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postal address t e l e p h o n e e - m a i l P.O. Box 11 0 8 9 +31-(0)71-527 79 05 i s i m @ r u l l e t . l e i d e n u n i v . n l 2301 EB Leiden t e l e f a x w w w The Netherlands +31-(0)71-527 79 06 h t t p : / / w w w . i s i m . n l

6 - 7 9 2 2 3 7 Gudrun Krämer Patrick Chabal Sonja Hegasy Leyla Bouzid Discacciati The Use and Abuse Africa: Modernity without Transformation through Monarchy The Image of Women in Algerian of the Study of Islam D e v e l o p m e n t ? in Morocco and Jordan and Tunisian Cinema

The presence of a rather important Muslim popula- tion in Western European countries is a consequence of a recent voluntary immigration of workers coming from the Middle East, North Africa or South Asia. Muslims in Europe: Their administrative status and social integration vary considerably from one country to the other (often citizens in France and UK, rarely in Germany). Until recently they kept a low profile. But through upward social mobility or the ‘brain-drain’ from the From Ethnic Identity rest of the Muslim world, a Muslim intelligentsia has slowly emerged in Europe and is now more vocal in calling for a recognition of the Muslim presence, trig- gering heated debates in European public opinion. to Religious Recasting

gists or social workers), Islam is embedded What we have here is the fabrication of a ’Born again Muslims’ in such pristine cultures (‘Arab’, ‘Asian’). But neo-ethnicity. It may work, but has little to A second consequence of the immigration OLIVIER ROY these cultures are not transmitted as such do with Islam. is that there is no longer any social evidence from generation to generation: language We have to go back to a very basic idea: of religion. Of course in neighbourhoods might be lost (as is colloquial Arabic in Islam is a religion, not an ethnic identity, where large Muslim populations are concen- What do we call a ‘Muslim’ in Europe? This is France) as well as dress and diet. A process not even a culture as such. But how can this trated, there is some social pressure to adopt a seldom-asked question in response to of acculturation is under way, even if it does religion be expressed as such? It is not a a conservative way of life (especially for which there are two approaches: the ethnic not lead to integration, but to other pat- question of inter-faith dialogue: Europe is women). But there are no social constraints one and the purely religious one. The more terns of differences. The b e u r (slang for no longer a Christian society, it is a secular or even inducements to behave as a good common approach in Europe is to consider Arab) culture of the suburbs in France has one. What we see is that Muslims do adapt, Muslim; praying, fasting, eating halal require Muslims as a quasi-ethnic group, identifying nothing to do with Islam or even with Arab not by changing Islam, but by adjusting personal involvement. One has to re-create, them with people originating from Muslim culture: the slang (v e r l a n) is French, the diet their way of thinking of themselves as be- on an individual basis, the patterns of an countries, as it is the case in Belgium.1 M a n y and the clothing are American (Mc Donald’s l i e v e r s . everyday life for a Muslim. Even if one joins specific communities (with or without a Islamic identity neighbourhood basis), this community is es- Believers who want to maintain a purely tablished on the basis of a volunteer and Islamic identity are also confronted by the personal engagement. In fact, to be a ‘true’ fact that pristine cultures divide the Muslim Muslim is an individual choice, because it community in Europe. Mosques tend to be usually means a double break: with a too tra- attended in Europe according to common ditional familial environment and with the origin, dialect, or by belonging to communi- dominant secular society. Here we meet the ty groups. There are ’Moroccan’, ‘Algerian’, phenomena of the ‘born again Muslim’, who ‘Punjabi’ and even ‘Kurdish’ mosques. For after a very mundane and sometimes dis- many second or third generation Muslims, solute life (e.g. womanizing, alcohol, drugs) or even for ‘born-again Muslims’ identifying goes back to Islam, after a spiritual experi- Islam and culture of origin is a mistake for ence, on patterns very similar to many ‘born two reasons: it is a dividing factor, but it also again Christians’: the emphasis is here on tends to embed Islam in cultural traditions personal conversion, redeeming and expres- which have little to do with ‘true Islam’. The sion of self, not on community and social ‘salafist’ approach, which stresses the return conformism. The terms ‘faith’, ‘salvation’, to an authentic Islam, rid of local traditions that is the quest for identity and psychologi- and superstitions, fits well with the contem- cal balance, are more important than ‘licit’ porary process of acculturation. Its propo- and ‘illicit’. Stories of conversions underline nents strive to build non-ethnic mosques this quest for equilibrium and happiness. and communities. To bypass the cultural di- Fundamentalism, even in its stress on the visions brought by pristine cultures, they communitarian nature of Islam, goes also tend to advocate the use of language of the along the individualization of social life, host country (English, French, etc.), which is, common to the western societies. by the way, the main if not the sole lan- This lack of evidence can also been seen in guage understood by the youth, or to push the problem of authority: Who is entitled to Muslim girls and British Muslims are campaigning to make and baseball caps), the music is western for modern Arabic. In both cases, they go teach Islam? The famous institutions of the boys preparing the ‘Inter Races Relations Act’ (which allows (rap, ‘hip-hop’), they are fond of dogs such along with the process of acculturation and Muslim world, like the University of Al Ahzar, food for 200 to sue for defamation) applicable to Islam. as, for example, pit bulls. In fact, this is a typ- globalization. In this sense, modern funda- in Cairo, retain some prestige but are unable s c h o o l m a t e s In this sense, being Muslim has nothing to ical western urban youth sub-culture: the mentalism is not a leftover of traditional cul- to meet the religious needs of the Muslim in i nD e v e n t e r , do with faith and belief, but rather with ori- terms used to qualify such groups might be tures, but on the contrary, an expression of Europe: training of modern imams, adapta- t h eN e t h e r l a n d s , gin and culture. The stricto sensu r e l i g i o u s taken from the ethnic register, but we have modernization and globalization. Religion is tion of the curriculum of studies, etc. But the at the end of aspect is diluted in a larger form of identity. here the process of ethnicisation of a space voided from its cultural content (there is no problem is not so much a lack of trained t h eR a m a d a n . But the problem is that nowadays pristine of social exclusion along the patterns of a such thing, for a fundamentalist, as ‘Islamic’ ulema: in fact the vacuum is filled by self- ethnic cultures are fading away, either western urban sub-culture, and not through music, or even an Islamic novel). Religion is proclaimed thinkers, who, whatever their in- through assimilation or because they are re- importation of patterns from the primary assimilated to a code of behaviour (‘do’s’ tellectual background, claim that they know cast into new sets of identities. Neverthe- culture. In this sense, any endeavour to de- and ‘do not’s’), and not to a culture. In this and can teach ‘true Islam’. The web is full of less, for the first immigrants as well as the fine a ‘Muslim community’ by retaining the sense, it can adapt to a world where nation- sites emanating from individuals or small European public opinion (comforted by the criteria of origin, does not refer to Islam as al cultures are giving way to codes of com- communities, which share two patterns: a culturalist approach of many anthropolo- such. It also does not refer to ‘real’ cultures. munication and sub-cultures. high level of fragmentation and the stress on

Continued on page 29 2 ISIM I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

The ISIM initiated a wide range of activities in 1999-2000, includ- ter, Dutch, French, or German) Islam. Some even argue that this is ing the design of its education and research programmes, the or- the inevitable outcome of the integration of (post-)migrant Mus- ganization of academic meetings and lectures (see pages 3 and lim communities. However, Olivier Roy (page 1) argues that other 5), the construction of a database and a website, and the estab- processes, such as individualization and restructuring of identi- lishment of national and international networks of cooperation. ties, are at work and that they prevent the coming into being of These and other ISIM activities are an indication that ISIM is an European Islam. In some radical cases, individual believers quickly expanding its horizons. have the choice of opting out of society. And although some of Within two years’ time the ISIM has been shaped in such a way them may well be in the spotlight, they are unlikely to attract a as to attract the intellectual curiosity of many in the broad field of large and lasting following as the case of Metin Kaplan shows the study of Islam and Muslim societies, in particular because of (Werner Schiffauer, p. 27). The examples given in Yasha Lange’s ISIM Newsletter 5 June 2000 its unique thematic profile and its broad geo- article (page 29) demonstrate that no matter 48 pages graphic focus. The ISIM has established its name what direction is taken in the process of integra- ISSN 1 388-9788 in this international field, a process in which the tion and (mutual) adjustment, the scrutinizing of Editorial Office ISIM Newsletter plays an essential role. While the E d i t o r i a l existing laws and the seeking of new precedents Visiting Address Rapenburg 71, Leiden diversified and dynamic approach of the ISIM is can not be avoided. The problematic relationship Postal Address clearly reflected in this publication, the institute between cultural, national and religious identi- ISIM, P.O. Box 11089 2301 EB Leiden, The Netherlands is far from being its only source. Its pages are filled with contribu- ties informs the debate on the position of Islam in Europe, includ- T e l e p h o n e +31-71-527 7905 tions by highly active researchers in the field. Its contents echo ing the difficult position of Europe’s autochthonous Muslims, in T e l e f a x +31-71-527 7906 the trends, ambitions, and even future prospects of the study of particular in the Balkans (Raymond Detrez, page 26) and Russia E - m a i l I S I M N e w s l @ r u l l e t . l e i d e n u n i v . n l Islam and Muslim societies. (Vladimir Bobrovnikov, page 25). The problematic of religion and WWW Homepage Vital to the development of this field of research are methodol- nationality is nonetheless not limited to Europe; it is indeed a h t t p : / / w w w . i s i m . n l / ogy and theoretical approaches. Gudrun Krämer critically ad- worldwide issue of particular interest in an increasing number of E d i t o r Dick Douwes dressed a number of these issues at the ISIM Annual Lecture Middle Eastern countries (Henry Munson, page 10). Desk and copy editors Gabrielle Constant and Shelina Kassam (page 6-7). She starts with the simple question: ‘Why do we study The ISIM Newsletter has once again tried to give attention to the D e s i g n De Kreeft, Amsterdam Islam and how should we do it?’ She advocates focusing on actors diversity of approaches to Islam and Muslim societies. Among the P r i n t i n g rather than systems, concentrating on intra-cultural variation most dynamic research domains at present, health and the body Dijkman Offset, Diemen rather than homogeneity. Another important issue is that of are dealt with in the articles of Sylvia Wing Önder (page 12) and Coming issues ISIM Newsletter 6 modernity, which is of particular interest to the ISIM as it forms Sabine Strasser (page 13) respectively. Yet another booming field Deadline: 1 August 2000 Published: October 2000 one of the founding concepts of the institute. Patrick Chabal of research is that of the role of the new media in the expanding ISIM Newsletter 7 Deadline: 1 November 2000 (page 9) approaches the concept of modernity in Africa by disso- public space (Jon Anderson, page 39). Media coverage strength- Published: January 2001 ciating it from the notion of development. In a provocative essay, ens the mobilizing force of Islamic notions of national and inter- ISIM Newsletter 8 Deadline: 1 February 2001 Sadik Al-Azm (page 11) calls for a critical reflection upon the posi- national order, including those concerning the politics of human- Published: April 2001 tion Arabs and Muslims take v i s - à - v i s modernity and the West. itarian aid in local (Imad Sabi’, p. 24) as well as global contexts The ISIM solicits your response to the ISIM News- letter. If you wish to contribute to the Newsletter, David Shankland (page 43) comments on current tendencies in (Jérôme Bellion-Jourdan, p. 15). The persistent relevance of the style sheets may be obtained upon request from the ISIM Secretariat or on the ISIM website. In order the study of Muslim societies, in particular Turkey. He warns more syncretic – and even heterodox – trends and movements to offer update information on activities concern- against overemphasizing Islamist trends and underestimating in/to the lives of many Muslims is clearly demonstrated in the ing the study of Islam and Muslim societies, along with news on vacancies, grants, and fellowships, the importance of non-religious movements and practices. cases of Jammu (Yoginder Sikand, p. 19), Bengal (Anne-Hélène the ISIM relies on its readers. The information will be made available on the ISIM Website. In recent months, the position of Muslims within the Nether- Trottier, p. 17), Iran (Matthijs van den Bos, 18), and Turkey (Krisz-

The ISIM Newsletter is a tri-annual publication of lands, and in the West in general, has gained prominence in the tina Kehl-Bodrogi, p. 23). the International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM). Responsibility for the discussions of multi-cultural society. These discussions clearly The ISIM Newsletter would like to continue to expand on these facts and opinions expressed in this publication demonstrate the need for further research as well as for a critical and other issues, by tapping into new resources within the field. rests solely with the authors. Their views do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute or its sup- assessment of identity – whether that be cultural, national, reli- In order to do so, however, we depend on the critical input of our porters. The ISIM Newsletter is free of charge. gious, or ethnic identity. In this debate, an increasing number of a u d i e n c e . ♦ players foresee the development of an European (or for that mat- DICK DOUWES | e d i t o r Staff ISIM • Muhammad Khalid Masud Academic Director M I S C E L L A N E O U S A N N O U N C E M E N T • Dick Douwes Academic Coordinator • Mary Bakker Administrative Coordinator • Nathal Dessing ISIM Academic Committee ISIM Fellowships Education Coordinator • Afelonne Doek Website and D-base Manager The ISIM invites applications and research proposals for various fel- • Manuel Haneveld New Members lowships. Applications from candidates in all fields of the social sci- Information Systems Manager ences, humanities, and religious studies will be considered. Appli- • Esther Oostveen Administrative Assistant The ISIM would like to announce the appointment of two new members to its Acad- cants should be competent in academic English. The ISIM fellow- • Yenny Thung emic Committee. Kees Versteegh, Professor of Arabic and Islam and Chairman of the ships include the following: D-base Assistant Department of Middle Eastern Studies of the University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) B o a r d is now the representative of this participating university. He has published widely on – PhD fellowships are granted for a period of four years to students • Drs J.G.F. Veldhuis (Chairperson) President of Utrecht University l i n g u i s t i c s . who have an MA degree or its equivalent. The fellowships are • Dr S.J. Noorda Léon Buskens, Professor of Law and Culture of Islam at Utrecht University, suc- awarded twice annually for a period of up to four years. President of University of Amsterdam ceeds Professor Martin van Bruinessen as the representative of his university in the – Post-doctoral fellowships are granted for a period of up to two • Dr Th.H.J. Stoelinga President of University of Nijmegen Academic Committee. He has published on law and anthropology. years and are available to junior scholars who have received their • Drs L.E.H. Vredevoogd PhD degree less than 5 years prior to application. President of Leiden University – Visiting fellowships are granted for a period of up to 3 months. Academic Committee Some of these senior fellowships are offered upon invitation. Oth- • Prof. Peter van der Veer (Chairperson) ers are awarded in an open competition. University of Amsterdam Our Apologies • Prof. Léon Buskens – Sabbatical fellowships are offered to academic staff of participat- Utrecht University In the ISIM Newsletter 4, the following error was made in our Info Pages, page 39. ing and other universities to conduct research. In specific cases, • Prof. Mamadou Diouf CODESRIA, Dakar T h e address of the New Masters of Arts Programme at the University of Melbourne, the ISIM makes funds available to finance the temporary replace- • Prof. Dale Eickelman Australia, was inadvertently omitted. The relevant information is as follows: ment for teaching at the home university. Dartmouth College, Hanover, Contact: Abdullah Saeed, Melbourne Institute of Asian Languages and Societies, New Hampshire • Prof. Gudrun Krämer the University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3252, Australia Free University Berlin For more information on the various fellowships, please consult the ISIM website: • Prof. Jean-François Leguil-Bayart CERI, Paris Tel: +61 3 9344 5555 / 9344 / Fax: +61 3 9349 4870 h t t p : / / w w w . i s i m . n l / • Prof. Frits Staal E-mail: [email protected] All those interested are invited to apply. Application forms may be downloaded University of California at Berkeley • Prof. Kees Versteegh URL: www.arts.unimelb.edu.au from the website or obtained upon request from the ISIM secretariat. University of Nijmegen • Sami Zubaida ISIM Fellowship Programmes Birkbeck College, University of London • Prof. Erik J. Zürcher Further, we would like to apologize to Dr Elizabeth Attané (ISIM Newsletter 4, page 11) P.O. Box 11089, 2301 EB Leiden, The Netherlands Leiden University for having referred to her in the author’s description as Dr Isabelle Attané. I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 ISIM 3

Institutional Activities MARTIN VAN BRUINESSEN Islam and the

ISIM’s first international conference held in Leiden, 10-12 December 1999, concerned the role of Islam, Islamic political thought, Muslim parties and organi- zations, and the responses of secular or non-Muslim Electoral Process circles to the resurgence of Islam in the electoral process. The stimuli for this conference were the fact that 1999 was witness to important elections in three major countries, Turkey, Indonesia and Nigeria, and that Islam had been a crucial factor in these events – An International although in a different way in each case.

Indonesia experienced its first free elections since 1955, and a wide range of parties took part. In the months leading up to the elec- C o n f e r e n c e tions, the country was afflicted by a series of violent conflicts that often took the form of – Muslim political thought and ideology (for duction provided an excellent backdrop to programme. The so-called Muslim vote has Muslim-Christian clashes. The leaders of In- the panel entitled ‘Expressing Islam’) the entire conference. Each of the contribu- often been a protest vote against the estab- donesia’s largest Muslim organizations, Ab- – the organization and performance of Mus- tions illustrated how flexible and responsive lishment. Islamist parties have generally not durrahman Wahid and Amien Rais, played lim political parties or non-party associa- to concrete situations Muslim politics tends been very successful, with the exception of central roles in the transition to the post- tions (for the panel entitled ‘Empowering to be. Algeria’s FIS and Turkey’s Refah Partisi (the Suharto era. Both chose, however, to style I s l a m ’ ) advance of both of which was stopped by themselves as national rather than Muslim – the responses of other political actors (no- Electoral Politics military intervention). leaders. The political parties with which tably the military, but also civilian non- In most electoral democracies, the vote of Even the non-Islamist Muslim parties have they are most closely associated are secular Muslim groups and secularist politicians) an illiterate peasant has the same weight as been able to gain the support of only a frac- parties that attracted also non-Muslim to Islamic political activity (for the panel that of a secular nationalist intellectual, a tion of the committed Muslims. Individual votes. The explicitly Muslim parties polled entitled ‘Disarming Islam’). Marxist ideologist, or a learned religious Muslims, but also major Islamic movements considerably less strongly than had been scholar. A single woman’s vote, moreover, is have for various reasons preferred to sup- e x p e c t e d . The conference was opened with a keynote worth as much as that of any man, and an port secular parties. Personal, class or other The 1999 elections in Turkey indicated speech by Professor James Piscatori (Ox- unbeliever’s equals that of a pious Muslim. group interests may be at stake; the move- that the apparently irresistible rise of the Is- ford) on the origins and development of the Much as democracy may be applauded in ment may wish to alleviate suspicions on lamist Virtue (Fazilet) Party has been idea of representation in Muslim political principle, all elites are uncomfortable with the part of the secular (military) establish- brought to a halt. The ‘silent coup’ of Febru- thought. Tracing the historical dialectic be- the egalitarianism of the voting booth. Na- ment or may genuinely believe in a separa- ary 1997, by which the military leadership tween theocratic elitism and democratic tionalists, socialists and Islamists may claim tion of religion from politics; or priority may forced prime minister Erbakan to resign, populism, and showing how in one form or to speak on behalf of the masses, but the be given to other ways to gain power or es- and the repressive anti-Islamist policies of another, the concept of democracy has – at voting behaviour of the masses has been tablish a more Islamic society (such as the following years have not led to greater least in principle – found almost universal notoriously out of step with the wishes of dacw a, (general) education, journalism, infil- numbers of pro-Islamic protest votes. Many acceptance in the Muslim world, this intro- those ideologists. Understandably, the pur- tration of the bureaucracy and the army). of those who voted for the Islamist party in veyors of ideologies that appeal to the Changes in the nature of Muslim electoral the past appear to have voted for conserva- masses tend to be suspicious of the masses politics may be related to the tremendous tive or ultra-nationalist parties this year. Papers contributed to the conference: whom they claim to represent, and they are demographic and socio-economic develop- In Nigeria, where Muslims make up about – James Piscatori (Oxford) often inclined to reserve privileged roles for ments that all Muslim countries have experi- half the population, none of the candidates ‘The origins and development of the idea of ideological avant-gardes – a concept that enced in the course of the past few decades in the 1999 presidential elections were Mus- representation and election in the Muslim appears to be incompatible with ‘one per- (although their effects have been far from lim. Nonetheless, Islam did play an impor- world’ (keynote address) son, one vote’ democracy. uniform and by no means easily predic- tant role in the elections as the votes of the – Masykuri Abdillah (Jakarta) The attitudes of Muslim thinkers and ac- table). Mass literacy and mass education Muslim electorate were to be decisive. In ‘Indonesia’s Muslim intellectuals in the 1999 tivists towards the established democratic have not only made new forms of mass mo- order to win, the candidates had to gain the e l e c t i o n s ’ process have ranged from an aversion to bilization possible, but have also facilitated confidence and loyalties of a large part of – Amiq Ahyad (Surabaya) politics or a total rejection of the existing the dissemination of new types of Muslim lit- the Muslim voters. ‘The debate in Indonesian Muslim circles on the system and its values, through aloofness or erature. Rural-to-urban migration brought The aim of the Islam and the Electoral uses and dangers of Muslim political parties’ pragmatism, to a wholehearted endorse- numerous people into closer physical con- Process conference was to highlight the var- – Burhanettin Duran (Sakarya, Turkey) ment of politics, in which the act of voting tact with politics, and to some extent de- ious modalities of the democratic process ‘Muslim intellectuals, Islamist media and can be seen as an affirmation of religious creased their dependence on traditional re- and the place of Muslim political behaviour t h e elections in Turkey’ commitment. Periods in which elections lations of power and patronage. Transistors, in it through comparisons between coun- – Zoya Hassan (New Delhi) and parliamentary politics were seen as the computers and satellites have completely tries and by a juxtaposition of different per- ‘Muslim discourse on elections in a minority major avenue towards desired changes changed the nature of the public sphere; spectives on the electoral process. In order situation: India’ have alternated with periods of dismay and such media as radio and television, the to broaden the range of comparison, two – William Miles (Boston) disappointment with this particular form of audio cassette, fax and e-mail have made other countries where elections took place ‘Muslim political discourse and the elections m o b i l i z a t i o n . unprecedented numbers of people in- in 1999 were added: Yemen, which is practi- i nN i g e r i a ’ Military elites in most Muslim countries formed participants in it. Access to these cally 100% Muslim, and India, where the – Menderes Cinar (Ankara) have had, at best, ambivalent attitudes to- media, however, although widespread, is Participants Muslims constitute a minority. ‘Why has the Welfare Party failed in Turkey?’ wards the mass mobilization taking place in essentially unequal, which may introduce in the workshop For each country, two to four scholars – Renaud Detalle (Sanaa, Yemen) the electoral process. They too have claimed new social cleavages or reinforce old ones. listen attentively were invited to contribute papers on differ- ‘Islam and the electoral process in Yemen: to represent the real interests of the entire Islamists have often been among the first to to James ent aspects of the electoral process. The pa- t h e routinization of fitnah?’ nation and have arrogated themselves the understand and utilize the possibilities of P i s c a t o r i ’ s pers were grouped not by country but in – Thomas Blom Hansen (Copenhagen) right to intervene in the electoral process these new media (and of technology in gen- opening lecture. three broad thematic categories: ‘Muslim politics in Mumbai’ (by banning parties or imprisoning leaders) eral), which may have helped them to gain – Mochtar Pabottinggi (Jakarta) in order to safeguard the alleged common influence at the expense of the ulama. They ’Indonesia’s Muslim parties and the recent interest. Whereas in the 1960s and 1970s have, of course, not been the only ones, nor e l e c t i o n s ’ such interventions were commonly directed have they been the most successful in utiliz- – Hakan Yavuz (Utah) against the left, more recently they have pri- ing the media; the struggle for control of the ‘The Welfare / Virtue Party in Turkey’s most marily targeted the perceived Islamic threat media has been part and parcel of the elec- recent elections’ (e.g. Algeria, Turkey). toral process. ♦ – Raufa Hassan (Sanaa, Yemen and In those cases where electoral democracy A m s t e r d a m ) was introduced or restored after a period of ‘Yemeni ulama and their attitudes towards authoritarian rule (as in Turkey in 1950 and women’s participation in elections: experiences again a few years after each military coup; in of a woman activist’ Indonesia in the early 1950s, to some extent – Toyin Falola (Austin, Texas) in 1971 and fully again in 1999), Islam be- ‘Muslim and non-Muslim in the Nigerian came a major factor in the sense that ap- e l e c t i o n s ’ peals to Muslim sentiment by certain parties – Andrée Feillard (Paris) could mobilize large numbers of votes. The ‘Responses in military and civilian circles to parties that managed to sweep the Muslim t h e recent resurgence of political Islam in vote in various Muslim countries appear, Martin van Bruinessen is ISIM Chair at Utrecht I n d o n e s i a ’ however, to have little in common, and few University, the Netherlands. of them had an explicitly Islamic political E-mail: [email protected] 4 ISIM I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

I S I M MARY BAKKER Tribute to ISIM’s former

The veritable driving force behind the start-up phase of the ISIM, Wim Stokhof guided the institute as di- rector in charge for almost two years, until shortly after the appointment of Khalid Masud as the ISIM Director in Charge: academic director in May 1999. Prof. Dr W.A.L. Stokhof

which was to last for 14 years. In 1986, a relationship that continued successfully Stokhof withdrew from the institute. Never- Stokhof returned to the Netherlands where for several years. theless, his input is still vital as reflected in he was appointed chair of Austronesian Lin- In 1993, he also became director of the In- his position in the International Advisory guistics, succeeding the well-known lin- ternational Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), Committee of the ISIM. ♦ guist, Joop Anceaux. a post-doctoral institute jointly established At the same time, he founded the Projects by the Netherlands Academy of Arts and Division of the Department of Languages Sciences (KNAW), Leiden University, the and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania Free University and the University of Ams- of Leiden University, where he initiated the terdam. Even at that time, Stokhof had al- Indonesian-Netherlands Cooperation in Is- ready begun to launch ideas about an insti- lamic Studies (INIS) Programme. Further- tute for research on modern Islam. The Islam more, he established two programmes on in the 21s t-century Conference, organized in Irian Jaya Studies and a Public Administra- 1996 by the INIS, helped in making clear tion Project in Indonesia, to name but a few. that the strengthening of a global, interre- Apart from these projects, he initiated and gional academic dialogue was needed. stimulated several influential series on lin- At the end of 1997, a constitutional docu- guistics in Indonesia, such as the I L D E P - s e- ment was written, upon which the Ministry r i e s, and Pacific Linguistics: Materials in Lan- of Education, Culture and Sciences, the Min- guages of Indonesia. His interests, however, istry of Development Cooperation and three reach beyond the archipelago and his en- main universities in the Netherlands agreed deavours are far too numerous to be listed to establish an institute for Islam Studies. h e r e . Stokhof was asked to become the ‘building Prof. Stokhof Wim Stokhof, born as the son of an Amster- The most well known of his projects, INIS, pastor’ of the institute, until an academic di- addresses the dam craftsman in 1941, began his fruitful ca- was first financed by the Dutch Ministry of rector was found to develop research and public at reer as a scholar in Slavic Languages. Having Development Cooperation. In 1992, after a fellowship programmes. the opening been asked by the Indonesian literature major crisis between the Minister and the Stokhof operated, together with a Work- of the ISIM. specialist, Hans Teeuw, to conduct linguistic Indonesian government, relations between ing Group consisting of crucial advisors research on the remote island of Alor, In- the two countries came heavily under dis- from each of the participating institutes, to donesia, Stokhof published several articles cussion. From then on, projects could only design the scientific programme. He recruit- and books on the linguistic aspects of the be initiated under the headings of ‘mutual ed the necessary staff for the office and or- local ‘Woisika’ and other related languages. benefit’ and ‘equal footing’. Stokhof suc- ganized the remarkable opening of the ISIM During his 10-year stay in Indonesia, he also ceeded as one of the very few to save his on 20 October 1998. Finally, he led the expanded the successful Indonesian project and became a partner of the Dutch search for an academic director. Four Netherlands Development Project (ILDEP), Ministry of Education, Culture and Sciences, months after Khalid Masud was appointed, ERIK J. ZÜRCHER Visions of Modernity

