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Perspectives of Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota Elders on the Treaty Process within Canada A Dissertation Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Interdisciplinary Studies University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By Leo J. Omani © Leo J. Omani, copyright March, 2010. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of the thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis was completed. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain is not to be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Request for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis, in whole or part should be addressed to: Graduate Chair, Interdisciplinary Committee Interdisciplinary Studies Program College of Graduate Studies and Research University of Saskatchewan Room C180 Administration Building 105 Administration Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada S7N 5A2 i ABSTRACT This ethnographic dissertation study contains a total of six chapters. Chapter One provides an introduction to the topic, “Perspectives of Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota Elders on the Treaty Process within Canada.” It also discusses the following: the purpose of the study; the rationale & justification for an interdisciplinary approach; the research methodology; the definition of terms; the limitations of the study; assumptions; and the ethical protocols applicable to this study. Chapter Two provides a review of literature pertaining to the various theoretical and methodological considerations to be addressed within this study. These include the traditional “Rankean approach” to the study of history; that termed within Western academia as “Oral History,” combined with that termed as “Oral Tradition;” that termed as “Dakota Oral Tradition;” and that termed within Western academia as “Outsider vs. Insider Research.” Chapter Three provides a review of the history of the treaty negotiation processes that occurred both in the United States and Canada and concludes with an analysis of research findings to date. Chapter Four reviews previously written documentation pertaining to the Dakota/Lakota treaty negotiation process within Canada and concludes with an analysis of research findings to date. Chapter Five discusses in detail the data collection process employed for this study. In addition, the data generated from the interviews with the Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota Elders regarding their perspectives on treaty are presented. Chapter Six provides a synthesis and analysis of research findings for the data collected from the Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota Elders during the interview process. In addition, an epilogue is provided regarding the implications of the research for the treaty negotiation process of the Dakota/Lakota people within Canada. In this way the findings of the study are placed ii within the context of the Native-White treaty relationship currently evolving and being negotiated within the province of Saskatchewan. Recommendations are also presented to assist and enhance the contemporary political and legal position of the Dakota/Lakota First Nations within Saskatchewan in their efforts to either sign adhesion to the Numbered Treaties, or to adhere to an alternate treaty protocol agreement with the Canadian federal government, which would include provisions regarding land, as well as related treaty benefits and annuities. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their expertise in overseeing the completion of this dissertation, I take this opportunity to thank the following University of Saskatchewan representatives: my Supervisor, Dr. Michael Cottrell, Co-Supervisor, Dr. Mary Marino, Committee Chair, Dr. Sheila Carr-Stewart, and respective Committee Members, Dr. Cecil King, Dr. Ron Laliberte, and Dr. James (Sa’ke’j) Youngblood Henderson, Juris Doctorate, I.P.C., from the Native Law Centre. An acknowledgment of appreciation is also offered to the External Examiner, Dr. Art W. Blue, Professor Emeritus, Brandon University, Manitoba. Further, a word of thanks is offered for the support received from the Chiefs and Councils of the four Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota First Nations who agreed to have their respective Elders participate in the interview process for this study. For the financial support received for this study, I thank the Wahpeton Dakota Nation School Committee that provided the funding through their Post-Secondary Program for living allowance, travel, books and tuition. I also thank the University of Saskatchewan, College of Graduate Studies and Research, for the funds provided to offset the travel costs to various institutions in western Canada and into the U.S.A. in order to conduct the required archival research for this study. For support pertaining to computer technical expertise and photocopying costs covered, I thank the Prince Albert Grand Council Executive and Staff. To those who have assisted me in one way or another, please accept my apology if I have not cited their names personally within this acknowledgement. A sincere thanks is offered to all. iv DEDICATION This ethnographic dissertation study is dedicated, as a way of saying “thank you,” to the Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota Elders who agreed to participate in this study. This includes the Dakota Elders of Manitoba, as well as the Nakota Elders (those known as Assiniboine in Saskatchewan and Stoney in Alberta) consulted with regard to the verification and translation of various place-names discussed within this study. In addition, this ethnographic study is also dedicated, as a way saying “thank you,” to the Elders and individuals of the Woodland Cree, the Swampy Cree, as well as the Willow Cree (now known as the Plains Cree within the province of Saskatchewan), including the Elders and individuals of the Swampy Cree of northern Manitoba, who provided the verification of ancient Dakota Sacred Burial Sites and ancient Dakota Rock Paintings near and along the Churchill River. v NOTE ON WRITING STYLE AND DAKOTA SPELLING In this ethnographic dissertation study, the terms “I, me, and my” are used in place of “the writer,” as this pertains to the author of this study, Leo J. Omani. Further, since I have been told numerous times by individuals from my Aboriginal community that I use to many “high words” and to speak in plain English, as well as to “speak from my heart,” the following is noted. While the English language is utilized in this study, since numerous individuals residing within the Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota First Nations’ communities will no doubt in time also read this document, whenever possible in the writing, commonplace words will be used. This is designed to assist in allowing members of the Saskatchewan Dakota/Lakota First Nations’ communities to fully comprehend what is contained within this manuscript. Further, drawn the new Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA): Sixth Edition (2010), the following quote will also be applicable for this study: “you may find that the appearance of these pages occasionally deviates from APA Style rules. For example, sections may not be double-spaced and may not be in 12 point Times Roman typeface” (p. 7). The latter pertains not only to the footnotes, but also the citations with regard to the maps provided and discussed within this document, as well as the appendices attached to this study. The list of References are also not double-spaced, following the new APA Manual (2010, pp. 255-257). The spelling of Dakota words, personal names and place names is as given in the published sources, when words and names are taken from such sources, or in the manner used and accepted by the Elders consulted and interviewed for this study. The use of any of the various Dakota orthographies in this study is limited by two considerations. First, vi Dakota orthography varies somewhat among the four communities represented here. Second, I do not have access to a specifically-fitted keyboard. Thus, for example, the word for “white person” which I have spelled Wa’si’cu would be spelled Waśicuŋ in one of the most commonly used Dakota orthographies. Some variations would leave off the n, others would substitute a raised dot over the s for the accent mark. There is, as yet, no one universally accepted set of orthographic forms in use in the Dakota Oyate. No attempt has been made here to impose a standardized spelling. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PERMISSION TO USE………………………………………………………………. .i ABSTRACT..………………………………………………………………………….. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.………………………………………………………….. iv DEDICATION.………………….……………………………………………………. v NOTE IN WRITING STYLE AND DAKOTA SPELLING………………………. vi LIST Of MAPS.…………………………………………………………………………… xvi CHAPTER ONE..…………………………………………………………………….. 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 1 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………… 5 Rationale & Justification for an Interdisciplinary Approach………………….

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