ISSN 1392-0588 Milda DANYTË DARBAI ir DIENOS 2006.45

Lithuanian Translations of Canadian Literature

THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL REALIA

INTRODUCTION one of those that is still not well known to the Lithuanian reading public. This is Many recent approaches to translation paradoxical, since immigration to Can- have been dominated by the concept that ada from Lithuania has been considered translation is not only a linguistic pro- as an attractive alternative to settling in cess but also a cultural one. Indeed, the the United States of America since the cultural elements of a source text are close of the nineteenth century, and the often more resistant to translation than general perception of Canada is favour- linguistic ones. In a detailed study of able. Unfortunately, there is a tendency the translation of cultural allusions, Rit- in Lithuania, as in much of the world, to va Leppihalme (1997) remarks on the assume that the cultural specificity of complexity of the issues raised by such Canada and the USA is much the same. references: Weak media coverage of Canada in world Allusions require a high degree of bicultur- news further blurs any distinctions. In alism of receivers in order to be understood addition, while Lithuanians draw their across a cultural barrier. It has been accep- understanding of American culture from ted for some time that translators need to be a variety of sources, including cinema, not just bilingual but bicultural in order to fully understand the ST [source text] and to television and consumer products, there be able to transmit it to the target audience are few such sources for Canadian cul- [ ]. But what about the TT [target text] rea- ture. In this way, translated Canadian ders? Is it realistic to expect them to be texts assume a more important role than bicultural also? (1997:4) they might otherwise have in forming Translated texts are windows to other an image of Canada in the Lithuanian worlds for their readers, but it is utopian consciousness. to assume that these windows can ever The purpose of this article is to pro- be made completely transparent. Yet it is vide a preliminary analysis of Lithua- also undeniable that readers form im- nian translations of Canadian literary pressions of foreign cultures through their texts, focusing on those published since reading of translated literature. In addi- 1986, and particularly on texts published tion, curiosity about one culture or an- in the last decade, from 1996 to 2005. other is often part of the motivation for After explaining the scope and method- reading a translated literary text. ology of this article, a brief review of Among Western countries, Canada is historical changes in the Lithuanian lit- 196 VERTIMO MENAS erary market in the twentieth century, garet Atwood’s Oryx and Crake and Leo- and how these have affected the choice nard Cohen’s Beautiful Losers, and three of Canadian texts for translation will be novels for children, Mary Woodbury’s given. Then the article will look at the Brad’s Universe, Katherine Holubitsky’s different strategies employed by Lithua- Alone at Ninety Foot and Jean Little’s nian translators in dealing with culture- Orphan at My Door. One translation from specific items in Canadian texts, using the late Soviet period, Malcolm Lowry’s the categories suggested by Eirlys E. Under the Volcano, was added for com- Davies (2003). parison on the use of footnotes. The se- lection was made to include a variety of translators, novels both for children and THE SCOPE OF THE ANALYSIS adults, and texts published over the whole ten-year period. According to data collected by Regina Kvastytë of Ðiauliai University and sup- plemented by my own research, at least THE CONCEPT 45 book-length literary texts by Canadi- OF A LITERARY MARKET an authors have been translated into Lithuanian, beginning in 1930. This does Since in part this analysis studies the not take into consideration the transla- historical context in which translations ted stories, poems and selections from of Canadian texts have been made, con- novels that have been published in cepts drawn from system theory have Lithuanian periodicals, but it does in- been used. System theory, much as the clude literature both for adults and for name suggests, interprets the culture of children. Indeed, fiction for children a particular society as a network of inter- accounts for about half of the total num- elated forces competing for influence and ber of publications. power. These forces are categorized as This article is concerned with the strat- producers, consumers, markets, institu- egies being used by contemporary Lithua- tions, products and repertoires, general nian translators to deal with culture- terms that allow system theorists to study specific items in Canadian literary works. not only literary cultures but also any Therefore, it focuses mainly on texts aspect of culture (see Danyte 1999). published in the last ten years (1996- Furthermore, system theory differs 2005). Thirty-one different Canadian texts from traditional literary criticism in were translated and published in Lithua- making the author, text and reader only nia in this period. One novel, Marie- some of the forces that interact in the Claire Blais’ Soifs (first published in 1996, creation of a literary work. Often pro- in Lithuanian translation in 2000), was ducers (for example, publishing houses) translated from French; all the other or institutions (for example, schools, source texts were in English. It proved reviewers, government funding or cen- possible to get copies of both the source sorship agencies) may be far more pow- and target texts for 21 titles. Of these, erful in determining what kinds of texts nine were examined more closely, six are written or read. The effect of com- novels for adults, Nino Ricci’s Lives of peting forces within the literary system the Saints, Anne Michaels’ Fugitive Pieces, is all the more obvious in the case of Jane Urquhart’s The Underpainter, Irene translation, which always represents a Maèiulytë Guilford’s The Embrace, Mar- choice of one text from a much larger Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 197 number of possible source texts (Dany- Polish, if they belonged to the genera- te 1999:38-39). tion of people educated in czarist times, According to one of the major propo- or German and French, if they were nents of system theory, Gideon Toury educated in the 1920s, when these were (2000), this choice is governed by norms, the principal foreign languages taught accepted codes of thinking in a society in Lithuanian schools. that are less overt than rules, but which Therefore it is not surprising that Re- still work powerfully at all stages of the gina Kvastytë has found only three trans- translation process (Toury 2000: 199). lations of Canadian literature in this Toury describes translation as a “norm- period, all of them the popular animal governed activity” which has to adjudi- stories of Ernest Thompson Seton (1860- cate between two norm systems, that of 1946). These translations were published the source culture and that of the target in 1930, 1933 and 1940. The image of culture (Toury 2000: 200). Canada which they fostered was that of Major shifts in norm systems help to wild nature and animals, an image cur- account for the existence of very dis- rent in Europe at that time. tinct periods in the history of Lithua- nian translation of Canadian literature. Thus it is important to place the analy- TRANSLATION sis in the context of three