Between 21 and 24 February 2000 a joint masterclass was held in Leiden, the Netherlands, organized by the Research School of Asian, African and Amerindi- an Studies and ISIM. The theme of the class was ‘vi- in the Islamic sions of modernity in the Islamic Middle East.’ The objective of the class was to gain an understanding of the quest for the elusive concept of ‘modernity’ which has played such a dominant role in the politi- cal projects of intellectuals, governments and social M i d d l e E a s t movements in the Middle East during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The class was open to students in the Ad- vanced Master´s Programme of the research ISIM-CNWS masterclass school, students in ISIM’s Mphil programme and Ph.D. students. During the class, four ioglu (Near Eastern studies, Princeton Uni- section of the Young Turk movement, the ‘ The class gave rise to lively debates, par- prominent authorities in the field gave lec- versity); Dr Alexander H. de Groot (Middle Westernists’ whose ideas were realized only ticularly on issues like the validity of the tures while the students presented papers East Studies, Leiden University) and Dr in the Turkish Republic from the mid-nine- modernization paradigm, with its black and on the basis of required reading. The stu- Touraj Atabaki (Oriental studies, Utrecht teen twenties onwards. Alexander de Groot white opposition between ‘modern’ and dents had prepared themselves by reading U n i v e r s i t y ) . treated the last generation of high-ranking ‘traditional’ sections of society, the rele- and discussing a set of articles and chapters The class started with a lecture by Khaled religious scholars of the Ottoman Empire, vance of theories of incorporation and de- dealing with the problems of modernity and Fahmy in which he illustrated the process who were in search of a ‘liberal’ religious pendency and the uses of post-modernist modernization in different contexts and of modernisation and the different con- culture and many of whom had no problem discourse analysis and deconstruction. ♦ from different theoretical angles before the cepts of modernity in nineteenth-century in transferring their allegiance to the gov- start of the masterclass. This set, with texts Egypt on the basis of the efforts to intro- ernment of the republic, which they served by Bearman, Appadurai, Eisenstadt, Keyder, duce European-style healthcare and hy- until the nineteen fifties. The final lecture, Göle gave rise to lively discussions in giene in Cairo. A comparative aspect was by Touraj Atabaki, was entitled ‘Moderniza- preparatory tutorial meetings. introduced in the shape of the nineteenth- t i o n or Pseudo-Modernization in Iran? The The convener of the class was Erik-Jan century development of Paris as a ‘healthy’ advocates and their opponents’. In it the Zürcher (Turkish studies, Leiden University) city described by Alain Corbin in his famous speaker drew attention to the close rela- and the guest lecturers were Professor The Foul and the Fragrant. The second lec- tionship between visions of modernity and Khaled Fahmy (Hagop Kevorkian Centre, ture was by Shükrü Hanioglu. It concerned nationalism in late Qajar and early Pahlevi New York University); Professor Shükrü Han- the vision of modernity of the most radical I r a n . I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 ISIM 5

Institutional Activities MARTIN VAN BRUINESSEN ISIM Workshop: M u s l i m

From 26-28 April 2000, twelve prominent Muslim thinkers from a wide range of regional backgrounds (Tunisia, Egypt, Iran, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Africa and the European diaspora) met at an ISIM work- Intellectuals and shop to discuss some of the major intellectual and po- litical challenges facing the Muslim world at present. Each of them presented a paper on an important as- pect of the encounter with modernity, to which he or she had been devoting much thought recently. Several Modern Challenges of the papers explicitly addressed the question of com- patibility between Islam and modernity (or rather, as thinkers from various parts of the Muslim lished on the ISIM website.) Parallel to the Wissenschaftskolleg in Berlin on the rise of several participants emphasized, interpretations of world and for meetings between Muslim in- workshop were a number of public events in- the Islamist party PAS in Malaysia: ‘From Islam and conceptions of modernity). Some engaged in tellectuals and scholars studying the Muslim volving the participants, including public lec- cultural authenticity to the politics of differ- such sensitive issues as minority rights, women’s rights world, ISIM hopes to play a stimulating role in tures for academic and general audiences in ence: Islamism’s entry into Malaysian poli- and pluralism and called for the development of a con- both intellectual worlds. The April 2000 work- the Netherlands and a panel discussion with tics and its consequences’. temporary religious discourse based on rights to bal- shop was intended in the first place as a an audience of second-generation young – Jalaluddin Rakhmat, prominent Muslim ance the traditional emphasis on obligations or con- forum for Muslim thinkers from different cul- Muslims living in the Netherlands (see the thinker, academic and educational re- tributed to a theory of civil society. Others focused on tures to exchange ideas and experiences and boxes). former in Indonesia, who played an im- (reformist revisions of) the relationship between the to identify the most important themes for fur- portant role in introducing modern Shici sacred texts, context and contemporary discourse. ther debate. In order to allow the discussions The participants thinkers such as S h a r ica t i and Mutahhari, to be as frank and unrestrained as possible, Those attending the workshop represented and became a popular Sufi teacher in The development of contemporary Muslim the workshop was not public and only a small all the major regions of the Muslim world, urban middle class circles: ‘The revival of thought constitutes one of ISIM’s primary number of scholars and students attended. from the Maghreb to Indonesia and South Sufism: Does it help? A Glance at the areas of research interest, and by providing a (Edited versions of the papers and excerpts of Africa, and a great diversity of views. All were Modern Sufi Associations in Indonesia’. platform for discussions between leading the discussions will, however, soon be pub- invited because of their contributions to pub- – Tariq Ramadan, European-born Muslim in- lic debate in their own countries, and as had tellectual of Egyptian origin, who now been hoped, their coming together gave rise teaches at the University of Geneva, and to stimulating discussions. The participants who in his writings is particularly concerned N u r c h o l i s h and the titles of their contributions were as with the issue of being a Muslim in Western M a d j i d follows (in alphabetical order): secular society: ‘Islam and Muslims in Eu- – Mahboobeh Abbasgholizadeh, a promi- rope. a silent revolution: towards rediscov- nent representative of Iranian Islamic femi- ery’. Khira Chibani nism, book-publisher and chief editor of the – Abdul Karim Soroush, arguably the most in- Iranian journal of women’s studies Farza- fluential contemporary Muslim thinker in neh, and an active participant in the pre- Iran, often viewed as the successor of Ali sent reform movement in Iran: ‘Islamic fem- Sharicati but much more steeped in the inism in Iran’. philosophical and mystical tradition of the – Saif Abdel Fatah, political scientist at Cairo Iranian Shica. Initially a supporter of the rev- Abdul Karim University, previously affiliated with the In- olution, today his ideas play a significant S o r o u s h ternational Institute of Islamic Thought, role in the Iranian reform movement: ‘Re- concerned with the question whether mod- vised modernity versus revised Islam’. ern political concepts such as civil society Saif Abdel Fatah have an authentic counterpart in the intel- F o l l o w - u p lectual heritage of Islam: ‘Umma institu- It was agreed that edited versions of the tions and civil society in Islamic thought papers and excerpts of the discussions first and practice’. be published on ISIM’s website. Additional – Nasr Abu Zayd, Egyptian Muslim thinker contributions will be sought, and the partic- and professor of Arabic literature whose ipants will be requested to respond to each Tariq Ramadan critical research on the sacred texts of Islam other’s contributions, so that the workshop aroused so much controversy that in 1995 finds a continuation on the website. A num- he had to leave his country for the Nether- ber of smaller meetings will be organized in Fltr: Abdelmajid lands, where he is now affiliated with Lei- the future so as to pursue in greater depth a Charfi, Nasr Abu den University: ‘Codification of the Sharica number of the themes that surfaced at the Z a y d, Muhammad in Egypt: a problem of power struggle’. w o r k s h o p . ♦ Khalid Masud – Asghar Ali Engineer, prominent liberal Mus- lim thinker in India, concerned with the de- mocratization of the Muslim community Public lectures and known for his efforts to develop an Is- – Ebrahim Moosa (Cape Town, presently at Asghar Ali lamic theology of liberation: ‘Islam and Stanford University, California): ‘Challenges to re- E n g i n e e r modernization: compatibility and values’. thinking Islam’, Leiden, Thursday, 27 April 2000. – Khira Chibani, professor of philosophy at – Mahboobeh Abbasgholizadeh (Tehran): ‘Islamic Zaytuna University, Tunis: ‘Civil society and feminism and its challenges: the Iranian M a h b o o b e h the problematics of identity’. experience’, Amsterdam, Friday, 28 April 2000. A b b a s g h o l i z a d e h – Abdelmajid Charfi, professor of humanities – Nurcholish Madjid (Jakarta): ‘Tensions between and Islamic studies at the University of Christians and Muslims in Indonesia: the Manouba (Tunisia), presently at the Wis- present situation and prospects for the f u t u r e ’ , senschaftskolleg in Berlin: ‘Intellectual or Amsterdam, Friday, 28 April 2000. psychological, sociological and cultural J a l a l u d d i n challenges?’. Panel Discussion R a k h m a t – Nurcholish Madjid, the most prominent re- Utrecht, Wednesday 26 April 2000 formist Muslim thinker in Indonesia, who In cooperation with a local Muslim counterpart, played an important role in the process of the Foundation for Higher Islamic Education, Ebrahim Moosa gradual democratization of that country: ISIM organized a meeting between young ‘Reflections on the challenges and opportu- educated Muslims living in the Netherlands and nities of Islam in the modern age: with spe- four of the workshop participants, Asghar Ali cial reference to Indonesia’s current experi- Engineer, Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Tariq Ramadan mentation with democracy’. and Abdul Karim Soroush. The panel attracted a Fltr: Nurcholish – Ebrahim Moosa, South African Muslim re- large and enthusiastic audience; the speakers’ Madjid, Muham- formist thinker, formerly active in the thought-provoking comments gave rise to lively, mad Khalid anti-apartheid movement in Cape Town; and at certain moments heated, discussions. Masud, Farish A. presently visiting professor of religious N o o r studies at Stanford University (USA): ‘Is- lamic modernities revisited: a critique’. Martin van Bruinessen is ISIM Chair – Farish A. Noor, Malaysian human rights ac- at Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Abdelmajid Charfi tivist, presently conducting research at the E-mail: bruines @denicser.let.uu.nl 6 ISIM I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

ISIM Annual Lecture GUDRUN KRÄMER On Difference

Why do we study Islam, and how should we do it? As usual, what appears like a simple question poses the most intricate problems. Compared to the ‘how’, the ‘why’ is relatively easy: culture is very much in fash- and Understanding: ion, and it has been so for a while. The ‘cultural turn’ is widely debated, not only in the humanities, but also in the social sciences. This includes the disci- pline I was first trained in and remain attached to: history. The cultural turn has made an impact on so- The Use and Abuse ciology and political science, and to a lesser extent on economics and law. Its strong appeal has certainly to do with politics, for there can be little doubt that the demise of the Soviet Empire and the intensifica- tion of ethnic conflict in many parts of the world have of the Study of Islam contributed towards giving so high a profile to mat- ters of culture and identity. The fact that there Professor Krämer could prove useful and refreshing to take should be a link to politics (and I hasten to emphasize delivering the ISIM more notice of what is currently being done that I do not subscribe to monocausal explanations) Annual Lecture, in the field, and not only in the English lan- need not render the interest in culture and identity, 15 March 2000. guage. Much of it is based on rigorous self- variously and often ill-defined, suspect or illegiti- examination that would do a puritan proud, mate: I at least can see nothing intrinsically wrong or a strictly observant Sufi. The way out of with an approach that looks at politics, society, law the dilemma of taking culture seriously and the economy with a greater awareness of, and without making it the prime mover of histo- sensitivity to, cultural norms and aspirations. But ry is, I think, not so much to join in the ritual there are disturbing aspects to this preoccupation denunciations of orientalism. Nor does it with culture, if it is not an outright obsession; aggres- solve the problem to put the difficult terms sive ethnic assertiveness on one hand, and the talk in quotations marks, and therefore write about a potential if not inescapable ‘clash of civiliza- ‘Islam’ rather than Islam, ‘Islamic culture’ tions’ on the other, are among them. The latter in rather than Islamic culture, and ‘difference’ particular would not have found such fertile ground rather than difference, or always to use the and reached so wide an audience, had it not been for plural and so to consistently write Islams o r , the cultural turn in academic as well as in what is to be entirely on the safe side, ‘Islams’. That commonly considered to be ‘real’ life. still leaves the possibility that there i s s o m e- thing that could legitimately be referred to The attraction of the cultural turn for the as Islam, or culture, or difference. And how scholar is obvious: if culture is seen not as a can you have something in the plural any- separate compartment of life, let alone a way that does not exist in the singular, at system of its own, where literature, music dealing with culture or civilization, and with ‘constructs’ or ‘represents’, Islam as a dis- least not for the scholar? and the arts belong (at least good literature the role of religion in defining the parame- tinct, homogeneous and timeless entity and what in German is called serious music), ters of Islamic culture(s) or civilization(s), re- that is essentially defined by its normative Unity / diversity but as a mobile configuration of patterns of gardless of whether we put them in the sin- texts, i.e. the Qur’an as divine word and the A more promising way to distance our- perception, representation and conduct gular or in the plural. Unlike Chinese, Indian Sunna, or tradition of the Prophet Muham- selves from primitive orientalism, as indeed that guide and inspire the way we live our or African studies, it does not really consti- mad. For the unreformed orientalist, Mus- we must, is to pay yet more attention to the lives both individually and in communion tute an area study, for Islam is global and lims are sufficiently defined by their being dynamic and plural nature of Islam, and with others, including society at large or any not restricted to any particular territory. Muslim. Little does it matter whether they here it does not seem to matter much other community real or imagined, then Though it may sound offensive to say so, live in Kuala Lumpur, Cairo or Karachi. They whether we use the singular or the plural. much can be gained from a close scrutiny of Islam has centres and peripheries, but the are over-determined by Islam. This is, of This corresponds to a marked tendency in these patterns and configurations: their Middle East is no longer its only centre, at course, vintage culturalism. But orientalism, the humanities and the social sciences to making and unmaking, their complex inter- least not in intellectual terms, not to men- its critics continue, does not stop here: it focus on actors rather than on systems, and play, their meaning to different people in tion demography. The closest parallel to Is- ‘constructs’ Islam as the ultimate Other, therefore to concentrate on agency, prac- different contexts, their ambiguities and lamic studies, I would argue, is Jewish stud- using it as a negative foil against which the tice and processes mediating between contradictions, their variations over time ies. It is all the more regrettable that there achievements of Western civilization, rest- structures, or systems, on one hand and ac- and space, their adaptations and transfor- should be so little comparative work, if any, ing on the triple foundation of ancient Ju- tors on the other. ‘Negotiation’ is the catch- mations. The risks involved in focusing on examining the evolution, methods and or- daism, ancient Greece and the Christian word here, taking us straight to the market- culture rather than the social order, power ganization of the two fields. One need not faith, appear all the more glorious. Islam, by place. I will come back to that. Scholars now or the international system are equally obvi- have to be of a deconstructivist bent to find contrast, lacks the notion of liberty, a sense insist on the openness of historical process- ous: there is a danger that economic reduc- particular interest in the kind of questions of responsibility both individual and civic, a es that are neither linear nor homogeneous tionism as propagated not so much by Marx they ask and those they eschew, or exclude spirit of scientific inquiry, an independent (‘contingency’ is the word to be known himself but by some of his more simple- as taboo. The comparison would yield re- middle class, any kind of recognized com- here), focusing on countervailing forces to minded adherents (or were they just single- vealing insights into both disciplines. munity except the u m m a, etc., etc. If one megatrends such as industrialization, mod- minded?) could be replaced by cultural de- adopts this logic, Islam is little but a ‘cluster ernization or globalization. They highlight terminism. There is a risk that intra-cultural Orientalism reconsidered of absences’ (Bryan S. Turner, who, to avoid intra-cultural variation rather than uniformi- choice, change and conflict be overlooked. In Islamic studies, and here I use the term any misunderstanding, does not share this ty, intra-societal conflict rather than harmo- This is difficult to avoid when culture is un- in the widest possible sense to include vari- view). There is little point in going into this ny, fragmentation rather than coherence. derstood to be uniform, timeless and total- ous area studies such as Turkish, Iranian or list of ‘what we have and Islam has not’, Gender studies have contributed much to izing, creating discrete units that are fully in- Indonesian studies in as far as they touch on though it would not be difficult to paint a this shift of emphasis and perspective. His- tegrated internally and sealed off by water- Islam, the dangers of culturalism have been much more nuanced picture. Our subject torians have learned from anthropologists, tight boundaries against an outer world of discussed at great length, only in this case here is orientalism and its critique. To judge and vice versa. Deconstructivists have spo- equally distinct entities. But we could aspire culturalism has become known as oriental- by their ‘cluster of deficiencies’, die-hard ken about the ‘cacophony’ of discourse(s) to more sophistication. If the analogy of the ism, and orientalism is a very bad thing in- orientalists reveal not only an appalling lack that characterizes any given situation. In our personality that is sometimes used in this deed. It is awkward enough to be addressed of sense and sensibility. They pursue a polit- context, we should perhaps rather refer to a context was taken more seriously (for we as an ‘Islamist’ rather than an ‘Islamicist’, as ical project that is intimately linked to colo- ‘polyphony’ of Muslim voices, for even used to hear much about the German or the it frequently happens among the uninitiate, nialism past and present, and all the more though they are numerous the sound need Egyptian personality), the reductionist for there is after all a distinction between powerful for its stark simplicity. Simplicity not grate on the ear, as a cacophony does. temptation could be resisted: no personali- the practitioner of political Islam and the re- does not always equal innocence after all. Yet even when we focus on plurality, ty is fully integrated and free from contra- searcher studying the phenomenon. But as But the same is true for the critique of ori- polyphony and variation, major challenges dictions, nor does it develop in splendid iso- a self-respecting scholar, one would not entalism, or for that matter, the study of remain, and they do so on several levels. Is- lation. For the personality to grow it needs nowadays want to be called an orientalist, Islam if done by ‘outsiders’ more generally. lamicists may insist on the plurality of external stimuli. There is, to my mind, no much less so in Arabic where m u s t a s h r i q It would come as a relief and a great encour- Islam(s), they may use inverted commas to way around taking culture seriously. It is a (orientalist) comes perilously close to agement to all those interested in Islam if express their discomfort with essentializing must for both the scholar and the politician. m u s h r i k (pagan, heretic) – although it must orientalist-bashing were slowly to go out of terms, they may even deny that there is Culturalism, by contrast, is a trap studiously be said that the connection is seldom ex- fashion – inside the Muslim world as well as such a thing as Islam, or Islamic law, art or to be avoided. plicitly made. outside of it. Rather than pointing accusing architecture. They may choose to talk about The study of Islam serves to illustrate the Orientalism, as we have learned, is a pro- fingers at certain scholars dead or alive, point: dealing with Islam cannot but involve ject that presents, or as many would say some of them eminent and others less so, it Continued on page 7 I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 ISIM 7

Continued from page 6 his or her personal views)? For it will hardly tivity for those involved, has a liberating ef- talist painting held no attraction for me, nor do to summarily dismiss them as evidence fect. Among other things it frees students of did I feel any desire to go native in the discourses on Islamic history rather than Is- of false consciousness. Islam from the necessity to declare them- desert. My interest had to do with the possi- lamic history proper, suggesting that histo- selves on the highly sensitive issue of bility that there might be alternative ways of ry proper does not exist, no matter whether Culture in the market-place whether the Qur’an is actually God’s word, living and of thinking and of organizing so- Islamic or other: there still remains the fact One way to reconcile the demands of in- and whether Muhammad was truly God’s ciety, and I assume that many of our stu- that for ever so many Muslims, Islam is pre- tellectual integrity with the recognition of prophet, or indeed the last and final one in a dents feel the same (unless, of course, they cisely the timeless, homogeneous and strong beliefs among those who are after all long line of messengers that had been sent are looking for their roots…). unique whole, the sum total of divinely or- the principal partners of the students of to humankind for God’s will to be known. We are constantly faced with questions dained norms, values and aspirations Islam- Islam, and not just the object of their re- What matters is that Muslim believers view which are not predicated on a sense of dis- icists spend so much time and energy on search, is to look at Islam as a repertory of and revere them as such. Considering the tance or superiority that is so often associat- ‘deconstructing’. That they often do so in references, textual, visual and other, that explosive nature of the issue particularly in ed with the notion of difference, or not nec- order to defend Islam (no inverted commas can be variously transmitted, but which our times, this is an advantage not to be un- essarily so. If Muslims believe that there is here) and the Muslims against those critics under all circumstances require interpreta- d e r e s t i m a t e d . such a thing as Islamic values, what are who seem unable to distinguish between tion if they are to acquire force, and have To put it bluntly then, it is not the task of they? If Islamists advocate an ‘Islamic order’, the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Islamic Re- done so from the very beginning of Islamic those who study Islam to define Islam for what is so specific or possibly unique about public of Iran, a mullah in Cologne and the history (I do not hesitate to use the term). In- the Muslim believer, to delimit its bound- it? Unlike many Islamists, I do not think that teachings of the Prophet as understood by terpretation is done by active minds, or to aries and to measure transgression. I would it has to be unique in order to merit atten- Muslim communities in the Netherlands, put it in current scientific jargon: it is maintain that in spite of the current fascina- tion. If the critics of modernization theory adds to the irony of the situation. How then premised on agency. To speak of a repertory tion with negotiated space, shifting bound- (simplified, unilinear modernization theory) should the student of Islam deal with the of references that are continually re-inter- aries and imagined communities, bound- consider the possibility that there might be firm convictions of the Muslim believer (that preted, and re-defined, and frequently con- aries exist that cannot all be negotiated. The several paths towards modernity, or that we is to say: not just any Muslim regardless of tested, without losing their status of norma- very notion of a repertory suggests that it is should think in terms of plural modernities limited (or should I say ‘bounded’?), and that transcend the Western model (of that it can be exhausted. To speak of negoti- which, again, there are several), what exact- ated space does not mean that ‘anything ly does this plurality exist of? Is it possible to goes’. Islam, Sayyid Qutb is said to have re- distinguish a stable core of Islam, constitut- marked, is flexible but not fluid. But it is not ing its essence and foundation, from its for the scholar to fix those boundaries. It is more malleable elements that can adapt to V A C A N C I E S our task to unravel how in a given context the most diverse circumstances in order to the available (normative) references are se- make Islam, as the well-known formula has lected, used and combined, and by whom, it, relevant to all times and places? And how A consortium of the International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), to what purpose and to what effect. In does this correspond to the familiar claim T h e Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM) and doing so we should perhaps be more careful that whereas techniques can be freely when employing the market metaphor: adopted from non-Islamic sources, Islamic t h e Research School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies (CNWS) shopping around for suitable references to values must by all means be preserved in- h a s initiated a project on uphold specific views and to further particu- tact? It is certainly important to analyse the ‘The Dissemination of Religious Authority in 20t h Century Indonesia’ . lar interests has not always been an option function of these claims and convictions. The project is part of the programme of the Netherlands-I n d o n e s i a n and may not always be one today. It is pre- However, I do not think we should stop cisely more interesting to find out what ref- there, but look at content as well. Human Co-operation, funded by the Netherlands Minister erences are available to specific people in rights, good governance or social justice o f Education, Culture and Sciences. specific situations. In many cases, the choice provide excellent examples of what is at could turn out to be more restricted than it s t a k e . The research project will deal with the study of four major themes: might appear to the scholar with full access These are big questions, and they must be ( a ) Traditional religious authority: u l a m a and f a t w a; to all kinds of ideas, sources and resources. approached with modesty. But then, if I may At the same time I would be more cautious be allowed a moral note at the end of my re- (b) Mystical associations (t a r e k a t) in urban communities; when speaking about inside and outside marks, modesty may be a crucial prerequi- (c) D a k w a (Muslim propagation) activities in urban communities; and views, for in many situations the divide is by site if we are to continue the study of Islam (d) Education and the dissemination of religious authority. no means as clear as some seem to think. I in all its rich diversity without falling into see, at any rate, no reason why the ‘under- the trap of culturalism. This particular mod- standing’ of an urban middle-class academ- esty code does not apply to women only, The project seeks: ic of Muslim faith should by definition be nor is it restricted to non-Muslims. The study (each 0.5 fte) more authoritative, and insightful, than the of Islam is a joint venture. We all share the 4 Part-time Post-docs ‘interpretation’ of an urban middle-class risks and the benefits – and the doubts. ♦ academic of Hindu, Christian or uncertain to do research in one of the four themes leanings; otherwise European medievalists would not face the methodological prob- (a combination of two themes in 1.0 fte is negotiable). lems that they do in trying to understand medieval history.

R e q u i r e m e n t s : On difference and modesty If the concept of ‘understanding’ cul- ture(s), no matter whether it is done from Applicants should: the inside or the outside, is so problematic ¶ hold a PhD degree in Islamic studies, and Islam so elusive, why should we make the social sciences or another relevant discipline; the effort in the first place? There are, of course, practical reasons: the presence of ¶ have a solid disciplinary background growing numbers of Muslims in Western so- which guarantees competent research on the subject; cieties, not as migrants and visitors, but as ¶ be familiar with Islam in Indonesia; integral parts of these societies; the rise of ¶ have a good command of Indonesian. political Islam; the call for an application of the Sharia, for an Islamization of knowledge, etc. As is well known, these practical con- A p p o i n t m e n t s : cerns are all too often tied to some sense of ¶ As soon as possible; threat coming from Islam, or at least of a ¶ Salaries will be according to Dutch faculty regulations; challenge to be faced. But there is another ¶ Appointments will be for a maximum of four years dimension that has little if anything to do with fear or confrontation: it involves curios- ity, be it intellectual or of a seemingly less elevated nature. Curiosity presupposes dif- Further information on these positions can be obtained from ference, which in anthropology and oriental P r o f e s s o r D r W.A.L. Stokhof (phone: +31-71-527 22 27; studies more specifically has fallen into such e-mail: [email protected]). disrepute that many dare not use the word without visible signs of distaste. My initial This article is an adapted version of Gudrun Krämer’s motivation to study Islam was precisely the lecture given in Utrecht, the Netherlands, for the Applications (including a curriculum vitae) should be sent assumption that it was somehow different occasion of the ISIM Annual Lecture, 15 March 2000. before 1 August, 2000, to Professor Dr W.A.L. Stokhof, from the life I was familiar with. I wanted to Director IIAS, P.O. Box 9515, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands. know to what extent that was true and in Professor Gudrun Krämer is professor of Islamic which way – if it was true at all. There was in- Studies (Chair), Free University of Berlin, Germany. cidentally little romanticism involved: orien- E-mail: [email protected]_berlin.de 8 General Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

L a w LÉON BUSKENS An Islamic Triangle

The installation of large numbers of Muslim immi- grants in Western Europe and the United States has contributed to a renewed interest in Islamic law in these countries. Knowledge of Islamic law is consid- Changing Relationships ered necessary in order to understand the behaviour of Muslims, especially in cases in which it conflicts with indigenous norms in Western societies. In addi- -c tion to the emphasis on Islamic law, it is important also to study the diversity of norms governing the between S h a rı a, State behaviour of Muslims. Apart from s h arı-ca, norms re- lated to state law and to local customs are also signf- icant as is the relationship between these different sets of norms considered in a historical perspective. Law, and Local Customs

