Introduction: London Is the Place for Me

Notes

“London is the Place for Me,” Lord Kitchner accompanied by Freddy Grant’s Caribbean Rhythm, London is the Place for Me: Trinidadian Calypso in London, 1950–1956. Compact disc recording (London: Honest Jon’s Records, 2002). 1. Following the work of anti-racist, transnational feminist scholars such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, my use of the term Third World is, indeed, political as it signals a sociopolitical category/group. I do not use the term in a pejorative sense. 2. Britain or Great Britain is generally used to denote England, Wales, and Scotland. The term United Kingdom refers to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and is also more formally known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 3. Within two months of the murder, the suspects—Jamie and Neil Acourt, Gary Dobson, David Norris, and Luke Knight—were arrested, ques- tioned, and released on bail; initially, two were charged with murder but the cases were dropped due to “insufficient evidence.” This pro- tracted, high-profile case caught the attention of the media and the public, mostly, I think, due to the perseverance of the Lawrence family. They refused to stop seeking justice. The Lawrence family launched a private prosecution, even though this eventuated in the suspects’ acquit- tal due to the judge’s dismissal of evidence and eyewitness testimony. This was followed up by a public inquiry (known as the Macpherson Inquiry) between 1997 and 1998 put into motion by then home secre- tary Jack Straw and carried out by former High Court judge Sir William Macpherson. The inquiry resulted in what is known as the Macpherson Report (1999)—a document that shed light on “institutional racism” in the Metropolitan Police Force. Years later, in January 2012, Gary Dobson and David Norris were charged and convicted of murdering Stephen Lawrence. They were sentenced to a minimum of 14 and 15 years. Technological advances provided crucial DNA evidence connect- ing Dobson and Norris to Stephen Lawrence’s murder. 4. Ethnic minority is a term used descriptively in the United Kingdom to refer to people of color. 5. Southwark is pronounced “Suuthuck.” I have retained the British spell- ing of this organization and of various other words in the UK context. 150 Notes

6. There is a large body of literature on this. See, for example, Dolowitz et al. 1996; Evans 1999; Hall 1988a, 1988b; Hall and Jacques 1983; Hall and Jacques 1989; Laybourn 1995; Pierson 1995; Porter 1994; Taylor- Gooby 1988, among others. 7. Borough refers to “mainly urban local authorities [councils] entitled to have a mayor (or provost) instead of a chairman of the council” (Byrne 2000, xii). Boroughs differ in geographical size, the outer ones tend to be larger. A council, also known as a local authority, is a group of people “who are elected to be councilors and form a council, a body which takes authoritative decisions for the local areas” (240). The term “local authorities” is also frequently used when referring to a member of the local government. 8. See the works by A. Sivanandan. 9. Claire Alexander provides a good discussion of this by drawing attention to the two discourses that have emerged in the process of the splin- tering of black as a unified category of political activism. 10. I thank the women of the Gender and Cultural Citizenship Working Group—Kia Lilly Caldwell, Kathleen Coll, Renya Ramirez, and Lok Siu—for our numerous conversations over the years about the impor- tance of the vernacular, and people’s own understanding of their social and political worlds.

1 Citizenship, Belonging, and the Racialized State

1. Times, June 8, 1959. 2. In 2003, at the request of Kelso Cochrane’s seventy-five-year-old brother, Stanley, the Metropolitan Police reviewed the case. The case, however, was not reopened as the Metropolitan Police found that there was no new forensic evidence to even reopen the case, let alone to convict any- one of Cochrane’s murder. Retrieved in March 2009 from http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/4871898.stm. 3. In my discussions of people from the Caribbean or the Caribbean region, I am referring to the English-speaking region. This area was colonized by the British and later became part of the Empire/Commonwealth and/ or independent countries. The countries include Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, St, Lucia, St. Vincent, Guyana, St. Kitts-Nevis- Anguilla, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, British Virgin Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. 4. By using the term migrant, I follow historian Winston James’s argument. He states: “It should be pointed out from the outset that it is preferable to use the terms ‘migrants,’ ‘settlers,’ and ‘black Britons’ as opposed to ‘immigrants,’ when describing black people in Britain, because that is precisely what the vast majority were . . . [T]here have been relatively very Notes 151

few immigrants to Britain. Most of those that entered Britain in the twentieth century, including the post-war years were simply moving from one part of the British Empire to another as British citizens . . .Unless one is prepared to call Yorkshire men in London immigrants, then we should not call Barbadians entering London on British passports immigrants. The immigrant label attached to such persons largely developed in the 1960s largely to deprive black Britons of their citizenship rights.” 5. I also wish to signal the fact that black migrants’ understandings of blackness were informed by overlapping legacies of slavery and colonialism, and by class hierarchies in the Caribbean. 6. It is difficult to determine exactly how many blacks were living in Britain during these years. Spencer (1997, 2) estimates that during the late eigh- teenth and early nineteenth centuries, Britain’s black population was about 10,000. 7. The Act of Abolition of Slavery throughout the British Empire passed in 1833 and was implemented in 1834. See Public General Statutes lxxiii, 1833, 913 (see Walvin 1973, 140). 8. Although shilling are no longer part of UK currency today, in comparison, one shilling is the equivalent of twelve pence or sixteen cents in US currency. 9. In the aftermath of 9/11 and the London bombings, “difference”—espe- cially around issues of race—is vectored in Britain’s state debates. To be specific, in the post-9/11, post-London bombings, there continues to be an onslaught of attacks on British Muslims, Muslim communities, and the religion of Islam. Anti-Muslim prejudice is a current manifestation of racism in Britain. 10 See Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 9–10; Dummett and Nichol, Subjects, Citizens, Aliens, and Others. Also, in The Commonwealth (1995), Patricia Larnby and Harry Hannan state: “The modern Commonwealth grew out of the former British Empire—it is the outcome of the decline and eventual demise of British Imperialism. If there had been no British Empire there would today be no Commonwealth. The origins of the Commonwealth association date back to the Durham Report of 1840 which initiated the gradual growth of self-government in the colonies of British settlement.” The term Empire/Commonwealth or Commonwealth/Empire is used to denote the irony as well as the inter- connectedness between the two classifications. Commonwealth countries are independent countries. 11. Paul (1997) gives a penetrating account of these processes. 12. The Nationality Act came under strong attack during parliamentary debate in 1948. While members of the Conservative Party criticized the Bill for undermining imperial nationality, Labour Party members argued for “imagined political community of Britishness” (ibid., 22). 13 The 1914 British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act identified the means by which members of the British Empire could attain nationality and become a British subject. This Act confirmed the existence of 152 Notes