periods: the OF CANADIAN LITERATURE interwar years of the Republic of Lithua- IN THE SOVIET PERIOD nia (1919-1940), the period of Soviet occupation (1944-1990) and the period The shock to the Lithuanian cultural of the re-established republic (1990 to system caused by the forcible incorpo- the present). ration of the state into the Soviet system is reflected in the empty years from 1940 to 1956, when no Canadian texts were TRANSLATION published. Many intellectuals and stu- OF CANADIAN LITERATURE dents fled the country and later immi- IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD grated to the West. In addition, so long as Joseph Stalin was alive, translation, In the interwar decades of the early like writing and publication in general, twentieth century, translation of foreign became extremely risky enterprises. literature, though a significant process, Generally, priority by the new Commu- was hampered by unfavourable economic nist regime was given to translation of and cultural factors. True, Lithuania did ideological texts and Russian literature. make very rapid progress from being a As Eugenijus Matusevièius (1980) indi- backward provincial colony of the czarist cates, translators for Russian had to be Russian empire to a modern state very hurriedly trained (Matusevièius 1980: open to cultural exchanges with Western 165). Most of the Lithuanian intellectu- societies. Still, the number of people who als who had not left the country were could afford to buy books was not large. forced into silence or some form of col- In addition, relatively few educated laboration along ideological lines. people knew English, so that the stock Many were imprisoned and interned in of potential translators from this lan- Siberia. After Stalin’s death in l953, an guage was small. Lithuanian translators ideological thaw gradually occurred, were more likely to know Russian and producing a somewhat more accommo- 198 VERTIMO MENAS dating atmosphere for the translation of da. Two more books by Mowat, A Whale foreign literature. for the Killing (1972) and The Dog Who Nevertheless, throughout the Soviet Wouldn’t Be (1957) appeared in Lithua- period, translation was considered sus- nian in 1980 and 1986, respectively. In picious whenever it introduced non-Com- 1989, at the very end of the Soviet period, munist cultures into any of the Soviet a translation of Morley Callaghan’s only Union’s languages. As Lithuania was book for children, Luke Baldwin’s Vow perceived as a westernized society that (1948), was published. was always potentially rebellious towards Only two of the choices made in the Soviet norms, controls over translation Soviet period offer a distinctly more were severe. As a Western democracy modern version of Canadian culture for closely allied to the Soviet Union’s chief Lithuanian readers: a translation of Gab- political and ideological enemy, the Uni- rielle Roy’s Bonheur d’occasion (1945) was ted States of America, Canada was held published in 1978, while the Lithuanian to be culturally dangerous. version of Malcolm Lowry’s Under the The first Soviet-period translation of Volcano (1946) appeared in 1986. Natives, Canadian literature appeared only in animals and wild nature do not figure 1956. This was Grey Owl’s The Adven- in either of these novels: Roy’s novel, a tures of Sajo and Her Beaver People (1935). groundbreaking event in Quebecois li- Although by 1956 it was known that the terature, depicts the working class in writer who presented himself as a half- Montreal in the 1930s, while Lowry’s Native was actually an English immi- novel, a masterpiece of modernist ex- grant named Archibald Belaney (1888- perimentation, is set in the same period 1938), the choice of an internationally in Mexico. successful book on Native interaction The innovative feature of these selec- with animals fit in well with the still- tions for translation is that both novels prevalent conception of Canada as wild are complex modernist works of a kind nature. Another of Grey Owl’s books, that was still regarded with suspicion Pilgrims of the Wild, was translated in by regulating institutions in the Soviet 1958 and reprinted in 1987. Lithuanian system. Both are pessimis- Over the next thirty years, nine more tic in tone, a characteristic that was con- Canadian books on animals, nature and sidered incompatible with the require- Natives were translated into Lithuanian. ments of Soviet ideology. Indeed, Un- These included three new titles by Ernest der the Volcano is a highly experimental Thompson Seton (published in 1958, 1960 work. It describes a day of drunken and 1961), along with an expanded edi- wanderings through Mexico by a former tion of Seton’s previously translated work British consul and both in subject mat- The Winnipeg Wolf (first published in ter, style and the use of stream-of-con- Lithuanian translation in 1930 and again sciousness narrative has been compared in 1974). The Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur to James Joyce’s Ulysses. Such works Stefansson’s book on the Inuit was pub- were often considered decadent in So- lished in 1975. An interesting addition viet criticism. Certainly, both Under the to the list of Canadian authors in Lithua- Volcano and Bonheur d’occasion are far nian translation was Farley Mowat (b. from the old-fashioned realism that was 1921), whose international bestseller used by Seton, Grey Owl and Mowat, Never Cry Wolf was translated in 1973, a and which was favoured by official decade after its first appearance in Cana- Soviet literary ideology. Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 199

However, both books can be seen as depicts “the movement of all pre-World politically left-leaning, something that War II Western civilization towards undoubtedly helped them gain appro- destruction” (Tauragienë 1986: 316, 317; val in the eyes of Soviet censors. Ga- translation mine). She also responds to brielle Roy is sharply critical of the way Soviet ideological norms by emphasiz- in which the Quebec working class is ing what are really very minor events in regulated and abused by wealthy busi- the novel, such as the appearance of nessmen and the Roman Catholic Church. Mexican fascists and references to a com- This image of capitalism and Christia- munist character who died in the Spa- nity working together against the com- nish Civil War. To suggest that the novel mon man fits in well with Communist is more optimistic than is the case in ideology, although Roy’s pessimistic reality, she closes her afterword by re- conclusion is not in line with the pre- ferring to the image of young construc- scribed tone for socialist realism. In a tion workers which appears at the very brief afterword, the translator, Aldona beginning of the text. To the Western Adomavièiûtë (1978), tries to neutralize reader, Tauragienë’s afterword seems this by emphasizing that a major charac- an odd mixture of very intelligent com- ter, Emmanuel, enlists in the army “to ments on the literary qualities and take up arms so that fascism would be themes of the novel along with stereo- destroyed” (Adomavièiûtë 1978: 302; typical Soviet ideology that is not real- translation mine). Actually, the novel ly part of Lowry’s text. However, com- is not so simplistic. Emmanuel is de- ments like these by translators are what picted as feeling a certain loyalty to Lithuanian writers and critics of the France, but he joins the army more for time called ‘lightning rods’, designed money than anything else, to guarantee to protect the authors or translators of