Léon Buskens was The attention on the plurality of norms in practice’. The role of the s h a rı-ca was limited opment of these post-modern forms of A plea for comparative appointed to the Muslim societies has a tradition of more than and placed in the framework of the state Islam. Not only do they have easier access to s t u d i e s Chair of Law and a century in the Western study of Islamic law. legal system. A government-led confronta- schooling and modern communication tech- The triangular model which is presented Culture of Islam at Instead of the binary opposition of theory and tion between Islamic law and local customs nologies, they also enjoy in most cases a here is not intended as a general outline of the Faculty of Law, practice, as can be found in the work of replaced the pre-colonial situation of accom- greater freedom to exchange their religious the ‘nature’ of Islamic legal systems. On the Utrecht University. founding fathers like Goldziher, Snouck Hur- modation. The opposition to this colonial and political ideas. In Western societies, contrary, this contribution is a plea for re- This article is an gronje and Schacht, I propose a triangular policy joined forces with Islamic purification Muslims from all parts of the world meet, search on the diversity of legal systems and extract from his model, related to an approach in the anthro- movements that developed in the same peri- and get to know their diverse customs and their historical development. In my own inaugural lecture pology of law, which stresses the plurality of od. These nationalist puritans wanted to beliefs. For Muslim immigrants of the first work on the genesis of the modern Moroc- delivered on legal norms.1 The three domains in this trian- cleanse Islamic orthodoxy from local, ‘un-Is- generation, their mutual differences are can legal system since the 19t h century, at- 2 3 February 2000. gular model are the sharı-ca, state law as de- lamic’ practices. Their struggle for a pure often of great symbolic importance, but the tention is paid to the interaction of the T h e full text of veloped by the government, and a rather dif- Islam was simultaneously a struggle aganist governments of their European host coun- three domains of legal norms.6 A compara- t h e lecture will be fuse complex of local customs. This last do- colonialism and customary law. According to tries take another view. For these govern- tive perspective is vital in order to under- published separately main is the most difficult to define, also be- this view, the s h a rı-ca should be the law of the ments, these strangers are all Muslims, and stand the pecularities of the different legal in Dutch. cause of the problematic character of notions independent state for which they were fight- they should organize themselves in one systems of the Islamic world. Our discipline such as ‘folk law’ and ‘customary law’. Consid- i n g . group, with one clear set of opinions. Reli- might greatly benefit from a comparative ering the dominance of an Islamic idiom in all After independence, the new power-hold- gious young persons of the succeding gen- essay which might be entitled, as a pun on three domains, as well as in the discourse on ers readily took over the colonial legacy of a erations seem to be willing to comply with Clifford Geertz’ famous book, Islamic Law legal norms in general, it is possible to speak strong, centrally-governed state. State law this wish for unity. Many of them seem to O b s e r v e d. ♦ of an ‘Islamic’ triangle. functioned in these new states as an ideolo- give more importance to a shared Islamic In this model, the emphasis is on the neces- gy of national unity. There remained hardly identity than to differences in law schools sity of considering the different domains in any space for diversity of legal norms. Cus- and customs. They consult modern ‘restate- relationship to each other, instead of viewing tomary law was abolished as a colonial inven- ments’ of Islamic law, such as a l - Z u h a y l-ı’ s a l - them as isolated entities. Study of the process tion, even if it lived on in daily practice. Nega- Fiqh a l - i sla- mı- w a - a d i l l a t u h u (fourth edition, of state formation, in which a central govern- tion of other legal norms replaced the colo- 1997), instead of the classical manuals of the ment claims the monopoly on the imposition nial tradition of confrontation. respective m a d h h a bs . of uniform and generally valid legal norms, However, the creation of a national legal offers a key to understanding the constantly system did not mean (re)introduction of Is- Customs in the diaspora changing relationships between the three lamic law as it existed before colonization. In In the ‘diaspora’, state law and customs N o t e s domains. The model provides a better under- the view of many independent governments, change as well. In addition to the state law 1 . See, for example, Dupret, Baudouin, Maurits standing of the diversity of norms in Muslim the classical learned law books were not suit- of their countries of origin, the immigrants Berger, and Laila al-Zwaini, eds. (1999). communities. As a starting point for discus- able instruments to administer a modern are faced with the state law of their country Legal Pluralism in the Arab World. The Hague, etc. sion, a schematic overview of the develop- state. Only legislation could perform this new of residence, partly in the form of private in- 2 . See Messick, Brinkley (1993). The Calligraphic State: ment of legal norms in Islamic societies and in task. Only in the 1970s was a further Islamiza- ternational law.5 At the same time, their cus- Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society immigrant communities in Western Europe is tion necessary in some states to legitimize toms can no longer be described as local. In (Berkeley, etc), for a study of the transformation of presented below.2 existing regimes. A favourite symbol with these new communities of immigrants, nor- the Islamic legal system in Yemen, to which I am which to create such a new legitimacy was mative customs are not tied to one locality. greatly indebted. A triangle in development the invention of an Islamic penal law with The members of the ‘moral community’ are 3 . See Johansen, Baber (1999). ‘Coutumes locales et In pre-modern Islamic states, the central ample attention for corporal punishment scattered all over Western Europe. In the coutumes universelles aux sources des règles government generally had rather limited and public executions. Another popular mea- well-known cases of ‘crimes of honour’, the juridiques en Droit musulman hanéfite’, in his control over the contents of Islamic law. The sure was the creation of Islamic banks. Even behaviour of people living in Western Eu- Contingency in a Sacred Law. Legal and Ethical cu l ama- ' were the main agents in the interpre- in Iran, the revolution of 1979 did not mean a rope is governed by considerations of pub- Norms in the Muslim Fiqh. Leiden, etc; and also tation of God’s will and thus developed legal direct return to the rich sh icı- legal literature, lic opinion in the villages of origin, thou- Masud, Muhammad Khalid (1995). Sha- i bı- ’ s rules. The state could try to direct the course but a large-scale codification of Islamic law sands of miles away. The killing of a daugh- Philosophy of Islamic Law; Islamabad, especially of legal thinking, as in the Ottoman Empire, according to Western textual forms. ter might be meaningless in the eyes of Ger- chapter 10. but in general this did not lead to indepen- man neighbours, for example, but in- 4 . See, for example, Eickelman, Dale F., and Jon W. dent state legislation. Furthermore, the state Post-modern Islamic law evitable and honourable according to the Anderson, eds. (1999). New Media in the Muslim hardly had the power to impose these official There are many indications that nowadays standards of grandparents and cousins in World. The Emerging Public Sphere. B l o o m i n g t o n : interpretations of the s h a rı-ca on the popula- the relationship between s h a rı-ca, state law T u r k e y . Indiana University Press, especially John Bowen’s tion. In practice, local customs often played and customs is again drastically changing. In Research on these legal customs is of great contribution ‘Legal Reasoning and Public an important role in the regulation of daily Indonesia, the limits of the power of the cen- importance to understand the behaviour of Discourse in Indonesian Islam’. life. cu l ama- ' did their best to integrate these tral government has become obvious. Mili- Muslims living in Western Europe. Many Is- 5 . See, for example, Strijbosch, Fons, and Marie- customs in official Islamic legal thinking in as tant Muslims no longer accept the pluralism lamic immigrants come from societies in Claire Foblets, eds. (1999). Relations familiales far as they did not conflict too flagrantly with of p a n c a s i l a ideology and demand an Islam- which customary law traditionally played an interculturelles. Séminaire interdisciplinaire juridique orthodox norms.3 This condition of accom- ic state. At the same time Indonesian intel- important role, such as the Rif in Northern et anthropologique / Cross-Cultural Family Relations. modation between state and Islamic law, and lectuals dare to think in an unorthodox way Morocco, Kabylia, Anatolia, Kurdistan, and Reports of a Socio-Legal Seminar; Oñati, especially local customs, was characterized by consid- about the contents of this ‘post-modern’ Is- recently also Somalia and Albania. Special Fons Strijbosch’s contribution, ‘The erable flexibility and dynamism. lamic law. Increasing literacy and the intro- attention should be paid to changes in these Anthropological Study of Customary Law for Colonial rule pretended to aim at a so- duction of new means of communication af- customs which are linked to the context of Practical-Juridical Ends: Some Remarks on called modernization and rationalization of fect the monopoly of the traditional scholars migration. Do Islamic or state norms replace M e t h o d o l o g y ’ . the state. Generally this meant strengthening on the interpretation of Islamic law. On the these ‘older’ values and norms? Knowledge 6 . For example, in my Islamitisch recht en the central government and importing legal Internet, Muslims from all over the world dis- of these issues can be of great importance in familiebetrekkingen in Marokko (Islamic Law and norms from the European ‘mother country’. cuss – in English – these new forms of Islam. order to properly prosecute behaviour Family Relations in Morocco). Amsterdam: Bulaaq, However, it was also often part of colonial Cheap CD-roms of classical texts produced which is defined as ‘criminal’ by the laws of 1 9 9 9 . policy to strengthen the plurality of legal by m u l l a hs in Qum enable ordinary believers Western European countries. This research is norms by transforming local customs into to browse, in an unorthodox manner, in also of scholarly value, because this kind of Léon Buskens is professor of Law and Culture of Islam folk law. what was until very recently an enclosed research is often difficult to conduct in the at Utrecht University, and assistant professor of Elevating customs to that status of law garden for initiates.4 countries of origin where their governments Islamic Law and Cultural Anthropology of Islamic went hand in hand with a marginalization of Muslims in Western Europe and North prefer to deny the existence of other, non- Societies at Leiden University, the Netherlands. Islamic law, which allegedly did not work ‘in America play an important role in the devel- official norms. E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 General Issues 9

D e b a t e PATRICK CHABAL A f r i c a :

Events in Africa over the last two decades have puz- zled many. Worsening poverty, corruption, as well as the repeated occurrence of coups or extreme civil vi- olence, all conspire to give a cheerless, if not down- M o d e r n i t y w i t h o u t right frightening, image of the continent. Are the 1 causes of this crisis to be found in Africa’s place in the world economy or in the continual disorder which afflicts the continent? Is the present turmoil a temporary setback or has it become a permanent D e v e l o p m e n t ? condition? Why is there such breakdown of society? Will the present efforts for democratization ensure dividual freedoms is less than impressive. The first consists in what can be called the ently disconnected, though in reality over- an improvement in the living conditions of the vast What is perplexing about Africa is the ex- re-Africanization of Western concepts or lapping, registers. majority or merely benefit the elites? Has the conti- tent to which, unlike most of the rest of the customs according to local socio-cultural nent been ‘left behind by the rest of the world’, as world, it fails on both counts. In such condi- n o r m s .4 This has led to a re-shaping of West- Understanding ‘disorder’ some have argued? Taken together, these issues tions does it make sense to claim that Africa ern political institutions and political ac- Such an analytical framework makes it raise the more general question of modernization. is ‘modern’? tions by more informal and personalized clear why Africa’s present modernity en- I do not approach the question of mod- (infra-institutional) African codes of prac- courages the creative use of the ‘tradition- The chief challenge facing the analyst of ernization from a normative or teleological tice. Nevertheless, an interpretation of al’. To speak of the ‘traditional’ in this way, contemporary Africa is to explain how the perspective – seeking to explain why Africa African politics based simply on a notion of however, is not to imply that this approach continent can be both ‘modern’ and unde- has not followed the same path as other the hybridization of Western norms is mis- is culturalist. Although careful attention is veloped – that is, what modernization parts of the world. I want instead to make leading, unless it is made clear that the graft given to the political significance of culture, might mean in a context where there is no sense of what is happening on the conti- did not have the intended results.5 To pur- I do not in any way maintain that politics in development as is normally understood in nent from the viewpoint of the logic of sue the biological analogy, African genes Africa is to be explained solely in cultural the West. What we observe in Africa is para- those concerned. If Africans believe that proved dominant while the imported Euro- terms. My argument is that cultural dynam- doxical from this point of view: nowhere being ‘modern’ is compatible with being pean ones turned out to be recessive. It is ics, which are most often subsumed under else is the juxtaposition of the obviously ‘traditional’, then we must understand not for this reason that, as argued in A f r i c a the label of ‘tradition’, need also to be ex- ‘traditional’ with the patently ‘modern’ just what this means but precisely how it is W o r k s, the realm of politics in Africa is very amined from their ‘modern’ instrumental more striking. Africans are not slow in possible. In so doing, we might well be largely informal. perspective. Cultural factors are no more adopting the latest technological aids, com- called upon to consider the possibility that The second centres on the ways in which and no less significant in Africa than they there are different types of modernity – Africans operate simultaneously on what are elsewhere. What is important to analysis though they might not all be endowed with can be described as different, and largely is the way in which they are utilized politi- the same potential for scientific and eco- discrete, registers. What is meant here is cally in a modern setting. nomic development. My concern is thus not that Africa’s political modernity is character- The paradigm developed in Africa Works to dispute existing notions of modernity but ized by a combination of attitudes and shows that what is distinct in Africa is the merely to assess the texture of Africa’s own habits which draw from a singular fusion of creative manner in which this overlap of path towards modernization. what we would identify as ‘modern’ or ‘tra- ‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ combines to cre- Modernity, as I see it, is a dynamic process ditional’ rationalities. Understanding poli- ate a form of political accountability which rather than a state of equilibrium. As such, it tics in Africa, therefore, is to understand the is rooted in the instrumentalization of disor- is pointless to deem one part of the world ever-changing recourse to the logic of dif- der. By providing a coherent framework for categorically ‘modern’ and another irre- ferent rational registers – and thereby to re- what might otherwise appear merely as deemably ‘traditional’. They are simply alize the extent to which it is profitable to chaos or anarchy, we establish the founda- ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ in different ways. operate within such a range of ‘modern’ and tions for an analysis of politics in Africa What it is important to distinguish is the in- ‘traditional’ approaches. Thus, for example, which is open to meaningful comparison. strumental quality of distinct types of the resort to ethnicity may appear to us to This re-interpretation thus helps to explain modernity. Western modernization has be ‘traditional’ or even backward, but the how the continent might be modernizing been uniquely effective in combining sci- ways in which elites employ such an instru- whilst at the same time failing to develop ence and technology with bureaucratic and ment must also be seen as a ‘modern’ face economically in the ways we normally managerial efficiency, thus establishing the of African politics. Ethnicity is, in this way, would associate with ‘modernity’. ♦ benchmark for what is commonly labelled both ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’, part of the ‘modern’ society. East Asia seems today to modernity of the continent.6 be in the process of developing its own type In the West, societies are organized, regu- of modernity, based on an equally impres- lated and run on principles of instrumental N o t e s sive admixture of engineering sophistica- modernity which brook very little dissent. 1 . This article has been adapted from ideas tion, business acumen and organizational The realm of the ‘traditional’ is very largely presented in my latest book: Patrick Chabal & c a p a b i l i t y . left to individual preferences, desires and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as Political puters or mobile phones, but at the same What is noteworthy about Africa is that beliefs. The ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ do not I n s t r u m e n t (Oxford: James Currey, 1999). time they seem locked into what outsiders modernization has not engendered the have the same status. Westerners behave in 2 . To take but one example, an African academic all too readily tend to see as ‘backward’ so- same forward movement, in terms of eco- society on the assumption that they are all with an American PhD in engineering will not find cial or psychological conventions – such as nomic progress, as in Europe, America or in agreement with the rules of modernity it inconsistent to defer to the demands of ethnicity or witchcraft. Above all, their gov- the Far East. The continent appears to have which govern their lives. The ‘traditional’ witchcraft in his village. ernments seem unable, or unwilling, to de- evolved a form of modernity which provides has no legitimacy in this respect and it is of 3 . African leaders, for example, may well combine vise and implement policies favouring sus- for the ability both to utilize the implements limited practical use in their professional en- the most modern polling techniques with tained economic growth. There is no devel- (technological and scientific) of Westerniza- vironment. The same is broadly true of the a consultation of their village ancestors opment, as it is commonly understood in tion and to remain obdurately ‘traditional’ Far East where, cultural differences notwith- ( b yw a yo f the local medium). the West. in what we would qualify broadly as social standing, societies are similarly regulated.7 4 . On the concept and implications of political and cultural terms. What is more, there is An appeal to ethnicity, to pursue the same Africanization, see Patrick Chabal, Power in Africa: What is modernization? scarcely any evidence that the use of ‘mod- example, is not considered politically legiti- an essay in political interpretation ( B a s i n g s t o k e : The common assumption of existing par- ern’ technological instruments has made m a t e . Macmillan, 1992 & 1994), Chapter 12. adigms in the social sciences is that mod- Westernization more likely. The reverse This is not the case in Africa. My point is 5 . See here chiefly Jean-François Bayart, L’Etat en ernization is the coherent outcome of the seems to be true – as though Western that on the continent, it is both legitimate Afrique: la politique du ventre (Paris: Fayard, 1989). combined and self-reinforcing effects of so- modernity was being Africanized.2 and advantageous to operate according to 6 . See here John Lonsdale, ‘Ethnicité morale et cial and economic development as we have different logics of modernity and tradition tribalisme politique’, Politique Africaine, 61, experienced them in the West. This is an- Politics in Africa in all areas of life and work. It is thus not a M a r c h1 9 9 6 . other way of saying that modernization is This approach helps us to understand a question of Africans being more ‘traditional’ 7 . Though it is fair to say that, since our notion of perceived as the form of development world in which politics, for example, is dri- (meaning backward) than others. Rather it is t h e modern is very largely determined by the which makes it possible to evolve an eco- ven by considerations that range from the the much more pertinent fact that being experience of the West, it is difficult at this stage nomically dynamic, technologically sophis- most decidedly contemporary to the most both ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ is at once to know precisely in which ways Asian modernity ticated and politically open society. It is ac- obviously archaic.3 What it makes clear is justifiable and instrumentally profitable. will eventually differ from that of the West. cepted that non-Western societies may that, far from behaving randomly or irra- Having recourse to ‘modern’ and ‘tradition- have different cultural attributes. However, tionally, African political actors make sound al’ rationalities, as discussed above, is the so long as they meet the two criteria of eco- and shrewd instrumental use of the differ- norm rather than the exception: it is the re- Patrick Chabal is professor of Lusophone African nomic success and technological advance, ent registers upon which they can legiti- ality which any framework of analysis must Studies at King’s College London. He is the author of they are considered to have modernized – mately draw. Two complementary logics take into account. We thus need to concep- several books, the most recent of which is Africa even if, as in some contemporary Asian so- bind the ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ in Africa tualize Africa’s modernization as embody- Works: Disorder as Political Instrument. cieties, their record on human rights and in- t o d a y . ing a constantly evolving dynamic of appar- E-mail: [email protected] 1 0 General Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

D e b a t e HENRY MUNSON Islamism

Islamism and nationalism are conventionally thought of as antithetical ideologies, yet there is in fact often a nationalistic dimension to Islamism. One is reminded of the relationship between Marxism a n d and nationalism. In principle, Marxists condemn na- tionalism, as do Islamists. Yet the revolutions waged in the name of Marxist ideology since World War II were all fuelled by nationalistic resentment of for- eign domination. Such resentment, among other N a t i o n a l i s m things, also fuelled the principal Islamist movements of the late 20t h century. In both cases, an ostensibly use of traditional Islamic concepts such as ulated in such passages is expressed in Q u r e ic did not really mean this. But his universalistic ideology has actually often had a more jihad and s h a h i d, ‘martyr’. The more secular terms of preposterous theories that at- words reflected the fury of a man outraged parochial nationalistic character in practice. Marxist Palestinian movements led by the tempt to blame ‘crusader’ and Jewish con- by the subjugation of his people. Such fury Christians George Habbash and Nayif spiracies for all the problems of the Islamic fuels Hamas. Religious and national identity tend to be Hawatmeh never had anything like the pop- world. As illusory as these explanations may fused in many parts of the world. One ular appeal of al-Fatah. be, the resentment they reflect is real. And C o n c l u s i o n thinks, for example, of the linkage between it is a major source of the appeal of Is- It would be absurd to argue that national- Eastern Orthodoxy and Russian and Serbian Nationalistic resentment l a m i s m . istic resentment of foreign domination is national identity, between Roman Catholi- o f foreign domination – For Khomeini and many Islamists like him, the sole source of the appeal of Islamism. An cism and Croatian, Irish, and Polish national t h e Iranian case the idea of a ‘return to Islam’ and the estab- adequate explanation of Islamism must also identity, and between Hinduism and Indian Islamists tend to lament the Western lishment of a strictly Islamic state and soci- take into consideration the dire economic national identity. To be a Serb is to be Or- domination of the Islamic world as a whole ety are linked to the goal of overcoming situation in much of the Islamic world. One thodox, to be a Croatian is to be Catholic, and portray the emergence of nationalism foreign domination. The underlying logic of must also recognize that many of the secu- and, from the point of view of Hindu nation- as part of a Western and Jewish conspiracy the Islamist argument is familiar: The be- lar grievances that fuel Islamist movements alists at least, to be an Indian is to be Hindu. to divide and conquer the Islamic world. Yet lievers are suffering because they have de- also exist elsewhere in the Third World with- In all these cases, religion serves as a badge the rhetoric of these fiery critics of national- viated from the laws of God. To end their out resulting in the creation of militant reli- of national identity. This has also been true ism often has a decidedly nationalistic ring suffering, they have to conform to God’s gious revivalism. There are specific aspects in the Islamic world. to it. laws. God has allowed the infidels to domi- of Islamic doctrine that encourage the emer- Arab nationalism in the 20t h century usually In 1964, the Ayatollah Khomeini gave a nate the believers because they have devi- g e n c e of such movements. Once must also had an implicitly Sunni Islamic hue to it. To speech in which he criticized the Iranian ated from His laws. Once they conform, He recognize that Islamism is at least partially be sure, Christians played a prominent role parliament, or Majlis, for passing a bill grant- will grant them victory. Such reasoning is fuelled by moral outrage provoked by the in creating the concept of Arab nationalism, ing diplomatic immunity to American mili- often meshed with more subtle themes, no- violation of traditional religious values. The based upon common language and culture tary and civilian personnel: tably that of cultural authenticity. The re- outrage provoked by Salman Rushdie’s S a- rather than religion (a point invariably turn to Islam becomes a means of re- tanic Verses cannot simply be attributed to stressed by Islamist critics of national- gaining one’s true cultural identity – as resentment of Western domination or eco- ism). But the fact remains that in the ’Do you not know that this agreement re- opposed to mimicry of the dominant nomic discontent. But while all these points popular imagination all over the Arabic- duces the Iranian people to a level lower than W e s t . are important, the fact remains that the speaking world, to be an Arab is to be a that of an American dog? Iranian revolution of 1978-79 was, among Muslim – a Sunni Muslim. Similarly, to be If someone [an Iranian, that is] runs over an Nationalistic resentment other things, a nationalist revolution. And an Iranian, a ‘real’ one, is to be a Shici t e . American dog with his car, he is subject to in- o f foreign domination – Hamas is, among other things, a nationalist When the European empires subjugated vestigation and prosecution even if he is ‘the t h e case of Hamas m o v e m e n t . ♦ the Islamic world in the 19t h and early shah’ himself. But if an American cook runs We have already noted the Islamic 2 0t h centuries, anti-imperialist resistance over ‘the shah of Iran’ himself, or any other rhetoric employed by al-Fatah, the prin- was articulated in Islamic terms. Most important person, he will not be subject to cipal group in the PLO. Equally striking is Muslims thought of their wars against p r o s e c u t i o n . ’ the nationalist rhetoric of Hamas, the European imperialism as forms of jihad. principal Islamist opposition to the PLO. The distinction between Muslim and infi- We find the following passage in a flyer del became intertwined with the distinction This statement articulates resentment of distributed by Hamas in January 1988, at the between the colonized and the colonizer, foreign domination in an earthy, populist beginning of the Intifada: the oppressed and the oppressor. Thus, tra- idiom that both an illiterate labourer and ditional hostility toward the unbeliever qua a well-educated secular nationalist could unbeliever was now infused with new understand. Khomeini’s reference to ‘the ’What has happened? The awakening of a meaning. This had unfortunate conse- Iranian people’ is quite striking given his people. The Muslim people avenges its hon- quences for religious minorities in the Islam- condemnation of nationalism in his later our and renews the glories of the past, this ic world. Christians were suspected of sym- w r i t i n g s . people that refuses to give up the smallest pathizing with Christian Europe. Jews were It must be recognized, however, that piece of its homeland [shibr min watanihi], suspected of sympathizing with Zionism Khomeini often spoke of the Western that rejects Camp David, that rejects the in- and, after 1948, with Israel. domination of the Islamic world in gen- ternational conference and humiliating Secular nationalism did of course play an eral, not just Iran. In 1972, he declared: peace, that rejects imprisonment and banish- important role in the Middle East in the ment, that rejects capitulation of all kinds.’ middle of the 20t h century. One thinks, for example, of Mossadegh and the Na- ’If the Muslim states and peoples had relied tional Front in Iran, Nasser and ‘Nasser- on Islam and its inherent capabilities and The phrase ‘Muslim people’ in this pas- ism’ in Egypt, and the emergence of the powers instead of depending on the East (the sage clearly refers primarily to the Pales- PLO among the Palestinians. But all Soviet Union) and the West, and if they had tinian people. And the passage focuses these forms of nationalism eventually placed the enlightened and liberating pre- primarily on the liberation of Palestine. failed to produce liberation from foreign cepts of the Quran before their eyes and put Hamas leaders and supporters do of domination, not to mention the various them into practice, then they would not course condemn the PLO for its failure to other social and economic problems today be captive slaves of the Zionist aggres- fight for an Islamic state, but they also found in most of the ‘Third World’. More- sors, terrified victims of the American Phan- frequently condemn it for having capitu- over, all these forms of ‘secular’ national- toms, and toys in the hands of the accommo- lated to Israel by signing the Oslo Ac- ism were in fact imbued by Islam at the dating policies of the satanic Soviet Union. It c o r d s . grassroots level. At the height of their is the disregard of the noble Quran by the Is- The Oslo Accords of 1993, and the var- power in the early 1950s, Mossadegh lamic countries that has brought the Islamic ious agreements that followed them, and the National Front depended on the community to this difficult situation full of created a plethora of little urban islands support of the Ayatollah Khashani and misfortunes and reversals and placed its fate ruled by the Palestinian National Author- the m u l l a hs. Nasser may have opposed in the hands of the imperialism of the left and ity. To go from one such island to anoth- the Muslim Brotherhood’s goal of a the right.’ er entails humiliating interrogations and strictly Islamic state, but his public per- searches at Israeli checkpoints. When Is- sona was that of a Muslim fighting to raeli soldiers prevented him from travel- free Muslims from Western imperialism. Had Passages like this are commonplace in Is- ling from Gaza to his home on the West his first name been Butros, Nasser would lamist literature, though we do find some Bank, Ahmad Qureic (Abu al-Ala), one of the never have become Nasser. As for the Pales- variation in this respect from country to principal negotiators of the Oslo Accords Henry Munson is professor of anthropology at the tine Liberation Organization, its core group country and group to group. In many cases, and president of the Palestinian parliament, University of Maine, USA. was al-Fatah, which always made extensive the resentment of foreign domination artic- declared: ‘Soon, I too will join Hamas.’ E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 General Issues 11

F o r u m SADIK J. AL-AZM Owning the Future:

Responsibility for the future is very often a matter of foresight and foresight is always based on insight, as we all know. What does my insight tell me about this whole issue or problem? It informs me that the mod- Modern Arabs ern Arabs are truly the Hamlet of the 20t h c e n t u r y . Like the endlessly celebrated prince, they seem able continually to join the underlying passion of the ele- mental to the brooding intellectuality of the cerebral to the lyrical sensitivity of the poetic but only to end and Hamlet up in unrelieved tragedy. The tragedy consists of un- ending hesitations, procrastinations, oscillations and thors like Egypt’s Hasan Hanafi and the later tured – quite gently but very ironically – in rupture effected by the violent Arab-Muslim waverings between the old and the new, between work of someone like Anwar Abdel-Malek, the title of Hussain Ahmad Amin’s pointed intervention into the history of Sassanid a s a l a h and muca s a r a h (authenticty and contempo- as well as in the tracts, analyses and propa- and lively book, Dalil al-Muslim al-Hazin ila Persia. And just as the history of post-con- raneity), between t u r a t h and tajdid (heritage and re- ganda of the more sophisticated Islamist M u q t a d a al-Suluq fi a l - Q a r n a l -cI s r i n. The au- quest Persia stopped making sense without newal), between h u w i y y a h and h a d a t h a h ( i d e n t i t y thinkers and theoreticians. thor is a well-known Egyptian historian and the Arabs, Islam and their eruption on the and modernity), between religions and secularity. The constellation of ideas that they lean high-ranking diplomat and the son of local Farsi scene, similarly, the post-Bona- on for a crutch may be summarized in the Ahmad Amin, the great historian produced parte history of Arabdom stopped making In this way, the 21st century can only belong tittle of a most famous European classic: by what the late Albert Hourani called the sense without Europe, modernity and their to the conquering Fortinbrases of this world Spengler’s The Decline of the West, the false Arab Liberal Age. Interestingly enough, the eruption on the local Arab scene as well. In and never to the Hamlets hung up on inter- implication being, if the West is declining title of Amin’s book hints at the great classic my view, there is no running away from this minably rehearsing that classic – but now then the Arabs and Islam must be rising. Or, of Moses Maimonides, D a l a l a h a l - H a ' i r i n reality no matter how many times we re-it- totally d e p a s s é – European p i è c e called L a to put it somewhat differently (i.e. in terms (The Guide for the Perplexed.) So a free trans- erate the partial truth and often lame ratio- querelle des Anciens et des Modernes. No of the title of Abdel-Malek’s book R i h a l - lation of Hussain Ahmad Amin’s title would nalization to the effect that Modern Europe wonder, then, to quote Shakespeare’s most S h a r q, The Wind of the East), if the wind of read: A Guide for the Sad and Perplexed got it all from us anyway: Averroes, Andalu- famous drama, that ‘the times seem out of history is abandoning the sails of the West, Muslim concerning the sort of behaviour re- sian high culture and civilization, Arabic sci- joint,’ for the Arabs and ‘something looks then it must be automatically filling those of quired by the 20t h c e n t u r y . ence, mathematics, philosophy and all the rotten in their state.’ No wonder as well if the East and East means principally, here, r e s t . they keep wondering, like the fabled Prince Islam and the Arabs. If we use the title of an The contemporary Arab: sad, Without finally coming to terms, seriously of Denmark himself and with as much tragic equally famous Islamist classic by Muham- melancholic, perplexed and and in depth, with these painful realities intensity, ‘whether they are the authors of mad Kutb, Jahiliyyat al-Qarn a l-cI s r i n (T h e v e x e d ? and with their so far paralyzing contradic- their woes or there is a divinity that shapes Jahiliyyah of the 20 t h C e n t u r y ), then the im- The contemporary Muslim and/or Arab tions, tensions, paradoxes and anomalies, their ends.’ plication would be: now that European and/or what have you is so sad, melan- there is neither an owning of the future for This analogy leads me to dig deeper in- Modernity has come full circle to the j a h i l i cholic, perplexed and vexed in Amin’s ac- the Arabs, nor any real responsibility for the side ourselves and to think that for us Arabs condition, the Arabs and the Muslims must count because his instinctive convictions, present on their part. In other words, either to own our future, to hold ourselves respon- be on the verge of leading humanity once profound self-image and cherished illusions we come to terms critically with this deep- sible for it, we have to come to terms with a more out of the j a h i l i y y a h created by Europe about his u m m a h, religion, culture, civiliza- seated, ritualized and stratified complex of certain image of ourselves buried very and defended by the West in general. tion, providence, their role and function in highly emotional beliefs, valuations and im- deeply in our collective subconscious. What modern history are all given the lie by the ages that in their turn give the sanction of I mean is the following: As Arabs and Mus- Arab nationalism: retrieving hard realities and harsh actualities of the sacredness, taboo and immutability to in- lims (and I use Muslim here in the purely his- the usurped role of world contemporary world at every waking herited illusions, archaic institutions, dys- torical, cultural and civilizational sense), we l e a d e r s h i p ? minute of his life. Furthermore, the radical functional attitudes and arrangements, continue deep down to image and imagine But this is not the end of the story. Re- transformations, revolutions, sacrifices, anachronistic but cherished modes of living, ourselves as conquerors, history-makers, viewing the classics of Arab nationalism, it changes, losses, etc., required to transcend thinking and governing, or, again, the Fort- pace setters, pioneers and leaders of world- now often appears to me that the deeper this contradiction continue to be deemed inbrases of this world will win the day and historic proportions. objective of these works was not so much unbearable, unacceptable and undesirable have the final say. Arab Unity as an end in itself, but as a means by Amin’s totally frustrated Arab and/or In any case, in Mamdouh Adwan’s adapta- Reconciling self-image for retrieving that usurped role of world-his- Muslim. So what else is left for him to do ex- tion of Hamlet, staged some years ago in a n d r e a l i t y torical leadership and of history making. In cept to muddle through his sad, melan- Damascus, by the time the Prince wakes up, In the marrow of our bones, we still sense fact, I can easily say that the ultimate but cholic perplexity right into the 21s t c e n t u r y it is already far too late. ♦ ourselves as subjects of history not its ob- unarticulated concern here was not so carrying with him the pious conviction that ject, as its agent and not as its patient. We much colonialism, imperialism, foreign oc- perhaps one day God or history or fate or have never come to terms realistically with, cupation, liberation, independence, pros- the revolution or the moral order of the uni- let alone reconcile ourselves to, the margin- perity, social justice, equality, freedom as verse will undo the usurper and again raise ality and reactiveness of our position in such, but the restoration of a right usurped his u m m a h to the status of world-historical modern times. In fact, deep down in our col- from this great u m m a h to exercise the leadership. Meanwhile, the Fortinbrases of lective soul, we find intolerable this mon- world-historical role and function naturally this world will have inherited the earth at his strosity of a supposedly great u m m a h l i k e and/or providentially suited to its nature e x p e n s e . ourselves standing helplessly on the mar- and mission. After all, the historic civiliza- Modernity is basically a European inven- gins not only of modern history in general tions of our part of the world have always tion. Europe made the modern world with- but even of our local and particular histories. been of the conquering and extroverted out consulting Arabs, Muslims or anyone We find no less intolerable the condition type: Ancient Persia descending on Greece, else for that matter, and made it at the ex- of being the objects of a history made, led, Alexander conquering Persia and every- pense of everyone else to boot. There is no manipulated and arbitrated by others, espe- thing else within reach, Hannibal, Rome, running away from the fact that the Arabs cially when we remember that those others Islam, the Ottomans, European modernity were dragged, kicking and screaming into were (and by right ought to be) the objects and so on. modernity, on the one hand, and modernity of a history made, led, manipulated and ar- Now, when this unexamined, unexor- was forced on them by superior might, effi- bitrated by ourselves. Add to that a no less cized, highly potent and deep-seated self- ciency and performance, on the other. deeply seated belief that this position of image collides with the all-too evident The Crusades were ultimately repulsed, world-historical leadership and its glories everyday actualities of Arab-Muslim impo- but Bonaparte’s militarily insignificant expe- was somehow usurped from us, f i g h a f l a h tence, backwardness, frustration and in- dition and adventure in Egypt and Palestine m i na l-t a r i k h as we say in Arabic, by modern significance, especially at the level of inter- not only won the day but actually made a Europe. I say usurped – and usurpation is at national relations, then anything becomes clean sweep of all that had historically lost the heart of Hamlet’s tribulations and trials possible on the Arab side. This includes at the ability to live and continue on our side – because it is supposed to belong to us by least grand illusions, massive inferiority of the Mediterranean. The massive differ- right, by destiny, by fate, by election, by complexes, huge compensatory delusions, ence between the results of the Crusades providence or by what have you. wild adventurism, heedless political reck- and the results of the French expedition of With this belief goes the no less deeply lessness, desperate violence, and so on. Ob- 1798, distills the essence of European seated conviction that eventually things will viously, this is a recipe for owning neither modernity as far as we are concerned and righten themselves out by uncrowning this the present nor the future. In fact, it is a puts it on show for our chastisement and reigning usurper, whose time is running out recipe for the abdication of all responsibility e d i f i c a t i o n . anyway, and by restoring history’s legiti- v i s - à - v i s both the present and the future. In fact, the modern European violent in- Dr Sadik al-Azm is professor of modern European mate leaders to their rightful place, former The contradiction that I have been trying trusion into Islamdom and Arabdom creat- Philosophy, Department of Philosophy and station and natural function. to delineate and that I think we have to ed, in my view, a final, decisive and defini- Sociology, Damascus University, Syria. This kind of thought and yearning comes openly come to terms with if we are going tive rupture with the past that I can only E-mail: [email protected] through loud and clear in the work of au- to have any future at all is perhaps best cap- compare with the no less final and definitive Fax: +963 11 373 9510 1 2 General Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