a universal status—that being British subjecthood—and its uniformity throughout the Empire. The “code” by which one acquired subjecthood was based on being born or naturalized in the Empire. One could be a British subject anywhere and everywhere within the Empire. Moreover, the Act ironed out ripples in Britain’s fabric of unity and put a stop to the dominions’ individual policies with regard to who is considered a subject or alien (ibid.., 11–12). 14. See Fryer (1984); Brown (1995); Gerzina (1995); Spencer (1997). 15. To give one a sense of the rent exploitation during these years, at the beginning of the twenty-first century a person could rent a room—bed included—in a large, bright, well-kept three-story Edwardian house that included full access to an eat-in kitchen, two bathrooms, a washing machine, refrigerator, a garden/backyard and pay about forty pounds per month. 16. Historian Kathleen Paul (1997) provides an excellent discussion of the outward migration schemes in Whitewashing Britain, see chapter 2, “Emigrating British Stock,” 25–63. 17. Paul notes that between 1946 and 1960 annual UK emigration aver- aged about 125,000. Overall, dominions with substantial white settlement such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada absorbed eighty percent of the migrants and received at least 1.5 million UK residents (ibid., 25). 18. Polish veterans and their families responded to the 1947 Polish Resettlement Act, which provided financial provisions (i.e., pensions) as well as eased the transition into British society; within two years of the Act, at least 120,000 veterans and their dependents were living in Britain. Many found work in construction, agriculture, coal mining, and textiles (ibid., 69). Together with other Eastern European groups, thousands settled in Lancashire, South Wales, and Scotland (Walvin 1984, 104). 19. In 1922, religious-geopolitical lines were drawn, and Ireland was divided into two countries: one of which would remain a free, independent state within the Commonwealth, and the other, a unique country within the United Kingdom. In other words, from that moment Ireland would be known as the Irish Free State within the Commonwealth (named as the Republic of Ireland or Eire in 1949) and Northern Ireland. Today, we refer to this region and relationship as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland. 20. Sociologist Vilna Bashi (2004) convincingly argues that historically in the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada there has been globalized antiblack immigration policy that clearly shows strategies to keep black people out of First World nations, except as temporary laborers. 21. Patricia Hill Collins refers to public transcripts as the “public discourses or knowledges of academia, government bureaucracies, the press, the Notes 153

courts, and popular culture. Controlled by elite groups, this public discourse typically counts as legitimated knowledge and often is grounded in false universals” (1998, 280).

2 Revolutions of the Mind: Afro-Asian Politics of Change in Babylon

1. I provide a brief discussion of Claudia Jones in chapter 3. Carole Boyce Davies (2008) has written a compelling account of the Jones’s life. 2. Formed in 1958, the Institute of Race Relations has been a black think tank committed to anti-racist struggles since 1972. 3. In The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (1993), Gilroy explicitly expounds W.E.B. DuBois’s earlier (1903) conceptualization of double consciousness found in his classic work The Souls of Black Folk. 4. Here I am influenced by Michael Omi and Howard Winant’s (1994) conceptualization of racial formation, which underscores the historical processes that give race social and political meaning. 5. Hall’s (1990) insightful analysis has been instrumental in contextual- izing and rehistorizing race and cultural identity in the diaspora and in discussions of antiessentialist forms of identity. 6. East African Asians were British subjects who were primarily from Gujarat, Punjab, and Goa. They had settled in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika as merchants, traders, clerks, and artisans (Spencer 1997, 140). Upon independence in Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962), and Kenya (1963), subjects could choose either British or local citizenship. 7. Powell was a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Wolverhampton South-West. 8. See Nancy Murray, in her article “Apprehending Reality: Race & Class as an Anti-Imperialist Journal,” for Sivanandan’s contribution to Race & Class. 9. See Koff, Blacks Britannica. 10. See Koff, Blacks Britannica.

3 Transnational Black Diaspora Feminisms

1. This was initially called the Brixton Women’s Group. 2. For information on Claudia Jones, see Davies, Left of Marx. See also Sherwood, Claudia Jones; Prescod, “The Black Intellectual” 3. Later the name was expanded to the West Indian Gazette and Afro- Asian Caribbean News (Boyce Davies 2008, 92). 4. Interview (A) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire. 154 Notes

5. Brixton, located in the south London borough of Lambeth, was a post- WWII locus for many African and Caribbean communities. After 1948, when a wave of migrants arrived on the SS Empire Windrush, an increas- ing stream of Caribbean migrants moved to Brixton and made it their new home. Not only was Brixton centrally situated in London, relatively inexpensive, and had numerous boarding houses that provided accommodation for West Indians, it was also near Clapham air-raid shelters. For a few years after 1948, these shelters served as temporary accommodation for many West Indians who arrived in London without lodging (Patterson 1963, 55). 6. I have used pseudonyms for all names. 7. Interview (B) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire. 8 See http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/london/hi/people_and_places/history/ newsid_8310000/8310579.stm. 9. The Remembering Olive Collective notes that the house at 121 Railton Road was one of the longest running squats in Brixton history. Even though it was purchased by the Lambeth Council in the 1980s, it was, in reality, squatted from 1973 until 1999. Retrieved in July 2010 from http://rememberolivemorris.wordpress.com/category/squatting/. 10. Retrieved in August 2011 from http://knowledge4empowerment. wordpress.com/2011/08/21/remembering-olive-morris-black-british -activist/. 11 For further information please see the website http://rememberolivemorris.wordpress.com/. 12. Interview by author, March 22, 1999, London. 13. OWAAD organized a total of four national conferences. The first two best represent this kind of cross-hatching with other organizations. 14. This issue of SPEAK OUT does not have a date, hence the citation is based on its contents (e.g., it provides details for the second OWAAD conference, which was in March 1980). 15. Interview by author, March 29, 1999. 16. Interview(B) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire 17. Interview (A) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire 18. Interview by author, March 17, 1999, London. 19. Interview by author, May 11, 1999, London. 20. Interview by author, March 17, 1999, London. 21. I provide a more detailed discussion of the GLC in chapter four in this book. 22. Interview by author, May 11, 1999, London. 23. Interview (A) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire. 24. Interview by author, May 11, 1999, London. 25. A former activist that I interviewed used this term. I have retained its usage because it best describes the process by which a radical Left politics transformed in Britain. Later in this chapter I begin a discussion of the flattening of a Left politics, which is explicated further in chapter four in this book. Notes 155

26. Interview by author, May 11, 1999, London.

4 Rac(e)ing the Nation: Black Politics and the Thatcherite Backlash

1. This excerpt is from my interview with Mark, a former member of the Southwark Black Communities Consortium. At the time of this conversation he was one of the board members of Britain’s black think tank— the 1990 Trust. 2. See also chapter three for a more detailed discussion of SUS Law. 3. See also Annual Review of Statistics, No. 117, 1. 4. The Greater London Council (GLC) was established in 1965. It was an umbrella body and functioned as one of London’s two-tiered structures of government—the other being the Metropolitan London boroughs. The GLC came under attack in the 1980s under the Left-led leadership of London’s former two-time mayor, Ken Livingstone. It was then, in the 1980s, that the GLC created an Ethnic Minority Committee and a Women’s Committee and subsequently similar committees throughout several London boroughs. Working in tandem, these committees addressed structural inequalities and discrimination, and put race and gender on the local and national agenda. 5. Councilors are elected to a ward or district and are expected to take a special interest in their respective local authority area. The number of councilors elected to the ward depends on the size of the electorate. Byrne states that the alderman were special nonelected councilors cho- sen by the council. They tended to be older, and had greater prestige and experience than the average member of council; most alderman were former councilors. Alderman were abolished in the GLC in 1977 and in the London boroughs in 1978 (Byrne 2000, 117). 6. Interview by author, May 12, 1999, London. 7. There is a more detailed discussion of co-opting community representa- tives later in this chapter. 8. A council estate is a group or cluster of (often times high-rise) public, government-owned apartments—more commonly known as council flats. These estates are under the jurisdiction of one’s borough. 9. Depending on availability, a poor or working-class person seeking accommodation may be directed toward temporary housing in a bedsit. That is typically a room in a shared house, with communal areas such as the kitchen and bath. Those who occupy bedsits are often waiting for a council flat. Some bedsits are properties of, and run by, the local borough council. 10. The Aylesbury Estate, home to about 10,000 residents is commonly known as one of these largest in Europe. I provide a more detailed discussion of this estate in chapter five. 156 Notes

11. Interview by author, Ruth Phillips, SBWC Advice Worker, September 8, 1998, London. 12. I return to the issue of identification later in the chapter. 13. A community organizer whom I came to know fondly labeled them “the three musketeers” because of their uncompromising challenge to the system. 14. See my interviews with John Stephens, Daryl Kingsley, and Mark Wilson. 15. Interview by author, John, February 1, 1999, London. 16. There is a further discussion of funding later in this chapter. 17. Interview by author, November 1998, London. 18. These terms are used to describe public welfare assistance. 19. Interview by author, September 14, 1998, London. 20. Interview by author, Jackie Thomas, SBWC Treasurer, February 10, 1999, London. 21. Interview by author, September 14, 1998, London. 22. Conversation with author, October 1998, London. 23. Interview by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire. 24. Interview by author, May 11, 1999, London. 25. Interview by author, March 17, 1999, London. 26. Interview (B) by author, March 29, 1999, Hertfordshire. 27. Interview by author, May 12, 1999, London. 28. Interview by author, March 17, 1999, London. 29. Interview by author, January 28, 1999, London. 30. Interview by author, February 1, 1999, London. 31. Interview by author, January 28, 1999, London. 32. Interview by author, February 1, 1999, London.

5 Citizenship, Neoliberal Welfare, and Women’s Community-Based Activism

1. I return to this topic later in the chapter. 2. See Southwark Council n.d., A Guide to the Borough of Southwark. 3. £150,000 is approximately $210,000. 4. Guardian Unlimited, September 29, 1999, 2. 5. The Sure Start area includes the Aylesbury Estate and five smaller sur- rounding estates that comprise most of the Faraday ward in the London Borough of Southwark. A smaller area may be selected for the prelimi- nary survey. 6. Interview by author, September 1998, London. 7. Interview by author, May 1999, London. 8. Interview by author, Novermber 11, 1998, London. 9. Interview by author, May 14, 1999, London. Notes 157

Epilogue

1. There are conflicting reports as to whether or not Mark Duggan was associated with a gang. Retrieved on August 8, 2011, from www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/08/mark-duggan-profile-tottenham-shooting? 2. Retrieved on January 15, 2011, from www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/ dec/03/deaths-police-custody-officers-convicted. 3. Retrieved on August 8, 2011, from www.guardian.co.uk/ commentisfree/2011/aug/08/context-london-riots. Bibliography

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Abbott, Diane, 119 Bashi, Vilna, 152n20 Acourt, Jamie, 149n3 BBPM (Britain’s Black Power Acourt, Neil, 149n3 Movement), 65, 72 Advisory Service for Squatters, 75–6 BBS (Birmingham Black Sisters), African diaspora, 45–9 78, 79 African Diaspora Studies, 67 BBWG (Brixton Black Women’s African Students Union (UK), 77 Group), 6, 65, 71–7, 79, 83, Afro-Asian unity, elements 88–91 underlying bedsit, defined, 155n9 Civil Rights Movement, 45, 57 Begum, Nilana, 136 cultural context in film, 59–63 belonging, hierarchy of, 24 debasing and dehumanizing belonging, the inclusion-exclusion hostility, 126 dialectic diaspora and diasporic space, citizenship, subjecthood and, 45–8 19–20, 23–4, 26–32, 40–1, hostility debasing and 123–4 dehumanizing, 45 elements shaping, 10–11 immigration legislation and homeland-exile dialectic, 45–9, policy, 48–55 58, 67 politics of class, 46 immigration legislation and post-imperial context, 47–8 policy, 48–55 socio-political environment, 45–6 present-day, 131–2 struggles internationally, 45 sexual boundaries of, 24–5, 54–5 transracial, anti-imperialist state policy, results of, 56 coalitions, 55–8 Thatcher era, 96 Alexander, Claire, 9 women, marginalization and Aliens Order, 26 alienation of, 134–7 Amos, Valerie, 2 See also discrimination; Anthias, Floya, 105 migration patterns of exclusion; Anti-Social Behaviour Order, 126 othering Armagh Women’s Prison, 81 Bengali Muslim women, 135–7 Atlee, Clement, administration, 29, Birmingham Black Sisters (BBS), 38–9 78, 79 Aylesbury Estate, 103, 112, 114, black 130, 142–3 as a political signifier, 43–4 Aylesbury Plus, 132 use as a transracial political signifier, 5 Baartman, Saartjie (Sarah) Black British Feminism (“Hottentot Venus”), 20–1 (Mirza), 110 Bangladeshi Group, 131, 135–7, 142 black British identity, 101–2 180 Index black communities Black People’s Organizations destruction and rehousing of, Campaign Against SUS, 81 60–1, 142–4 Black Power Movement (BPM), kin networks, 34–5, 112 62, 72 policing, 43, 93–5 black power organizations, 57 regime of disappearance, 125 black radical imagination, 9 Thatcher era divisiveness, 109 Blacks Britannica (documentary black community-based film), 59–63 organizations, 93, 104–7 Black United Freedom Party, 83 See also community-based Black Unity and Freedom Party organizations (BUFP), 57 black feminism, 67, 71, 109–10, 116 black women black feminist, 109–10, 115 in Blacks Britannica, 62 black ghettos, 60–1 heterogenous space of, 110 Black Liberation Front, 57 labor recruitment, WW II, 73 black men marginalization of, 134–7 Blacks Britannica lens on, 61–2 othering of, 20–1, 73, 81 black women’s organizations and, Pardner System, 34–5 83–4 politicization as a process, sexuality, whites fear of, 18, 110–15 24–5, 54–5 violence against, 135 Black Nationalism, 93 “Black Women in the Academy: blackness Defending Our Name, Britishness and, 42 1894–1994,” 1 criminalization of, 43, 54–5, 60–2, Black Women’s Action Group 80–1, 84, 94–5, 126, 145–6 (BWAG), 6, 103–4, 106–9, elements shaping, post-WW II, 8, 114–16 20, 47, 56–8 See also Southwark Black production of, struggle in the, 9 Women’s Centre (SBWC) term usage, 4, 9–10, 62 Black Women’s Alliance of South blackness as a political imaginary Africa, 77 Afro-Asian embrasure of, 56 Black Women’s Group, 71 the BBPM and, 72–3 black youth contemporary concept of, 102 policing and criminalization of, critiques, emergence of, 70 43, 80–1, 84, 94–5, 145–6 global-diasporic consciousness of, school exclusion, 132 47, 58 See also children postimperial context supporting, Blair, Tony, 44, 125–9, 142 47–8 Blunkett, David, 123, 124 of resistance, post-WW II, 8 Boateng, Paul, 119 sociopolitical context in film, Bookman, Ann, 113 59–63 border controls, 26, 126 Thatcher era, 97–8, 102 borough, defined, 150n7 Black Panther Party, 57, 72 BPM (Black Power Movement), Black People Against State 62, 72 Harassment, 81 Brah, Avtar, 46–7 Index 181

Britain’s Black Power Movement Calbral, Amilcar, 58 (BBPM), 65, 72 Cameron, David, 146, 147 British Black Panther Party, 71, 72, Campaign Against Racial 74, 83 Discrimination (CARD), British Nationality Act (1948), 49, 57 29–32, 48 Campt, Tina, 67 British Nationality Act (1981), 43–4 Canadian Nationality Act, 31 British Nationality and Status of Carby, Hazel, 2 Aliens Act, 23, 41 CARD (Campaign Against Racial Britishness Discrimination), 49, 57 blackness and, 42 Caribbean Carnival, 69–70 boundaries of: citizenship, 124, Carmichael, Stokely, 57 126; geographical, 30, 37–8, catch and convict system, 84, 126 47, 55, 97; sexual, 54–5 children fitness for, 40–1 born abroad, citizenship invented tradition of, 22, 47 status, 41 Labour Party defense of, child care funding, 82 49–51 education activism on behalf of, Thatcherism and, 96–7, 102 131–2 Britishness as whiteness exclusionary practices legislating, 48–55 against, 132 migration patterns reinforcing, in poverty, 146 37–42, 47–8 See also black youth present-day, 126 citizenship women as reproducers of, 38, boundaries of, 48–50, 124, 126 54–5 as identity, 31 British stock, defined, 38 inclusion-exclusion dialectic British Union of Facists, 18 of: empire and colonialism British Way of Life, 47–8, 51–5 shaping, 27–32; marriage Brixton, London, 94, 154n5 and, 41; migration patterns of Brixton Black Women’s Group exclusion, 19, 32–3, 37, 48, 49, (BBWG), 6, 65, 71–7, 79, 83, 51; post-WW II context for, 88–91 19–20, 42 Brixton insurrection, 94–5 meaning of, Evans on, 123–4 Broadwater Farm insurrection, 146 reality vs. fictional notion of Brown, Gordon, 146 British, 30–2 Brown, Jacqueline, 25 redefining, 11, 137–40 Bryan, Beverly, 2, 34–5, 74, 77, Civil Rights Movement, 45, 57, 78, 87 62, 69 BUFP (Black Unity and Freedom class tensions, 85–7 Party), 57 Claudia Jones Memorial Lecture, 45 BWAG (Black Women’s Action Clegg, Nick, 146, 147 Group), 6, 103–4, 106–9, Clinton, William Jefferson 114–16 (Bill), 147 See also SBWC (Southwark Black Cochrane, Kelso, 17, 19 Women’s Centre) Cochrane, Stanley, 150n2 182 Index

Collins, Patricia Hill, 1–2, 43, defined, 155n8 109–10, 152n21 demographics, 129 Coloured Alien Seaman Order, 26 destruction and rehousing of coloured seaman alien problem, 23, black communities, 60–1, 24–6 142–4 Commonwealth, the modern, 151n10 Mrs. Mukherjee’s house, 132–4 Commonwealth Immigrant Act council flats. See council estates (1962), 42, 48, 51 councils Commonwealth Immigrant Act defined, 150n7 (1968), 48, 49 Thatcher era and the, 98–101 Commonwealth Immigrant Act Craig, Gary, 117 (1971), 48 crime community-based activism Aylesbury Estate, 130 basis for, 103–4 blackness equated with, 43, 54–5, citizenship and, 134–5 60–2, 80–1, 84, 94–5, 126, a critical race feminist approach 145–6 to, 66–7 New Labour’s approach to, 126 factors shaping, 19, 118 Thatcherism and, 96–7 politicization as a process, 110–15 Crime and Disorder Act, 126 prioritizing issues, 85 cult of true womanhood community-based organizations (domesticity), 25 constituents, changes in, 139–40 cultural citizenship, 11 cross-fertilization, 79–80, 83, Curtin, Chris, 39–40 104, 114 dissolution of, 84–91, 105–6, 125 Dadzie, Stella, 2, 34–5, 74, 77, funding, 6, 88–9, 99, 101, 106, 78, 87 108, 115–18, 140–2 Davies, Carole Boyce, 65 issues primary to, 80–5, 103, Davis, Amanda, 139 107–9, 112–14, 125, 129–32 Davis, Angela, 82 joint organizing with black men, Deptford fire, 94 83–4 diaspora and diasporic space, 45–9, national conferences, 79–80, 58, 67 84–5 discrimination politics of empowerment, 105 community activism and, 49, 57, present-day, 6 78, 83, 107, 111 Thatcher era policies, effect on, 6, employment, 37, 38–40, 42, 60, 90–1, 102–3, 107–9, 138–41 99–100 white liberal party politics and, GLC initiatives, 99–101 120–1 housing, 36–7, 101, 130–4, 141 See also specific organizations legislating gendered and racial, 51 Cooper, Frederick, 24 transracial, anti-imperialist council estates coalitions response to end, Aylesbury, 103, 112, 114, 130, 56–8 142–3 See also inclusion-exclusion criminality-blackness equated, dialectic; racism 54–5 Dobson, Gary, 149n3 Index 183 domesticity, cult of, 25 ethnic minority, defined, 149n3 Duggan, Mark, 145, 146 European Volunteer Workers, 38–9 Evans, Katherine, 108, 112–15, East London Black Women’s 123–4, 138 Organization (ELBWO), 6, 79 economy feminism present-day gendered-racial black, 67, 71, 109–10, 116 destitution, 146–8 black British, foundations of, Thatcher era privatization, 97–8, 65–7 138–41 label, identification with, 109–10, WW I to WW II era, 22–5 114 WW II, era-post, 22–3, 37–9, feminist label, identification with, 59–60, 96–7 109–10, 113, 115 education activism, 76, 82, 131–2 feminist politics, mainstream, 70–1 1824 Vagrancy Act, 43 Foreign Labour Committee (FLC), ELBWO (East London Black 38–9 Women’s Organization), 6, 79 FOWAAD! (OWAAD newsletter), Eltham, London, 3 79, 80, 81–2 Emecheta, Buchi, 82 “From Resistance to Rebellion” emigration outward, 37–8, 42 (Sivanandan), 56–7 employment Fryer, Peter, 49–51 competition for, white fears and, Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain 22–5 (Parekh Report), 126 discrimination, Thatcher era, 99–100 Gender and Cultural Citizenship labor shortages post-WW II, 37, Working Group, 11 38–9 Gender and Ethnic Studies migration patterns and: labor Department (University of recruitment, 22–4, 32–3, 37; Greenwich), 7 racial violence, 24–5; racism, gender discrimination, Thatcher 37, 38–40, 42, 60 era, 99–101 Engels, Friedrich 82 Ghana, independence, 57 England Riots, 145 Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, 29 English language skills, 131, 136–7 global-diasporic consciousness, 58 Englishness Goode, Judith, 125 constructions of, 20, 22, 47 Goss, Sue, 97–8, 100–1 defined, 52, 102 Graham, Orbin, 119 Thatcherism and, 96–7, 102 Grant, Bernie, 119 threats to, 54 Great Britain women as reproducers of, 54–5 countries of, 149n2 See also Britishness imperialism, 29–32 Enriquez, Margarite, 119 myth of imperial superiority, entryst strategy, 105 21–2 Eritrean Women’s Study Group, 77 outward migrations, 37–8, 42 Ethnic Minorities Committee See also specific governments (GLC), 99, 116, 155n4 “Great British Expeditions,” 21 184 Index