his wife a pension if he is killed. literary works of merit from criticism, Meanwhile, the readers know that she censorship or more serious reprisals. has married him only because she is Translation specialists like Judith pregnant by another man, who has Inggs (2003) who analyse how censor- left her. Roy presents Emmanuel’s ship worked in communist societies have enlisting as another example of how attested to the stringent ideological re- power systems manipulate working- quirements made for translated litera- class people. However, this was not an ture. The fact that even as late as 1978 interpretation of military service that a and 1986 it was still necessary to inter- translator working in a Soviet system pret a foreign work within communist could refer to. ideology demonstrates the power of Similarly, in an afterword to Under the norms at work in the Lithuanian trans- Volcano, Violeta Tauragienë, the trans- lation system of the day. lator of Lowry’s novel, feels the need to The low number of Canadian texts balance assertions about the literary translated over five decades of this pe- merits of the text with ones emphasiz- riod (12 titles in all) indicates the cau- ing those features of its narrative that tion with which Soviet institutions fit in thematically with Communist ide- viewed the importation of Canadian ology. For example, she refers to Low- culture. In addition, in this period there ry’s search for a “refuge [ ] from the is a notable lag in time between the ori- hardships of Western civilization which ginal publication of the Canadian text damage people” and to how the novel and its appearance in Lithuanian. Ga- 200 VERTIMO MENAS brielle Roy’s novel had to wait 33 years startling rapidity. State publishing houses for translation, while the more experi- like Vaga and Vyturys, responsible for mental Under the Volcano was approved the publication of most Canadian texts only four decades after it first appeared. in the previous decades, now were priva- Even with culturally less sensitive tized, while new publishers and prin- works like those of Farley Mowat, there ters, many of them fly-by-night opera- is a substantial lag in time between the tions which quickly went bankrupt, appearance of the source text and its sprang up all over the country. Again, translation. Never Cry Wolf was published as at the start of the Soviet period, there in Lithuania in 1973, ten years after this was a pause of several years before Ca- lively account of Mowat’s investigations nadian literature began to be translated of wolf habits in northern Canada be- and published again. came an international bestseller. The se- Nevertheless, once such publishing cond Mowat text was published in began in 1996, it was on a scale far greater Lithuanian in 1980, eight years after its than in the Soviet period. Publishers’ first appearance. Six years later, a much lists for translations, which had been earlier Mowat work, his fictionalized ac- dominated by works from the so-called count of his childhood and family pet, “brotherly republics,” now were full of The Dog Who Wouldn’t Be, was transla- texts from Western countries. Certain ted. However, this was nearly 30 years features of what Lithuanians refer to as after its first publication in Canada in ‘wild capitalism’ did show themselves. 1957. Thus, unlike the usual pattern in Some new publishers rushed out reprints free-market countries, where success with of Soviet-translated texts, not always with one book by a particular author means full legal rights. The 1956 translation of the rapid translation of earlier texts, Grey Owl’s The Adventures of Sajo and Soviet norms so complicated the publi- Her Beaver People was reprinted in 1996, cation of any foreign text that even an while the following year one of the later approved author’s works were not pub- Anne novels from L.M. Montgomery’s lished quickly. series, Anne’s House of Dreams (original- Overall, the translation of Canadian ly published in 1917 ) was dressed up literature into Lithuanian in the Soviet by the Kaunas publisher Tyrai with a period was slow and limited in quanti- cover featuring a bosomy blonde and ty, especially given that translation was cowboy, quite inappropriate to the gen- professionalized and active at this time. teel text about middle-class life in the The major image of Canada that most small villages of Prince Edward Island, translations projected was still that of a a Canadian Atlantic province. In ano- world of nature and animals. ther case, a new publisher, Viktorija, brought out a reprint of the translation of Roy’s Bonheur d’occasion in 1944 TRANSLATION without reference to the original publi- OF CANADIAN LITERATURE cation in 1978 by Vaga. IN THE LAST DECADE At the same time, major new Canadian novels were published. One of the more With Lithuania’s successful bid to re- academic of the new publishers, Tyto establish its independence and the col- Alba, produced one major translation lapse of the Soviet Union, state controls by the excellent professional translator, over the literary system disappeared with Valdas V. Petrauskas, after another: Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 201

Michael Ondaatje’s The English Patient 2004 by Jotema. Other publishers have in 1996, Nino Ricci’s Lives of the Saints in gone back to earlier works: Gardenija 1997, Margaret Atwood’s Alias Grace in published Atwood’s second novel Sur- 1999, Marie-Claire Blais’ Soifs in 2000. facing (1972) in 2001, Tyto alba two From 2002 Petrauskas’ translations have novels by Douglas Coupland, Life After continued with what is probably finan- God (1994) and Generation X (1991), both cially the most successful of the new in 2005, and Baltos Lankos the classi- publishers, Alma littera: Jane Urquhart’s cal Beautiful Losers (1966) by Leonard The Underpainter in 2002, Margaret At- Cohen in 2005. wood’s The Blind Assasin in 2003 and About five years after the sudden Oryx and Crake in 2004. boom in the translation of Canadian As often occurs with the translation fiction for adults, an increase in the of foreign literature, translators in numbers of Canadian texts for children Lithuania have played a significant part can also be observed. Here the impetus in the choice of texts. In Petrauskas’ can be attributed to rising Lithuanian case, new historical circumstances prosperity and a corresponding growth favouring Lithuanian emigration had a in the children’s literature market that major role in bringing this translator to rivals the adult one in economic signif- Canada. Here a new player entered the icance. As research carried out in 2003 Lithuanian literary system in the shape and 2004 by Viktorija Korsukova shows, of the Canada Council for the Arts, in Lithuania children’s literature is one which, along with the Canadian Depart- of the most profitable areas of sales for ment of Foreign Affairs and Interna- bookstores, and the majority of the new tional Trade has funded all of Petraus- publications, from picture books to kas’ translations. novels for teens, are translations (Kor- The long gap between the publication sukova 2005). of the original text in Canada and its As with adult books, certain publi- translation into Lithuanian has now dis- shers have made Canadian children’s appeared. Currently, a wait of about three texts one of their specialties. Alma lit- or four years is usual, very much in line tera has brought out translations of the with the practice of many European coun- first two books in the Anne series by tries. The common pattern is that the