H e a l t h SYLVIA WING ÖNDER Indigenous Evaluations

Research conducted in five interconnected villages on the Black Sea Coast of Turkey has shown that gen- eral cultural ideas about family and social relations combine with traditional and clinical medical theo- o f Health Care ries and techniques to shape health care practices. By studying the health care choices of patients and their families, cultural values can be observed in ac- tion. Studies of health care institutions in rural areas have typically treated traditional healing and indige- i n T u r k e y nous theories of health as obstacles to be overcome . in the pursuit of maximum health benefits for the demonstrate i l g i. Il g i requires an intensifica- The doctors and nurses in the hospitals real- tional concepts to choose professionals, ar- population. On the other hand, efforts to validate in- tion of physical contact with a suffering fam- ize the benefits that family visits can bring ticulating t o r p i l connections and judging digenous techniques and knowledge often present ily member or friend, in contrast with the to the patient. They recognize the lack of re- them from their demonstrations of i l g i. With clinical medicine as an unmitigated threat to tradi- avoidance behaviour observable in cultures sources such as food and bedding for pa- the new economy, however, family mem- tional ways. The following demonstrates how tradi- which base theories of illness on ideas of tients, although they consider hospital con- bers are now likely to perform duties related tional and clinical healing practices interact and contagion. The traditional Turkish theory ditions to be much more sanitary than those t o b a k m a k by sending money, especially combine in a system which is actively negotiated and does not allow for illness to spread between in the village home. A compromise is con- from distant cities or from outside of Turkey; consumed by patients and their families. family members. At home, a patient should tinuously being worked out as the hospital t o r p i l is often ‘bought’ with a kind of bribery; be shown plenty of i l g i, and a family mem- staff tries to restrict the numbers and noise- and i l g i is expected as a part of the services Examples of how social values and family ber’s willingness to display i l g i is carefully levels of visitors, while each patient’s family of a paid professional. Another new means ideals shape the ways in which people watched by all. Daughters-in-law often have and friends try to maximize the benefits of of judging Turkish heath care is comparison judge health care practices, thus influenc- a heavy burden of health care responsibili- the stay for the patient. As in all Turkish in- with European practices which are increas- ing future decisions, can be delineated into ties for their husbands’ parents, especially in stitutions, most official rules are flexible, ac- ingly familiar throughout Turkey. ♦ three culturally specific concepts: b a k m a k , cases of chronic illnesses, and are socially cording to the social connections of the pa- . ilgi, a n d t o r p i l. These are cultural values judged for their i l g i. Il g i is also expected of tient and his or her family. which relate to all realms of social interac- medical professionals. The most commonly tion, including relationships between indi- heard complaint about the state-run hospi- The hospital as family viduals and state-run institutions such as tals is i l g i l e n m i y o r l a r or ilgi göstermiyorlar – In Turkish culture, the hospital is judged in clinics and hospitals. Although these con- meaning, ‘they don’t pay (enough) atten- direct relation to family care at home. The cepts were found to be important in the tion’, or ‘they don’t show interest’. People strongest critiques of hospital care are those Black Sea village context, it can be said that express approval of medical professionals which find it lacking in the emotional sup- they are also current in the wider Turkish demonstrating i l g i, and compare them on port, wholesome food, cleanliness, and i l g i – context. The following aims to show the this basis. which can be found at home. When hospi- ways in which cultural standards for appro- tals are praised, it is generally for their tech- priate family behaviour determine the crite- ’Social influence’ (t o r p i l) nologies and for the skills of specialists, not ria by which clinical medical professionals The third term is t o r p i l, which can be for their atmosphere or sympathetic care. and institutions are judged. The family is translated as ‘social influence’, ‘pull’, or White has noticed that ‘[r]elations of considered the primary care unit, and all ‘networking’. To get anything done which obligation in society beyond the family are other health care is judged by the standards involves an official institution and the relat- often represented metaphorically as family of the family. Although there is no direct ed bureaucracy, connections are crucial. relations, as for example between the citi- mention here of the interactions between Family connections are the most reliable zen and what the Turks call “Father State” patients and traditional healers, many in- and powerful forms of t o r p i l, but almost any (Devlet Baba) . ’2 In terms of the state-run stances in which traditional healers were relationship can be drawn upon for influ- hospitals, it is no wonder that the institu- judged by similar standards have been ob- ence. Addressing an unrelated person in fa- tions of the d e v l e t (State) are seen as lacking s e r v e d . milial terms is a strategy used to build t o r- the i l g i required to become well – the patri- p i l. The term relates to what Jenny White arch is meant to be aloof from the day-to- ’Looking after someone’ calls ’a web of mutual support’, ‘reciprocity’, day care which is the province of women. (b a k m a k) or ‘indebtedness’ and which she finds im- The state builds physical structures, like The first concept can be called b a k m a k, portant in Turkish family relations and so- hospitals and clinics, and stocks them with which translates simply as ‘to look’ but is cial interactions.1 In daily life on the Black technological equipment, concrete exam- used also in the sense of ‘to look after some- Sea Coast, during contact with any govern- ples of the patriarchal ability of the state to one’, ‘to watch out for someone’, or ‘to take ment officials, be they police, school teach- provide care for the ‘family’ of citizens. What care of someone’. In common parlance, the ers, tax collectors, or doctors, t o r p i l is cru- goes on in the daily routine inside the hos- term expresses a sense of family responsibil- cial. Lack of personal connections can result pital is of less concern to the state, which is ity. Traditionally, in the case of an illness, the in harsher penalties, longer waits, and big- meant to maintain a dignified and elevated patient is expected to become passive, leav- ger fines. In the pursuit of health care, t o r p i l s t a t u s . ing to others the decisions about measures can have life-or-death significance. In sum, In contrast, the women within the state- to be taken. The person who assumes re- when a patient is taken to a health clinic or run hospital are criticized by patients for sponsibility for the pursuit of care for the pa- hospital, the family members responsible their lack of i l g i, as if they were members of tient is the grammatical subject of the verb for the action b a k m a k will try to make the the family, bad daughters-in-law or un- b a k m a k. The actions described by the term most of t o r p i l in order to increase the grateful daughters. The irony is that they range from bringing a glass of tea and show- chances of appropriate demonstrations of have no family obligation, and their rewards ing concern, to finding a medical expert and i l g i. are meagre for the work they do. Like all paying for treatment. The person who looks state employees, they can consider them- after the patient is most likely to be a close The state hospital and selves secure in their jobs but have no moti- female relative, although decisions about t h e f a m i l y vation to provide anything but the absolute transporting the patient or paying for care A basic provincial state-run hospital in minimum of service. If the nurses within the tend to involve male relatives. In a waiting Turkey is not set up to provide the patients devlet hospital do not show enough i l g i, N o t e s room of a clinic, I observed individuals work- with the comforts of home. A hospital stay, then the families must step in. 1 . White, Jenny (1994). Money Makes Us Relatives: ing aggressively as advocates for a seated unless it is in an expensive, private room, Women’s Labor in Urban Turkey. Austin: and silent patient, trying to secure attention means that family members feel obliged to New cash-based health care U n i v e r s i t y of Texas Press, pp. 9-17, 84-102. and efficiency for their charge, often in com- bring food, sheets and towels, changes of Recent years have brought about an in- 2 . Ibid., 15. petition with those responsible for other pa- clothing, and visit with the patient to pass crease in private clinical medical care 3 . Although the wealthy have been paying for care in tients. In a doctor’s examining room, tradi- the time. A patient who has no family in evi- throughout Turkey.3 Paying for health care private and foreign-run hospitals since the days of tional and modern medical expectations dence in a hospital room is greatly pitied and has added a new standard for judging a the Ottoman Empire, the national system was may clash when a doctor wants the patient often brought into the circle of a more fortu- medical professional or procedure: if it costs meant to provide free or inexpensive care for all to respond directly to questions about nate patient with gifts of food and conversa- more, it should be better. Private facilities citizens. Now even villagers, although they may symptoms, but is answered instead by the tion. The most frequently heard criticisms of put much stronger controls on the visitors first try the state-run institutions, usually accompanying person. the local hospitals are that they are dirty, de- to patients – keeping strict hours, limiting eventually spend money to go to a private doctor pressing, and smelly; that they are a source the number of visitors allowed, and regulat- if they are not satisfied. ’Concern’ (i l g i) of illness because sick people are all thrown ing or prohibiting items brought from The second term used is i l g i , which means in together, and that the staff is uncaring or home. The understanding is that the patient Sylvia Wing Önder is assistant professor of Turkish ‘interest’, ‘concern’ and ‘compassion.’ It is re- rough. In contrast, home care is considered will be well taken care of in exchange for the Language and Culture, Georgetown University, lated to b a k m a k in that one of the most im- much more sanitary, comfortable, gentle, high price of care. In conversations about Washington DC, USA. portant ways to look after a person is to and healthy. private health care, people still use tradi- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 General Issues 13

The Body SABINE STRASSER Impurity as Criticism

Essays on gender relations in rural Turkey end up all too often in the pitfall of fixed ascriptions that por- tray women mainly as victims of their own society. The following is an attempt to challenge this dis- Reports from a Black course of victimization and fixity by drawing on fe- male bodily expressions. Women in rural Turkey1 counteract social expectations and male dominance through bodily crises. This case study shows the po- tential for change that is inherent in spirit posses- Sea Village in Turkey sion, which is commonly considered backward or tra- ditional. Bodily crises in this sense are conceptual- cluded that there was a m u s k a (spell) affect- even to the hospital. Medical examination, ongoing global integration after the Cold ized not only as an expression of weakness, but also ing her, which was also preventing her from however, did not lead to any results but War. But I am convinced the body will be im- as a female counter-hegemonic potential to express having a baby. The m u s k a was put on her by rather confirmed that Hatice was physically portant in finding a language for counter- the unspeakable. her first fiancé, whom she had rejected. healthy. Hatice’s husband was convinced hegemonic strategies. ♦ Dilek explained that the hoca was told by that ‘there’s nothing wrong with her, she’s Canım sıkılıyor! (My soul is bored!) is the the peri (demons) that she should stay with calgılı, perilenmis¸ (possessed by demons) term by which women in rural Turkey de- her parents for a while and not be brought and the whole affair is a matter for the h o c a. scribe their bodily crises. H a s t a (being ill) or back to her husband’s village immediately. I will send her to Turkey, there is nothing r a h a tsı z (restless) are other terms used to After several weeks, she nevertheless decid- they can do about it here.’ express suffering and anxiety. Villagers, es- ed to go back to join her husband’s family, I accompanied her to Turkey and she in- pecially the elderly, are convinced that doc- where she again began to feel lonely and sisted on seeing a h o c a in the area of Ada- tors are not able to do anything about these eventually suffered a relapse. pazarı, where we were staying in the house conditions. In their opinion, there is no bio- Dilek was convinced that living in town of her father-in-law. This was surprising be- logical or medical cause, and these crises with her parents would have been the best cause I knew that Hatice usually used these are considered c i n c i l i k, an issue for a h o c a remedy, and that a baby would have been trips to Turkey to see her sisters and aunts in (healer). Men and women who experience supportive, since she would have someone Trabzon. It was, as I realized later on, not the such attacks are mainly seen as p e r i l e n m is¸ for whom to live. She strongly believed in outstanding capacity of the hoca which led (possessed by demons) and since they no the hoca’s treatment, but was still afraid of us to this area but Hatice’s capacity to nego- longer meet social expectations, they are becoming ill again. The hoca’s rituals, Dilek tiate a delicate situation. sometimes referred to as a k ı l s ı z ( u n r e a s o n- stated, strengthened her so as to cope with The h o c a’ s interpretation after the Islamic able, crazy) and not t e m i z (decent, clean), or the situation, but of course could not treatment of the c i n ( d e m o n ) was clear even as too akıllı (intelligent, clever).2 change it. Her seizures continued. enough. He first explained the fear, which Several months later, her husband came led to these crises, he spoke about the suf- Dilek: a woman from back home from his military service and de- fering of women in foreign countries t h e t o w n3 cided to rent a house in a town close to (g u r b e t t e). And in the following interpreta- Dilek did not feel welcome in her hus- Dilek’s family. She became pregnant for the tions of this suffering it turned out that Hat- band’s house: because she had been first time soon after. ice’s husband ‘had left the way of God’ and brought up in a nearby town, she was con- was involved in a relationship with an Aus- sidered a stranger (y a b a n c ı) in her new vil- Gül: a girl on her own trian woman. Hatice´s mother-in-law got lage. Having to stay with her widowed Gül was 19 years of age. She had always the point, took her responsibility and called mother-in-law, with whom she did not at all known that her father’s support and control her son to account. Two months later Hatice get along, Dilek suffered terribly – not from would be very important at that age, but her was pregnant again and gave birth to a third village work but from loneliness and desire. father had died years before. His death not son. Since then she did not have any bodily Her husband was then working outside the only meant suffering from the loss and eco- expressed problems anymore. Hatice could- village and sometimes did not return for nomic shortages, but also suffering from the n’t talk about her husband’s behaviour to weeks at a time. After being married for strict social control by her brothers and anybody, she was too scared of getting di- about two years and still without child, Dilek a m c aogluˇ (father’s brother’s son). Girls with- vorced. But she found a way to let her body worried that she would never conceive. She out a father are believed to show less re- and the h o c a t a l k . was convinced that a child would have sup- spect to elderly people and men. ported her in overcoming the difficult situa- Gül was actually very much concerned C i n c i l i k: tion in which she was living. She could not about her behaviour and thus rejected confirmation or criticism? turn to her own family either, because she these ascriptions. Seen as unprotected by a At that time, most villagers believed that had run away from her father’s house to fol- father, she herself felt instead unprotected demons could cause various complaints. low her husband (kız kacırmak) to the vil- from public opinion. Women looking for a Women are much more often affected by l a g e . suitable bride for their sons would not pre- crises than men, a c i n c i - h o c a once stressed, Dilek’s ‘attacks’ began after a dispute with fer girls such as Gül, who in turn feared the because they menstruate, become preg- N o t e s her mother-in-law for not allowing her to very idea of being married to a poor farmer nant and give birth. In Islam, these events 1 . In this context ‘rural’ or ‘local’ does not mean visit her parents. While retrieving water in need of a labourer, or a widower looking are all signs of fertility but also of gender- timeless and tradition-bound, but a constantly from the well, she suddenly had a vision of for a woman to bring up his children. specific impurity. Body fluids are connected changing place. her mother and as she ran over to welcome When feeling insulted or excluded, Gül to demons in general. Sperm, menstrual 2 . For a further discussion of the connection of her, fell to the ground and lost conscious- would initally become angry and aggres- blood, vaginal fluids, urine and faeces are fertility, impurity, female fainting and spirit ness. From then on Dilek is said to have be- sive, but would then faint. People began to considered impure and, when leaving the possession in the context of Islam, see also Boddy, haved strangely: it appears that she would, say she was p e r i l e n m i s (possessed by body, may attract demons. But whereas Janice (1989). Wombs or Alien Spirits. Women, Men at times, lay her head on her husband’s lap demons) since she was under shock at her men are able to control their body-fluids and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan. M a d i s o n in public, cursing or crying for her mother father´s funeral. She, on the contrary, was and may restore their state of purity at any (Wisconsin): The University of Wisconsin Press; like a child. She began to talk to invisible convinced that the anxiety about her repu- time through purification rituals, female im- Strasser, Sabine (1 9 9 5 ) . Die Unreinheit ist fruchtbar! people and often lost consciousness. Oddly tation, the brother’s strict control and her purities must be suffered cyclically for a pe- Grenzüberschreitungen in einem türkischen Dorf am enough, after such an episode, she could fear of being married to somebody she did riod of time. Spirit possession occurs mainly Schwarzen Meer. Vienna: Wiener Frauenverlag; not recollect disrespectful or strange behav- not love had caused the crises. She went to after the first menstruation, before or after Strasser, Sabine (1998). ‘Ambiguïté de l´impurité: iour, but could only remember feelings of a hoca and kept stressing that she felt better marriage and before the first pregnancy, pe- Corps de femme, moment critiques de la vie, et relaxation once she came to. after the treatment. However, she also in- riods during which respect for social rules is possession par les esprits dans un village de la Finally, her own father (though her hus- sisted on a medical examination, which her particularly important. côte est de la mere Noire en Turquie’. In Le corps band’s family was ultimately responsible for family could not afford. Several years later Narratives on cincilik in this sense not only humain. Supplicié, possédé, cannibalisé, Maurice her) took her to a h o c a where she was exam- she was married to a young man in the city report about women’s bodily crises but also Godielier and Michel Panoff. Amsterdam: Overseas ined and received treatment. The hoca c o n- of Trabzon. Since that time Gül´s body has express their criticism of normative values Publishers Association, pp. 29-54. remained quiet. and their longing for social change. All 3 . The following examples stem from my field women mentioned in this contribution are research in a Turkish village conducted between Hoca designates several social functions but always indicates Hatice: a woman abroad married today and all, even Dilek, have chil- 1989-1993. The village, I call Yes¸ilköy (Green well-educated and literate persons: teachers, imams, people Hatice had been married to a relative liv- dren. The crises passed by, as soon as the Village), is situated within the district of Trabzon. who are able to read and interpret the Koran and also different ing in Vienna, Austria, where she was staying women changed the social situation they kinds of healers. Depending on the urgency and duration of for about 10 years when her bodily problems were living in. These women were using the Sabine Strasser is a research fellow at the Institute of the case, local healers (reading the Koran) or distant but well- began. At the climax of her crises she fre- languages of their bodies to express their Social and Cultural Anthropology, where she also known cinci-hoca (masters of demons) are consulted. Their ser- quently suffered from cardiac arrhythmia suffering. We do not yet know what kind of teaches feminist theory, postcolonial and migration vices are demanded in the case of infertility, impotence, faint- and numbness of the limbs. She was language the next generation in Turkish vil- studies, University of Vienna, Austria. ing and other bodily expressed crises. brought to a doctor several times and once lages will use facing new challenges in an E-mail: [email protected] 1 4 General Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

D a n c e AIS HA AL I Dances of

During the 19t h century, Algeria became familiar to the Western world through the paintings of the French Orientalists and, towards the end of the cen- tury, through photographs of the elaborately t h e Ouled Naïl adorned dancers of the Ouled Naïl. A confederation of tribes, the Ouled Naïl originate from the high In the Middle East and North Africa it is gen- Today there are fewer young women enter- In Chellala, tribes gather to set up their desert region and can be found living in towns such erally assumed that a woman who dances ing into the profession, and although their tents at the times of festivals and holidays. as Bou Saada, Biskra and Chellala. professionally is of questionable reputa- costumes are still traditional, they have During the rug festival, the Ouled Naïl per- tion. The dancers of the Ouled Naïl, howev- changed to a certain extent. The silk bro- form informally for the buyers and sellers of er, were born into a tribe where the arts of cades, golden diadems and festoons of carpets. Each tent shelters a different group the entertainer were not only condoned, coins are rarely seen. Now layers of di- of singers, dancers and musicians. Some- but also valued and their young girls ap- aphanous dresses are worn, sometimes times a man sits at the entrance to encour- proached this profession free of inhibitions. covered with a p a l l a, and their turbans and age passers-by to enter. Here the dancers Their earnings in the form of gold and silver headscarves are usually made of synthetic are mostly women presenting the danse du coins were made into necklaces and other materials. Some dancers completely cover v e n t r e. As in the past, dance performances jewellery that both ornamented their cos- the face with a transparent veil, while oth- continue to be an occasion for displaying tumes and provided tangible evidence of ers wear no veil at all. Dancers who also the attractions of the dancers to potential wealth. Once a sufficient dowry had been sing command a higher fee and their ca- p a t r o n s . ♦ amassed, they found no difficulty in finding reers may continue to an advanced age. a suitable marriage partner among their own people and raising a family. The best known troupe of Ouled Naïl dan- The fame of the Ouled Naïl reached a high cers and musicians is located at Bou Saada, point during the time of the French occupa- where occasional tourists may still visit. tion, when they attracted a large patronage Many performances begin with a proces- from among the military personnel. After sion led by the musicians. The exciting call Algeria’s independence, however, their of the g h a i t a (a folk oboe) and the women’s good fortune was not to last as demands high-pitched zaghareet (ululation) an- for their talents were once again limited to nounce to all that there will be a perfor- Some of the preceding material appears in Aisha Ali’s performances at weddings and festivals for mance, and the audience gathers. When contribution to the International Encyclopedia of a mainly local clientele. they arrive at the stage area, the dancers D a n c e (Oxford University Press), published in 1997 and musicians sit together on a platform as well as the booklet accompanying the ARAF while the soloists and groups take their (Associated Research Arabic Folklore) CD, Music of the turns. The men of the tribe also perform, Ouled Naïl. Female from the their repertoire including a rifle dance. Ouled Naïl tribe, When dancing, the men of the Ouled Naïl Frauen Des cover the lower part of their faces with a Aisha Ali is a dancer, choreographer, dance M o r g e n l a n d e s , portion of their head wraps in the manner researcher, and producer of dance documentaries. Z ü r i c h . of the Tuaregs. E-mail: [email protected]

M I S C E L L A N E O U S I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 General Issues 15

A i d JÉRÔME BELLION-JOURDAN Islamic Relief

The predominant conception of international aid re- mains anchored in a dualistic vision of the world: a ‘North’ considered wealthy and developed comes to the rescue of a poor and under-developed ‘South’. O r g a n i z a t i o n s : The ‘civilizing’ missions that justified 19t h- c e n t u r y imperialism were substituted by themes – such as ‘third world-ism’ and development aid – of the sec- ond half of the 20t h century. After the Biafra war, de- fence of fundamental human rights begins to justify Between ‘Islamism’ claims to the ‘right to intervene’ as practised by non- 1 governmental organizations, such as Doctors with- out Borders, setting the tone for what humanitarian action should be. and ‘Humanitarianism’

