Notes on Metis Culture and History Lawrence J. Barkwell

Revised January 2015

Preface

The history of Metis National identity spans over 300 years.

Metis culture is an oral culture, the Michif library is the stories and recollections of our Elders. The Metis hunters of the plains were also a horse culture like the Dakota and Nakota.

In our schools and universities the mainstream version of Metis history is taught. The Metis oral history versions are not taught.

Until very recently there were no text books dedicated to Metis culture. Therefore we have produced two resource books.

• Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and Darren R. Préfontaine. Metis Legacy: A Metis Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Saskatoon, Gabriel Dumont Institute; Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications and Louis Riel Institute, 2001. • Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah M. Dorion and Audreen Hourie. Metis Legacy, Volume Two: Michif Culture, Heritage and Folkways. Saskatoon, Gabriel Dumont Institute, Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications, 2007.

To this day there is only one University level set of courses teaching the Michif language

The apex of Metis statesmanship and governance was achieved July 24, 1870 when the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia voted to join Canada. Manitoba is the only province brought into Confederation by Aboriginal people—the Metis.

The Metis were a people with their own Bill of Rights, their own flag, their own anthem and their own language long before Canada was a nation. • A nation with its own Bill of Rights (1849) In 1849, Alexander Isbister presented the first list of Metis rights to the Colonial Office in London. In 1869 Riel presented a list of rights to Canada. • A nation with its own unique language – Michif (1790) • A nation with its own national flag (1816) • A nation with its own national anthem (1817) La Bataille des Sept Chênes The Red River Jig Proud to be Metis

1 Manitoba is the only province brought into Confederation by Aboriginal people—the Metis. The apex of Metis statesmanship and governance was achieved July 24, 1870 when the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia voted to join Canada. The motion was made by Louis Schmidt and seconded by Pierre Poitras (both Metis). The Assembly had 28 elected members, 21 of whom were Metis. These 28 elected members represented a population that was 82% Metis. All but two of the Executive officers of the Assembly were Metis.1

The Metis are a working-class people.

The Metis Infinity Flag

Metis infinity flag

The Metis infinity flag is based upon one of the world’s oldest flags, the Saltire flag of Scotland, traditionally dating back to the 9th century. The flag of Scotland features a white saltire, a crux decussate (X-shaped cross) representing the cross of the Christian martyr Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, on a blue field. It is named the Saltire or the Saint Andrew's Cross. In heraldic language, it is called a blazoned Azure, a saltire argent. However, history records that the Saltire was used on both red and blue backgrounds.

Flag of Scotland

1 Metis Executive: Louis Riel – President, Francois Xavier Dauphinais – Vice President, Thomas Bunn – Secretary of State, William O’Donoghue – Treasurer, James Ross – Attorney General, Adjutant General – Ambroise Lepine, James McKay – Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and John Bruce – Superintendent of Public Works. Only A.G.B. Bannatyne – Postmaster General and Dr. Curtis James Bird – Coroner were not Metis.

2 According to Metis history, North West Company partners at the Qu’Appelle Valley gave the infinity flag to them in May of 1816. Peter Fiddler describes the Metis flying this flag on May 31, 1816:

At half past noon about 48 Halfbreeds, Canadians, Freemen and Indians came all riding on Horseback, with their flag flying blue about 4 feet square and a figure of 8 horizontally in the middle,

As a symbol of nationhood, the Metis infinity flag (or Celtic circle of Eight) predates Canada’s Maple Leaf flag by about 150 years. For the Metis, the white infinity symbol has two meanings:

• The joining of two cultures. • The existence of a people forever.

Metis history of self-governance dates back to the 1700s. • Basic unit is the family, then clan, then community. • Community Councils • Regional Councils • Provincial Annual General Assemblies • National Assemblies

Metis history of democratic election of leaders dates from the early 1800s. Local, regional and national assemblies date back to these times.

Metis history of lawmaking dates from the 1700s.

Metis oral and custom law dates back to the rules of the voyageur boat brigades and the Metis Laws of the Hunt, these laws were codified in written form at St. Laurent Saskatchewan in 1863.

The Metis negotiated Manitoba’s entry into Confederation (1870)

This was the first Constitutional recognition of Metis rights. They are referred to as Half- Breeds in the English version of the Manitoba Act and as Metis in the French language version.

The Metis Asserted Their Rights • On June 15, 1815 the Metis represented by Cuthbert Grant, Bostonais Pangman, Bonhomme Montour and William Shaw, the four Chiefs of the Half-Breeds, negotiated a Peace Treaty with the Selkirk Settlers. • In 1816 Peter Fidler, and his HBC men destroyed the Northwest Company post in Brandon. In retaliation Cuthbert Grant and his men attacked Brandon house. Fidler wrote in his journal…“At one half past noon about 48 Half Breeds, Canadians, Freemen & Indians came all riding on Horseback, with their Flag flying blue about 4 feet square & a figure of 8 horizontally in the Middle.” • On June 17, 1817, Governor Semple, the leader of the colony at Fort Douglas, carried out an attack on the Metis led by Cuthbert Grant at Frog Plain, north of the colony. Semple and all but one of his combatants were killed.