L.M. Montgomery in 2001 and 2005. new novel appears in Canada, wins Maþasis Vyturys has published a whole awards and critical attention over the series of books for the teens, along with next year or so, and then is translated picture books, some of them funded by into Lithuanian two or three years later. the Canada Council. Most of these are In some cases the gap is smaller still: for recent Canadian publications which have example, Petrauskas’ translation of At- done well in Canada: for example, Gayle wood’s novel, Oryx and Crake, appeared Friesen’s Janey’s Girl, first published in in 2004, only one year after its original 1998 and nominated for a Governor-Gen- publication and a year ahead of the eral’s Award, and translated into Lithua- French translation of the novel. nian in 2002; or Katherine Holubitsky’s Since 1996 Canadian fiction has been Alone at Ninety Foot, first published in taken up by a variety of publishers of 2001 and winner of numerous awards, varying reputations: Anne Michaels’ published in Lithuanian in 2002. Fugitive Pieces (1996) in 2000 by Charib- Another major publisher of Canadian de and Yann Martel’s Life of Pi (2001) in children’s books is Gimtasis þodis which, 202 VERTIMO MENAS in 2005, published five new Canadian Given the variety of Canadian litera- titles, all recent books. Again, part of ture today, there seems to be some kind the incentive seems to be Canada Coun- of filtering process going on in the se- cil funding for some of these books. lection of these particular texts for trans- With much freer access to informa- lation. Gideon Toury’s theory of norms tion about recent titles in Canadian li- offers a possible explanation. Toury terature and a market driven by readers’ (2000) argues that translation is affect- preferences, the choice of Canadian ed by a double set of norms, those of the texts for translation has changed radi- source culture and those of the target cally from the earlier periods sur- culture (2000:200). Certainly, Canadian veyed. Instead of animals, Natives and media and cultural institutions like li- wild natural landscapes, translations terary reviewers and critics pay more from 1996 feature a complex Canadian attention to those works that are cen- society, as well as Canadians acting in tred on white Anglo-Celtic society and the world at large. Urban or suburban its history. At the same time, the choice settings have largely replaced rural ones. made by Lithuanian translators and Personal relationships within specific publishers not to translate successful texts social structures are the dominant fo- by well-known writers of colour like Neil cus of these books. Nor is Canada pre- Bissoondath or Rohinton Mistry or Na- sented as a country without a history: tives like Thomas King, all of whose many of the novels, including some of novels have received awards and criti- those for children, are set in earlier his- cal attention in Canada,is probably con- torical periods. nected to the racism against visible mi- At the same time, there are limitations norities observable in Lithuanian socie- to the information the Lithuanian pub- ty today. Just as Soviet institutions pre- lic gets from the chosen texts. The Ca- ferred to see Canada as wild animals nada it reads about is a white, middle- and nature, so current ones prefer an class, Anglo-Celtic Canada. With the Anglo-Celtic Canada. The paucity of exception of Lithuanian-Canadian Irene translations from French, on the other Guilford’s The Embrace, even the immi- hand, is more likely due to the smaller grants described in Alias Grace, The Ac- number of translators working in Lithua- cidental Orphan and Orphan at My Door nia from that language and their focus are English immigrants of the nineteenth on contemporary literature from France. century. By and large, Natives and vi- The selective process has also created sible minorities do not figure in these a particular image of Canadian literature books except as very minor characters. in the qualitative sense. Funding by Ca- Nor do many working-class characters. nadian governmental agencies favours Culturally speaking, the texts that have elite literature. Since Canadian popular been translated represent an elite, Eng- genres are not translated, the impression lish-speaking vision of Canadian society. is given that Canada produces a more Only one novel by a quebecois writer serious and complex kind of writing, has been translated in these last ten years, rather different from the new British or and only one, an older work by Leonard American literature, which appears most Cohen, has any reference to French- often in Lithuania in the form of detec- English issues that trouble Canada’s tive fiction, ‘chick lit’, romance or best- politics today. sellers with a transitory reputation. Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 203

CURRENT THEORY Some analyses of how specific trans- ON THE TRANSLATION lations deal with such cultural referen- OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS ces use a subject-oriented categorization. Though this may sometimes be interes- In Translation in a Postcolonial Context ting, using a more abstract categoriza- Maria Tymoczko (1999) describes the tion of the strategies used by translators literary text as “saturated with semiot- is more fruitful, as it allows the critic to ic significance and emblematic of the compare strategic preferences from one culture as a whole”; she goes on to state translator and one culture to another. that “cultural elements with a literary Unfortunately, different specialists on work are metonymic evocations of the translation have come up with a confu- culture as a whole, including its ma- sing variety of terms to describe strate- terial culture, history, economy, law, gies. Many of these begin by viewing the customs, values, and so on” (Tymocz- distance between the source culture and ko 1999:45). Translators face not only the target culture as a continuum, a line the problem of correctly interpreting on which different translation decisions such evocations, but also of transmit- can be placed. Thus some translation stra- ting them in a meaningful way to rea- tegies are held to prioritize the source ders. However, as Tymoczko writes, culture while others adapt the original when the source and target cultures text to make it more easily readable by do not overlap significantly, transla- the target audience. Most such efforts to tors who try to explain too much run place strategies on a continuum go back the risk of creating an “information to the categorization of strategies deve- load” that is “intolerably high” (Ty- loped by J.P.Vinay and J. Darbelnet in moczko 1999:47). their 1958 classical textbook of transla- Translation theorists have been grap- tion, Stylistique comparé du français et de pling with the issues raised by culture- l’anglais: methode de traduction (Vinay and specific items for several decades, but Darbelnet 1958: 2l7). The debt is evident no consensus on ways of categorizing in Sandor Hervey and Ian Higgins 2002 translation strategies has yet emerged. edition of Thinking French Translation: A The very notion of cultural reference is Course in Translation Method, as in the not always defined in the same way. categories developed by Mona Baker Birgit Nedergaard-Larsen (1993) and somewhat earlier (1992). Baker’s catego- Javier Franco Aixela (1996) point out that ries are among the fullest. The main prob- it should include features of the particu- lem with most of her terms, neverthe- lar language itself. Nedergaard-Larsen less, is that they are wordy and cumber- gives as an example the “tu/vous” dis- some: for instance, “translation by a more tinction, which is intimately bound up general word” and “translation using a with concepts of class distinctions, fami- loan word plus explanation” (Baker ly relations and relations between supe- 1992:26). Some are difficult to distinguish: rior and inferior in the workplace (Ne- for example, Baker’s concepts of “trans- dergaard-Larsen (1993): 210).Neverthe- lation by a more general word” and “trans- less, in this article the discussion will lation by a more neutral word” in prac- limit itself to the more usual concept of tice are often the same (Baker 1992: 26, cultural reference as including proper 28). Some significant strategies used by names, objects, customs, literary allu- non-English translators, like the use of sions and the like. footnotes to explain a cultural reference, 204 VERTIMO MENAS do not fit comfortably in any of Baker’s ving out of problematic cultural refe- categories. rences which cannot be easily explained Therefore, for the purposes of this and which the translator judges unne- present article, the terms used by Eirlys cessary for the overall meaning of a E. Davies (2003) in her recent study of particular passage or indeed for the the translation of culture-specific items whole text (Davies 2003: 80). One transla- in the Harry Potter books, will be adop- tion which is an exception to usual Li- ted. Davies’ terms are developed after a thuanian practice in this respect is Ieva review of those used by a wide number Venskevièiutë’s version of Jean Little’s of theorists, including Hervey and Hig- Orphan at My Door: the Home Child Dia- gins, Aixela, Peter Newmark, Gideon ry of Victoria Cope (2001). This is part of Toury, Lawrence Venuti and others. a a series of historical novels for teena- They have the advantage of being ab- gers published under the general title stract and simple in formulation. Ac- “Dear Canada.” Each novel is written in cording to Davies, then, translation strat- the form of a diary, supposedly by a girl egies used for dealing with cultural involved in the problems of a specific references can be categorized as pre- period of Canadian history and includes servation, addition, omission, global- historical materials such as maps, photo- ization, localization, transformation and graphs and explanations of the historical creation (Davies 2003: 72-89). situation.Orphan at My Door explains the way in which so-called “Home children,” British orphans, were sent to Canada to STRATEGIES work as servants. Many were treated as IN LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS inferiors and even abused. Thus the no- OF CANADIAN LITERATURE vel reveals a part of Canada’s past that has not been discussed before. When Davies’ categories are applied to It is interesting to observe how the an analysis of recent Lithuanian trans- translator and the publisher, Gimtasis lations of Canadian texts, it becomes þodis, use omission as a strategy to re- evident that certain strategies are more package the novel for the Lithuanian popular than others. In addition, this children’s market. The series title “Dear analysis reveals signs of change in such Canada” disappears entirely, while the preferences among translators. In ge- title is modified to remove the words neral, Lithuanian translation practice at- “home child,” words which also disap- tempts to respect the source text in a pear from the text. In addition, all the fundamental way, translating as much historical materials which make the book as possible of the meaning. Thus those so suitable for use in Canadian schools, strategies that freely re-interpret the text, are removed. The text at once becomes like omission, creation and globaliza- more fictional and less historical. While tion, were not found in significant num- its appeal to Canadian children is in part bers in most of the translated texts that its re-interpretation of the Canadian past, were analysed closely. Canadian cultural references are much For example, omission is rarely prac- more muted in the Lithuanian version. tised systematically by these Lithuanian Creation, by which Davies means “the translators to deal with culture-specific invention of CSIs [culture-specific items] items. The term in Davies’ usage refers, not present in the original text” (Davies as the word itself suggests, to the lea- 2003: 89), is also not a common strategy Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 205 in the translations under examination. servation, addition, localization and Creation is not quite as radical a re- transformation, are easily found in the writing of the source text as the term texts under review. The simplest tactic may suggest. Davies has in mind what for a translator would seem to be pre- Mona Baker and others call the strategy servation. Davies comments: “Faced with of “compensation” (Baker 1992 :78). This a reference to an entity which has no is a major strategy in the translation of close equivalent in the target culture, a poetry, for example, in which patterns translator may simply decide to main- of sound effects are impossible to du- tain the source text term in the transla- plicate exactly where they occur in the tion” (Davies 2003: 72-73). Preservation source text but can be introduced in is called “transference” by Newmark and slightly different places. Creation is also “cultural borrowing” by Hervey and used to translate humourous texts, when Higgins (Davies 2003:73), while Mona puns and wordplay are created to com- Baker (1992) calls it the use of loanwords pensate for their loss at specific points (Baker 1992: 25). It is a common strate- in the text. In translations by Lithua- gy in French translation from English, nians, creation is found in many chil- probably because many English words dren’s books. For example, the metrical are familiar to French readers but, until effects, rhymes and wordplay used by recently, has not been considered ac- Liûda Petkevièiûtë in her delightful trans- ceptable in Lithuanian translation from lations of picture books for the publi- English. Normally even English-language sher Trys Nykðtukai provide many ex- place names are lithuanianized phono- cellent examples of creation. logically and given inflected endings. One can find some examples of a less Currently, preservation of names is the radical strategy, globalization, though subject of controversy in Lithuania, as this too seems to be foreign to the norms print media differ in their treatment of of Lithuanian translation practice. Davies foreign names of people and places. defines globalization as “the process of Most still follow the older practice of replacing culture-specific references with phonological and grammatical adapta- ones which are more neutral or general” tion, while some have taken to using (Davies 2003: 83). Often this takes the only minimal case-endings without form of using a superordinate instead changes in the spelling of the core parts of a specific term: for example, a “can- of the words. dy” rather than a “Mars bar”. Some minor Still, influenced by Western European examples of globalization appear in Vir- practice, the strategy of preservation gilijus Èepliejus’ translation of Mary seems to be gaining ground in Lithua- Woodbury’s novel for teenagers, Brad’s nian translations of foreign literature. Universe. The “chocolate pecan pie” of In the texts surveyed more closely for the source text (Woodbury 1998:39) be- this article, preservation of place