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Fisiología Y Ética UNIVERSIDAD DE VALLADOLID Fisiología y ética Fundamentos fisiológicos de la psicología moral en Galeno de Pérgamo Liliana Cecilia Molina González Investigación dirigida por el Prof. Dr. Alfredo Marcos Martínez 2012 D OCTORADO EN LÓGICA Y FILOSOFÍA DE LA CIENCIA Para los pequeños enormes, Antonio y Violeta, para su padre, en ellos. [2] Contenido Abreviaturas usadas 5 Introducción 7 Cap. 1. El platonismo matizado de Galeno 21 1. Medicina y retórica 27 1.1. Cármides 27 1.2. Gorgias 35 1.3. Fedro 41 2. Dualismo, inmortalidad y tripartición 46 2.1. Dualismo e inmortalidad 46 2.2. Tripartición e inmortalidad 61 3. El platonismo matizado de Galeno 66 3.1. La formación del médico y las pautas metodológicas de la investigación 67 3.2. Ventajas de un modelo tripartito del alma 76 Cap. 2. El modelo médico-filosófico de Galeno sobre el alma y la crítica de Crisipo en De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis (PHP) 82 1. Contexto de discusión en PHP: el debate sobre la sede del hêgemonikon 107 1.1. Exigencias epistemológicas e investigación anatomo-fisiológica 110 2. Dos modelos de alma divergentes 123 2.1. Entendiendo a Crisipo 123 2.1.1. El modelo de Crisipo sobre el alma según los testimonios de PHP 134 2.2. Entendiendo a Galeno 150 3. Conclusiones 169 Cap. 3. Filosofía moral y Dietética. Las facultades del alma siguen los temperamentos del cuerpo (QAM) 175 1. Las tesis 193 2. Fundamentación 218 2.1. Antecedentes 218 [3] 2.2. La propuesta de Galeno. Presupuestos que justifican la identificación entre krâsis y facultades del alma 224 2.2.1. Sobre el arte 235 2.2.2. Sobre los humores 236 2.2.3. Sobre las mezclas (Temp.), Sobre la mejor constitución de los cuerpos (Opt. Corp. Const.) y Sobre la buena constitución (Bon. Hab.) 238 2.2.4. La aplicación de la teoría humoral para establecer las causas de las enfermedades del alma racional 245 2.2.4.1. Sobre los lugares afectados 245 2.2.4.2. Sobre las enfermedades y sus síntomas 249 2.3. Retornando a “Quod animi mores” 251 3. Conclusiones 256 3.1. ¿Responde Galeno en QAM la cuestión sobre la ousia del alma? 256 3. 2. ¿Elimina Galeno la filosofía moral en pos de la defensa acérrima de la medicina dietética? 258 Cap. 4. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de las pasiones y los errores del alma de cada uno: dietética del alma y medicina preventiva 263 1. Contexto filosófico de los escritos morales de Galeno 263 1.1 La filosofía como forma de vida, práctica y entrenamiento en la comprensión de los errores morales 267 2. Los tratados morales de Galeno 272 2.1. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de las pasiones del alma de cada uno 282 2.1.1 Galeno: tipos de pasiones y sus causas. Medidas terapéuticas y el significativo papel de la parte irascible del alma 284 2.1.2. Séneca y Galeno. Ephedreia (vigilancia), ascesis (ejercitación) y enseñanzas (dogmata) como medidas para disminuir la fuerza de las pasiones en el alma 294 2.2. Diagnóstico y tratamiento de los errores del alma de cada uno 297 2.2.1. Contexto crítico: la discusión con las sectas 300 2.2.2 Contexto argumentativo. Errores morales, tipos de errores según su causa; y la relación entre error propio y falsa opiniones 302 2.2.3. Utilidad del método demostrativo. El enfoque profiláctico de Pecc. Dig. 309 3. Conclusiones 313 Anexos Diagnóstico y tratamiento de las pasiones propias del alma de cada uno 328 Diagnóstico y tratamiento de los errores del alma de cada uno 358 Conclusiones 383 Bibliografía 397 [4] Abreviaturas usadas∗ *Obras de Galeno Citamos en este caso, las traducciones disponibles consultadas en esta investigación. PHP. De Placitis Hippocratis et Platones. Sobre las opiniones comunes de Hipócrates y Platón (De Lacy, 2005). Opt. Doct. Qoud Optimus Medicus sit quoque Philosophus. Que el mejor médico es también filósofo. (Martínez, 2002); (Singer, 1997). Prop. Plac. De Propiis Placitis. Sobre mis propias opiniones. (Martínez, 2002). Lib. Prop. De Libris Propiis. Sobre mis propios libros. (Martínez, 2002). Ord. Lib. Prop. De Ordine Librorum Propriorum. Sobre el orden de mis propios libros. (Martínez, 2002). Ars Med. Ars Medica. Art of Medicine. (Singer, 1997). QAM. Quod Animi Mores Corporis Temperamenta Sequuntur. Las facultades del alma siguen los temperamentos del cuerpo. (Zaragoza G, 2003); (Singer, 1997); (Barras, Birchler, Morand, 1995) Nat. Fac. De naturalibus Facultatibus. Las facultades naturales. (Zaragoza G., 2003). Aff. Dig. De proprium Animi Cuiuslibet Affectuum Dignotione et Curatione. Diagnóstico y curación de las pasiones del alma de cada uno; (Barras, Birchler, Morand, 1995); (Singer, 1997) y (Harkins, 1963). Pecc. Dig. De Animi Cuiuslibet Peccatorum Dignotione et Curatione. Diagnóstico y curación de los errores del alma de cada uno; (Barras, Birchler, Morand, 1995) ; (Singer, 1997) y (Harkins, 1963). Temp. De Temperamentis. Sobre las mezclas. (Singer, 1997). Opt. Corp. Const. De Optima Corporis Nostri. La mejor constitución de nuestro cuerpo. (Singer, 1997). Bon. Hab. De Bono Habitu. (Singer, 1997). Loc. Aff. De