3 • On November 14,1844, after a skirmish with the Dakota and a forceful Métis retaliation the Dakota leaders met to discuss what should be done about the situation. Seeing the wisdom of putting an end to the fighting, the Dakota took the initiative and began to negotiate for peace by sending a proposal to Cuthbert Grant. On December 8, 1844 Cuthbert Grant, in his capacity as leader of the Métis replied with a letter of his own. He agreed with the need for peace and outlined the concerns, which still needed to be addressed by the Dakota: On the12th February, 1845, the Dakota replied accepting the terms. • In 1849, in England Alexander Isbister petitioned the Colonial Office regarding the inherent Aboriginal rights of the Metis, independent of Colonial Law. • Mat 7, 1849, Guillaume Sayer, Hector McGillis, Norbert Laronde and Andre Goulet represented by James Sinclair. Started by challenging the jury and nine men were replaced by Metis men. However found Sayer guilty of trading in furs but with a recommendation of mercy and that charges against the other three be withdrawn. When the crowd heard of Sayer’s discharge, the cry went up “Le commerce est libre!” This ended the HBCo’s attempts to enforce its monopoly. • On September 20, 1851, the Pembina and Red Lake Metis negotiated for their rights with Alexander Ramsey, Governor of the Minnesota Territory. • In the Battle of the Grand Coteau (1851) the Metis prevailed when attacked and subsequently there was a Treaty with the Sioux Nation. • In 1869-70 the Metis took up arms at Red River to protect their homes and lands and subsequently negotiated the Manitoba Act to bring the province into Confederation. • On September 12, 1875, Nicholas Chatelain (a Metis HBC trader) acting on behalf of the Metis of Rainy Lake and Rainy River, signed the memorandum of understanding that led to the Half-Breed Adhesion to Treaty 3 with Canada. • In 1885, the Metis of the Northwest Territory petitioned extensively for their rights to Canada and after Canada failed to respond (other than to send the Army under General Middleton) they took up arms to protect their rights in the battles of Duck Lake, Tourond’s Coulée and Batoche.

Service to country

• Metis have served as Provincial Premiers, Cabinet Ministers and MLAs; as federal MPs and Cabinet Ministers as well as members of the Canadian Senate.

• The Metis served the North West Mounted Police as guides and teamsters when they made their trek westward from Manitoba to establish Fort Walsh and a presence in the Canadian Northwest.

• The Metis served on the Canadian Boundary Commission of 1872-1875, as the “49th Rangers”. In 1872 the formal survey of the border between Canada and the United States began. Commissioner Cameron chose Metis leader William Hallett as Chief Scout to recruit a group to protect the British contingent from Sioux Indians or anyone else who might try to molest them.

• The Metis protected Red River against an attempted USA Fenian invasion. The Red River Metis headed off the O’Donoghue raid of 1871. Lieutenant-Governor Adams Archibald, informed Sir John A. Macdonald: “We have passed through a frightful crisis and have escaped by the skin of out teeth…” Louis Riel and his cavalry remained loyal to

4 Canada and did not support the republican aspirations of O’Donoghue. Thus the intended invasion ended with a whimper at the border.

• The Metis served as interpreters for every western treaty negotiated by the Canadian and American governments.

• Metis men and women have militarily served Canada in many international conflicts with many being decorated for their bravery. The first was with the Nile Expedition in 1884- 85; followed by the Boer War; the First and Second World Wars (over 4,000 served in each war); the Korean War, and many peacekeeping missions. Currently there are Metis serving in Afghanistan.

The Metis Nation has its own history, stories and legends • Nanabush (Wesahkayjack) • Ma-ma-kwa-se-sak (Little People), • Pahkack, • la Veille de la Careme (the Old woman of Lent), • Kookoush, • C’he-p-sky-boo, • Rougarou • Ti Jean stories, • Battle of Seven Oaks • Battle of the Grand Coteau, • Battles of Duck Lake, Tourond’s Coulee and Batoche

The Metis were known for their language abilities, multi-lingual, in the 1800s most families spoke five or more languages, the Metis were the interpreters for every treaty in the west (USA and Canada).

The Metis have their own music and dances, the Red River Jig, the Sash Dance, the Rabbit Dance, the Reel of Eight, Drops of Brandy or the Hook Dance (Danse du crochet), the Duck Dance (le danse de canard), the Handkerchief Dance etc. These dances are a combination of Celtic step dancing and First Nations dance.

The Metis controlled the transportation system of the Northwest. • By canoe, voyageurs, the York boats, later they operated the steamships on the large rivers and lakes, by land the carts and dog sleds in winter. • The Metis controlled the first postal system in the west. • Developed the overland routes to Edmonton and St. Paul Minnesota. • The Metis had a riverine voyageur culture and a plains horse culture. • Metis were known as superb horsemen. Some said that they were such good riders that Half-Breed meant half man, half horse

Distinct Clothing and Dress • See Sherry Farrell Racette’s Ph.D. thesis “Sewing Ourselves Together.”