names comes the less specific “ðokolodinis rie- and some brand names is used exten- ðutø pyragas” (back-translation: choco- sively by Jûratë Juðkienë in her 2000 late nut cake), while a specific size of version of Anne Michaels’ Fugitive Pie- boards, “one by four planks” (Wood- ces and in Dalia Cidzikaitë and Auðra bury 1998: 104) becomes simply “len- Velickaitë’s 2002 translation of Irene tos” (back-translation: boards) in Lithua- Guilford’s The Embrace. Both novels re- nian (Èepliejus 2001: 46; 104). fer frequently to real streets, buildings Davies’ other kinds of strategies, pre- and commercial enterprises in the city 206 VERTIMO MENAS of Toronto. In her translation of Michaels’ word or phrase within the text itself, as novel, Juðkienë uses preservation for the well as all forms of extra-textual glos- names of restaurants (Diana Sweets and ses, from footnotes and vocabulary lists Royal Diner, for example) and for those to prefaces and afterwords. Davies (2003) of factories (General Electric, Victory points out that in some cultures provi- Mills and Lakeshore Cement, for exam- ding such extra-textual information is ple) (Juðkienë 2000: 73, 79, 83). The fo- considered normal, while in others it is reignness of these names is signaled, not. Lithuanian translators have long however, for the Lithuanian reader by shown a particular fondness for the ex- the use of italics. planatory footnote. In this respect they Similarly, the two translators of The are similar to the Chinese who, as Davies Embrace leave unchanged the name of notes, use footnotes even in translations the Toronto newspaper The Telegram, of children’s literature (Davies 2003:77- as well as those of factories where the 78 ). Meanwhile, French or English gen- characters are said to work (Canada erally reserve footnotes for scholarly Packers, Nielsen’s) and place names editions of canonical texts. In Lithua- (Roncesvalles Avenue, Wasaga Beach) nian practice the footnote is used to trans- (Cidzikaitë and Velièkaitë 2002: 50-52, late any foreign words used in the text, 137). In this translation, italics are not as well as to provide information about used to signal foreign place names, but cultural references. are for companies and newspapers (only Footnotes, then, can be understood as the newspaper titles are italicized in a long-standing norm for translators in the source text). Lithuania. The Canadian texts analysed, It should be noted that Juðkienë uses however, show a variety of responses to preservation only for very specific Ca- this norm. For example, older transla- nadian place names set in Toronto (for tions that have to deal with many fo- example, Baby Point, Scarborough Bluffs, reign words and cultural references do Davenport Road, Mt. Pleasant Road) use a large number of footnotes. Thus (Juðkienë 2000: 79, 83 103). Place names Violeta Tauragienë’s translation of Un- that have a long tradition of use in Lithua- der the Volcano, which appeared at the nian are adapted: for example, “Amster- close of the Soviet period in 1986, and damas” for Amsterdam, “Paryþius” for Valdas V. Petrauskas’ translation of Lives Paris (Juðkinë 2000: 102). The lack of of the Saints, published in 1997 at the consistency demonstrated in both trans- beginning of the new period, both sup- lations is typical of a period of transi- ply a copious number of footnotes. It is tion between two sets of norms, with true that both novels are particularly the translators apparently not certain of rich in foreignisms, as the first is set in how far to go in using preservation. Mexico and the second in Italy. The re- A sense of transition can also be found sults are translations that seem visually when looking at how Lithuanian trans- overloaded with footnotes. Of the 188 lators today use the strategy of addi- pages of the Lithuanian version of Lives tion. This is a useful formulation which of the Saints, for instance, 86 have foot- covers all kinds of supplementary ma- notes, often more than one. In the tran- terial used to explain the culture-speci- slation of Under the Volcano, there are fic item to target readers. Addition may often three to five footnotes to a single take the form of what Aixela calls an page. For example, pages 308 and 309, “intratextual gloss” (Aixela 1996: 62), a which face each other, force readers to Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 207 look down from the narrative eight times. good number have no footnotes, as is Whether so many footnoted explanations also evident by a spot-check of transla- are necessary is a moot point. The En- ted novels available in Lithuanian book- glish-language readers of the original stores. Here one can speak of a change texts would not have understood all the in norms that is probably due to the Spanish or Italian terms used in these influence of Western practice. books. It seems that English readers are Another of Davies’ strategies, locali- willing to put up with a degree of opaque- zation, is even more commonly used by ness that is considered unacceptable to Lithuanian translators than addition. By Lithuanians. this term Davies (2003) signifies the sub- More recently, however, a tendency stitution of a culture-specific item in the among Lithuanian translators away from source text with one similar in kind but the use of footnotes can be observed. more familiar to target readers in the Petrauskas uses footnoting more lightly target text (Davies 2003:83-84 ). This is in more recent translations. In his 2002 probably the single most important stra- translation of Jane Urquhart’s The Un- tegy for Lithuanian translators, as it in- derpainter foreign words are often sim- cludes phonological adaptation of proper ply put in italics, as they are in the source names into the target language. Typi- text. Now footnotes refer only to culture- cally, the Lithuanian translators phono- specific items of particular significance. logically adapt all the names of charac- In Petrauskas’ latest translation, that of ters and place names. In addition, as Atwood’s Oryx and Crake, published in Lithuanian is a heavily inflected lan- 2004, only three footnotes appear. guage, grammatical localization is ne- A less intrusive variant of footnoting cessary to allow names to have the ne- is to place the notes at the end of the cessary grammatical links with other text. This system, used occasionally in words in the same sentence. Thus Shakes- Soviet publications, is used by Aistë peare is “Ðekspyras” in Lithuanian; the Ptakauskaitë in her 2005 translation of “-as” nominative ending indicates a Leonard Cohen’s Beautiful Losers, a novel masculine name. with many foreign words and cultural Examination of the Canadian texts references. Even here Ptakauskaitë translated in the last ten years shows minimalizes the interfering effect of note that this is one of the most imperative numbers in her text by choosing to sup- norms for Lithuanian translators today. ply notes only when the cultural refer- For this reason the main character in ence is both obscure to Lithuanian read- Alone at Ninety Foot, Pamela Collins, is ers and significant to the meaning of the lithuanianized as “Pamela Kolins.” The narrative. In conversation with the au- hero of the picture book The Subway thor of this article, the translator indi- Mouse, Nib, appears as “Nibas.” Brad cated that the decision to place notes at Greaves of Brad’s Universe becomes “Bre- the back rather than use footnotes was das Grivzas,” Anne Shirley of Anne of her own, as she was concerned not to Avonlea becomes “Anë Ðirli”, Victoria disrupt