Locis Affectis. Sobre la localización de las enfermedades. (Andrés Aparicio, 1997). ∗Solamente en el caso de las obras de Galeno citamos las traducciones usadas. Y utilizamos las abreviaturas con que son citados los tratados de Galeno, tal como se reseñan en el apéndice I de Hankinson (2008). En el caso de los tratados Aff. Dig. y Pecc. Dig. hemos hecho nuestra propia traducción al español con base en el texto griego y en las versiones disponibles en la lengua francesa e inglesa; y la hemos insertado como anexo al final de este trabajo. Para los tratados médicos, los diálogos de Platón y las obras de Aristóteles, hemos consultado las traducciones disponibles en la edición de Gredos. Y utilizamos las abreviaturas usadas por Liddell, H.; Scott, R. (comp.) and Jones, H. S. (rev.) (1996), (eds.), A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford, Clarendon Press. No incluimos abreviaturas de los diálogos de Platón ni de los tratados médicos consultados en este trabajo. En ese caso simplemente usamos el nombre completo de la obra citada. [5] Hum. De humoribus. Sobre los humores (Grant, 2000). Caus. Symp. De symptomatum causis. De las causas de las enfermedades (Johnston, 2006). Symp. Diff. De symptomatum differentiis. De las diferencias de los síntomas (Johnston, 2006). *Obras de Aristóteles PA. Partes de los animales GA. Generación de los animales de An. Sobre el alma EN. Ética a Nicómaco GC. Generación y Corrupción PN. Tratados breves de historia natural [6] Introducción 1. Justificación y estado de la cuestión Hace cuatro décadas, aproximadamente, los historiadores de la filosofía comienzan a interesarse en la obra del médico Galeno de Pérgamo (I-II de nuestra era) ; entre las primeras publicaciones al respecto podemos citar, por ejemplo, Rise and decline of Galenism de Temkin Owsei (1970) y los diferentes artículos publicados por el profesor García Ballester.1 Actualmente no se duda de la relevancia de su obra para la historia de la medicina, ni de la importancia doxográfica y filosófica de los tratados en que Galeno discute, críticamente, con una amplia gama de planteamientos filosóficos y médicos: el mejor ejemplo es su escrito sobre las opiniones de Hipócrates y Platón, que resulta relevante para estudiar las primeras doctrinas estoicas sobre el alma y las pasiones.2 Quienes pretenden justificar la importancia filosófica de Galeno buscan identificar, principalmente, la influencia de la tradición filosófica en su investigación médica sobre la naturaleza del alma y su relación con el cuerpo;3 y evaluar la novedad y pertinencia de su método experimental para las discusiones filosóficas sobre la naturaleza.4 Galeno se apoya en conocimientos anatómicos para explicar empíricamente la estructura y funcionamiento del alma;5 y su doctrina fisiológica sobre el pneuma 1 Los más relevantes: “Soul and body, Disease of the Soul and disease of the body in Galen´s Medical Thought”, en: Manuli e Vegetti (1988); “Galen as a medical practitioner. Problems in diagnosis”. En: Nutton (1981). Y su libro Galen and Galenism (2002). 2 Cfr. Tieleman (1996 y 2003). 3 Entre este grupo de investigadores podemos citar a García Ballester (1969), con sus artículos: “La `Psique` en el somaticismo médico de la antigüedad: la actitud de Galeno” (1969), y “La utilización de Platón y Aristóteles en los escritos tardíos de Galeno de Pérgamo” (1971). Y, por otro lado, a De Lacy (1972), “Galen´s Platonism”; Frede, M., “On Galen´s Epistemology” y Moraux, P. “Galien comme Philosophe. La philosophie de la nature”, en Nutton (1981); y a Piegaud, “Le platonisme de Galien”, una sección de “La psychopathologie des médecins (Piegaud, 1981); Donini, “Motivi filosofici in Galeno” (Donini, 1980) y “Galeno e la Filosofia” (Donini, 1992); Hankinson, “Anatomy of the Soul” (Hankinson, 1991); y Desideri, “Galeno come intellecttuale” (Desideri, P., 2000). 4 Cfr. al respecto los artículos compendiados en Hankinson (ed.) (2008), cfr. especialmente: “Psychology” (Donini); “Anatomy” (Rocca), “Philosophy of nature” (Hankinson), “Epistemology” (Hankinson), “Logic” (Morison), “Methodology” (Tieleman) y “Physiology” (Debru A.). 5 En Galeno “alma” es el conjunto de las funciones o facultades de un cuerpo viviente organizado. Justamente porque vemos esas facultades (respiración, nutrición, sensación, pensamiento), no dudamos de su existencia. Para Galeno “alma” es el concepto con que los filósofos designan la causa de dichas facultades; pero el médico busca demostrar que estas facultades tienen su principio (archê) en partes diferentes del cuerpo. El principio epistemológico tras este planteamiento es que todo sucede por una causa y las causas de estas actividades “naturales” o “del alma” son diferentes. Para intentar demostrarlo, Galeno investiga la fisiología del cuerpo y hace experimentos anatómicos para identificar la estructura causal de las actividades de un cuerpo viviente. Por esta razón hablamos de una investigación fisiológica [7] como instrumento del alma, le permite establecer diferencias entre las facultades anímicas.
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