Despite its heterogeneity, the field of inter- The Afghan war as the lajnat al-zakat in Egypt) affiliated with ution of warm meals for the homeless in national aid seems to function according to The Afghan war incited numerous mobi- a mosque or an Islamic association. On their F r a n c e .5 the North-South principle, the North often lizations in the Muslim world, notably side, the Islamic relief organizations intend However, the displayed universality of aid being assimilated with the West and the amongst movements that advocate the es- to re-develop a z a k a t practice at the level of does not necessarily have the same signifi- Judeo-Christian tradition. However, it should tablishment of an Islamic society, such as the u m m a: by a form of transnationalization cance. Three explanatory types for this be noted that this vision of international hu- the Muslim Brotherhood or the Jama’at i-Is- of the z a k a t, they become intermediaries demonstrated universality can be retained. manitarian aid is incomplete: from the lami. In the mid-1980s, several relief organi- between donors and beneficiaries that are Within the Islamic relief organizations, the Sudan to Afghanistan, to Bosnia, Kosovo, or zations were created to come to the aid of culturally and geographically distant. Hence ‘d a ’ w a-ist’ attitude towards aid is always Chechnya, Islamic organizations have estab- the Afghans: in 1985, the Egyptian Union of organizations such as Islamic Relief or Mus- present: it justifies the universality of aid by lished emergency programmes and devel- Doctors created a humanitarian branch, the lim Aid instil a policy of fundraising to con- the universal ambition of Islam as a religion opment projects. Generally ignored in the Lajnat al-Ighatha al-Insaniya (Human Relief vince, for example, the practising Muslims destined for the whole of humanity. The numerous publications of international non- Agency); in 1986, the Organization for Social of France that it is legitimate to offer their principal of non-differentiation of beneficia- governmental organizations, the activities Reform in Kuwait created the Lajnat ad- z a k a t to an organization based in England ries is thus distorted in the sense that a dis- of these Islamic organizations also remain Da’wa al-Islamiya (Islamic Mission Agency) for projects in Sudan, Kosovo, or Pakistan. tinction amongst beneficiaries is in fact op- unanalysed in the abundant and irregular to collect funds for Afghanistan; and in erated between Muslims and the others, for literature devoted to Islamist mobilizations. 1987, Yusuf Islam (formerly Cat Stevens – Universality of aid whom there is hope of conversion. In cer- In the latter type of publications, the role of pop singer converted to Islam) took the lead Do only Muslim populations benefit from tain organizations, universality rejoins more charitable associations of Islamic reference of a collective of associations in England the aid of these organizations? The question the problematic of the notion of ‘third has at times been dealt with, but the em- and founded Muslim Aid. These organiza- is recurrent and points to the problem of world’: compassion for human misery marks phasis is placed on local associations that tions and others such as IIRO, the Islamic Re- the universality of aid. This principle is rec- most notably the workers who have been ‘in have taken charge of activities that the lief Agency (international network of the Su- ognized as fundamental in the field of con- the field’ and is sometimes accompanied by State does not fully assume (e.g. health care, danese organization IARA), and Human temporary international humanitarian ac- bitter criticism of the inequalities and the di- e d u c a t i o n ) . Concern International regrouped them- tion: each and every human being should vision of resources at the global level. An ex- selves in Peshawar as the Islamic Coordina- be aided unconditionally. The universality ample of this caricature was published in tion Council, in which also Kuwaiti and of aid reveals itself difficult to realize: the Tariq al-Kheir, information brief produced Saudi Red Cross associations take part.2 logic of preference and the conditioning of by Islamic Relief: an obese man struggling In order to analyse the development of aid have not disappeared from the field of on his stationary bicycle to try and lose these organizations, one must place value international humanitarian aid. Most Islamic weight, is shown in front of a television re- judgements aside and avoid the simple im- relief organizations do not conceal the fact port displaying an image of a rachitic plicit or explicit oppositions in which praise that they develop projects in which priority A f r i c a n .6 The demonstrated universality is is given to humanitarian aid and conde- is given to those that benefit Muslim popu- equally a question of marketing: just as their scension to Islamism: humanism / obscu- lations. This is based on three reasons: polit- Christian or secularized homologues, Islam- rantism, liberalism / holism, political disin- ical, pragmatic, and dogmatic. The political ic relief organizations do not escape the terest / interest. From all sides, the reality of reason has to do with the fact that the con- market logic of the international humanitar- the situation is obviously more complex, cerned organizations hold a worldview that ian scene. ♦ and the Islamic relief organizations do not identifies ‘Islamic causes’, from Bosnia or escape this complexity. It is a question of Kashmir to Palestine, where the victims are N o t e s looking at how they developed and en- Muslims and (it is often added) are victims 1 . This article is based on research conducted with Tariq al-Kheir, Of particular interest are organizations that tered the field of international humanitarian precisely b e c a u s e they are Muslims. This the framework of a PhD in political science at n°2, Summer develop activities at the trans-national level action. Would Islamic relief organizations be form of ‘martyrologie’ justifies an aid that t h e Institut d’Etudes Politiques in Paris, under 1995, p.7. and that are found in different zones in irreducibly different from their Christian or gives priority to the Muslim ‘brothers’. This t h e direction of Prof. Jean Leca. It is based on ‘ h umanitarian crisis’, and more generally, secular homologues? These organizations political dimension is supported by a prag- interviews held with the employees and w h e r e there are populations in need of as- constituted themselves in reaction to ‘West- matic one: it is often repeated, as in the management of Islamic relief organizations sistance. Thus, in Khartoum just as in Islam- ern’ hegemony in the field of humanitarian brochure of the International Islamic Relief i n France, the United Kingdom, Sudan, Egypt, abad and Sarajevo, one obviously finds of- action: for that reason, they claim specifici- Organization, that ‘more than 80% of the Bosnia, and Pakistan. fices of both Doctors without Borders and ty, a rooting in the Islamic tradition. But si- refugees and victims of war and disaster in 2 . Sometimes placed within the same category as the International Islamic Relief Organiza- multaneously, their insertion in the field of the world are Muslim’.3 Finally, the dogmat- Islamic relief NGOs, the Red Cross societies have tion (IIRO). Created in 1978 in Jeddah as a humanitarian action contributes to a refor- ic reason: according to certain interpreta- nonetheless a specific status in that they belong to branch of the Islamic World League, the mulation, even a re-interpretation, of this tions, the z a k a t should be collected and dis- the International Federation of Red Cross Societies IIRO is one of the many Islamic relief organi- tradition to be able to compose with the tributed within the Muslim community. and the Red Cross and are expected to obey the zations (al-ighatha al-islamiya) that have dominant norms. Also, to analyse the prac- These three dimensions seem to justify a principles of the movement founded by Henry come into existence since the late 70s. It tices of these organizations allows one to particularistic aid in which only members of Dunant in 1863: ‘humanity, impartiality, neutrality, was then that those Islamic organizations see how they combine various registers of the Muslim community may benefit. independence, voluntary service, unity, whose principle activity was oriented to- a c t i o n . Nevertheless, according to their brochures, u n i v e r s a l i t y . ’ wards teaching and the d a ’ w a (call to Islam) They look to inscribe their action in the the organizations’ intentions are to offer aid 3 . Brochure IIRO (in French). invested in the field of humanitarian aid so heritage of the Islamic tradition of charity. ‘according to purely humanitarian criteria 4 .I b i d . as to respond to two different situations. The emphasis is placed on the Qur’anic in- devoid of any ethnic, linguistic, or religious 5 . This universality of action implies developments On the one hand, there was the need to junctions or the texts of the h a d i t h, which d i s t i n c t i o n ’ .4 The idea of non-differentiation a t the level of interpretation of the usage of face up to the humanitarian consequences call upon Muslims to do charitable works: of beneficiaries of aid which characterizes t h e z a k a t. For certain organizations like Islamic of famines and the wars affecting the whether it be by the donning of z a k a t a n d modern humanitarian aid seems to have be- Relief, the solution consists in differentiating African continent. The Islamic African Relief the s a d a q a, or the q u r b a n i, donation for the come the norm for Islamic relief organiza- funds: the z a k a t funds are destined for Muslims Agency (IARA) was created for this reason in occasion of sacrificial festival. With the ex- tions. In fact, they do not exclude coming to and other funds are allocated to projects that aim 1981 in Khartoum as a humanitarian branch ception of several Muslim countries that the aid of non-Muslims. Intervening in at mixed populations. of the Organization of the Islamic Call have reintroduced an official system of zones where there are groups of various ori- 6 . Tariq al-Kheir (1995), Summer (2), p. 7. (Da’wa Islamiya) to come to the aid of the z a k a t collection (principally Pakistan and gins (e.g. refugee camps), the organizations Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in Sudan. Sudan), the practice of z a k a t is largely left to are more and more concerned with demon- On the other hand, it was also necessary to private initiatives. It is in this ‘empty space’ strating the universality of their actions: for Jérôme Bellion-Jourdan is a PhD candidate in face the consequences of the war in that different types of z a k a t-collecting insti- Islamic Relief, the beneficiaries are all those Political Science at the Institut d’Etudes Politiques, Afghanistan that broke out after the Soviet tutions have multiplied: from Islamic banks populations in need, whether it be for pro- Paris, France. invasion in 1979. to local z a k a t-collecting committees (such jects in Bosnia or in Africa, or for the distrib- E-mail: [email protected] 1 6 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Southeast Asia AHMAD F. YOUSIF Religious Life and

The Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam, located on the island of Borneo, has a small but diverse population. The majority of the population adheres to Islam, which is manifest at many levels of Brunei society. In- Institutions in Brunei deed, this monarchy is founded upon the teachings of Islam and the state supports the institutional de- Religious institutions and products, while the Brunei Meat Company and the Religious Teachers Training College velopment of the faith. A third of the population, o r g a n i z a t i o n s (BMC) maintains several branches in the (Maktab Perguruan Ugama). The Sultan Haji however, belongs to various non-Muslim faiths, with Religious institutions for both Muslims and country to sell halal meat to the public. Hassanal Bolkiah Tahfiz al-Qur’an Institute, lo- their own religious institutions and organizations, non-Muslims are scattered around the coun- There are, however, a number of non-halal cated in the heart of the capital of Brunei, op- particularly among the ethnic Chinese community. try. According to the Department of Mosque restaurants in the country that cater to non- erates under the Ministry of Education, and Affairs, there were 102 mosques and prayer- Muslims. In addition, most supermarkets have presently accommodates 105 male and 40 fe- The Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam has a halls as of 1999, including two major state a partitioned section for non-halal meat and male students. The Institute was established population of 323,600. Slightly over two- mosques, Masjid Omar Ali Saifuddien and food products. to produce Qur’anic prodigies who could fur- thirds of this number comprise ethnic Malays, Jame’ Asr Hassanal Bolkiah, both of which are ther their studies in academic institutions the majority of which are Sunni Muslims who considered major tourist attractions. There N o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l overseas, particularly Arab countries. follow the Shafici madhab. Other ethnic Malay are seven Christian churches, most of which o r g a n i z a t i o n s The Brunei College of Islamic Studies groups include, amongst others, the Muruts are Catholic. There are also three Chinese There are only a few non-governmental Is- (Ma’had) in Tutong and the Religious Teach- and Dusuns, most of whom practice animism temples and two small Indian temples. Al- lamic religious organizations in the country. ers Training College (Maktab Perguruan and shamanism – although a few have con- though the small Sikh community in Brunei These include the National Association of Ugama) operate under the auspices of the verted to Christianity and Islam. Ethnic Chi- (approximately 500 people) has no official re- Qur’anic Reciters and Memorizers (IQRA), Ministry of Religious Affairs. The Ma’had is an nese account for 15% of the population and ligious institutions, weekly services are held in which trains and assists members in reading Islamic secondary school which accommo- generally adhere to Buddhism, Taoism, Con- member’s homes. and memorizing the Qur’an, the New (Mus- dates approximately 500 students, who study fucianism, or to Christianity, a handful having The majority of Islamic organizations or lim) Converts Association and the Ikhwan al- for a duration of five years. The Maktab offers converted to Islam. departments in Brunei are established and Muslimeen, based in the district of Kuala Be- a three-year training programme for more The 1991 census indicated that 67% of the maintained by the government. The Min- lait. Of these groups, only the first two are than 400 students in an effort to qualify them population of Brunei Darussalam identified istry of Religious Affairs, established in 1986, genuinely active. to teach in religious schools around the coun- themselves as Muslims, 13% Buddhists, 10% is comprised of five different departments, In addition to the above organizations, Sufi try. At the tertiary level, the Sultan Haji Omar Christians, and the remaining 10% as ‘other’ namely, Mosque, Hajj, Islamic Studies, Islam- groups or tariqahs (mystical orders), particu- Ali Saifuddin Institute of Islamic Studies at the (including free-thinkers, Hindus, Sikhs, Bahais, ic Law, and Islamic Da’wah (propagation) larly al-Ahmadiyyah and al-Naqshabandiyyah University of Brunei Darussalam (UBD) pro- or undeclared.) Although Islam is the official C e n t r e . have also established themselves in the coun- vides three different areas of specialization – religion, religious minorities have the right to The Islamic Da’wah Centre is responsible try. Some of these tariqahs trace their roots di- Islamic Law, Theology and Propagation, and observe their religious values and traditions. for the propagation and expansion of Islam- rectly to the Middle East, while others entered Arabic Language. Presently, more than 300 In this regard, the Constitution of the State of ic teachings among both Muslims and non- Brunei via neighboring countries such as In- students are registered in its undergraduate Brunei (1959) holds that ‘the religion of the Muslims in Brunei. It also undertakes re- donesia and Malaysia. Many of these groups and postgraduate programmes. State shall be the Muslim religion, provided search and studies on Islam-related sub- engage in Mawlud Dhikir, a socio-religious A number of Christian-based schools, es- that all other religions may be practised in jects, publishes Islamic books, pamphlets, ceremony in which religious poems are read tablished during the colonial period, are still peace and harmony by the persons profess- and periodicals and networks with other and chanted. in operation today. Such schools include St. ing them in any part of the State.’ Muslim countries by exchanging informa- Non-governmental organizations are more George’s and St. Andrew’s in BSB, and St. Islamic values, traditions and ethics have tion and organizing conferences, seminars numerous amongst non-Muslim communi- Michel’s and St. Angela’s school in Seria. been incorporated and manifested within and meetings on various Islamic issues. The ties: more than 40 socio-religious and cultural There are eight Chinese schools in Brunei Brunei culture, society and politics. The con- Centre’s Publication Control and Censor Chinese associations have been established managed by the Chinese community, includ- cept of the MIB (Melayu Islam Beraja or Malay Unit censors books, periodicals, journals, in Brunei. These include dialect locality ing the well-known Chung Hwa Middle Muslim Monarchy) has been the cornerstone and newspapers which contradict Islamic groups, trade-occupational, cultural-recre- School in the country’s capital. It should be of the religio-political philosophy of Brunei, belief and teachings. ational, mutual help/benevolent, religious noted that non-Muslim students at St. which stresses the importance of maintaining In recent years, a number of Islamic eco- and community-wide associations. The pri- George’s, St. Andrew’s, and Chung Hwa, have the Malay race, language, culture and Muslim nomic institutions have been established in mary Christian association in Brunei is the recently been required to take a Kefahaman religion of the nation. Brunei, supervised by specialists in the Borneo Evangelical Society, which is an um- Islam (Islamic understanding) course, on a The significance of the MIB concept was af- sharia, Islamic economics and finance. brella organization operating on behalf of trial basis. firmed during the reign of Sultan Haji Omar Among these institutions are the Tabung Christians on the Island of Borneo (i.e. includ- Ali Saifuddien (1950-1967), when it became Amanah Islam Brunei (TAIB), an Islamic trust ing the East Malaysian states of Sabah and M e d i a officially recognized in the 1959 Brunei Con- fund founded in 1991, the Islamic Bank of Sarawak). In addition, there are two Indian-re- Islam is well represented in the local print stitution, and even more so upon Brunei’s de- Brunei (IBB) and Insurance Islam TAIB, both lated associations in Brunei. The oldest is the and electronic media. For example, Radio- claration of independence on 1 January 1984. of which were established in 1993. The IBB 50-year-old Hindu Welfare Board, which func- Television Brunei (RTB) devotes more than 20 On this occasion, Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah provides a variety of financial and commer- tions as a Hindu religious organization with hours a week to religious or religious-related asserted that Brunei Darussalam would be cial services and transactions such as a l - w a- approximately 3000 members. The second television programming. Religious input in- Omar Ali ‘forever a sovereign, democratic and inde- d i a h (savings deposit), and a l - m u d h a r a b a h major Indian organization is the 43-year-old cludes a short Qur’anic recitation to begin S a i f u d d i e n pendent Malay Muslim Monarchy [founded] (profit sharing), which function according to Indian Association, which is a social organiza- and close broadcasting every day, daily M o s q u e . upon the teaching of Islam according to Ahli sharia principles. Insurance Islam TAIB pro- tion for the Indian community and has 300 broadcasts of the Azan (call to prayer), cover- B r u n e i , al-Sunnah wa al-Jamaah and […] the princi- vides and facilitates different kinds of Islam- registered members. age of the weekly Friday khutbahs or religious D a r u s s a l a m . ple of liberty, trust and justice.’ ic insurance for individuals, families and sermons, congregational prayers, lectures groups, including coverage Religious education and forums, the annual Qur’an competition, for accidents that may take The 20th century witnessed the growth and Islamic entertainment shows and songs, and place during Hajj and development of Islamic religious education in Muslim festivals and celebrations. U m r a h . Brunei. In 1956, seven full-time Islamic The government also funds Nurul-Islam The government also es- schools were officially opened. Since then, (Light of Islam) radio station and the National tablished the Mulaut Abat- the number of religious schools has increased Radio Station (Rangkaian Nasional). Both sta- toir in August 1990, under to 115 (1999 figures). tions broadcast Qur’anic recitations, the call the auspices of the Agricul- Religious (ugama) classes are also taught in to prayer, Friday prayers, and other cere- ture Department. The Abat- the public schools. The majority of students monies and activities. toir provides slaughtering have four hours a week of Islamic studies at Islamic values, traditions and ethics contin- facilities to local farmers and the elementary level and three hours at the ue to be incorporated and manifested within butchers to enable them to secondary level. Under the ‘new system’, Brunei culture, society and politics in the slaughter their livestock ac- which is presently in operation in fifteen modern period. Although the government cording to the requirements schools in the country, Islamic instruction has has played a significant role in creating and of Islamic law. The Abattoir been increased to eight hours per week for el- developing Islamic religious, educational and also offers services for vari- ementary students and six at the secondary financial institutions, as well as supporting Is- ous Islamic rituals. Certif i c a- level. lamic programmes in the media, religious mi- tion by the Abattoir guar- Islamic education is also promoted in norities have maintained the right to observe antees that all meat prod- schools and colleges affiliated with the Min- their own religious values and traditions. ♦ ucts sold, bought, or istry of Religious Affairs where traditional Is- cooked, fulfil Islamic re- lamic subjects are taught in both Malay and quirements. Furthermore, Arabic. Some of the more renowned religious Ahmad F. Yousif is associate professor the newly established Ha- institutes in the country are the Sultan Haji i nt h e Department of Usuluddin at the University laqah Food store markets Hassanal Bolkiah Tahfiz al-Qur’an Institute, o f Brunei Darussalam. all kinds of halal meat the Brunei College of Islamic Studies (Ma’had) E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 17

South Asia ANNE-HÉLÈNE TROTTIER A Case of Grassroots

Ever since Islam came to Bengal in the 13t h c e n t u r y (and probably earlier, through individual Muslims’ interaction with local bearers of other traditions) it participated, via a merging of Sufi inputs with ver- Syncretic Sufism nacular strands of Vaisnavism (Vishnuism), tantrism and local folk cults, in a very rich blend of religious beliefs and practices in the lower strata of society. The Fakir, as a sub-section of the Bengali Ba- u l with a more or less defined Muslim identity, are at present The Fakir of Bengal the largest group in Bengal perpetuating this form of ‘Islamic syncretistic tradition’, to use Asim Roy’s active/interactive forms of syncretism that tic group, the K a rta- b h a ja- (in central Bengal). herent in Bengali syncretism? Bangladesh is p h r a s e .1 In the complex picture of present-day reli- depend not on the pre-eminence of a tran- The Ba- u l and Fakir remain the largest extant still a frontier land, from an Islamic, cultural, gious politics of East and West Bengal, and in the scendent divinity but on the latter’s merg- group at present, numbering perhaps sever- economic, and developmental point of context of Bangladesh as the second largest Muslim ing with, and thereby enriching, another al hundred thousand persons. view. As long as the spirit of La- l a n is alive, country in the world, these Fakir seem, somewhat pre-existing ordaining of the universe. In The Hindu Ba- u l and the Muslim Fakir share say the Fakir, there is much this countercul- paradoxically, to be both under threat and very this process it is the living saint as a human- the same tenets of an esoteric quest based ture can contribute. ♦ much alive as contributors to local spiritual and cul- and-divine person who is the crucial actor, on the intimate human-divine connection tural vitality at a grassroots level. crystallizing and catalyzing people’s aspira- within every human being, cultivated tions and beliefs in both the other-worldly through a philosophy and practices that In territorial Bengal (i.e. the area comprising and this-worldly dimensions of human life. emphasize the human body as locus and present-day Indian West Bengal and These saints were simultaneously spiritual means for finding the essence of God. The Bangladesh), folk religious syncretism has leaders, warlords and rulers for their con- path is taught in the traditional guru-disci- over the centuries produced a variety of stituencies, who would recognize allegiance ple relationship where the guru is like the cults and sects, amongst which the Ba-- u l only to them. figure of the above-mentioned Sufi saint, in emerged in the late 15t h century as a major Such local forms of Islamic syncretism whom the divine is accomplished, merged group strongly influenced by Caitanya Vais- flourished in rural Bengal, particularly in the with the human. nav devotion and (post?–) Buddhist s a h a j iya- eastern areas, until a new development ap- The Fakir call themselves Ba- u l. The Ba- u li n tantrism. After Caitanya, the next figure of peared on the scene of Bengali Islam a cou- a Hindu setting do not call themselves Fakir historic importance for the Ba-- u l was that of ple of centuries ago. Under British rule, but Vaisnav – it may be that the differentia- Lalan- Shah or Lalan- Fakir (?1774-?1890). there emerged amongst the elites of the In- tion is connected with the influence of the Whereas Caitanya belongs to a sectarian dian subcontinent a sense of religious iden- respective surrounding mainstream reli- Hindu movement that extends far beyond tity – both Hindu and Muslim. In the 19t h gions. At any rate, and significantly, it ap- Bengal and has its focal mythological an- century, the Muslim upper classes of Bengal, pears empirically that there is more syn- chorage outside Bengal (in Vrindavan and who had clung to an idealized and frozen cretism on the Fakir side than on the Ba- u l; Mathura), La- l a n is a product and proponent self-image of ethnic and Islamic purity con- the latter, in West Bengal at least, leaning of purely Bengali syncretism. His hagiogra- nected with their immigrant (Turkic, more towards a strongly Vaisnav type of de- phy and his teachings tell a story of merging Afghan) origins and deliberately discon- votion, while the Fakir of central territorial Hinduism and Islam into a universalistic reli- nected from the ethnic and religious reali- Bengal bring together the different strands. gion transcending the boundaries of any ties of the local populations, woke up to the As one Fakir of K u s h tia- told me: ‘There is single religion. As such, he is par excellence reality of their having somehow taken root Allah in every human being. Caitanya is the the Ba- u l figure that all present-day Ba- u l a n d in the land of Bengal and to the fact that the synthesis of Ra- dha- and Krisna, thereby there Fakir identify with, to a greater extent than people over which they ruled were dread- is Allah in Caitanya.’ with Caitanya. The K u s h t ia- district (now in fully un-Islamic by their Koranic criteria. Bangladesh) where he spent most of his life Vigorous efforts were launched by ortho- Continued syncretism? and where his tomb is located, is in the dox Muslim leaders to eradicate the impure There is still considerable interaction in heartland of territorial Bengal, and very vernacular from Bengali Islam. The conver- northern Bangladesh4 between the hetero- much a central point in the geographical sion to ‘pure’ Islam often went hand in hand dox Fakir and more mainstream imams, distribution of the Ba- u l. with laudable efforts at improving the social Sufis and m o l l a h s (figures of authority in the Before addressing Ba- u l/Fakir syncretism in and economic conditions of the lowest stra- mosque and the m a d r a s a). All-night de- the present religious configuration of the ta. In some places, open persecution hit the bates are held between leading proponents two Bengals, brief reference should be more heterodox groups, calling for total an- of the two approaches. Some orthodox made to the past development of Bengali Is- nihilation of all cults of a Ba- u lt y p e .3 Such re- Muslims are known to have substantial lamic syncretism. formist movements continued into the 20t h affinities with the heterodox tradition.5 I n century, and are still at work today. Fatwas the lower strata of the population, but also The development of Bengali specifically against the Ba- u l and Fakir are increasingly in the educated urban elite, Islamic syncretism documented in the literature. many people can be attracted to a charis- The spread of Islam in Bengal2 was largely matic Ba- u l guru, learn Ba- u l songs, and seek rural, village-based, and the result of the in- The current situation initiation. Thus the syncretic approach with- teraction of immigrant Sufis with local pre- What is the picture now, considering that in the context of an Islamic country still ex- Aryan and Hindu cults and yogic and tantric in Bangladesh the Muslim population has i s t s . N o t e s practices and beliefs. Such interaction con- grown to 90% of the total – the Hindu popu- However, the syncretic tendency, appar- 1 . Roy, A. (1983). The Islamic Syncretistic Tradition in tributed, as early as the 13t h- 1 4t h c e n t u r i e s , lation having dwindled due to emigration ently the ‘natural’ one of the children of the B e n g a l. Princeton: Princeton University Press. both to the development of local forms of and considering that in Indian Bengal, com- Bengali motherland, is not the only factor at 2 . See Roy, A. and also J.N.Sarkar (1972). Islam in what would later be termed ‘heterodox munal hostility is alive as elsewhere in hand: there is the continued reformist aspi- B e n g a l. Calcutta: Ratna Prakashan; Eaton, R. (1994). cults’ and ‘folk Islam’, and to the expansion northern India? More than ever, Ba- u l a n d ration of mainstream Islam. Many Ba- u l a n d The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760. of agriculture over a largely untouched ter- Fakir tradition-bearers invoke the anti-com- Fakir have been subjected to harassment Delhi: Oxford University Press. ritory of jungle, marshes and waterways. munal teachings of La- l a n, whose time was and persecution in recent decades and, at 3 . See S.N. J ha- (1997). Collected articles on Islam thus extended its presence as a reli- precisely that of growing reformist action in another level, there is the appropriation by persecutions in B a r t ika-. Calcutta. gion of the axe and plough, creating settle- Bengal encouraging in both communities a institutions of the vivid folklore surrounding 4 . I owe this information to Syed S a m-ı m, a Dhaka ments and producing something of a ‘civi- sense of religious identity fraught with po- the figure of La- l a n, increasingly taken over film-maker and a knowledgeable source on lizing’ effect. It was, however, far removed tential for conflict. La- l a n was a child and by cultural authorities as part of an official Ba- u l / F a k i r matters. I have witnessed similar from canonical Islam and far more a matter lover of his particular motherland, Bengal, Bangladeshi identity and heritage. The interaction in northwest Bengal. of saint cult. Bengali grassroots syncretism where the ‘little people’ had traditionally shrine of La- l a n at K u s h tia- is no longer in the 5 . Such as Mansur Ali of K u s h tia,- a mainstream was a case of assimilating a new form of di- been mutual integrators of creeds and rites hands of the Fakir wise men; La- l a n ’ s a n- erudite who hints at the heterodox Fakir approach vine force, or grace, into an already multi- rather than opponents on communalistic niversary festival is now officially organized in parts of his Secret Koran book, published form substratum and a case of this addition g r o u n d s . by the local authorities. The food, tradition- perhaps about 30 years ago. – Islam – not being intrinsically or transcen- Of the many syncretistic heterodox ally given free to Fakir and Ba- u l initiates, had dentally powerful, but one of its being rele- groups and movements of the past docu- to be paid for at the 1999 festival, a major Anne-Hélène Trottier was formerly a lecturer at the vant through the charisma of individual mented in 19t h and 20t h-century literature, breach of an age-old rule. The local govern- Medical Anthropology Department of The Bobigny leaders. The latter were the Sufi saints who many seem to have disappeared. Members ment has a construction plan underway for Medical School in Paris, France. She is now in India were living embodiments and mediators of of such groups have gone more or less un- a big cultural complex near the shrine. By thanks to a scholarship from the Indo-Canadian the new divine grace, and who did not claim derground under pressure and persecution, turning La- l a n into a ‘respectable’ part of Shastri Institute and is studying d h r u p a d a n d this to replace the older substratum as a so it is difficult to assess what remains alive. Bangladeshi heritage, will the political and working on her PhD thesis on ‘Woman and Women new religion. The case is thus not one of But La- l a n and Fakir presence is very much a religious powers-that-be succeed in steriliz- in the Fakir tradition’. straight conversion to Islam, but of reality alongside that of another universalis- ing this still lively force of counterculture in- E-mail: [email protected] 1 8 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Middle East MATTHIJS VAN DEN BOS Roots of modern