the effect of the colloquial tone Cope of Orphan at My Door turns into of the novel. “Viktorija Koup.” Pi does remain “Pi” Preliminary research suggests that in the Lithuanian verson of Life of Pi, footnoting is rapidly becoming outda- but the tiger Richard Parker is given as ted in Lithuanian practice. Among the “Rièardas Parkeris.” As there is no “w” Canadian texts that were examined, a in the Lithuanian alphabet, Ellen Win- 208 VERTIMO MENAS ter of The Accidental Orphan becomes they were translating. In the 1990s, with “Elen Vinter.” political independence and a literary Although to English readers more fa- market free of many earlier restrictions, miliar with cultures like French which the practice of lithuanianizing authors’ preserve the original forms of names, names on book covers was quietly Lithuanian policy may seem odd and dropped, though within the text this form extreme, historically it is not unusual in of localization of names continues to be translation practice. Aixela (1996) ex- the norm for the names of characters. plains that phonological and other forms Even inside the text Lithuanian trans- of adaptation were common in Spanish lators adapt names less in one respect translation up to the 1950s. Luca Manini than, for example, the Czech, as they do attests to a similar practice in Italian not add the standard endings on wo- translation, again up to the mid-twen- men’s surnames which distinguish mar- tieth century (Manini 1996:171-173), ried from unmarried women. For Lithua- while Lia Wyler indicates concern in Bra- nian translators the common practice is zil today that translators not anglicize to add case endings only to the first Brazilian Portuguese through the use of name of a female character. For exam- loanwords or English syntax (Wyler 2003: ple, in Petrauskas’ translatin of The Blind 10). Like many language cultures, Lithua- Assassin, the main characters are two nians are worried that the influence of sisters, Laura and Iris Chase. Their names the English language within translated are localized as “Lora” and “Airisë Èeis.” literature may weaken the specificity of Male characters, on the contrary, have the national language. both names given case endings (for Within the context of East European example, Richard Griffen in this novel cultures, where this practice is tradi- becomes “Rièardas Grifenas”). tional, the Lithuanian position is mod- Another kind of localization that is erate. In Czech and Latvian publish- very commonly found in these transla- ing, for example, the names of foreign tions of Canadian texts concerns sys- authors on the covers of books are also tems of measurement. The metric sys- localized phonologically and gramma- tem has long been in force in Lithuania, tically. For example, on Czech editions though words like colis (inch), peda of the Harry Potter books, J.K. Rowling (foot), jardas (yard) and mylia (mile), is given as “J.K. Rowlingova.” In the which are never used to indicate mea- Soviet period, this was also common surements, survive in dictionaries as practice in Lithuania: Grey Owl became loanwords from an earlier period. This “Grëjus Aulis” (1958), Farley Mowat was does not mean that these words com- “Farlis Movetas” (1973), Gabrielle Roy municate any precise meaning to most was “Gabrielë Rua” (1978), Malcolm Low- Lithuanians today. The Canadian situa- ry was “Malkolmas Lauris” (1986) and, tion is more complex, with both the of- in a clear misunderstanding of how his ficial metric system and the unofficial surname was pronounced, Morley Cal- older British or imperial system of mea- laghan became “Morlis Kalagenas” (1989). sure existing side by side in the last This particular error illuminates the con- several decades. While only an older stricted world in which Soviet transla- generation of Canadians understand tors from English worked, cut off as they what a pint or gallon is, and distances were from most normal channels of com- are measured only in kilometers, inches, munication with the cultures and authors feet and yards still appear in Canadian Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 209 speech and writing. Moreover, close tvenkinio (back-translation: solitude at contacts with the United States of Ame- Ninety-Foot Pool). She gives no expla- rica means that Canadians frequently nation of how high ninety feet are, though encounter the older system. some pages later, she does use addition Given that Canadian culture tolerates in the form of a footnote to explain how a mingling of systems of measurement, many metres 160 feet constitute (Vit- it is not surprising that in recent fiction kutë 2002: 31). one finds inches and feet on one page More radical forms of localization are and centimeters and metres on another. labeled transformation by Eirlys Davies In the texts examined, Lithuanian trans- (2003). She sees these as instances in lators have felt free to switch from one which the original name or culture-spe- system to another or not as seemed best cific item is changed in translation in a in each particular instance. For example, way that “could be seen as an alteration in Brad’s Universe, Mary Woodbury gives or distortion of the original” (Davies 2003: distances when the characters drive in a 86). Such a strategic decision, Davies car or on a bicycle in kilometers (for suggests, is made when a translator ju- example, Woodbury 1998: 25-26;54), dges that the cultural reference is too while the astronomic calculations that puzzling for the target readers but can- fascinate Brad appear more often in not be left out entirely (Davies 2003: miles (Woodbury 1998: 24 ). Vergilijus 86). Although it is not always easy to Èepliejus generally translates each item distinguish instances of transformation as it comes, only rarely converting the from those of localization, transforma- older system to metric measurement. tion inevitably changes meaning to a far When he does this, it is presumably greater extent than localization or glo- because he wishes to be sure his readers balization, for it supplies a culture-spe- get a clear picture of what is being de- cific item that has its own implications scribed. For example, Brad’s father is a and suggestiveness, ones that were not very tall man, expressed in the source intended by the original author. text as “a six-foot man” (Woodbury Lithuanian translators use transforma- 1998:14). Here Èepliejus localizes the tion most often in the cases of meaning- measurements, with Brad reflecting about ful names. Although most of the names the man he has not seen for a long time in the Canadian texts that were examined and finds hard to describe: “apie kone are non-meaningful, there are some ex- dvimetriná vyriðkᔠ(back-translation: ceptions, especially when dealing with about a man of approximately two me- nicknames. For example, in Atwood’s tres) (Èepliejus 2001:16). The Blind Assassin the girls call one of Similarly, Ugnë Vitkutë does not al- their governesses “Miss Violence.” Val- ter the reference to feet in translating das V. Petrauskas turns this into “pa- the title of Katherine Holubitsky’s no- nelë Ragana“ (Miss Witch), which is ap- vel for teenagers, Alone at Ninety Foot. propriate to the character, but has a dif- “Ninety Foot” is the name of a steep- ferent resonance. In the novel Alone at sided ravine in the Rocky Mountains Ninety Foot, the pupils give the derisive with water rushing through it. Vitkutë nickname “Wally the Whiz” to their uses addition to explain that this place awkward but intellectually clever ma- has a pool or damned-up area of water, thematics teacher (Holubitsky 2001: 40). but leaves the measurement system as it Vitkutë effectively transforms this as is: Vienatvë prie Devyniasdeðmties Pedø “Proto Gumbas” (literally, lump of brain) 210 VERTIMO MENAS

(Vitkuë 2002: 40). Excellent examples of Candace Séguinot (2005) in their study the use of this strategy are to be found of how professional translators work. in Petrauskas’ masterly translation of Moreover, there are many norms as- Atwood’s Oryx and Crake, a science-fic- sociated with the work of translators that tion novel depicting a future world full are not always sufficiently valued in of genetically engineered hybrid animals. theoretical analysis. One of the most sig- Atwood invents names for these crea- nificant, as Isabelle Desmidt (2003:174) tures, and Petrauskas proves very re- remarks, is the factor of time. In Lithua- sourceful at finding convincing Lithua- nia, where literary translators are poor- nian versions. ly paid and usually translate as a se- A particularly interesting cross-cultural cond job, it is imperative to work as problem is raised by the translation of fast as possible. This means that many the unusual first name of the main char- translations are carried out rapidly with acter in Ellen Schwartz’ teen novel Star- only occasional forays to research a shine! In the opening chapter the girl culture-specific item. When such an item explains how much she hates the name can be located quickly in print or on- “Starshine” which her hippie parents line reference works, the translator can invented for her at birth, calling it ugly choose to use whatever strategy seems and explaining how children at school best. In many cases, however, when in- make fun of her. Ina Marèiulionytë finds formation about the item cannot be a good equivalent for it, “Þvaigþdunë”, found quickly, then it must either be incorporating the meaningful element lithuanianized phonologically, omitted “star” (“þvaigþdë” in Lithuanian). The or guessed at. Thus a large element of problem is that, unlike Canadian En- chance enters the translation process. glish culture, Lithuanian culture not only The result is a text that seems based on tolerates but likes meaningful names for strategic choices on some pages and not girls, especially those referring to na- on others. ture. Thus the Lithuanian teen readers of this novel may be puzzled by Star- shine’s deep discomfort, as their own CONCLUSION names are likely to also contain refe- rences to natural phenomena: for exam- As the analysis has shown, the transla- ple, Auksë (gold), Auðra (dawn), Audra tion of Canadian literature into Lithua- (storm), Vasarë (summer), Miglë (mist), nian has expanded rapidly since renewed Vakarë (evening) and so on. political independence brought an end Using Davies’ categories does help to ideological censorship and instead identify certain broad tendencies in allowed a free-market publishing sys- Lithuanian translation practice. Still, as tem to develop. The readiness of the Gideon Toury (2000) points out, the stra- Canadian government to fund transla- tegies used by a particular translator tion also encourages publishers to take “cannot be expected to be fully systemic. up recent Canadian fiction, both for Not only can his / her decision-making adults and children. In this way, Cana- be differently motivated in different dian literature, which occupied a very problem areas, but it can also be un- minor and marginal place in the Lithua- evenly distributed throughout an assign- nian literary system in the interwar and ment” (Toury 2000: 208) The same con- Soviet periods, while not as conspicuous clusion is reached by Paulo Asadi and as, say, Scandinavian and French litera- Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 211 ture, now definitely figures among the formation less used than ones like addi- translated literature available to Lithua- tion and localization. Still, even here the nian readers. sense that translation in Lithuania to- The image of Canada presented in these day is in a transitional phase is felt. In translated texts has also changed since general, from norms that require trans- the earlier period, when nature, wild lators to domesticate texts, Lithuanians, animals and Natives were the dominant especially younger translators, are mo- themes. Now Canada is most often de- ving to a qualified kind of foreigniza- picted as a modern urban society. Some tion which preserves more and more texts also offer Lithuanians insights into elements of the English language. Canada’s history. This analysis has been a preliminary The strategies used by Lithuanian one which overviews translation of Ca- translators to deal with culture-specific nadian literature into Lithuanian. Fur- items in these texts have also changed ther studies, especially ones that focus to some extent during the period stu- more closely on the work of particular died. Fidelity to the source text still re- translators and specific texts, are needed mains a basic principle of Lithuanian to reveal more about the delicate pro- translation practice, with more aggres- cess by which Canadian culture enters sive strategies like omission and trans- the Lithuanian cultural system.

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Gauta 2006 03 06 Parengta 2006 03 14 Milda Danytë LITHUANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF CANADIAN LITERATURE 213

Milda DANYTË KANADOS LITERATÛROS VERTIMAI Istorinë ir kultûrinë analizë Santrauka

Lietuvoje Kanados literatûros vertimo istorija rinëti devyni naujai iðleisti Kanados raðytojø – jau skaièiuoja 75 metus. Iðverstos 45 knygos. Nino Ricci, Anne Michaels, Jane‘o Urguharto, Ðiame straipsnyje apþvelgiami ðios istorijos ypa- Irenos Maèiulytës-Guilford, Margaret Atwood, tumai, apibûdintos vertëjø strategijos verèiant Leonardo Coheno, Mary Woodbury, Katherine vardus ir kultûrines aliuzijas á lietuviø kalbà. Holubitsky, Jeano Little‘o – kûriniai ir iðanali- Tarpukariu iðversti tik trys kûriniai, atspin- zuotos vertimø strategijos. Pastebëta, kad daþ- dintys anuometiná Kanados kultûros ávaizdá niausiai lietuviø vertëjai stengiasi perteikti vi- pasaulyje kaip laukinës gamtos, gyvuliø, indë- sà originalaus teksto kultûrinæ informacijà ne- nø karalystæ. Per kone penkias deðimtis sovie- paliekant neiðverstø detaliø. Vardai daþniausiai tinës santvarkos metø toks ávaizdis iðliko, o fonologiðkai ir gramatiðkai sulietuvinti. Pagal iðverstø knygø skaièius nevirðijo 12. Èia gali- tradicinæ Lietuvos praktikà iðnaðose paaiðki- ma áþvelgti ideologinæ cenzûrà, nes jau poka- namos kultûrinës aliuzijos ir iðverèiami sveti- rio metais Kanadoje atsirado daug stipriø ra- mos kalbos þodþiai. Pastebima ir kita tenden- ðytojø, plaèiai pasaulyje þinomø jø kûriniø; ið cija, galbût átakojama Vakarø, palikti daugiau jø tik G.Rua ir M.Laurio romanai byloja apie vardø ir pavadinimø, ypaè vietovardþiø, ori- moderniàjà tos ðalies kultûrà. Padëtis pasikei- ginalo raðyba. të staiga, Lietuvai atkûrus nepriklausomybæ: Laisvosios rinkos sàlygomis knygø paklausa daugiau kaip trisdeðimtyje kûriniø suaugusiems didëja, todël neatsitiktinai pusë pastaraisiais ir vaikams Kanada daþniausiai iðkyla kaip mies- metais iðverstø Kanados kûriniø skirti vaikams. to gyventojø visuomenë, iðryðkëjo tendencija Kanada, kaip ir Skandinavijos ðalys, Vokietija, versti naujausius, ypaè premijuotus, romanus. Prancûzija, skatina savo literatûros vertimus, Straipsnyje, remiantis E.Davies (2003) ter- skirdamos finansinæ paramà vertëjams ir lei- minologija ir kategorijomis, nuodugniau paty- dëjams.