5 • Sash – clan colours and designs would denote your family, how you wore your sash would denote occupation and whether you were married or single. Beadwork style would denote your community. • Family and individual colors in beadwork, much like Scottish clan tartans. • Just as the Knights of old had their family crests on their shields and armour, distinctive clothing and beadwork was necessary in the Old Northwest. It was important to be able to identify an enemy at a distance. • “Dressing for success” in the fur trade. • The five-petal prairie rose was the trademark of Metis women. • In the mid-1800s 75% of the beads sold at Red River were sold to Metis. • Men known for their decorated hats and fedoras • Important items such as cartridge bags were usually made of red cloth, so you could find them in a hurry. • Could tell a person’s religion from their blanket coats, Protestant’s wore white capotes, Roman Catholic wore blue. • Metis were known by the Sioux as the “flower beadwork people” • Highest award is a Metis Sash or a beadworked “presentation”coat, Harry Daniels presented one to the Pope at Yellowknife. David Chartrand presented one to Prime Minister Paul Martin at the Kelowna conference. • Metis dressed their horses and dog teams in bright ribbons, bells and pom poms

Unique holidays and events: • New Years: shaking hands day or kissing day, celebration went to January 6th, • All Kings Day, boys born on that day would be named King. • Louis Riel Commemoration Day, November 16th • Louis Riel Day, a Civic holiday, third Monday of February • National Aboriginal Day June 21st • Metis Nation Day July 24th • St. Joseph’s Day, March 19th – the patron saint of the Metis • St. Laurent (Saskatchewan) Pilgrimage • Lac Ste. Anne Pilgrimage (Alberta) • Assemblies in the fall and spring. • Deaths denoted by tolling the church bell nine times if a man died and seven times if a woman died.

Foods: pemmican, rubabou, bannock, li baignes, lentil soups (soupe aux pois and soupe aux bin), Bees milk, boulettes, boudin blanc, bouyon or fish liquor, poutine glissantes, les grandperes, maple sugar, neepees, seepoo nuts, pouchine au sac or “son-of-a-bitch-in-a- sack”…etc.

The Dispossession of the Metis

After confederation in Manitoba Canada moved 1,000 militiamen into the province – the Red River Expeditionary Force. Spurred on by the Orange Order, the Canadian Party and the “Canada First” movement, the troops attacked the Metis with impunity. Physical and sexual assaults,

6 murder, arson and assorted acts of mayhem where practiced on the Metis whenever they came near Fort Garry.

The distribution of Metis lands promised in Section 31 and 32 of the Manitoba Act was delayed and through the illegal intervention of the government changed new legislation was passed that forced the Metis to abandon Manitoba and move further west and north. This is how the Metis came to live on Canada’s road allowances. The Manitoba Metis Federation has taken the Federal and Provincial governments to court on this historic land claim and a decision is pending.

The failure to grant the Metis land in the Northwest Territory led to the 1885 Resistance at Batoche and the subsequent trial and hanging of Louis Riel.

Denied Education: Because the Metis had been forced onto unsurveyed crown land and onto the road allowances of organized communities (i.e. because they did not own land and pay school taxes) the Metis were denied education.

Became an Invisible Group: The Metis went underground after 1885 to avoid oppression and discrimination, it was not until after World War One and World War Two, that returning Metis servicemen had the confidence to again begin to assert Metis rights.

Summary: The Primary Markers of Metis Identity:

• High mobility — arising from control and involvement in the transportation system and the buffalo hunt.

• Multilingual and polyethnic— acted as translators for every treaty in the Canadian and American west. Language skills derive from the Metis’ multicultural ancestry. The Metis are polyethnic and multilingual – Part of the historic Iron Alliance, the Nehiyaw Pwat. The Metis were the translators for every treaty negotiation in the Canadian and American west.

• Distinctive dress and clothing — known as the Flower-Beadwork People — the distinctive Metis sash.

• Fierce independence within a democratic tradition (assemblies as the basic vehicle). The Metis called themselves Otipemisiwak (oh-t-paym-soo-wuk) “The Independent Ones.” Historically they resisted measures to limit free trade and any government structures where they were not represented by democratically elected representatives.

The Metis were individualistic in their socio-economic and political structures as opposed to tribal. Historically they resisted measures to limit free trade and any government structures where they were not represented by democratically elected representatives.

7 • A tradition of “Sharing and Caring” — this tradition is enshrined in the centuries-old “Society of the Generous Ones” which ensured that the aged, sick and disabled in the Metis community received a share of the hunts and the harvest.

After the dispossession and oppression that occurred to the Metis after 1870s and 1880s the Metis went underground, and many of these cultural markers were not visible.

Edited and Compiled by Lawrence Barkwell Coordinator of Metis Heritage and History Research Louis Riel Institute

8