Theories of cultural stagnation and decline or of modernization’s devastation in the realm of Sufism c have not only figured in orientalist or social science repertoires. Conversing with contemporary Iranian S hi ite Sufism in Iran Sufis, one comes across a remarkable consensus: the Safawid rise to state power coincided with the the Sufi member of parliament Sheikh ol- well-to-do and influential affiliates, includ- eclipse of Sufism’s radiant sun in Iran, and it has Molk Owrang. ing the premier Q av¯a m o s - S alt. a n a. There never since regained its former brilliance. Whether In the S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ı order, the state con- are, moreover, several narratives of direct such views hold true in the history of ideas or at the text of nationalist modernization made its contacts between the S olt¯an. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıs a n d strictly literary level remains for specialists to decide. impact upon Sufi religiosity. Where formerly Reza Shah, which concerned one son However, various social and political transforma- the community of believers in general had S¯. a leh. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h ’ s sheikhs, Ayatollah cA b d o ll¯a h tions that have conditioned Iranian Sufism as it is been a target audience, Sufi leaders now H. a ' e r¯ı Mazanderani. Before his ascent to presently known, contradict the idea of Sufism’s specifically targeted the Iranian nation. In power, Reza Shah had been impressed in an stagnant and therefore negligible religiosity. order to support his claim for the encounter with H¯a ' e r¯ı, who predicted: ‘You S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıleadership, N¯u rca l¯ıˇs¯a h ( d . 1 9 1 8 ) , will be shah’, and added that the king-to-be for instance, ‘issued a proclamation […] in ought to treat the people right.5 which he called upon the nation to accept The present leader of the order, 1 c him as its head.’ His claim was challenged Ma ˇg-zu¯b a l¯ıˇs¯a h, recollected three reproach- by K e y va¯ nQ a z v¯ın¯ı(d.1938), who in 1926 de- es during the Reza Shah era: the parted from the Sufi path as it was predom- S olt¯an. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıs were accused of smoking inantly known in Iran.2 opium, of bribing judges, and Q a z v¯ın¯ı h a d While Q a z v¯ın¯ı witnessed the shah’s de- written that son S¯. a leh. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h pretended to c molition of the traditional clergy’s religious kingship. Ma ˇg-zu¯b a l¯ıˇs¯a h also recollected a institutions, it is unlikely to have eluded him visit by Reza Shah during which the king re- that ‘some audacious thinkers attempted to quested – to the background of these alle- reconcile […] intellectual modernism with a gations – the writing of an instruction from renewal of religion.’3 The sermons of the in- which it would become manifest what con- fluential ayatollah S a n g e laˇg¯ı ( 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 4 4 ) , stituted legitimate Sufi behaviour. The man- for instance, attracted many from the state uscript that resulted in 1939 was ‘S¯. a leh. ’ sA d- and societal elite. Central among his ideas vice’ (Pand-e S¯. a leh),. a booklet which more was the need for a more rigorous monothe- than any other established the ism that would do away with the belief in sa- S olt¯an. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıs as a legitimate religious cred intermediaries, i.e. the imams, and force in modern Iran. According to another their ‘intercession’ (sˇ e fa¯ 'a t ). The ‘emulation’ manifesto, the booklet became ‘a house- (t a q l¯ıd) of mogˇ t a h e ds ought to be replaced hold word amongst the religious of Iran.’ by everyman’s direct ‘interpretation’ The order’s respectable mission aimed at (egˇ t h ea¯ d) of the sacred sources. the broadest possible audience, as P a n d - e While S a n g e laˇg¯ı attacked S h ici t e t a q l¯ıd, S¯a leh. ‘makes clear for the ordinary man and Q a z v¯ın¯ı assaulted the traditional authority woman how to practice this moral and spiri- structure of master and disciple, and juxta- tual discipline [of Sufism], and so to enjoy posed the ‘formalist’ (r a s m¯ı) Sufism of Sufi the fruits of the spirit in daily life in this orders to ‘true’ (h. a q¯ıq¯ı) Sufism. At its core w o r l d . ’6 Pand-e S¯a leh. was recently observed N o t e s lay the idea that mysticism could be a mod- to be ‘a work filled with platitudes and hack- 1 . Miller, W. (1923). ‘S h ica h Mysticism (The Sufis of ern scientific enterprise. The 1930 version of neyed moral exhortations, the mystical con- G una- ba- d)’, The Moslem World, 13, p. 353. his Book of Mysticism (cE r fa¯ n - na¯ m e) used the tent of which is insignificant.’7 Whether or 2 . Gramlich, R. (1965). Die schiitischen Derwischorden measure of the modern age: the Gregorian not one accepts this qualification, there is Persiens. Erster Teil: Die Affiliationen. Wiesbaden: c a l e n d a r . indeed nothing in it that would put Franz Steiner, p. 68. Q a z v¯ın¯ı’ s Sufism was strongly con- S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıSufis up against the national, 3 . Richard, Y. (1988). ‘S h a r-ıcat Sangalajı:- A Reformist - demned by the S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ı s: ‘One cannot societal or stately order. When son Theologian of the Rida. Shah Period’. In A u t h o r i t y count this to be Islamic Sufism anymore, it S¯a leh. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h did call upon the state, it was in and Political Culture in S h ici s m, edited by S. was a new religion.’ They furthermore a bid for support of traditional crafts and in- Arjomand. Albany: State University of New York - P a n d - e .Sa leh. The long-term survival and modern devel- protested that ‘sometimes [Q a z v¯ın¯ı w a s ] dustries, a token of the (great) nation of Press, p. 159. 8 ------booklet, Tehran opment of Sufism in Iran has its foundation particularly interested in the Wahhabi reli- I r a n . 4 . Nas. e rca lı, Asadollah Golpa y ega nı (362/1983). - 1 3 6 5 / 1 9 8 6 in the N ecm a t o lla- h¯ı order’s 18t h - c e n t u r y gion’ and that ‘like the Sunnis, he did not R esa- l e - y e Gˇ avab- I y a. Tehran: H waˇ- g a, p.67. - ˘ (second edition), socio-political renaissance, after the fall of recognise “being divinely chosen” (nas. s). C o m m u n a l i s m 5 . I n t e r v i e w Maˇg_zu- bca lIˇsa- h, 04/19/97, cf. Owrang, t h - - - - written by Hajj the Safawids. In the 19 century, religiously and “authorisation” (eˇg¯a z e) as necessary National integration had been a cause of cA. ‘To s olt.a n - em o q t a d e r - e ı n mamlekat h wa hı ˘ S h e i k h influential Sufis found royal patronage in c o n d i t i o n s . ’4 In other words: in attacking all great concern for Kasravi, who had ‘focused ˇsh o d ’ in Sa- l -name-ye- Donya- , 22, p. 218; M o h a m m a d the courts of the late Qajar shahs. Sufi spiri- established S h ici t e bases of spiritual author- on the question of communalism in [his N ecm a t o lla- h-I, cA (1361/1982). Tı- q - eB o r a n d e. H a s a n tual authority was sometimes conceptual- ity, Q a z v¯ın¯ıwas a heretic unbeliever. treatise] S u f i g a r i’, and held Sufism, as a reli- Tehran: P aya- m, p. 80. S a l e hca l i s h a h . ized as a worldly realm, autonomous from Q a z v¯ın¯ı’ s challenge presents a distinctly gious sect, among the primary causes of na- 6 . Hazeghi, H. (1970). In A Muslim Commentary on royal or jurist power. These Iranian develop- modernist struggle: not only personal tional disintegration.9 But N¯urca l¯ıˇs¯a h h a d The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, S. ments were contemporaneous with increas- claims to spiritual authority were ques- promised ‘to remove all discord from the Tabandeh. London: Goulding, pp. viii, ix. ing repression of Sufis by reformist jurists tioned, but also the nature of authority it- nation in the space of two years’ (if only the 7 . Lewisohn, L. (1998). ‘An Introduction to the elsewhere in the 18t h and 19t h-century Is- self. In addition, his questioning of Sufi au- nation would recognize him as its spiritual History of Modern Persian Sufism, Part I: The lamic world. While Sufism in Turkey and thority had the nation-state as an organiz- l e a d e r ) .1 0 Son S¯a leh. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h had not verbally N icm a t u lla- h-ı Order: Persecution, Revival and Egypt suffered from 20t h-century modernist ing motif. He outlined a vision of ‘classes in countered Kasravi’s assault, but S¯a leh. ’ s n a- Schism’. Bulletin of the School for Oriental and regimes and subsequently declined, the society [that] are like organs in the body, tional advice (Pand-e S¯a leh). contradicted African Studies, 61 (3), p. 452. - - - - S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ı - N ecm a t o l la¯ h¯ıorder redefined [and] that must be present in the society to any potential challenge in Sufi authority 8 . Yadna m e - y e (1367/1988) S. a leh. . Tehran: its traditional, S h ici t e Sufi religiosity in the the extent that they are necessary, not too and developed the S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ı order in Ketabkhane-ye Amir Soleymani, p.141. face of 20t h-century modernity, and ex- much and not too little, otherwise [society] ways to make it seem idle. 9 . Abrahamian, E. (1973). ‘Kasravi: The Integrative p a n d e d . would become defective like the man with One finds traces of modern S h ici t e S u f i s m Nationalist of Iran.’ Middle Eastern Studies, 9 (3), four eyes and one hand, or four feet and one in the S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıorder, then, not only in pp. 282, 297. Sufism and the nation-state tooth’. Of the clergy, few were functional. If the conspicuously revolutionary innova- 1 0 . Miller (1923), p. 354. Nationalist modernization in the early there were many clergymen, there would be tions of Q a z v¯ın¯ı. It is also to be found in Pahlavi polity (1921-1941) has been associ- more corruption (cE r fa¯ n - na¯ m e, p. 313). Even N¯urca l¯ıˇs¯a h ’ s nation-wide appeal for spiritual I would like to express my gratitude to ated with the repression of Sufism as a com- less leniency was left over in his considera- recognition and national unity, and in the Dr Bernd Radtke for his comments on earlier ponent of anti-religious policy. However, tion of Sufism. In Q a z v¯ın¯ı’ s f u n c t i o n a l i s t streamlined religiosity which stories sur- versions of this article. there are also different accounts that defy mode of reasoning, the organ of traditional rounding Pand-e S¯. a leh. claim was commis- the alleged incongruity of religion and na- Sufism was not only un-Islamic, but nation- sioned by the (state’s) leader of the nation. Matthijs van den Bos is currently writing his PhD ------tionalist modernization. While the national- ally dysfunctional (p. 311). Thus, the S olt¯.a nca l¯ıˇs¯a h¯ıorder evolved from dissertation on the S o lt.a ncalıˇsa hı a n d S. af ıcalıˇsahı - ist historian Ahmad Kasravi proclaimed that being a powerful but localized f e r q e ( s e c t ) N ecm a t o lla- hı- orders at the Amsterdam School for all books of the Sufis had to be thrown into Admonitory advice into, to some outward extent at least, be- Social Science Research (University of Amsterdam), the fire, Sufism made its way into school- After N¯urca l¯ıˇs¯a h died in 1918, his son coming a subdued but nationally integrated and is an editor of Soera, tijdschrift over het books. The shah himself, Reza Shah, is re- S¯. a leh. ca l¯ıˇs¯a h (d.1966) assumed the order’s socio-religious organization. ♦ M i d d e n - O o s t e n. ported to have been closely associated with leadership. His position was enhanced by E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 19

South Asia YOGINDER SIKAND The Sufi Shrines

The more than a decade-old civil war in the disputed region of Jammu and Kashmir, which till today shows no sign of abating, has resulted in the death of an esti- mated 40,000 people. Inter-community relations, of Jammu which have historically been relatively cordial as com- pared to the rest of South Asia, have sharply deterio- Banihali writes that after the yogi overcame rated, and today a gulf of hostility and suspicion sepa- his initial opposition to the Pir, the two ‘de- rates Hindus and Muslims. However, despite this hard- veloped a great respect for each other’.7 ening of communal boundaries, at the popular level They decided to settle down together in many Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus in the Jammu the cave where Pir Mitha lived. This cave is province continue to share a common religious cul- known as Pir Khoh or the ‘Cave of the Pir’. ture, centred round the shrines (dargahs) of Sufi saints. According to one writer, ‘[t]his clearly shows that in God’s court there is no ques- Jammu is popularly known as the ‘City of tion of caste and creed’.8 Legend has it that Temples’, owing to its large number of the yogi entered the cave and travelled all Hindu shrines. However, Jammu is also the way to Matan in Kashmir, never to re- home to numerous Sufi d a r g a h s, which are turn. After he disappeared, his disciples important centres of pilgrimage, bringing came to the Pir and requested him to ac- together people of different castes and cept them as his followers. The Pir declined, communities. In this, these shrines play a saying that they should be faithful to their unique role, there being no other such guru. When this failed to satisfy them, the structures which perform a similar function. Pir said that they could, if they wanted, take In a society where caste and religious differ- his title of ‘Pir’ along with theirs. That is why ences are so marked, this role of the shrines the cave is today called as Pir Khoh and the is a particularly important one. For the Hin- heads of the Nath yogis who reside there dus and Sikhs who flock to the shrines, the are known as Pirs.9 buried Sufis are seen as powerful spiritual Pir Mitha died in 1476 CE and is buried in beings (d e v t a s) that can grant them their a locality in the heart of Jammu town wishes. For the Muslim devout, they are named after him. Like the other Sufi shrines considered to be intermediaries (w a s i l a h o r in Jammu town, Hindus vastly outnumber z a r i y a), who can plead with God on their Muslims at his d a r g a h. The majority of the behalf in times of need, to have their re- pilgrims belong to the k a s h p caste, a Hindu quests fulfilled. community traditionally considered ‘low’ in The following article deals, briefly, with the caste hierarchy. Some believe that the the principal Sufi d a r g a h s of Jammu town. k a s h p s are descendants of the early b h i s h t i It may be noted here that although these disciples of Pir Mitha. Although they are all are Muslim shrines, they are today, for the Hindus, they regard Pir Mitha as the guru of most part, frequented more by Hindus than their community. It is the custom for the by Muslims. Muslims form only a very small k a s h p s of Jammu to visit the d a r g a h e v e r y proportion of the population of Jammu morning after having a bath. All their auspi- town. In the 1947 Partition riots, Jammu cious ceremonies are conducted only after saw a large-scale slaughter of Muslims, with paying respects at the shrine. thousands killed and many more forced to flee to Pakistan. Jammu town was almost Baba Jiwan Shah completely depleted of its Muslim popula- Baba Jiwan Shah was born in 1852 at tion, and it was only from the 1950s on- Salehpur Chaprar in the Sialkot district of A f a q i r at a wards that small numbers of Muslims Punjab, to a Hussaini Sayyed family known Jammu Dargah, began settling here from other parts of the for its piety. At the age of 23, upon the ad- medicines in the s t a t e . vice of his preceptor, the Chishti Pir Sain b a c k g r o u n d . We now turn to a brief discussion of the Baqr cA l i Shah, he left his village, spending major Sufi d a r g a h s in Jammu town. 12 years in meditation and austerities at The d a r g a h of Pir Lakhdata is located in a Baba Budhan was born near Lahore in the Akhnoor on the banks of the river Chenab.1 0 Pir Raushan cA l i S h a h bazaar named after him in the heart of village of Talwandi, the birthplace of Guru He then went to Jammu town, where he The first major Sufi to come to the Jammu Jammu town. The life of Pir Lakhdata is Nanak. Tradition has it that he was a very took up residence in a graveyard, meditat- region was Pir Raushan cA l i Shah, whose shrouded in mystery. He is said to have been close friend of Guru Nanak, and the two ing inside the grave of the Sufi Sher Shah d a r g a h is located at Gumat, in Jammu town. a close associate of Guru Nanak, the first would often meet to discuss spiritual mat- Wali for 12 years. After this, he spent the rest Some believe him to have been one of the guru of the Sikhs. The cult of Pir Lakhdata is ters. The d a r g a h of the Baba is visited every of his life in the region around Jammu, Prophet’s companions (s a h a b i) ,1 but Kardar particularly popular among the agriculturist day by scores of people, mainly Hindus and preaching Islam and acquiring disciples.1 1 estimates his arrival to have been in the castes of Punjab and Rajasthan, both Hindu Sikhs. On Thursdays, several thousands His d a r g a h is found in Jammu town at a lo- 1 3t h century, before Timur’s invasion of as well as Muslim. This tradition is linked gather here, and at the cu r s, held on the first cality named after him.1 2 North India.2 He is said to have performed with the cult of Guga Pir, said to be a Rajput Thursday of the local month of Har, the Baba Jiwan Shah’s disciples came from all many miracles, by which the Raja was so chieftain who converted to Islam. In some crowds are enormous. backgrounds and included Hindus, Muslims, impressed that he became his devotee and versions of the account of Guga Pir’s life, he Sikhs and others. Notable among his follow- requested him to settle in his city. When the and Pir Lakhdata are presented as one and Pir Mitha ers were Maharaja Pratap Singh, ruler of Pir died, the Raja laid him to rest with full the same person. According to local tradi- Pir Mitha’s d a r g a h is located on a hillock Jammu and Kashmir (1885-1925) and his honours and had a grave of stone and mud tion, after his death, half of Guga Pir’s body on the banks of the river Tawi. According to brother Amar Singh. The king fixed a regular constructed for him. The grave is a simple, was taken by his Muslim followers and local tradition, he came to Jammu from Iran monthly stipend (w a z i f a) for him and would dome-less structure some 20 feet (9 g a z) buried according to Muslim rites, and to in 1462 CE during the reign of Raja Ajaeb often invite him to the royal palace. long, hence its name, Maqbara Naugazan. them he is known as Zahir Pir. The other half Dev. It so happened that one day the Raja’s Baba Jiwan Shah died on 25 December The saint is also remembered as Naugazi of his body was cremated by his Hindu fol- wife fell seriously ill.5 The Pir is said to have 1919. His cu r s is celebrated every year on Pir, apparently because he measured 9 g a z lowers, who revere him as Pir Lakhdata.3 cured the queen, as a result of which the this day. For the occasion, food is distrib- in height. Today, his d a r g a h is a major place Some writers hold that Pir Lakhdata never king and many of his subjects became his uted to the poor and the Holy Qur'an is re- of local pilgrimage. Both Hindus and Mus- actually came to Jammu and that the shrine disciples. An entire Hindu caste group, the cited. In addition, every Thursday several lims light little clay lamps and place them in that stands today at Lakhdata Bazar was ‘low’ caste b h i s h t i s (water-carriers), accept- hundred followers visit his d a r g a h, Hindus an alcove adjacent to the grave, in the hope later built in his name by some of his follow- ed him as their spiritual preceptor. Soon, outnumbering Muslims. The oil that burns of the Pir being able to help them. His cu r s, e r s .4 the Pir’s fame spread far and wide, and in the clay lamps there is taken as a special the festival commemorating his death, many began converting to Islam under his ointment to cure ailments. Many childless which attracts thousands of people from Baba Budhan cA l i S h a h influence. Because of this, the Pir was faced mothers come here to request the Baba to Jammu, Kashmir and Punjab, is held every Another noted Sufi whose shrine is locat- with stiff opposition from some Hindu plead with God for a son for them. D e c e m b e r . ed in Jammu and who is associated with priests. His most vehement opponent was Guru Nanak was the Qadri Baba Budhan cA l i Siddh Garib Nath, a Shaivite Gorakhnathi Panj Pir Pir Lakhdata Shah. His real name is said to have been yogi. However, as the story goes, the two At Ramnagar, in the outskirts of Jammu The name l a k h d a t a literally means ‘the Sayyed Shamsuddin, but he is known more soon became friends.6 town, is the shrine of the Panj Pirs, or ‘Five giver of hundreds of thousands’. It signifies popularly as Baba Budhan (‘The Old Baba’) The association between Pir Mitha and Pirs’. The Panj Pir cult is widespread all over this Pir’s status as a giver of Sufi wisdom. because he was blessed with a very long life. Siddh Garib Nath is particularly interesting. northern India and Pakistan. The composi-

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tion of the Panj Pirs varies from place to place. In some cases, it includes both Mus- lim as well as Hindu figures. The origins of the cult have been traced back to the Hindu cult of the five Pandava brothers, heroes of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, as well as the S h ica tradition of revering the five mem- bers of the a h l - u l - b a y t, the ‘holy family’ con- sisting of the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, her husband cA l i and their sons Hasan and Hussain. Little is known about the history of the Panj Pir shrine in Jammu. Legend has it that five brothers of a Muslim family spent many years there in meditation and austerities and then they all left to go their own ways.1 3 According to local tradition, one day the five Pirs appeared in a dream to the Mahara- ja and admonished him for sleeping with his feet pointing to their c h i l l a h, the placed they used to meditate. The next morning, the Maharaja ordered the spot to be exca- vated, and an umbrella and five kettledrums The Hinduized were found. Believing this to be a holy d a r g a h of a place, he ordered the construction of a d a r- S u f i saint at g a h t h e r e .1 4 He then appointed his royal C h a r m a l i y a l , charioteer, Alif Shah, and a Muslim woman, J a m m u . Khurshid Begum, as custodians of the shrine. The great popularity of the Panj Pir d a r- clay lamps that burn at the shrine and the all human beings. This is why, in particular, g a h, especially among the local Hindus, is ash of incense sticks. as the case of Pir Mitha’s d a r g a h s h o w s , believed to be a largely post-1947 phenom- The Panj Pir shrine in Jammu is particular- large numbers of ‘lower’ castes were attract- enon. It is said that following the Partition ly popular among the local Hindus. It is cus- ed to the Sufis, and in the process many of riots in which thousands of Muslims in tomary for drivers and travellers in buses, them embraced Islam. The remarkable egal- Jammu lost their lives and many more were cars and trucks who pass by the shrine to itarianism of the cults of the d a r g a h s is read- forced to flee to Pakistan, some Hindus at- stop there, bow their heads in respect and ily apparent in the case of the Jiwan Shah tempted to take over the shrine, claiming to offer token sums of money. Large crowds shrine, where a ‘low’ caste Chamar, regard- that it was actually a temple of the five Pan- gather here every Thursday. As at other d a r- ed as a saint, is buried alongside his spiritual davas. They went so far as to forcibly install g a h s at Jammu, they place little balls of preceptor. It is because of this great legacy a Shiva l i n g a1 5 on top of the grave-like struc- sugar (p r a s a d or t a b a r r u k) on the grave-like of the Sufis that, centuries after their deaths, ture inside the d a r g a h. Local legend has it structure, light incense-sticks, rub the oil they continue to play such an important that the next morning the people discov- from the clay lamps on their bodies and role in the lives of their followers, irrespec- ered that the l i n g a had cracked into pieces apply a small dot (b i n d i) on their foreheads tive of religion and caste. ♦ on its own. The Hindus took this as a sign with the soot from the lamps. They also that the shrine was actually a Muslim d a r g a h press the grave-like structure with their and so withdrew their claims. hands as if massaging the body of the Pir. At present, the d a r g a h is looked after by a From this description of the history of the Hindu Rajput, Kuldip Singh Charak. He is the major Sufis and Sufi shrines of Jammu, it ap- N o t e s husband of Shamim Akhtar, the daughter of pears that Sufism has played multiple social 1. Khatoon, Zohra (1990). Muslim Saints and Their Khurshid Begum, the first custodian of the roles in this region and is still a vibrant force S h r i n e s. Jammu: Jay Kay Book House, p. 2. s h r i n e .1 6 He took over this responsibility fol- and a deep-rooted part of people’s cultures 2. Kardar, Abdul Rabb (1996). The Way to Sufism. lowing Khurshid Begum’s death in 1986. and traditions. By far, the most important Translated by Umar Burney. New Delhi: S h o b a - i - Like a Muslim Pir, Kuldip Singh Charak also role of these shrines today is to bring people N a h r - o - I s h aca t, Anjuman-i-Minhaj-i-Rasul, p. 86. hands out t a w i z , or amulets, for cures to of different castes and communities togeth- 3. Khatoon, op.cit., pp. 8-10. those who come to him in need. These er in worship. Furthermore, as in much of 4. Banihali, Manshur (1997). ‘Suba-i-Jammu Ke Auliya amulets are made of what is called pir ka the rest of South Asia, in the Jammu area, Karam’. In Hamara Adab (Auliya no.4), edited by p a n c h r a t n a (‘the five jewels of the Pir’), con- too, many Sufis have played an important Muhammad Ahmad Andrabi. Srinagar: Jammu and sisting of marigold flowers placed on the role in the process of social reform, with Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, Pir Mitha d a r g a h, grave-like structure inside the shrine, a their message of ethical monotheism, love pp. 251-52. J a m m u . piece of white thread, soot and oil from the for all creatures of God and the equality of 5. Khatoon, op.cit., p. 19. 6. Kardar, op.cit., p. 88. 7. Banihali, op.cit., p. 236. 8. Nath, Surendra. Shiv Jambavant Gufa Rahasya Pir K h o h. Jammu, n.d., p. 10. 9. The present head of the Nathpanth monastery at Pir Khoh is Pir Shivnath. 10. Interview with Muhammad Aslam, custodian of the d a r g a h of Baba Jiwan Shah, Jammu, 2 December 1999. 11. Pandit Tilak Raj, Hazrat Baba Jiwan Shah ( H i n d i mss. in the possession of Muhammad Aslam, custodian of the d a r g a h of Baba Jiwan Shah). 12. Sharma, Vikas (1998). ‘Qutb-i-Zaman Hazrat Baba Jiwan Shah’. Y o j n a 2 (2-3), May-June, pp. 51-52. 13. Khatoon, op.cit., pp. 37-38. 14. Banihali, op.cit., p. 248. 15. A phallus-shaped stone, believed by Hindus to be the symbol of the god Shiva. PHOTO: Y. SIKAND 16. Interview with Kuldip Singh Charak, Jammu, 7 December 1999.

Yoginder Sikand is a post-doctoral research scholar associated with the Department of History, Royal Holloway, Egha, Surrey, UK. E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 21

Middle East ZIBA MIR-HOSSEINI Debating Gender

Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the re- introduction of s h a r ica law relating to gender and the family, women’s rights suffered a major setback. However, as the implementers of the law have faced with Ulema in Qom the social realities of women’s lives and aspirations, positive changes have gradually come about. Since Mohsen S aci d z a d e h. In April 1995, two others of this truth. One is by Ayatollah In the final chapter, I discuss the work of my the late 1980s there has been a growing debate in women activists I knew, the lawyer Mehran- Madani Tabrizi, a senior Qom cleric, the guide S aci d z a d e h, whose articles in Z a n a n Iranian books and journals between proponents of giz Kar and the publisher Shahla Lahiji, orga- other by Ayatollah Azari-Qomi, a govern- provided the impetus for my research. He different approaches to gender in Islam. During nized a meeting for me with him. I had just ment cleric who played an important role in calls his approach the ‘equality perspective’, 1995, a series of discussions were held with clerical finished a paper in which I analysed Z a n a n’ s the first decade of the Islamic Republic. Al- contending that it is found in the work of contributors to the debate in which clarification was legal articles, pointing out their novel ap- though I talked with both ayatollahs, my en- some eminent jurists, alongside the domi- sought for the jurisprudential bases for their ap- p r o a c h . We discussed my paper and gagement with their texts is limited to se- nant approach, which he calls the ‘inequali- proaches to gender issues. S aCi d z a d e h agreed with my analysis of his lecting passages for full translation, and ty perspective’. He sees his achievement to writings; we began a programme of collabo- paraphrasing and summarizing the rest: our be in articulating the ‘equality perspective’ Qom is the main centre of shici r e l i g i o u s rative research. He provided me with his un- views on gender and our understandings of coherently and shaping it to accord with learning and power in Iran. After the foun- published manuscripts to study and com- Islam were so different that there was little current realities. S aci d z a d e h was the only dation of the Islamic Republic, clerics were ment. He also introduced me to gender de- room for a constructive dialogue. cleric I could find who had radical ideas on charged with establishing the religious bates in Qom and facilitated my research gender and was willing to air them in public. basis of the new regime’s programme and t h e r e . He later became a victim of the struggle be- its social, economic and political order. Be- This was my first experience of the clerical tween modernists and traditionalists, which sides, they had to manage the difficult tran- way of life and thinking. The strict codes of took a new turn following the 1997 presi- sition from a standpoint of opposition to gender segregation and h e j a b that organize dential election that brought Mohammad one of power. As the regime has increasing- time and space meant that I spent most of Khatami in power. In June 1998, following ly faced the real contemporary issues of so- my time with women. S aci d z a d e h ’ s t e e n a g e the publication of an article in the liberal cial policy and practice, the religious schol- daughter, Zahra, was always present. In daily newspaper J a m ece h (now closed), in ars have had to make accommodations in Qom, I stayed in the house of a pious which he compared the gender views of re- many key areas of Islamic doctrine and law. preacher of modest means; his home was ligious traditionalists in Iran with those of One of the key areas has been that of gen- small, consisting of three connecting rooms the Taliban in Afghanistan, he was arrested. der relations, and the legal, social and polit- and a courtyard housing the washing and Five months later he was released; his crime ical rights and roles of women. The process toilet facilities. He had six children, one of was never announced, but he lost his cleri- of accommodation intensified after Ayatol- them a boy of eighteen, yet gender segre- cal position and is now forbidden to publish lah Khomeini’s death in 1989, and has been gation was so effectively maintained and his writings. accompanied by lively debates about the the space so innovatively divided by cur- The three parts are framed by an Introduc- ‘question of women’. tains that I never set eyes on this young man tion and a Conclusion, placing Iranian texts – nor he on me, as I was told. I also spent and debates in the context of religious poli- Defending or reconstructing long hours with the women of this family tics and approaches to gender in Islam. Each notions of gender and many others in Qom, many of whom part begins with a brief introduction to a I have been following these debates as an saw no contradiction between Islam and defining text on women, and each chapter anthropologist and a student of Islamic law. their rights as women, wholeheartedly be- builds on and adds a new dimension to the My aim is to understand the varying notions lieving in and drawing power from all the arguments presented in the preceding one. of gender that lie at the root of s h a rica f a m i- rules that I saw as limiting and oppressive to Chapters in the first two parts begin and ly rules, and how the custodians of the w o m e n . The four chapters in Part Two recount my end with narratives of my visits to Qom in s h a rica in Iran today – the shici clerics – at- discussions with the clerics of Payam-e Zan 1995 and 1997 and meetings with the au- tempt variously to perpetuate, modify, de- Traditionalists, neo- and their mentor Ayatollah S a n eci – known thors whose texts are discussed. These ac- construct and reconstruct these notions of traditionalists and modernists for his progressive views on women’s issues. counts are intended to draw attention to gender. At first, the main sources used were Between September and November 1995, Although they too staunchly defend the im- the taken-for-granted, shared meanings a number of books and journals, published and then in winter 1997, I met and inter- mutability of the gender model manifested that underlie life in Qom, the familiar rou- in Qom and Tehran, which clearly formed viewed a number of leading protagonists of in Islamic law, they admit the need for tines that inhabitants take as natural. By part of a public debate in which highly diver- gender debates in Qom, including the cleri- change in practice and seek new interpreta- narrating an ethnography of my personal gent perspectives were being aired. Two cal editors of Payam-e Zan. I also searched tions. They published transcripts of these engagement with a series of texts and their journals of particular interest and signifi- for books, pamphlets, and tape recordings discussions in their journal in 1996. I use authors, I aim to provoke other Muslim cance were found. Both were launched in of sermons that dealt with women and gen- them to shed light not only on the gender women to write more revealingly of their 1992, but they took radically different posi- der relations. I found three main perspec- debates but also on clerical modes of think- changing trajectories. We need to know tions. One, Payam-e Zan (Women’s Mes- tives: ‘traditionalists’ insisted on patriarchal ing and argumentation. Unlike Part One, more about these personal trajectories if we sage), based in Qom and run by male clerics, interpretations based on ‘complementarity’ where the authors of the texts and I could are to understand the relationship between defended the s h a rica and the gender in- but ‘inequality of rights and duties’ between only repeat our positions, here the clerics feminism and religious politics. ♦ equalities inherent in its legal rules. The women and men; ‘neo-traditionalists’ at- and I managed to engage critically with other, Z a n a n (Women), based in Tehran and tempted to introduced ‘balance’ into tradi- each others’ premises and arguments. run by women, argued for gender equality tional interpretations; and ‘modernists’ These four chapters are, in effect, co-au- on all fronts. sought a radical rethinking of the jurispru- t h o r e d . Z a n a n advocated a brand of feminism that dential construction of gender. The two chapters in Part Three concern takes Islam as source of legitimacy. Each In my book Gender and Islam: The Religious texts which represent a theoretical break issue had a legal section which examined Debates in Contemporary Iran ( P r i n c e t o n : from conventional legal wisdom, and my and discussed the restrictions placed on Princeton University Press, 1999: London, I. engagement with them goes further than women by s h a rica laws. From May 1992, the B. Tauris, 2000) I relate the three perspec- with those discussed earlier. One deals with tone and style of these legal articles began tives and place them in their social, cultural lectures by Abdolkarim Sorush, the most to change, slowly but surely taking issue and political contexts. I examine key pas- prominent among contemporary Islamic in- with the very premises on which the official sages in written and oral texts and narrate tellectuals in Iran. Although he is neither a shici discourse on the position of women is my discussions with the authors, presenting cleric nor an exponent of gender equality, I based, and laying bare their inherent gender them in an order that reflects the chrono- devote a chapter to his ideas for two main bias. These articles were unprecedented: logical development of the concepts and reasons. First, his approach to sacred texts first, they made no attempt to cover up or to conveys something of their context, while has not only enabled women in Z a n a n t o rationalize the gender inequalities embed- relating my engagement, as a Muslim place their demands within an Islamic ded in s h a rica law. Secondly, they had some- woman and a social anthropologist educat- framework, it has encouraged clerics for thing new to say, a thesis. There was consis- ed and working in the West, with shici M u s- whom gender has become a ‘problem’ to tency in the approach and the progression lim thinkers of various backgrounds and address it from within a legal framework. of the arguments. Each article built upon the v i e w s . Secondly, it is in response to the challenge premises and arguments established in earli- There are three parts to the book. The implicit in Sorush’s ideas that some clerics er ones. They were published under differ- structure and format of chapters in each have had to admit that their understanding ent male and female names, but it was evi- part differ, reflecting the nature and extent of the s h a rica is subject to change and that dent to me that they were written by a single of my engagement with the texts and their they must find new arguments, or else they person, someone well versed in the sacred authors. The two texts discussed in Part One must abandon the claim to rule in the name Dr Ziba Mir-Hosseini is research associate at the sources and in the sh ici art of argumentation. represent the viewpoint of clerics who see of s h a rica. Sorush’s ideas undermined the Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, SOAS, Before long I found out who the author the gender model in s h a rica law as im- very basis of their exclusive right to religious University of London, UK. was: a young cleric, Hojjat ol-Eslam Seyyed mutable and their mission to be to convince a u t h o r i t y . E-mail: [email protected] 2 2 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Middle East / North Africa SONJA HEGASY T r a n s f o r m a t i o n

In 1999 two young Arab kings succeeded their fa- thers to the throne: King Hussein of Jordan had reigned for 46 years and King Hassan of Morocco for 38 years, when their eldest sons, Abdullah and Mo- through Monarchy hammed (both born in the first half of the 60s) suc- ceeded them. The new kings have a European educa- tion and distinctly westernized behaviour. It is for this reason that many observers were expecting a le- gitimacy crisis. But thus far, the two monarchs seem in Morocco and Jordan to propose a different conception of political order which has gained widespread support: they are re- R e a l p o l i t i k. It was, without a doubt, a coura- ing. The Alawite dynasty that has ruled Mo- mired by Moroccan youth. ‘[They] regard him garded as the new heralds of Moroccan and Jordan- geous act when Mohammed VI ousted long- rocco since the 17t h century has relied on as a friend, a symbol of liberation and a ian youth. The support of the youth is one of the term Minister of Interior, Driss Basri, after 25 very flexible conceptions of order and legit- promise for a better future. During the first major challenges in societies where more than half of years. This event supports the hypothesis imacy, which partly explains their continu- weeks of his reign, and wherever his inaugur- the population is under 25 years of age. that the more humble behaviour of the ous and stable rule. The Makhzen’s (literally al campaign took him, the young king is heads of states and a new etiquette at the ‘storehouse’ – centre of power, state) strate- greeted with genuine and youthful enthusi- The new kings of Morocco and Jordan both royal palaces is not merely a masquerade or gy to counterbalance urban and tribal soci- asm. The Makhzen machinery, which organ- benefit on the national level from the inher- political tactics. Further research is neces- ety, Arab and Berber, and reformers and the ised the funeral of the late Hassan II, plays a ited royal legitimation, on the international sary, however, to analyse the effectiveness orthodoxy, has a long successful history in full role to present to the crowd, overcome level from the support of the Clinton-ad- of the changing images of Mohammed VI M o r o c c o . with cheers, a young man having great pres- ministration and on the personal level from and Abdullah II in order to assess their influ- The sacralization of the monarchy in the ence, smiling and gesturing benevolently to an effort to introduce a new concept of au- ence on the collective cultural identity. post-colonial constitution of 1962 (Art. 23) the warm welcome of the public.’ * thority. The rumour that King Abdullah One important historical study on Moroc- can be seen as one example of the (re-)con- Despite Yassine’s proposal to repatriate the went around the country in disguise talking co has been presented by Abdellah Ham- struction of religiously founded concep- royal family’s fortune in order to reduce Mo- to people in a government hospital or in the moudi, who has examined ‘the exact ways tions of political legitimacy in contemporary rocco’s foreign debt, poverty and the unem- bureaucracy in order to avoid being isolated in which these abstract principles of legiti- Morocco. The constitution, originally a secu- ployment rate – a proposal considered offen- from the complaints of the masses is not un- mation are vested with an emotional impact lar instrument, now establishes the sacred- sive by the king and therefore censured – Yas- substantiated. Mohammed VI is called by sufficient to foster action’ (Hammoudi 1997: ness of the person of the king – an idea sine in his letter does not suggest that Mo- teenagers ’M 6’ or ‘King of the Poor’. In 1987 2). The author looked at the ideological and completely alien to classical Islamic law. hammed VI is not to be trusted or that his mis- he received his diploma in political science cultural foundations of the persistent au- Hereditary monarchy is another concept sion has already failed. ‘In this beginning of from the University of Rabat. Six years later thoritarianism from an anthropological that is highly controversial among Muslim November 1999, the young king has won the he submitted his doctoral thesis at the Uni- point of view. From a political science ap- scholars. Even the ceremony of the b a yca first round in his glorious battle against “l’em- proach, new questions arise in order to ex- (oath of allegiance to the sultan/king) does pire du mal”. He has dismissed the central pil- plore whether and how the images of both not mean a return to Muslim traditions, but lar of the Makhzen. Hassan’s odd-job man. kings foster legitimacy among the youth. It is very much a backward production. Today Hassan’s right-hand man. Public enemy 2… needs to be assessed whether and how Mo- high officials from the Ministry of Interior In his speeches, the new king talks about a hammed VI can still be the sacred comman- and members of parliament are swearing al- “new concept of authority”. He has brilliantly der of the faithful and at the same time legiance – and the ulema as well. The com- proven that he intends to act accordingly. break through the authoritarian style of bination of traditional form with modern However, does he really intend to break off rule. The recent web chats among Moroc- content is supposed to constitute historical with the past? Can he do so? When is the cans that have appeared – with the continuity and therefore legitimacy. great revolution to take place?’ (Yassine: anonymity of the Internet – containing 1999) questions about the possibility that a de- A new challenge for Islamist The old generation of leaders in the Middle scendant of the Prophet be gay, show the opposition groups East chose to counter the growing tide of Is- sensitivity of this debate. Whereas their fathers had been proponents lamism with more and more public space for of an authoritarian cultural symbolism, their a paternalistic interpretation of what were Hassan II: the last king of young successors depict themselves as citi- deemed to be Muslim traditions and prac- divine right in Morocco? zens among citizens. The mosque of Hassan II tices. With the death of Hassan II, many ob- The relationship between the Moroccan in Casablanca is an architectural manifesta- servers doubted whether Mohammed VI king and his subjects is one of direct alle- tion of the former tradition-bound authority would acquire the spiritual authority as com- giance. The televised ceremony of alle- (see ISIM Newsletter 3/99). In Morocco, streets mander of the faithful and the theological au- giance, performed every year on March 3, and public buildings are either named after thority as highest religious scholar that would equals the submission of the whole popula- Hassan II or Mohammed V but never after or- guarantee him the support of the ulema. Now tion in one instant. The monarchy becomes dinary citizens. Mohammed VI is still consid- it seems that this might not even be his the one point of reference for the vast ma- ered to be a direct successor of the prophet in strongest asset against the Islamist opposi- jority of Moroccans. The opposition journal- the 36th generation. This line of legitimation is tion. It will be of interest for the whole Arab ist Hamid Berrada pointed out that when not being erased now, but is mixed with ele- world to see which notions of legitimacy and the people mourned the loss of their father ments of modern popular culture. type of power will be put forward in a society in July 1999 this was not a metaphor; they The young king’s new semiology repre- which is heavily struck by a crisis of religious had been literally turned into orphans. The sents a cultural re-evaluation in the Middle and political meaning. ♦ strength of the monarchy lies in its direct re- East. It is being debated whether the obvious ligious ties between the king-sultan-caliph metamorphosis of the holy will end in a posi- and the subject-believer-citizen. ‘[A]ttack- tion of the king comparable to the Spanish N o t e ing him would be both a crime and a sacri- monarch after Franco. Or is Mohammed VI * Yassine explained that he had originally written lege – inseparable notions in this logic – at just trying to secure the position of the crown the Memorandum in French in order to reach King versity of Nice on the cooperation between once a violation of divine law and the de- above the constitution by applying a modern Morocco’s westernized French-speaking elite who Mohammed VI the Maghreb and the European Union. sacralization of a figure of Islamic piety’, outlook? regard Arabic as a ‘”vernacular” language used of Morocco Meanwhile he accompanied Jacques Delors, notes Hammoudi (1997: 13). The identifica- In both cases, the new symbolism means a only to communicate with illiterate people.’ in his capacity as President of the European tion with the leader is not only based on di- different challenge for the Islamist opposition Commission, for eight months in order to vine authority and sharifian descent, but than the types of regime with which they R e f e r e n c e s learn EU diplomatic policy making. Contrary also derived from the anti-colonial stance of were formerly confronted. So far they had – Hammoudi, Abdellah (1997). Master and Disciple: to many comments after the death of his fa- the monarchy. Due to Moroccan colonial presented themselves as the ‘voice of the The Cultural Foundations of Moroccan ther, Mohammed VI was prepared to suc- history, identification with the regime is poor’. Faced with a choice, many young peo- Authoritarianism. C h i c a g o . ceed him but did not play an important much greater than in any other Arab coun- ple now prefer the cosmopolitan outlook of – Yassine, Abdessalam (1999): Unpublished public role within the court ceremony nor t r y . their young leader to the inward looking M e m o r a n d u m . had he voiced any political opinions prior. worldview of the Islamists who demand not What was formally known as the ‘reign of What constitutes legitimacy? to listen to music or to separate the sexes. h i b a’ (fear) is now being transplanted by a The point of departure here is the as- The importance and profundity of certain Dr Sonja Hegasy is a researcher working on the wave of trust. sumption that religious conceptions of actions can best be deciphered by the reac- project ‘Power and Continuity in a Muslim Monarchy’ order and legitimacy do not only have a tions they call forth: In November 1999, Ab- at the Centre for Modern Oriental Studies in Berlin. New values or better public dogmatic dimension but are also part of a dessalam Yassine, the leader of the most im- Her PhD on state and civil society in Morocco was r e l a t i o n s ? changing social praxis. Legitimacy is not un- portant Moroccan Islamist group al-cAdl wal- published by the Deutsche Orient-Institut in 1997. It is too early to evaluate the sustainability derstood as an inherent characteristic of Ihsan (Justice and Welfare) wrote a remark- E-mail: [email protected] of the introduction of new norms and values monarchical rule as such, but as the result of able letter addressing Mohammed VI. Yassine Homepage: and the direct influence of this discourse on a process of bargaining and counterbalanc- depicts the young monarch as highly ad- http://www2.hu-berlin.de/orient/index.htm I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 23

T u r k e y KRISZTINA KEHL-BODROGI The New Garments

In the past decade, Turkey’s official image as a coun- try of Sunni Muslims has been vigorously challenged by the ‘coming out’ of the Alevis, a large heterodox Islamic minority, which consists of approximately 15 of Alevism million Turkish- and Kurdish-speaking members. Until that time, due to the official definition of Secularization and Turkey as an ethnically and religiously homogenous p o l i t i c i z a t i o n nation, public expressions of deviating collective The manifold transformations of republi- identities had been banned by law. However, a shift can Turkey put an end to the spatial and so- in government policy in the early 1990s enabled the cial marginality of the Alevis. However, their Alevis to come to the fore and to inaugurate an gradual integration into the majority society ethno-political movement to achieve official ac- – migration to the towns, school attendance, knowledgement. state employment and the involvement in the national economy – led in the long run to The politicization of Alevi identity is accom- a secularization of the community. As a re- panied by a religious revivalism which – re- sult, the social-religious system collapsed garding the nature of traditional Alevism – and religion as a whole lost its previous im- appears to result in a re-construction of portance. This development reached its peak community structures, beliefs and rituals. in the 1970s, when the overwhelming major- ity of the Alevis devoted itself to leftist and Concealment and secrecy universal ideologies. In this period a whole Expelled by the larger society as heretics generation had grown up without being ini- and afflicted with the stigma of immorality, tiated into the secret doctrines and the Holy the Alevis practised for centuries t a q i y y a, the Men (d e d e) lost their function and authority. concealment of one’s own religious identity. The oral transmission of knowledge was in- They guarded their doctrines as mystery (s ı r) , terrupted and mostly fell into oblivion. One of the new erected houses of worship (c e m e v i), Ankara. not to be disclosed to anyone but those born into the community. The esoteric knowledge Back to the roots or toward about 2 hours (in contrast to the past, where Alevi beliefs and rituals: they stress elements was handed down orally in a number of holy a new Alevism? they went on the whole night). They are now which underline their position and neglect lineages (o c a k) – which claim descent from Local and global developments in the open to the public, not only because an ex- others. Some emphasize the Islamic features the Prophet – and passed on to the laymen 1980s – disintegration of the Left, Islamism clusion of non-Alevis would be politically un- while others bring the mystical elements to (t a l i p) in special initiation rites. Though a kind and the world-wide collapse of socialism – wise, but given the anonymity of urban life, it the fore. While the majority of the authors of hierarchy existed among the o c a k, none of led to a re-discovering of Alevism as a main could not be controlled anyway. Also, secre- declare Alevism as part of Islam, some define them exercised the role of a central religious source of collective identity, accompanied by cy would contradict the new self-image of it as a religion in its own right. Again others authority. This segmented organization a reawakened interest in its cultural and reli- the Alevis, which represents a universally divest Alevism of its religious dimension, along with the lack of a binding script fore- gious traditions. Manifold efforts have been valid and modern form of faith. In addition, defining it as a social movement, humanism stalled the development of a single and made to adapt Alevism – which is actually a the cem in the towns have lost their former or even atheism. Authors affected by Turkish uniquely valid religious tradition among the village phenomenon – to the conditions of function as a social regulative and control- or Kurdish nationalism interpret Alevism as A l e v i s . urbanity and modernity, the most significant ling trial and even as an instrument of reli- being based on Shamanism or on Zoroastri- Aside from strong Shi’i (and extreme-Shi’i) among them being the scripturalization of gious education. Thus they lack former indis- anism. Thus scripturalization has not yet re- influences, the Alevis preserved several non- the oral traditions, the abandonment of con- pensable elements such as initiation (i k r a r) sulted in fixed and unified doctrines. Islamic religious traditions. What brings them cealment and secrecy, and the transition of and the ritual of g ö r ü l m e, a kind of ‘trial’ in For different reasons, however, the lay au- into sharpest contrast with Islamic orthodoxy authority from the Holy Men to members of a w h i c h quarrels among the disciples were set- thors as well as the Holy Men avoid treating is the rejection of the shari’a. Rather, the Ale- new middle-class elite, who in majority be- tled and those who committed an offence some of the most heterodox elements in vis claim that as they possess the esoteric (ba- long to the traditional ‘laity’. They take over called to account. If they are carried out at all, public. Themes such as the deification of Ali, tini) meaning of the faith, they are exempt leading functions in the community-based they appear to be merely a symbol of be- incarnation or metempsychosis are equally from the observance of its external (zahiri) associations, which since 1990 have been es- longing. (In a case recently witnessed in Is- not touched in the cem held in public, which laws. The ‘hidden truth’ appears to be the tablished all over the country and carry out tanbul, more than 70 men were questioned are rather dominated by the Shi’i compo- doctrine of vahdet-i mevcut, which denies the manifold political activities in the name of and initiated within 4 hours.) Under such nents of the faith (although without paying separateness between Creator and creatures. Alevism. Under the motto ‘We have nothing conditions, the function of the Holy Men – a any reference to the shari’a). And there are The Alevis express this by saying that there is to hide’, educated members of this new elite part of them becoming active again – is limit- strong hints that certain essentials, today no man without God and no God without openly discuss beliefs and rituals of the com- ed to the observance of ceremonies which known only to some Holy Men and their man. An outstanding feature of Alevism is the munity in the print media, on TV, and in hun- consist of special prayers (gülbenk, dua) , close adherents, are still hidden. Alevism as veneration of the fourth caliph Ali, who, along dreds(!) of book publications.2 The renewed hymns (n e f e s), music, and ritual dance (s e m a) . it is presently offered to the public (Alevi with Allah and Mohammed, forms part of a interest in religion becomes apparent in the The Holy Men are no longer the only – and and non-Alevi), appears to be filtrated of trinity. Ali and Muhammad are regarded as rapidly growing number of houses of wor- not even the most important – transmitters most of its gnostic and extreme Shi’i ele- pre-existent, the former of the two often be- ship (cem evi), being erected in the towns. of knowledge. Often uneducated and unable ments. It is improbable that the esoteric lieved to be God himself. Further beliefs refer After an interruption of nearly 30 years, reli- (or reluctant) to speak on religious matters in teachings will completely disappear. Ale- to metempsychosis (tenasüh) and the incar- gious ceremonies (c e m) are observed again. a way accessible to the new urban genera- vism is more likely to become divided into nation of God in man (hulul). The Alevis fast The manner in which the cem are currently tion, they can hardly gain back their previous two parts: the one being a public religion, 12 days in Muharrem, in memory of the mur- carried out marks a gradual transition of Ale- authority. The post-Marxist generation does purified of its extreme elements and exer- der of Ali’s son al-Husain at Kerbala. In addi- vism into an open community of belief with not consider descent as a value in its own cised by the majority, the other being hid- tion, there exists a wide range of local beliefs more or less formalized forms of ritual. C e m right and demands scientifically trained and den from the masses and limited to a small- and customs in accordance to the various ceremonies are offered weekly by the wor- ‘ e n l i g h t e n e d ’ d e d e s . ‘Acquired’ knowledge is er number of initiated members. Thus Ale- sub-groups or a given region.1 ship houses as a religious service and last increasingly taking precedence over ‘inherit- vism could bring out a t a r i k a t from itself, ed’ knowledge and written sources over oral- analogue to Bektashism. ♦ ity. However, the demand for a textbook on Alevism with a clear explanation of its essen- tials is out of sight at the present. Competi- tions among the new community leaders and among the Holy Lineages, as well as ide- N o t e s ological divergences forestalled, until now, 1 . See, for a detailed description of Alevi history serious attempts to develop a coherent belief and religion, Kehl-Bodrogi, K. (1988). system out of the components of Alevi syn- Die K ı z ı l b as¸/ A l e v i t e n: Untersuchungen über eine cretism. In this situation the books of Alevi in- esoterische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Anatolien. tellectuals become the main source of infor- Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag. m a t i o n . 2 . For an analysis of the new Alevi group-literature, However, the more books are published see Vorhoff, K. (1995). Zwischen Glaube, Nation und the more confusion increases. Most of the au- neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der thors are ‘laymen’ and belong to the genera- Türkei der Gegenwart. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag. tion which had no access to the sacred Singing n e f e s knowledge. Their books are generally based Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi is assistant professor in a c e m on second-hand information and strongly re- a tt h e Department of Comparative Religion, in Istanbul flect ideological and political orientations. U n i v e r s i t y of Bremen, Germany. (February 2000). Thus the authors make a selective use of E-mail: [email protected] 2 4 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

T u r k e y IMAD F. SABI’ Islamic Associations

The two devastating earthquakes that hit Turkey last year, resulting in more than 17,000 deaths and caus- ing extensive material damage to the country’s in- dustrial heartland, triggered continuing debates in in the Politics of the which the state, state-society relations, and civil soci- ety are all being questioned. Particularly in the west- ern press, popular anger with the state’s slow and in- efficient response to the disaster was portrayed as having reached an unprecedented level, de-deifying Turkish Earthquakes the Turkish state which had historically commanded 7 unquestioned trust and fear. In contrast to a state de- (MGK). The measures included a stricter im- i n s t i t u t i o n s , and is a major financial contrib- lamic associations in particular. were target- picted as heavy, shackled and corruption-riddled, plementation of the Kemalist dress code, es- utor to Islamic associations, mirroring and ed. The bank funds of IH H and Mazlum-Der the western media and parts of the Turkish press cel- pecially for women students in institutions guiding their focus on social justice-oriented were confiscated, and those of HakYol V a k f ı ebrated the birth of a new and vibrant civil society in of higher education. grassroots work. blocked and minutely scrutinized. In Gölcük, Turkey. Responding much faster than the state to re- Particularly controversial were the state- In general, the diversity and sophistication Islamic NGOs were asked to cease their activ- lief needs, Turkish associations and foundations ments of Mehmet Kutlular (leader of the Nur of the Islamic associations parallels the rise ities and to physically leave the area. Islamic were hailed as the expression of a new civic con- Cemaati and owner of the Yeni Asya n e w s p a- of both Islamic business activity and the associations, however, show sophistication sciousness and as an emergent social force driving per) directly connecting the earthquake to electoral successes of political Islam at the and tenacity in dealing with state restric- for democratization. the February 28 meeting. According to national and local levels. They also benefit tions. Many employ a legal expert who newspapers, Kutlular said: ‘When Allah is de- from the proliferation of Islamic media. The ‘clears’ their documents of any problematic nied, the prophet questioned, and believers richness of this new Islamic associational ac- terms. They are also experienced in re-form- persecuted, the Quran says that such disas- tivity is also a manifestation of the weight ing themselves and camouflaging their ac- ters will follow. Quite naturally, Allah will accorded to the issue of ‘civil society’ by Is- tivities. Activists in the disaster area said that send disasters to those who do not believe lamic groups. The Welfare Party had first in- this is what they will continue to do and that in Him and are disrespectful of His laws.’1 I m- troduced the theme of a system of ‘multiple- they will stay as long as the humanitarian mediately, three separate state bodies legal orders’ as a promotion of an Islamic un- emergency situation deems. launched investigations. Bülent Ecevit, the derstanding of civil society against the mod- Prime Minister, described the statements as ern, totalitarian Turkish nation-state.8 T h e Concluding words ‘primitive thinking’ and ‘an ugly exploitation theme was subsequently taken up by the The two earthquakes in Turkey generated of religion’.2 Virtue Party, which formulated an agenda a significant collective questioning of the Distancing itself from the controversy, the for Quality Management in Politics.9 An im- state establishment and institutions. It also Virtue Party (in the person of Deputy leader portant component of the agenda is increased the visibility of a ‘civil society’ that Veysel Candan) stressed that the recovery strengthening Turkish civil society and es- has resources and potential, but is fragment- process should be the focus of discussion: ‘Is tablishing links between the party and ed, conflictual and often elitist. As civil soci- [the earthquake] a divine warning or not? I C S O s .1 0 Recognizing the significance of a ety activism came into public and state at- do not approach the issue from this angle. If broad human rights and legal reform agen- tention, the strength and sophistication of you do not put the required amounts of ce- da for the party’s own survival and uninter- Islamic voluntary associations also became Rescue workers Disasters are complex and dialectical social ment and reinforced concrete in buildings, rupted activity, the Virtue Party – even if out evident. The ‘cat and mouse’ game between recover a man phenomena. They are also political events some disaster will inevitably follow. We need of self-interest – has taken the issue of ‘civil the Turkish state (led by the army) and vari- from the and need to be recognized as such. Post-dis- to comprehensively assess where we erred society’ to heart. ous Islamic groups will no doubt continue, e a r t h q u a k e aster situations are usually marked by politi- and what mistakes were made in the con- Following the earthquake, Islamic associa- but the proliferation of diverse Islamic asso- debris in Duzce, cal manipulation of the disaster for short- struction and building-technology sectors’.3 tions formed special task forces and dis- ciations with strong grassroots linkages is a Turkey. term gains (either by the state, political par- The army saw in statements, such as those patched volunteers to the disaster area. Co- testimony to the embeddedness of political ties, or both), by struggles over the distribu- made by Kutlular, a direct attack on it and a ordination centres were established to chan- Islam and its multiple sources of power. It is tion of aid and the benefits of reconstruction smearing of its name. In September 1999, the nel information about needs and distribute also one expression of broader processes plans, and by local power contestations. MGK reacted against what it termed ‘reac- assistance to victims. In addition to handing within Turkey pressurizing the state to be- Inasmuch as a disaster uncovers pre-existing tionary forces’ seeking to exploit the earth- out relief assistance, Islamic NGOs set up come responsive, accountable, and to open economic, social and political structural mal- quake and warned them of immanent consti- communal kitchens and childcare centres, up democratic spaces. ♦ adies, it creates an arena for political strug- tutional and administrative measures.4 S u p- established fixed and mobile medical units, gle in which multiple actors are involved port for the army was supplied by Kemalist and provided tents – some of which had (e.g. Guatemala 1976, Mexico City 1985, and NGOs, led by the Association in Support of originally been bought for the Kosovo Alba- Cairo 1992). Contemporary Living (ÇYDD). Pointing out nians. A number of these NGOs had plans to Another aspect of disasters that is politicized that Islamists blame Turkey’s secularism for erect new tent-camps or prefabricated hous- N o t e s in certain contexts is how they are explained. the earthquake, ÇYDD’s director spoke of the ing sites. 1 . S t a r, 11-10-1999. Divine wrath is often invoked as the cause of imperative to ‘prevent Islamic sects and radi- The contribution of Islamic associations 2 . Z a m a n, 12-10-1999. an earthquake, flood, or hurricane. Voltaire’s cal groups that disguise themselves as civil can be summed up as follows: focused on re- 3 . C u m h u r i y e t, 12-10-1999. famous poem in response to the 1755 Lis- society organizations from hunting down lief and visible, but not dominating the post- 4 . Ibid. 1-10-1999. bon earthquake is part of a centuries-old our children in the reigning chaotic situa- quake non-governmental scene. Islamic as- 5 . Ibid. 21-9-1999. . polemic between religious and non-reli- t i o n . ’5 sociations were one of an array of Turkish 6 . M Ü SIA D is the Independent Association of gious explanations of causality. The rise of NGOs active in the disaster area. The earth- Industrialists and Businessmen, with a political Islam renders these polemics Islamic associations quake’s proximity to Istanbul, the magni- membership of more than 3,000 individual . deeply political as the post-earthquake situ- in the earthquake tude of the disaster, and extensive media companies. IS¸ H A D is the Solidarity Association for . ation in Turkey (and before it the Cairo earth- The past decade witnessed a significant in- coverage, had all brought forth unprece- Business Life (I¸sHayatı Dayani¸sma Derneg ˇ i) , quake of 1992) clearly show. crease in the number of registered Islamic dented civic activism and volunteerism. The associated with Fethullah Gülen’s Nurcu associations and foundations in Turkey. By rush of NGOs to the scene, together with movement, includes over 2000 businessmen and How to explain the earthquake? 1995, they accounted for 10.4% of the Istan- hundreds of individual volunteers, was nev- m e r c h a n t s . The earthquake as a manifestation of di- bul associations. In addition to the tradition- ertheless accompanied by factional compe- 7 . Yavuz, Hakan (1999). ‘Towards an Islamic vine wrath was a frequent depiction by the al associations engaged in building tition, most notably between the antithetical Liberalism? The Nurcu Movement and Fethullah Islamic media and Islamic figures. Necmettin mosques and teaching the Quran, a new Islamic and Kemalist associations. Islamic re- Gülen’. Middle East Journal 53 (4) pp. 584-605, at Erbakan, the historic leader of the Turkish Is- breed of Islamic associations providing di- lief was also criticized by a number of Turkish 5 8 5 . lamic movement, described it as ‘a warning verse social services spread, targeting poor NGOs for being partisan and discriminatory, 8 . See Gülalp, Haldun (1999). ‘Political Islam in signal’. In a clear reference to the meeting urban neighbourhoods in particular. The and deliberately oppositional to the state. Turkey: The Rise and Fall of the Refah Party’. . held at the Gölcük naval base on 28 February body of Islamic associations is large and di- M Ü SIA D complained of ‘bureaucratic hur- T h e Muslim World 89 (1), pp. 22-41. 1997, when the army issued an ultimatum verse in its composition. It includes women’s dles’ in the face of assistance delivery. In this 9 . Siyasette Toplam Kalite Yöntemi. for the immediate curtailing of Islamic ac- and human rights organizations, founda- it was reiterating what other Turkish NGOs 1 0 . See Recai Kutan’s speech to the Virtue Party’s .tivism, the thesis that Gölcük (rather than tions that engage in research on Islamic and and international aid agencies were experi- Consultative Council, 5 September 1998 (full text Iz m i t) was the epicentre of the earthquake Ottoman themes, and two prominent associ- encing. The state’s unease with criticisms of on: http://www.fp.org.tr/khamam-dm-acl.htm). was advanced. This had the clear political ations. of industrialists. and. businessmen its inefficiency and its discomfort with the meaning that the quake was divine retribu- (M Ü SIA D and IS¸ H A D) .6 M Ü SIA D in particular portrayal of civil society as a better alterna- tion against anti-Islamic measures decided is significant as the organizational expres- tive, led it to centralize all aid and relief oper- Imad F. Sabi’ is the Oscar Braun Memorial Research in that location. In that meeting, which ulti- sion of the Islamic business sector that ations in state organizations (measures that Fellow at the Institute of Social Studies in the Hague, mately led to the downfall of the Welfare boomed in the aftermath of post-1980 eco- were later eased). Restrictions – which were the Netherlands. He is currently researching the Party-led government, a list of measures nomic liberalization. It is now one of the uneven and discriminatory – were placed on post-earthquake social and political dynamics in against Islamists was drawn up to be pre- more important ‘new alternative spaces’ to the collection and distribution of aid by in- T u r k e y . sented to the National Security Council the hegemonic Kemalist state ideology and dependent and voluntary organizations. Is- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 25

C a u c a s u s VLADIMIR BOBROVNIKOV M y t h o l o g i z i n g

The discourse on re-enacting Islamic law in the post- Soviet North Caucasus uses key terms such as sharia courts, highland Muslim traditions, and Islamic in- surgency. What seems important here is to shed light Sharia Courts on these notions by answering such questions as: To what extent do these terms reflect the post-Soviet legal reality or diverge from it? What can be said of the sharia mythology shared by both adherents and opponents of re-Islamization in the North Caucasus? in the Post-Soviet What is the historical background of discourse on sharia courts? North Caucasus

Public debates on and attempts at introduc- Sharia and state-building that ‘judges brutality in the Chechen man- deportation of entire groups that took place ing Islamic law have become characteristic As soon as the first death sentence of the ner’ associated with public flogging, cutting under the Soviet rule. Moreover, the authors of post-Soviet Muslim and non-Muslim Supreme Sharia Court of Chechnya was off of hands, throwing stones, and therefore cited above completely ignored the fact that areas, and are especially vivid in the North given in Grozny in April 1997, vigorous de- quite unsuited for the modern law and soci- the criminal laws of the sharia were not ap- Caucasus. In recent years, the so-called bates on sharia began in the North Cau- ety. This view is shared by the top-level offi- plied in the pre-modern Caucasus. Histori- ‘sharia courts’ or mahakim shar’iya were es- casian and Moscow media. One can identify cials in the Russian Federal government such cally, highlanders settled criminal cases in tablished de facto by reopened mosques in two competing attitudes towards this issue. as K.M. Tsagolov, a deputy to a former minis- accordance with their customary laws or im- a number of villages and towns in Dagestan, The majority of Muslim clergy are in favour ter of nationalities of the Russian Federation, posed state legislation. Chechnya, Ingushetia, North Ossetia-Alania, of introducing Islamic law, regarded as the and the majority of the pro-Moscow Cau- Another myth typical of the discourse on Karachaevo-Cherkessia and Kabardino- tool of national liberation and social mod- casian authorities. They accuse adherents of sharia courts is the vision of Islamic law as a Balkaria. The majority of mosques are locat- ernization. They consider sharia as the the sharia courts of working for Chechen ter- natural antagonist of the Russian state. Par- ed in Northern Dagestan and Southern magic solution to the problem of growing rorists. Part of the Moscow mass media sid- ticipants of these debates argue that in the Chechnya. They settle small inheritance and criminality and social instability caused by ing with the Putin’s government propagated past sharia played a significant role in the criminal cases including divorce, theft, the collapse of Soviet rule. such a negative vision of ‘Shariatists’. As an- political resistance of the North Caucasian drinking alcoholic beverages, and the like. other minister of the Russian Federation, Ra- highlanders, first to the Russian conquest The decisions of these courts are final and mazan Abdulatipov, pointed in August 1999: and later to the Soviet reforms. From this, not subject to appeal. They usually impose The distinct flavour of this view was ‘Against a background of the war in Dages- they conclude that restored sharia courts both fixed sharia and non-Islamic penalties. captured by Seyyid-Muhammad tan and the aggravated situation in the must undermine Russian rule in the present Dagestani chairmen of village and district Abubakarov, the former Dagestani North Caucasus, an impression has been day Caucasus. This mythology has a long his- administrations often call upon local q a d i s Mufti, in an interview with ‘Izvestia’ just spread in Russia that every Muslim is an Is- tory, embedded in the colonial policy of late to settle family and land trials. before his assassination in August 1998: lamic extremist’. Imperial Russia, which considered Islamic Articles 212 and 235 of the Soviet criminal ’Do you remember the recent execution Paradoxically, both of these antagonistic law unfavourable. After the Caucasian war of code of the Russian Federation prohibiting of the death sentence imposed by the visions of sharia have a somewhat common the 19t h century, the possibility of Islamic the application of sharia norms regarding sharia court in Chechnya? And such core. The first striking thing is the almost uprisings haunted the mind of top-level marriage and inheritance practices were trouble and harrowing reminiscences total absence of knowledge of Islamic law state officials such as S.M. Dukhovsky, Gover- abolished in its new version passed in 1996. made of it? Even those who had agreed among the majority of adherents and oppo- nor-General of the Turkestan Province, or But sharia courts have not been legalized in with this sentence hesitated, their souls nents of re-enacting Islamic courts. In their K.P. Pobedonostsev, Procurator-General of post-Soviet Russia with the exception of having been disgusted. But let’s think of view sharia is reduced to some elementary the Saint Synod. This fear lead the state to re- Chechnya and Ingushetia. In December a quite another thing. The problem is norms of criminal and family law. No one can strict the use of sharia norms for the Russian 1997 the Ingush president Ruslan Aushev what we should do with those who deal distinguish the S h a f ici t e legal school, tradi- Muslims and to keep Muslim clergy of the enacted mediating judges who are to follow in kidnapping and trade the captured, tionally dominant on the territory of Dages- North Caucasus under tight control. In turn, ‘the a d a t (i.e. local customary law) and sharia turned into living goods, or with those tan, Chechnya and Ingushetia, from the Muslim political opposition arose at the end norms’ while settling criminal and civil who kill their victims and sell their Hanafi one prevailing among the other Cau- of the 19t h century, constantly reclaiming cases. Sharia norms relating to marriage cadavers. I consider sharia court as a casian and Russian Muslims. Due to such ig- the full application of the sharia law. (z a w a j) and feuding (q i s a s) were legalized in preventive measure against new norance, the Chechen authorities adopted This mythology had much influenced legal the republic in 1996-1999. The Chechen Re- murders, not as a pure cruelty. Today a the Sudanese sharia code based on the Ma- and social development of the North Cau- public of Ichkeria officially proclaimed itself criminal knows that his case will be likite m a d h h a b. The majority of participants casian Muslims in the 20t h century. First, it an independent Islamic State in 1996. The arranged, decided in his favour, that in the debates are unable to judge numer- led to the introduction of sharia courts after preamble of the Chechen Constitution was punishment is not inevitable. According ous deviations from the classic Islamic doc- the Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of amended such that it then read: ‘Quran and to sharia, his responsibility is full – thus it trine as they were attested in the work of re- the Russian empire. These courts were en- sharia are the principal source of legislation’. is a good preventive measure, isn’t it?’ enacted sharia courts in the last decade. acted by revolutionary decrees passed by In September 1996, acting president Ze- It is noteworthy that no Muslim judges or the First Congress of the Highland Peoples limkhan Yandarbiyev brought into force the even academic legal theoreticians specializ- of the Caucasus and that of the Terek peo- new criminal code copied from the 1983 It is amazing, that many Moscow journalists ing in Islamic law take part in this public de- ples held in 1917-1918. They worked under sharia criminal code of Sudan. The Supreme and academic scholars, quite unfamiliar with bate. Its participants are mainly journalists, different political rules including the early Sharia Court and corresponding district in- Islam, also support re-enacting the sharia politicians and academic scholars including Soviet one and were abolished only by 1925- stitutions were created. Public punishments law in the North Caucasus. They believe that political scientists, historians and anthropol- 1927. For the second time, the idea of ‘Islam- M u h a m m a d - with fixed penalties (h u d u d) were intro- it is the only means to maintain order and to ogists. The only exception is Prof. L.R. ic resurgence’ was realized in the North Cau- Sayyid Gaziev, duced for selling alcoholic beverages, illegal prevent Chechnya and neighbouring Cau- Syukiyaynen from the Institute of State and casus following the break-up of the Soviet q a d i a n d sexual intercourse and severe criminal of- casian republics from anarchy. As a former Law in Moscow. Syukiyaynen is Russia’s lead- Union. Sharia courts were introduced here chairman of fences like robbery and homicide. In reality, member of the Soviet Union Communist ing expert on Islamic law, although his opin- again. But the social and legal situation in sharia court, few death sentences and corporal punish- Party Central Committee and now political ion is uncommon and much more realistic. the region had completely changed. K h u s h t a d a ments sentenced by Chechen sharia courts scientist, A.S. Tsipko, put it: ‘Let’s take a While recognizing the great advantages of One should take into account that re-Is- village, Dagestan. have been applied to date. sober view of things. The sharia laws pro- sharia in resolving social problems and in re- lamization emerged in a context of, and in tecting the Chechens from self-degradation laxing local tensions in present-day North reaction to, the Soviet legacy. It presents a are much more progressive than other laws Caucasus, he argues that there has not yet specific modern answer to challenges origi- and culture (i.e. neo-liberal) stipulating self- been adequate application of Islamic law in nating from the collapse of the Soviet rule in destruction of the people’. This view is wide- this region. the Caucasus. Now the myth of sharia is em- spread among Moscow intellectuals. A jour- Myth-making about the sharia is charac- bodied in the post-Soviet flesh and is nalist, A. Fedin, expressed it as follows: ‘The teristic of both opposing sides of the debate. fraught with all its negative effects due to Chechen society is still mainly pre-state and The concepts of both are more or less di- the degradation of Islamic legal culture and traditional. It is based on the unwritten cus- vorced from reality. ‘Highland Muslim tradi- growing criminalization of power and soci- tomary law […] Public executions sentenced tionalism’ is seen as the key to the nature of ety in the region. ♦ by the sharia court appear to be the begin- the North Caucasian law and society. This ning of the state-building of Chechnya, notion does not take into account the radical which is to be an inevitably bloody affair’. social and legal changes that have been in- Dr Vladimir Bobrovnikov is a senior research fellow evitably caused by drastic state reforms in at the Institute for Oriental Studies and a teacher Opposing views this region for more than a century (from the of Arabic and anthropology at the Russian State There is also an opposite notion of sharia 1860s); the mass resettlement of Muslim University of Humanities in Moscow, Russia. as ’a barbarous remnant of the middle ages’ highlanders to the plain; and even forcible E-mail: [email protected] 2 6 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

The Balkans RAYMOND DETREZ Religion

In the Balkans, religion seems to have played a much more important role in the process of nation building than language. Speakers of Serbo-Croat fell apart in three national communities on the basis of religion. and Nationhood Thus emerged the Bosniak nation, which identifies it- self with Islam and clearly distinguishes itself from the Catholic Croats and the Orthodox Serbs. The es- tablishment of the national states in the Balkans was accompanied, from the beginning of the 19t h c e n t u- in the Balkans ry, by attempts to restore the pre-Ottoman Christian states. The population was ethnically homogenized ian nationhood in 1969 – under the clumsy The identification of national and religious jority: the Turks and the Kosovars, being nei- by expelling ethnic and religious minorities or by denomination ‘Muslims in the ethnic sense identity is the strongest with the Orthodox ther Slavs, Greeks, nor Orthodox Christians. forcibly assimilating them. In particular the Muslims of the word’ – resulted mainly from the nations in the Balkans – Bulgarians, Greeks, As Islam was introduced in the Balkans in the Balkans, and especially the Muslim Turks, fell need for a national community whose rep- Macedonians, and Serbs. This is the result of mainly as a result of the Ottoman conquest, victim to this policy. resentatives would balance Croat sepa- the Byzantine legacy of ‘national’ churches. there was no place for Albanian and Turkish ratism and Serb hegemonism at the level of Nation, state, religious community and ec- Muslims in the restored Christian Balkan It is generally assumed that in the Balkans, the federal government and of the govern- clesiastical organization are supposed to be states. As the double barrier of ethnic and religion – including Islam – rather than lan- ment of the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegov- congruent. The Bulgarian Constitution religious ‘otherness’ made it impossible to guage, plays a decisive role in the process of ina. This does not mean, however, that the states that Orthodox Christianity is the tra- reconstruct their national identity in a way nation building. The former Yugoslavia is a Bosnian nation was an artificial creation. ditional religion of the Bulgarian people; the to make them – albeit conceptually – disap- case in point. In the central part of the east- The Bosnians constituted already then a Greek Constitution is promulgated in the pear into the majority, more radical ways to ern Balkans, where the former Yugoslavia very distinct national community, defining name of the Holy Trinity. Consequently, eliminate them had to be resorted to. All in- was situated, a South Slavic language is spo- itself through Islam, just as Croats and Serbs non-orthodox minorities – Muslim Pomaks dependence wars in the Balkans (the Serb ken which used to be called Serbo-Croat or defined themselves through Catholicism and Turks, but also Catholics and Protes- Uprisings in 1804-30, the Greek War of Inde- Croato-Serb until recent times. In the 19t h and Orthodoxy respectively. In fact, the very tants – are considered, sometimes quite ex- pendence in 1821-30, and the Russian-Ot- century, the very similar dialects of Serbo- insistence of Croats and Serbs on religious plicitly, as ‘defective’ Bulgarians, Greeks or, toman War in 1877-8) were accompanied by Croat were standardized into one single lit- affiliation as a basic component of national for that matter, Macedonians and Serbs, and massacring and expelling not only the Ot- erary language, intended to demonstrate identity had largely contributed to prevent- as a threat to national unity and solidarity. toman officials and military, but also the the ‘oneness’ of the Yugoslav or South Slav- ing the Bosniaks from considering them- The identification of national and reli- Muslim Turkish population. During the First ic nation v i s - à - v i s its many enemies (Ger- selves Muslim Serbs or Croats, as both Serbs gious community has determined the atti- Balkan War in 1912, not only Turks but also mans, Hungarians, Turks). and Croats indefatigably attempted to tude of the Orthodox peoples in the Balkans Albanians fell victim. The ethnic cleansing of In the same period, however, within the make the Bosnians believe. How could a towards Islam in yet another way. In the 19t h Bosnians in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo community of speakers of Serbo-Croat, na- Muslim be a Serb, if being Orthodox is fun- century, urged by nationalism, the Balkan is a resumption of this ‘method’ of nation tional identities began developing on the damental to being Serb? Besides, just as peoples began their struggle for national in- building in the late 20t h c e n t u r y . basis of religion; or rather, national commu- Croats think of their nation as a part of West dependence against the Ottoman domina- Having lost most of its non-Turkish and nities emerged, coinciding greatly with reli- European civilization and Serbs have the tion, established at the end of the 14t h a n d non-Muslim populations, the late Ottoman gious communities. Catholics speaking sense of belonging to Slavic Orthodox East- during the 15t h century. Independence was Empire and the subsequent Turkish Repub- Serbo-Croat, living in the Habsburg Empire, ern Europe, the Bosnians consider their na- perceived by the leaders of the respective lic resorted to similar practices in order to identified themselves as Croats, whereas tion a full member of the large family of Is- independence movements as the restora- ultimately create a homogeneous Turkish the Orthodox speakers of Serbo-Croat, liv- lamic peoples with their own age-old and tion of the former mediaeval, pre-Ottoman state. The treatment of the Armenians, ing scattered over the Habsburg and the Ot- rich cultural traditions, which are an integral states. Since the mediaeval Balkan states re- Greeks and Kurds in Anatolia are the most toman Empires and in their own principality part of the Bosnian national identity. peatedly went through periods of imperial notorious of these measures. However, the of Serbia, considered themselves Serbs. The To be sure, in the Balkans, religion in gen- growth and feudal disintegration, the bor- identification of nationhood and religious development of a Bosnian national con- eral has little to do with devoutness. Forty ders were not very well defined. As a rule, affiliation is less apparent in the official sciousness among the Muslim speakers of years of communist rule dramatically re- every national community aimed at the re- Turkish (Kemalist) interpretation of national Serbo-Croat was slightly retarded, due to duced church and mosque attendance. The establishment of its respective mediaeval identity than it is in the Christian Balkan the Serbs’ and Croats’ attempts to incorpo- religious revival of the last decade is mainly state at its maximum size – which resulted c o u n t r i e s . ♦ rate them at least conceptually in their own the result of the people’s desire to express in legion territorial overlappings and border respective national communities as Serb or their belonging to an ethnic or national conflicts. In addition to the former size, the Croat Muslims, and to the fact that belong- community. As religion is the basic compo- Balkan peoples also wanted to restore the ing to the Muslim community traditionally nent of national identity, church and ethnic composition of the population of was far more important to the Bosnians mosque attendance appears to be a demon- their former states. As religion was one of than belonging to one or another national stration of national awareness. Of course, the main distinctive features of national community. The Yugoslav nationalists, en- the clergy (be it Catholic, Orthodox or Mus- identity, the former religious community deavouring to create a single Yugoslav na- lim) has seized the opportunity to strength- was to be restored as well. In contrast to his- tion, tended to minimize the religious differ- en its position in society and to acquire a torical evidence, the population of the ences among Bosnians, Croats and Serbs, as more or less official ‘national’ status. This Balkan mediaeval states was perceived by they thwarted the process of South Slavic may – and often does – threaten the secular the 19t h-century Balkan nationalists as eth- u n i f i c a t i o n . character of the state granted by the Consti- nically and religiously homogeneous. In the 20t h century, however, especially tution. It has, however, less to do with reli- Thus, in order to re-establish the mediae- after the establishment of the Kingdom of gious fanaticism than with nationalist fa- val situation, ethnic and religious minorities Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 (re- naticism. This goes for Bosnians, Croats and that came into being after the Ottoman con- named Yugoslavia in 1929), as a result of the Serbs alike. quest had to be eliminated. In some in- Serbs monopolizing political and military stances, the identity of these minorities was power in the new state, Croats started dis- National and religious ‘reconstructed’ in such a way that they tancing themselves from the idea of a sin- i d e n t i t y could be incorporated in and consequently gle, South Slavic nation and state and devel- The identification of national and reli- assimilated by the majority. The Greeks la- oped a national identity of their own, em- gious identity (in the sense of belonging to belled their Slavic co-religionists (about phasizing the particularities of the Croat a religious community) is the least articulat- 150,000 people) in Greek Macedonia as language and the Catholic faith as distinc- ed with the Bosnians. The same phenome- ‘Slavophone Greeks’ and have been treating tive features of the Croat nation v i s - à - v i s t h e non can be observed with the other Muslim them as ethnic Greeks ever since. The Turks Serbs. After an abortive and rather compro- communities in the Balkans. The Pomaks in Greece too are officially called ‘Greek mising attempt to establish an independent (Bulgarian Muslims) in the Rhodope moun- Muslims’. Calling them Turks is punishable. Croat state under Nazi protection during tains in Southern Bulgaria, in spite of their An attempt to ‘reconstruct’ the Bosnians as the Second World War, Croatia was re-inte- being linguistically related to the Bulgari- Islamicized Serbs or Croats failed. For the grated into Yugoslavia, which had become a ans, seem to associate more with the Turk- time being, Bulgarians have been more suc- communist federal state in 1944. The Croats ish minority in Bulgaria than with the major- cessful in preventing the Pomaks from de- finally achieved their aim in 1991, when the ity of Orthodox Bulgarians. Here, religion is veloping a separate Pomak national con- Republic of Croatia was internationally rec- apparently a stronger uniting factor than sciousness – though they have been help- o g n i z e d . language. In Greece too, the Pomak minori- ing them by explicitly identifying Bulgarian- ty is steadily absorbed by the Greek Turks, hood and orthodoxy. Bosnian nationhood notwithstanding the attempts of the Greek The main victims of the Balkan Christians’ In post-war Yugoslavia, the formation of a authorities to impose upon them a Pomak endeavours to restore their mediaeval Raymond Detrez is professor of Southeast European Bosnian national consciousness was finally consciousness, separate from the Turkish states are those communities that differ History at the University of Ghent, Belgium. completed. The official recognition of Bosn- (and Bulgarian). both ethnically and religiously from the ma- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 27

Western Europe WERNER SCHIFFAUER The End of

Against Metin Kaplan, self-proclaimed head of the Caliphate State, proceedings were taken up by the Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf in February 2000. The ‘emir of the believers and caliph of Muslims’ had t h e Caliphate State? been charged with incitement for the murder of his opponent Halil Ibrahim Sofu in Berlin in 1997, and with running a criminal organization. The process may very well mark the end of most radical Islamic group which has developed in the German diaspora The Metin of Turkish migrants.

The community was founded by Metin Ka- plan‘s father, Cemaleddin, in the early 80s as a breakaway from the National View – the K a p l a n C a s e European branch of the National Salvation Party in Turkey. In 1983-84, the leadership of ther grows or declines at an exponential step, the differences to the other Islamic caliphate under Ibrahim Sofu was pro- the former National Salvation Party split on rate. The secession of Polat, therefore, could communities in Europe became irreconcil- claimed in Berlin. Both caliphs issued dia- the issue of whether the party should be re- have meant the end of the community. In a b l e . tribes, brandishing each other as d e c c a l. In established after the coup d‘état of 1980. All order to cope with this crucial situation, Ka- summer 1996, Metin issued a fatwa con- parties had been outlawed but now new na- plan re-organized the hitherto rather open Kaplan as caliph demning the counter-caliph to death. In tional elections were scheduled. When Er- movement into a closed sect. The radicalization of the movement went May 1997 Ibrahim was actually killed by a bakan and the party establishment opted An issue of crucial importance was the re- along with a dramatic change in the social death squad in his apartment in Berlin. Al- for the foundation of a successor party (the lation of the movement to the Islamic Re- composition of the community. The first fol- though – of course – Metin was under suspi- Refah (Welfare) Party), a revolutionary wing public of Iran. In the early 80s, the Sunni- lowers of Kaplan had been autodidacts of cion, nothing could be proven. There is the headed by Kaplan separated. For them the Shia split seemed to be a matter of the past the first generation, men who had little or suspicion that the murder was committed history of the coup d‘état had demonstrated for many Muslims who were enthusiastic no formal education, who had taught them- by volunteers who had served as mercenar- the limitations of a parliamentary way to an about the possibilities of Islamic revolu- selves to read and write, and who had dis- ies in Kosovo and in Afghanistan and had Islamic rule. As soon as an Islamic party be- tions. However, the Iranian revolution re- covered Islam on their own terms. They had learned to kill in these wars. In October came strong enough to form the govern- mained a singular event (and became stuck found in Kaplan a figure that expressed their 1998, Turkish authorities claimed (in what ment and to introduce serious reforms, it in the dirty war with Iraq). The hopes for scepticism towards the wider society. They looked very much like a set-up by the Turk- would be suppressed. Kaplan‘s teaching can other revolutions waned. Parallel to disillu- associated Kaplan’s programme with the ish Secret Service) that the police had pre- be summed up under three headings: (1) sionment, the old resentments against Shi- hope for the restoration of the unity of Islam vented an attack on the A n ı t k a b i r (the mau- Following Sayid Qutb, he proclaimed a revo- ites re-surfaced again. After Polat had de- – an issue of central importance to them. soleum of Atatürk) during the festivities cel- lutionary situation: Turkey was in a state of fended his secession with a criticism of Ka- Most of these men left Kaplan when he be- ebrating the 75t h anniversary of the revolu- barbarity, analogous to the period of plan‘s pro-Iranian stance, Kaplan saw him- came more sectarian. They realized quite t i o n . c a h i l i y e t in pre-Muslim Mecca. In this situa- self forced to redefine his position. He now clearly that any claims to the caliphate were In 1999, Metin Kaplan was arrested, tion, no compromises with the system were began to insist on the basic dogmatic differ- unacceptable to the other Islamic commu- though the charges against him seem to possible. (2) The revolution could be ences between Sunna and Shia. This dog- nities and would therefore deepen the fric- stand on rather shaky grounds. The state at- achieved by building up an extra-institu- matic clarification had practical conse- tions rather than help to overcome them. torney admitted during the first day of the tional grassroots movement by means of quences. Kaplan stopped the practices of a However, younger migrants of the second trial that a direct link to the murder of t e b ligˇ (preaching with words and practice): group of enthusiastic believers, who had generation took their place – among them a Ibrahim Sofu cannot be established. A con- On the sole basis of the Koran, the disas- sworn an oath of allegiance to Khomeini considerable number of academics and viction seems doubtful. But even if the trial trous frictions between Muslim communi- and had also insisted on putting up Khome- high school students. These students intro- is inconclusive, it is increasingly placing po- ties worldwide could be overcome, a mass ini posters in mosques. Dogmatic clarifica- duced new practices into the community. litical pressure on the movement and might movement would be established and the tion thus implied centralization, i.e. a They set up groups for learning Arabic, very well mean its end. ♦ unity of the ü m m e t could be restored. (3) stronger control of the local mosques. In studying Islamic law, learning about the life Revolutionary pan-Islamism: The reunifica- order to be able to control the mosques of the Prophet, and so on. In short, they de- tion of Islam has to start from below with a which were spread all over Europe, Kaplan veloped a rather academic approach to coalition/cooperation of all revolutionary Is- began to control personally the appoint- Islam, using the intellectual tools they had lamic groups (including the Islamic Republic ment of persons in charge (preachers and acquired in German institutions of higher of Iran). The final aim would be the re-estab- heads of mosques). The autonomy the education. They stressed truth more than lishment of the caliphate. The new revolu- mosques had enjoyed in the early phase of unity and therefore had fewer problems tionary community set up by Kaplan called the movement thus came to an end. The with the increasingly sectarian nature of the itself ‘Union of .the Islamic Communes and drastic changes led to conflicts in the com- community. Kaplan‘s success with regard to Communities’ (Is â m î Cemaatleri ve Cemiyet- munity and to the divorce from dissenting the recruitment of new members stabilized leri B i r ligˇ i) . members. Kaplan interpreted this process and reinvigorated the community. The The movement had a good start. Many as one of purification. He thus implied that number of members, which had dropped sympathizers of the National View in Europe the loss of numerical strength was more from approximately 12,000 in 1985 to 1300 were weary of the compromises made by than compensated by an increase in spiritu- in 1992, has remained stable ever since. the party establishment. Typical slogans al strength: While the fearsome and weak The years 1992-1994 saw further develop- were those such as: ‘Does Islam exist for the parted, the strong and courageous re- ments toward an elitist cadre party which party or does the party exist for Islam?’ In mained. A further aspect of this process was increasingly viewed itself as the spearhead many of the mosques established by the Na- an increased drawing of boundaries. The at- of the Islamic revolution. In 1994, Kaplan fi- tional View, the Revolutionary wing found a tendance of mosque services and prayers nally declared himself Caliph-proper. This majority and took over the mosque. also by members of other communities rather presumptuous step was justified with which had been the practice during the first the notion of a historical turning point. After A religious military order years ceased and only members of the Ka- centuries of the decline of Islam, only a It soon became evident, however, that the plan community proper now frequented small but powerful elite was left (all other movement was not able to keep up the mo- the mosque. A more or less exclusive in- Muslims being trapped in compromises mentum it had in the beginning. It re- group thus evolved within which increas- with the world). Under the leadership of the mained restricted to the Turkish diaspora ingly non-conformist positions were devel- new Caliph, a r e c o n q u i s t a would commence. communities in Europe. But even there it oped, emphasizing the differences to other Sceptics were reminded of the small num- did not appeal in a significant way to Mus- Islamic communities. ber of believers Muhammed commanded in Fieldwork was conducted among the Kaplan lims who were not members of the National Ideologically all this was reflected in the the battle of Badr. This construction is char- community in Germany between 1985 and 1993 View (like member of the S ü l e y m a n c ı o r transformation of the movement’s self-per- acteristic of the hermetic logic that had de- w i t h funding provided by the Deutsche Nurcu communities). In 1985, the Kaplan ception: the Kaplan community no longer veloped in the sect during the first half of F o r s c h u n g s g e m e i n s c h a f t . movement stagnated and in 1986 an ero- conceived itself as a movement open to all the 90s. Although internally coherent, it sion process began. This process culminat- but rather as a closed religious military could no longer communicated to members Professor Werner Schiffauer holds the chair of ed when Ahmed Polat, one of the founding order. The steps for becoming initiated of other Islamic communities. Comparative Social and Cultural Anthropology at members, left the movement together with were centered around the institutions: In 1995, on his deathbed, Cemaleddin Ka- the European University Viadrina in Frankfurt/Oder, a considerable number of followers in 1987. school (m e d r e s e), mystical convent (t e k k e) plan appointed his son Metin as successor Germany. He is the author of the recently published An erosion process is particularly problem- and barracks (k ı¸sl a k). The sectarian process to the Caliphate. Metin, who did not have m o n o g r a p h : Die Gottesmänner. