genital sex pheromones 478 salivary anticoagulant activities 94, 95, 98 abiotic environment 40, 57–58, 59 glands, pheromone 480, 481 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 97 aggregated tick distributions, causal mounting sex pheromone 477–478 salivary antiplatelet factors 94, 98 factors 59–61 primer pheromones 471 sperm capacitation factor 174 aggregated tick distributions, purines 472, 473 thrombin inhibitors 430 consequences 61–63 sex pheromones, argasid ticks tick-borne relapsing fever vector 220 biogeographical/ecological specificity 58 478–479

502 Index

pheromones (cont.) Kelsall–Diggle relative-risk estimation red fox, as tick hosts 231 sex pheromones, ixodid ticks 471, method 392, 393 relapsing fever 381 475–478, 477 kernall estimator 392 remote sensing (RS) 377, 386, 393–395, specificity 471 kridging 392–393 397; see also geographical information volatiles 472–473 mechanistic models 386, 387 systems Phlebovirus genus 261–262, 272–273 methodology 386–387 econoses 397 phylogenetics; see also systematics normalized difference vegetation index geometric data corrections 395 Anaplasma marginale 336 (NDVI) 63 Lyme disease study 399 molecular 1 risk factors of ticks as vectors 63–65 optical sensor systems 398 physiological ecology 41, 42–50; see also species specificity 389 radiometric data corrections 394–395 pathogen transmission dynamics splines 393 satellite systems 396–397 age of tick/fat content 45, 50 prospermia 172, 174 supervised classification 395–396 daylength dependence 45, 47–49 prostaglandins synthetic aperture radars 397, 398 diapause 43, 44 arachidonate 81–82 tick-borne disease epidemiology environmental constraints on behaviour autocrine effect 82 397–399, 399, 401 47–50 inhibition of sexual receptivity in ticks tick-borne encephalitis study 399–400, longevity and pathogen transmission 50 177 401 moisture stress 49–50, 51 role in reproduction 179 unsupervised classification 395 questing height, impact of climate 50 salivary 81–84, 92, 190 Reoviridae family (virus) 259–260, 267–270 temperature dependence 42, 42, 43, 43, SNARE proteins 82–84 reproductive accessory glands 167; see also 45, 47–49 protease inhibition 120–121, 170–171 male accessory glands tick size 49,49 proteinase inhibitors 428, 430 female accessory glands 166 Plasmodium 308 protein/s Gene’s´ organ 166, 166, 167 Pliny the Elder 73 antimicrobial 170, 179 reservoirs, pathogen 382 plugs, mating 170, 171 viral surface 256 Lyme borreliosis 230–234 polymerase chain reaction see PCR protein–carbohydrate interactions see vectors as 382 population denominator 390, 390 lectins resistance, host 56, 424, 436; see also population modelling, tick 50–58, 63, Proteus mirabilis 448 immunobiology; tick resistance to 64 purines 472, 473 acaricides Czech Republic/Ireland study 54, 55 pyrethrum/pyrethroids 410 Rhabdoviridae family 258, 267 enclosure studies (Welsh sheep) 52, 53, cross-resistance to DDT 410 Rhipicentor genus 23 54 resistance 410, 415 Rhipicephalinae 2, 26–27, 33 field observations within containers historical zoogeography 30–32 54–56 Qalyub virus 261–262, 272 Hyalomminae synonomy 1, 2, 26–27, 33 host-attachment rates and tick Quaranfil virus 264, 275 ornateness 29 population size 50–52, 52,53 truncation of life cycles 29–30 host density (deer) 52 rabies virus 267 Rhipicephalus genus 1, 23–25, 32, 33 and human infection 50 radars, synthetic aperture 397, 398 biological control agents 448, 455, 460 natural field experiments 53–54 raster data model 378 Boophilus subgenus 1, 33, 282 natural population regulation 56–58 reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) host finding/preferences 254 natural rates of tick mortality 53–56 286–287 Thogoto virus vectors 258, 266 quantification 41 reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) toxicosis, tick-induced 111–112, 118–120 pour-on acaricides 412 286–287 Rhipicephalus appendiculatus 23, 409 Powassan virus (POWV) 274, 361–362 receptivity-inhibiting substances 167, acaricide efficacy against 410 predators, tick 447, 458–459 169–170 anticoagulants 430 predictive mapping, ticks/tick-borne recombinant vaccine development, against behavioural diapause 43, 44, 47 diseases 377, 386–389; see also Boophilus microplus 425, 431, 438; see cytokine inhibition 212 geographical information systems also Bm86 molecule 437, 438 East Coast fever vector 129–130, 131, 133 ad hoc models 387 additivity/synergy 438 expressed sequence tag data 319, 320 algorithms 388 expression of recombinant antigens 434 fungal susceptibility 450–454, 455 bioclimatic zones/prediction scaling field application 435–436 genomic analyses 196 387–389 immunology of vaccine 435 histamine-binding proteins 211 CLIMEX model 386, 387 other tick species/cross-protection host immune defences 187, 190, 194, 195 computing risk maps 392–393 437–438 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190, Ecoclimatic Index 386 resistance 436 211, 212, 429 generalized linear models (GLM) use in sheep 438 inactivation 151 387 vaccine efficiency 435, 437 interrupted feeding 257

Index 503

life cycle 254, 310, 311 inactivation 151 RMSF (Rocky Mountain spotted fever) lipocalin proteins 114 integrated management strategies 413 345, 359–360, 363 mounting sex pheromone 478 juvenile hormones 154 RNA interference (RNAi) 102, 426, natural killer (NK) cells 213 kairomones 480 431–432 pathogen transmission 187 neuroendocrine system 155, 156 RNA viruses 257 population modelling 54, 56, 64–65 proteinase inhibitors 428 RNI (reactive nitrogen intermediates) population regulation 56, 57, 58 saliva-assisted pathogen transmission 286–287 proteinase inhibitors 428 factors 210 Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) purines 472 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 100, 345, 359–360, 363 remote sensing 397 97 rodents as tick hosts 230–231, 237 saliva 94, 98 salivary glands 77, 78, 93, 95, 98, 427 Lyme borreliosis 233–234 saliva-assisted pathogen transmission Seletar virus vector 269 pathogen transmission dynamics 61–62 187, 206, 207, 208, 210 sensory perception 482 testosterone levels 60 salivary anti-inflammatory properties 96 toxicosis 110, 118, 119, 120, 121 roe deer 231 salivary glands 81, 85, 427, 439 vaccines see recombinant vaccine ROI (reactive oxygen intermediates) salivary transcripts 100 development 286–287 South African cattle study, vitellin 430–431 Runde virus 264, 275 host-attachment rates 53 Rhipicephalus sanguineus 24 sperm symbionts 180 cytokine inhibition 212 saliva/saliva pharmacology, tick xi, 92, 102, temperature dependence 42, 42, 43 fungal susceptibility 450, 453, 454 189–190; see also saliva-assisted T-cell proliferation modulation 190 host immune defences 187, 194 transmission; salivary glands; salivary Theileria vector 309, 316 juvenile hormones 153 transcripts Thogoto virus vector 257 kairomones 479 angiogenesis inhibition 190, 196 toxicosis 110, 118–119, 120 life cycle 253 anticoagulant activities 94–95, 98 vaccines 437 mounting sex pheromone 478 antihaemostatic factors 73, 82, 92–96, 98, virus infection barrier 256 RNA interference 432 189 Rhipicephalus bursa 23, 111–112, 120 Rocky Mountain spotted fever vector 359 anti-inflammatory properties 73, 82, 92, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus 23 salivary glands 81, 81, 85, 427 96–97, 210–211 acaricides 409, 410, 413 termination of larval diapause 145 antiplatelet factors 93–94, 98 as babesiosis vector 283 tick-borne pathogen guilds 362 antiserotonin activities 96 biological control agents 448 toxicosis 111–112, 120 antithrombins 94, 95 fungal susceptibility 454 vector of Ehrlichia ewingii 345 B-lymphocyte inhibitory proteins 190 predators, tick 459 Rhipicephalus zambeziensis 25, 317 blocking platelet–platelet interactions 94 toxicosis 120, 121 Rhodnius prolixus (blood-sucking bug) cell-adhesion molecules 189–190, Rhipicephalus evertsii 24 167–168, 168, 168, 175 191–193 acaricide efficacy against 410 Rickettsia complement inhibitors 96–97, 211 host immune responses 187 africae 350–351 cystatins 97, 190, 211 paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111 coronii 350 cytokine inhibition 190, 191–193, purines 472 helvetica 355–356 194–195, 212, 213 toxicosis, tick-induced 109, 111, 118, honei 351 histamine-binding/releasing factors 96, 119–120, 121 japonica 350 190, 191–193, 210–211 volatiles 473 slovakia 351 immunoglobulin-binding proteins 190, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus 23; see rickettsiosis 348–351, 349 211–212 also recombinant vaccine development African tick bite fever (ATBF) 350–351 immunomodulatory properties 73, 82, and acaricides 408, 409, 410, 411, 413 Anaplasma marginale see anaplasmosis in 92, 101–102, 190, 211–213 babesiosis vector 282 cattle kininase activity 97 biological control agents 448 Astrakhan fever 350 leukocyte modulators 212–213 complement inhibition 429 classificatory recommendations 348 macrophage suppression/inhibition 190, cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity 189 Flinders Island spotted fever (FISF) 351 208 egg toxins 121–122 Japanese (Oriental) spotted fever (JSF) metalloproteases 189 embryogenesis 151–152 350 properties 256, 311 entomopathogenic nematodes 456 scrub typhus 350 prostaglandins 81–82, 92, 190 fungal susceptibility 454, 455 tick-borne lymphadenopathy (TIBOLA) T-cell proliferation modulation 190 genetic resistance to 424 351 tick immunoglobulin excretion system genomic analyses 196, 197, 426 and tourism 351 212 host immune responses 187, 190 Rift Valley fever virus 272 vaccines based on 86, 92, 102 hydrolases/hydrolase inhibitors 428–429 risk maps see predictive mapping vasodilatory activities 92–93, 98

504 Index

saliva-assisted transmission (SAT) of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus 100 spatial clustering analysis, tick-borne pathogens 186–187, 205, 206–207, RNA interference 102 diseases 390–392; see also geographical 209, 213–214; see also pathogen transcriptome analysis 98 information systems transmission; saliva sand tampan toxicosis 109, 110, 111–112, character of dispersion 390 Anaplasma spp. 84, 85, 208 113, 114–116, 120; see also Kulldorff–Nagarwalla method 392 attachment process 205 Ornithodoros savignyi Moran’s I statistic 392 Babesia spp. 84 clinical pathology 114 quadrat techniques 391 Borrelia burgdorferi 84, 85, 186, 206, paralysis, tick-induced 110, 111–112 second-order methods 391–392, 392 207 purification of toxins 113–114 spatial data 378–379, 380; see also Ehrlichia ruminantium 206 sandfly genome sequencing 197 geographical information systems factors 206–210, 208, 211; see also saliva SAT see saliva-assisted transmission of analysis 380, 381 Franciscella tularensis 206, 207 pathogens location accuracy 379 genetic manipulation experiments 84–85 satellite systems 396–397; see also quality 379–380 Kyasanur forest disease virus 206 geographical information systems raster data model 378 Lyme disease 206, 208 savignin 95 topology 380 non-systemic transmission, scrub typhus 350 vector data model 378 infected/uninfected ticks 206–207, Seletar virus 269 sperm/sperm precedence 164, 177–180; see 208 semiochemicals 470, 471, 487; see also also mating factors; male accessory RNA-mediated interference 205, 206 pheromones glands; reproductive accessory saliva properties 256, 311 allomones 470, 471, 479, 479 glands Theileria spp. transmission 84, 208 application to tick control 485, 486, 486 and paternity/competitive mechanisms Thogoto virus 206–207, 208, 209, 210 arrestment pheromone-impregnated 165, 166 tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) device 483 prostaglandins (PGs), role in 206, 207, 208 attract-and-kill devices 484–486 reproduction 179 tick–host–pathogen interactions confusants (mating disruption) 483 sperm capacitation 172, 173–174 205–206, 206 kairomones 470, 471, 480 sperm development/spermatogenesis transmission-blocking vaccines 208 perception by ticks 481, 483 172 West Nile virus (WNV) 208 sensory perception 481, 483 sperm maturation, adult males 148 salivary glands 73–74 squalene 470, 479, 480 sperm storage 170–171 aquaporins 80–81, 81 synomones 470, 471 sperm symbionts/Adlerocystis 173, 179 argasid ticks 73, 76 targeted vaccines 487 sperm transfer 172–173 cement constituents 426–427, 439 tick decoys 484–485, 485, 486, 486 spinosad 411 degeneration 77, 148–149, 171 serotonin 96 spiroplasmas 358–359 dopamine, role 73, 78–79, 81, 82, 83 serpines 428 splines 393 ergot alkaloids, role 78 sex pheromones spotless Rocky Mountain spotted fever 345; extract (SGE) 206–211, 208 argasid ticks 478–479 see also Rocky Mountain spotted expressed sequence tag projects 85–86, attractant sex pheromone 476–477 fever 98 genital sex pheromones 478 squalene 479, 480 GABA, role 78 ixodid ticks 471, 475–478, 477 squirrels, as tick hosts 231 hyperosmotic fluid secretion/water mounting sex pheromone 477–478 STARI 354–355 uptake from air 73, 74, 84 production 149 Steinernema carpocapsae 456 ixodid ticks 73, 74–77 SGE (salivary gland extract) 206–211, 208 sudden cardiac death 355–356 morphology/morphogenesis 74, 74–75, sheep; see also louping ill virus sweat, tick attraction to 480 76, 77 enclosure studies (Welsh sheep) 52, 53, sweating sickness 110, 117–118, 119 as osmoregulatory organs 73, 77–81 54 symbionts, tick 173, 179 regulation, adult females 148–149 as tick hosts 231 synthetic aperture radars (SAR) 397, 398 resorption/regeneration 257 vaccines 438 systematics, tick 1–2, 3–25, 34; see also role in pathogen transmission 85; see also viruses 267, 271, 272 evolution saliva-assisted transmission Slovakia 61–62 Amblyomma/Aponomma genus 1, 2, 8–11, water transport physiology 80–81 Slovakia virus 264, 275 33 salivary transcripts 85, 97, 101–102 SNARE proteins 82–84 Argasidae family (soft ticks) 2, 8, 25, 33 Amblyomma variegatum 100 soft ticks see Argasidae family Argas genus 3–4 Dermacentor andersoni 100–101 soluble parasite antigen (SPA) vaccines Australasian 2–25 DNA library screening 97–98 296–297 Bothriocrotoninae 1, 33 Haemaphysalis longicornis 101 South Africa 53 Bothriocroton genus 1, 11, 33 Ixodes pacificus 100 SPA (soluble parasite antigen) vaccines Carios genus 4–8 Ixodes scapularis 98–99, 100 296–297 Cosmiomma genus 11

Index 505

cuticular hydrocarbon composition sexual recombination within ixodid tick resistance to acaricides xi, 413–414, phylogeneny 1 vectors 315 414, 415, 424 Dermacentor genus 11–12 vaccines 318 amitraz 415 Haemaphysalis genus 17 Theileria lestoquardi 308 arsenic 409, 413 historical zoogeography 30–32 Theileria mutans 308 carbamates 410 host phylogeny 32 Theileria parva 100, 308; see also East Coast countermeasures 418 Ixodidae family (hard ticks) 1, 2–25, 26, fever cross-resistance 410 27 behavioural diapause 43–44 high/low dose strategies 417 Ixodes genus 17–22, 25–26 gene expression and infection 196 diagnosis 415–416 Margaropus genus 23 genome sequences 313 macrocyclic lactones 415 mitochondrial genomes, inferred lectins 129–130, 133 mitigation 416–418 phylogeny 27–28 life cycle 310–311 mixtures of acaricides 417–418 molecular phylogeny 1 saliva-assisted transmission 208 organochlorines 409 monophyly/paraphyly 2 sexual recombination within ixodid organophosphates 410, 415, 416 Nosomma genus 23 vectors 315 pyrethrum/pyrethroids 410, 415 Nuttalliella sp. 3 transmission dynamics 317 quarantine of new animals/biosecurity Nuttalliellidae family 2, 3 vaccines 318 417 Ornithodoros genus 7 Thogoto (THOV) virus 187, 258, 266–267 rotation 417 Otobius genus 8 cytokine inhibition 212 ticks as virus vectors 253 phylogenetic literature 1 saliva-assisted transmission 206–207, competence/digestion/moulting relationships of tick families 2 208, 209, 210 256–257 Rhipicephalinae 2, 26–27, 33 transmission mechanism 209, 257 extrinsic incubation period, viral Rhipicephalus genus 1, 33 thrombin inhibitors 430 257 Rhipicephalinae/Hyalomminae TIBOLA (tick-borne lymphadenopathy) gut barrier to virus infection 256 synonomy 1, 2, 26–27, 33 351 host ﬁnding/preferences 254–255 sister-groups 2 tick anticoagulant peptide (TAP) 94 host range/width 255 taxonomy/nomenclature 3–25, 33, 34 tick-borne diseases (TBDs) interrupted feeding 257 valid listings of current names 3–25, 34 ecology 377, 380 lectin vector molecules 257 epidemiology – 377, 380, 389–393, 390 life cycle 253–254 T-cells 190, 191–193, 194–195, 287 prediction 389; see also predictive moulting 257 TBDs see tick-borne diseases mapping, ticks/tick-borne diseases non-viraemic transmission 254 TBE/TBEV see tick-borne encephalitis remote sensing 397–399, 399, 401 primary/secondary vectors 255 temperature; see also climate tourism as risk factor for 351, 390 saliva properties 256, 311 effect on biological control agents 56 tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) 213, 255, taking a blood meal 255, 256 tick dependence 42, 42, 43, 43, 45, 47–49 263, 274, 361–362 three-host species 254 testosterone levels, host 60, 61 and climate change 361 tick vector genera 264 Theileria genus (livestock infection) xi, clustering analysis 392 two-host species 255 308–309, 310, 320; see also East Coast co-infection 361 vertical transmission 254 fever in Europe 361 viral surface proteins 256 acaricide control 317 pathogen transmission 40, 61–63, 439 TIGR website 425 Apicomplexa 308 predictive mapping 63 tourism as risk factor for tick-borne expressed sequence tag data 319, 320 remote sensing 399–400, 401 diseases 351, 390 future research 320 reservoir species 382 toxicosis 108, 109, 109, 110, 112, 112, 122; genome sequences 313 saliva-assisted transmission 206, 207, see also egg toxins; paralysis immortalization of 208 Amblyomma genus 111–112, 117 lymphocytes/macrophages 308 vaccination 361 Aponomma hydrosauri 120 life cycle 310, 311, 312, 314 vectors 130, 133, 382, 384–385 Argasidae family 112–116 relationship to Babesia 308 tick-borne lymphadenopathy (TIBOLA) Argas genus 111–112, 112–116 relationship to Plasmodium 308 351 Argas lahorensis 111, 112, 113 salivary gland stages 314 tick control see acaricides; decoys; Argas walkerae 111, 112–113, 120 sexual recombination within Ixodid pheromones; semiochemicals Dermacentor genus 111, 117 vectors 315 Tick Cost spreadsheet model 283 evolutionary perspective 108–109 tick gut stages 313–314 tick fever/cattle fever 281; see also Haemaphysalis genus 111–112, 117 transmission 84, 208, 308, 317 babesiosis Hyalomma genus 111–112, 117–118 vaccines 314, 318 TickGARD 418, 433, 436, 439 Ixodes genus 111–112, 116–117 Theileria annulata 308 tick immunoglobulin excretion system Ixodidae family 116–120 life cycle 311 212 immunity 117

506 Index

toxicosis (cont.) vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) 258, 267 Orbivirus genus 259–260, 268–269 non-paralytic toxicosis 120 Vietnam 358 Orthobunyavirus genus 261–262, 271 Ornithodoros genus 113–116 viruses transmitted by ticks 253, 257–258, Orthomyxoviridae family 258, 266–267 Ornithodoros savignyi see sand tampan 265, 275–276; see also ticks as Phlebovirus genus 261–262, 272–273 toxicosis vectors Powassan virus (POWV) 274 Otobius genus 111–112, 116 African swine fever virus (ASFV) 258, Qalyub virus 261–262, 272 Rhipicephalus genus 111–112, 118–120 265–266 Quaranfil virus 264, 275 sweating sickness 118 Aride virus 275 rabies virus 267 symptoms and clinical pathology 118 Asfarviridae family 258, 265–266 Reoviridae family 259–260, 267–270 vaccines/immunization 121, 122 Batken virus 258, 267 Rhabdoviridae family 258, 267 venomous and toxic organisms 110 bluetongue virus (BTV) 268, 269 Rift Valley fever virus 272 toxins, functional significance 108 Bunyaviridae family 261–262, 270–273 RNA viruses 257 attraction of other ticks 108 Chobar Gorge virus 259–260, 269 Runde virus 264, 275 impaired grooming 108 Coltivirus genus 259–260, 269–270 Seletar virus 269 local anaesthesia 108 Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV) 100, Slovakia virus 264, 275 tsetse fly, genome sequencing 197 259–260, 269 Thogoto virus (THOV) 258, 266–267 tularaemia 100, 360 Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) typhus, scrub 350 (CCHFV) 255, 261–262, 271–272 255, 263, 274 deer tick virus 263, 274 vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) 258, 267 vaccines 424, 440; see also antigen-based dengue virus 273 viral families 253 vaccines; babesiosis vaccines; Dera Ghazi Khan virus (DGKV) West Nile virus (WNV) 263, 273, 275 recombinant vaccine development 261–262, 272 yellow fever virus 273, 275 antigen-based 337 Dhori virus (DHOV) 258, 266–267 vitellin 430–431 biology of vaccine susceptibility 439 Dugbe virus 261–262, 271, 272 vitellogenesis-stimulating factor 174, 176, feasibility of vaccination 425 Flaviviridae family 263, 273–275 178, 180 future of 440 Flavivirus genus 263, 273–275 volatiles 472–473 live vaccine 317 Great Island virus 259–260, 268, 269 voraxin 175, 178, 179, 431 Lyme borreliosis 237–238 Hughes virus 261–262, 272 VSV (vesicular stomatitis virus) 258, 267 and pathogen transmission 439 influenza virus 266 resistance to vaccines 187 Isfahan virus 258, 267 West Nile virus (WNV) 208, 263, 273, 275 saliva-based 86, 92, 102 Japanese encephalitis virus 273 water semiochemical-based 487 Johnston Atoll virus 264, 275 tick uptake from air 73, 74, 84 sporozoite-based 317, 318 Jos virus 264, 275 transport physiology 80–81 stages of vaccine development 425 Kemerovo virus 259–260, 268 white-tailed deer 232–233, 236; see also Theileria 314, 318 Kharagysh virus 268 Lyme borreliosis tick-borne encephalitis 361 Kyasanur Forest disease virus (KFDV) management 236 toxicosis 121, 122 255, 263, 274–275 WNV (West Nile virus) 208, 263, 273, transmission-blocking 208 Langat virus 263, 275 275 variable merozoite surface antigens 297 louping ill virus (LIV) 255, 263, 274 Wolbachia 360; see also tularaemia vasodilatory properties, tick saliva 92–93, Mono Lake virus 259–260, 268 98 Nairobi sheep disease virus (NSDV) 271, yellow fever virus (YFV) 273, 275 vegetation management 236 272 vegetation types (ecotones) 382, Nairovirus genus 261–262, 271–272 zoogeography 398–399 Nyamanini virus 264, 275 historical 30–32 venomous organisms 110 Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus (OHFV) small-scale maps 385 Verticillium spp. 449, 454 263, 274 zooprophylaxis 59