Greater London Council (GLC), 97, as threat to nation and 98–101, 107, 115–16, 155n4 culture, 97 Griffiths, Peter, 49 Immigration Act (1971), 49–50 Gutch, Richard, 142 Immigration and Nationality Act, Guy-Sheftall, Beverly, 67 33, 68 immigration policy, racially Hall, Stuart, 28, 96, 102 discriminatory Hamnett, Chris, 147 coalitions response to end, “Handsworth revolution” 56–8 (song), 61 legislation supporting, 26–7, Haringey Black Women’s Center, 79 29–32, 42–3, 48–9 Harrison, Faye, 75–6 patterns of migration and Hay, Courtney, 62 exclusion, 23, 24–6, 33, The Heart of the Race (Bryan, 38–9, 60 Dadzie and Scafe), 2–3, 78, 87 present-day, 126 Held, David, 28 support for, 51–2 hierarchy of races, 21 imperial emigration, 37–8, 42 Hoffman, Linda, 98, 117 imperialism, 29–32 Holmes, Colin, 39, 40 imperial superiority, myth of, homeland-exile dialectic, 45–9, 21–2 58, 67 inclusion-exclusion dialectic hooks, bell, 82 citizenship, subjecthood and, Hottentot Venus (Baartman, 19–20, 23–4, 26–32, 40–1, Saartjie), 20–1 123–4 housing elements shaping, 10–11 Caribbean migrants, post-WW II, homeland-exile dialectic, 45–9, 34–7, 154n5 58, 67 1970s squatter movement, 75–6 immigration legislation and See also council estates policy, 48–55 housing discrimination present-day, 131–2 post-WW II, 36–7 sexual boundaries of, 24–5, present-day, 130–4, 141 54–5 Thatcher era, 101 state policy, results of, 56 Human Rights Act, 126 Thatcher era, 96 women, marginalization and identity alienation of, 134–7 black British, 101–2 See also discrimination; British national, construction of, migration patterns of exclusion; 101–2 othering citizenship as, 31 Indian immigrants, 26–7 diasporic, 46–9 Indian Independence, 31 See also Britishness Indian Workers Association of identity formation, 4–5 Great Britain, 49, 57 immigrants individualism, 96–7 criminal construction, present- Institute of Race Relations, 58 day, 126 Ireland, 31, 152n19 Index 185

Irish migrants London Armagh Coordinating employment, 39, 40 Committee, 81 hierarchy of Britishness, 97 “London Is the Place for Me” housing discrimination, 36 (Roberts), 19 right of entry, 39, 48–9 London Transport, 37 statistics, 39–40 Irish women Macpherson, William, 149n3 imprisoned, 81 Macpherson Inquiry, 149n3 whiteness of, 73 Macpherson Report, 126, 149n3 Malcolm X, 57 James, CLR, 58 Mama, Amina, 2 James, Winston, 26, 150n4 Mama Yeabo, 103, 112 Jarrett, Cynthia, 146 Manchester Black Women’s Jones, Claudia, 65, 68–70 Co-operative, 74, 76 Jordan, Colin, 18 marriage, interracial, 18 Marshall, T. H., 28 Kelley, Robin D. G., 9, 45, 46 Marx, Anthony, 56–8 Kenyan Asian Act, 49 Marx, Karl, 82 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 57 Marxist feminism, 78, 82 Kingsley, Daryl, 104–5 Maskovsky, Jeff, 125 Kitchener, Lord (Aldwyn Mayers, Marilyn, 74, 116, 117 Roberts), 19 McCarran-Walter Act, 33, 68 Klug, Francesca, 41 men. See black men Knight, Luke, 149n3 Michaelson, Sara, 106 Koff, David, 59 migrants, term usage, 150n4 migration labor recruitment and migration factors influencing, 55 patterns, 22–4, 32–3, 38–40, family and kin networks, 42, 60 34–5, 112 Labour Party labor recruitment and, 22–4, black involvement, Thatcher era, 32–3, 38–40, 42, 60 98, 105, 118–21 statistics, 48 immigration legislation and the, violence attributed to, 18–19 29, 38–9, 49, 51 migration patterns of exclusion New Labour welfare reform, citizenship, subjecthood and, 19, 125–9, 141–4 42, 48, 49, 51 Lansley, Stewart, 97–8, immigration policy and, 23, 100–1 24–6, 33, 38–9, 42–3, 60 Lawrence, Stephen, 3, 149n3 in labor recruitment, 38–40, Lawson, Mark, 128 42, 60 lesbianism, 109–10 migration policy, present-day, 131 Lewis, Gail, 2 Mirza, Heidi Safia, 101–2, 110 Lister, Ruth, 28 miscegenation, 18, 24–5 literacy activism, 82 Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, 9, 66 Liverpool Black Sisters, 79 Moore, Robert, 34 Livingstone, Ken, 155n4 Morgen, Sandra, 113 186 Index

Morris, Olive, 74–7, 83 Obi, Liz, 75–6 Morrison, Caroline, 72, 83, 115 O’Dwyer, Riana, 39–40 Morrison, Majbritt, 18 Olive Morris House, 77 Morrison, Raymond, 18 Olive Morris Memorial Collection, Mosely, Oswald, 18 76–7 Mukherjee, Mrs., 132–4, 141 Ó Tuathaigh, Gearóid, 39–40 murder, racially motivated, 3, Operation Swamp 81, 94 17, 19 Operation Trident, 145 Murray, Nancy, 58 oppositional consciousness, 58 Mwinyipembe, Musindo, 59 Organization of African Descent, 77 National Black Women’s Organization of Women of Conferences, 79–80, 84–5 Asian and African Descent National Committee for (OWAAD), 7, 74, 76, 77–88, Commonwealth Immigrants 104, 114–17 (NCCI), 51–2 othering National Coordinating Committee Afro-Asian unity and, 126 of Overseas Students, 76 of black women, 20–1 National Federation of Pakistani of Irish women, 73, 81 Organizations, 49, 57 See also inclusion-exclusion National Front, 55, 96 dialectic national identity, 101–2 otherness, diasporic space and, 46–7 See also Britishness OWAAD (Organization of Women nationality, British of Asian and African Descent), gender differentiation in, 41 7, 74, 76, 77–88, 104, 114–17 legislating, 41 legislating gendered and racial, Pardner (Sou Sou) System, 34–5 43–4 Parekh Reportt (Future of universal subjecthood and rights Multi-Ethnic Britain), 126 of, 27, 29–32 Parmar, Prathiba, 2 Nationality and Status of Aliens patrial citizenship, 49–50 Act, 23, 41 Paul, Kathleen, 23, 27, 39, 40 National Union of Seamen, Peckham Black Women’s 22–3, 24 Centre, 113 New Deal for Communities, Peckham Black Women’s Group, 132, 142 79, 113 New Deal (Welfare to Work Peterson, Helen, 138–9 program), 128 Phillips, Ron, 60–1 New Labour Phillips, Ruth, 132–4, 141 policies, cumulative effects, 146–7 Pilkington, Edward, 36 welfare reform, 125–9, 141–4 Police and Criminal Evidence Norris, David, 149n3 Bill, 81 Nottingham Black Women’s policing Group, 79 black communities, 43, 93–5 Notting Hill Carnival, 69 criminalizing black youth, 43, Notting Hill Riots, 18–19, 69 80–1, 84, 94–5, 145–6 Index 187

deaths in custody, 145 Rake, Katherine, 128 institutional racism in, 149n3 Ramdin, Ron, 37 Polish Resettlement Act, 152n18 refugees, WW II labor recruitment, politics of blackness, 9–10 38–9 politics of empowerment, 105 regime of disappearance, 125 politics of identification, 109 Remembering Olive Collective, 77 politics of solidarity, 5 repatriation, support for, 52 Porter, Bernard, 96 Rex, John, 34 positive action programs, 100 “Rivers of Blood” speech (Powell), poverty, individualizing, 127–9 52–3, 54 Powell, Enoch, 49, 52–5 Roberts, Aldwyn (pseud. Lord Prescod, Colin, 59–60 Kitchener), 19 prisons, 81, 84, 126, 132 Royal Navy, 22 privatization, 97–8, 138–41 public services. See service Sabarr Bookshop, 74, 75, 76, 83 provisioning Sandoval, Chela, 58, 70 SBCC (Southwark Black RAAS (Radical Action Adjustment Communities Consortium), 93, Society), 57 104–7 Race & Class (journal), 58 SBWC (Southwark Black Women’s Race Equalities Committees Centre). See Southwark Black (GLC), 99 Women’s Centre (SBWC) Race (journal), 58 Scafe, Suzanne, 2, 34–5, 74, 77, race monitoring, 100 78, 87 Race Relations Act (1965), 51 SCRAP SUS campaign, 81 Race Relations Act (1968), 51 Search Under Suspicion (SUS Law), Race Relations Act (1976), 51 43, 80, 94, 146 Race Relations (Amendment) service provisioning Act, 126 as empowerment, 103 Race Relations Board, 51 as political activism, 109, race relations policy, 51–2 112–14, 125 race riots, 18–19, 24–5, 69 second-class citizenship racialized gendered blackness, 10, experience and, 131 14, 43, 54, 70–1, 84, 143 Thatcher era, 97–100, 107–8, racism 138–41 class containment policy, 60–1 welfare reform and, 125–9, 141–4 historical roots, film See also specific organizations documenting, 59–63 shilling, value of, 151n8 repatriation, support for, 52 Shukra, Kalbir, 98–9, 118 Thatcher era, 99–100 Single Regeneration Budget transracial, anti-imperialist Program, 132 coalitions response to end, Sisters in Struggle (SIS), 90 56–8 Sivanandan, A., 45–6, 56–7, 58 See also discrimination slavery, abolition of, 21 Radical Action Adjustment Society Smith, Pam, 119 (RAAS), 57 socialism, Thatcher era, 97–9 188 Index socialist feminist framework, 82 Straw, Jack, 149n3 Sojourner Truth, 58 subjecthood solidarity, defined, 66 acquiring, 151n13 Sou Sou (Pardner) System, 34–5 in migration patterns of South Asian-Bengali women, exclusion, 19, 48, 49, 51 135, 142 universal equality and, 29–32 Southwark Black Communities WW I to WW II era, 23–4 Consortium (SBCC), 93, 104–7 Sudbury, Julia, 87, 117 Southwark Black Women’s Centre Sure Start project, 132 (SBWC) SUS Law (law of suspicion), 43, 80, about, 5, 103, 129 94, 146 agency, 140 the author and the, 6–7 Thatcher era (Margaret) The Bangladeshi Group, 135–7 black political participation, 9, closure, 125, 141, 142 118–21 funding, 138, 140, 142 community-based activism, effect issues primary to, 103 on, 6, 90–1, 102–3, 107–9 membership, 111–13 racial tensions, 94–5 service provisioning, 15, 108, social and political ideals, 43, 113–14, 129–34, 138, 141–2 95–101 tensions in the, 109 Third World, term usage, 149n1 Southwark borough Thomas, Deborah A., 67 The Bangladeshi Group, 135–7 Tobago, independence, 57 described, 129–30 Tottenham riots, 145 Southwark Council, 98, 107, 142–3 Toxeth Riots, 95p Southwark Council for Community Trinidad, independence, 57 Relations, 108 true womanhood, cult of, 25 Southwark Parent and Child Education Scheme UCPA (Universal Coloured People’s (SPACES), 132 Association), 57 Southwark Police Domestic Uganda, independence, 57 Violence Unit, 108 Union Movement, 18 SPACES (Southwark Parent and United Kingdom, countries of, Child Education Scheme), 132 149n2 SPEAK OUT (BBWG newsletter), United States 79, 80, 81, 84 affirmative action programs, 100 Special Restriction (Coloured Alien black feminist and feminism Seaman) Order, 26 labels, 109 Spencer, Ian R. G., 26–7 citizenship in the, 29, 124 squatter movement, 74, 75–6, 83 Civil Rights Movement, 45, 57, 69 Squatters’ Handbook, 75–6 housing for blacks, 61, 125 SS Empire Windrush, 19, 154n5 immigration policy, post-WW II, Stafford, Winston, 119 33, 68 Steel Pulse, 61 modeling activism, 69 Stephens, John, 104–5, 120–1 prison demographics, 80, 84 Stoler, Ann, 24 welfare reform, 128, 147 Index 189

Universal Coloured People’s White, Veronica, 86, 90–1, 116 Association (UCPA), 57 White Defense League, 18 Urban Left, rise of, 98–9 White Paper, Immigration from the Commonwealth, 51 Vagrancy Act (1824), 43 white women Vaz, Keith, 119 boundaries of Britishness, 41, 73 vernacular epistemologies, xii, 11 cult of true womanhood violence (domesticity), 25 economics of, 146–7 as cultural-biological reproducers against women, 135 of the nation, 38, 54–5 violence racially motivated Williams, Claudette, 86 Deptford fire considered as, 94 Williams, Eric, 58 miscegenation and, 24–5 Wilson, Harold, 49 murders, 3, 17, 19 Wilson, Mark, 93–4, 104–5, 119 by police, 94 Wolmar, Christian, 97–8, 100–1 postimperial state, 18–19 women pre-Thatcher, 96 boundaries of Britishness, 41, 73 WW II, era-post, 17–19 citizenship boundaries, 41 cult of true womanhood Wade, Jessica, 73, 81, 82–3, (domesticity), 25 115, 116 as cultural-biological reproducers war on terror, 44 of the nation, 38, 54–5 Waters, Hazel, 20 Irish, 73, 81 Weaver, Matthew, 142–3 labor recruitment, WW II, 73 welfare reform marginalization of, 134–7 Cameron and Clegg approach, othering of, 20–1, 73, 81 147–8 politicization of, 110–15 New Labour approach, 125–9 violence against, 135 politics of, 141–4 See also black women results, discourse vs. actual, 144 Women’s Committee (GLC), 99, Welfare Reform Act (US), 147 116, 155n4 Welfare to Work program (New Women’s Liberation Movement, Deal), 128 70–1 Welsh, Debbie, 119 Woods, Dessie, 80 West Indian Gazette and Afro- Asian Caribbean News, 69 youth, policing and criminalization West Indian Standing Conference of black, 43, 80–1, 84, 94–5, Organization, 49 145–6 Westward Ho! 39 Yuval-Davis, Nira, 54, 105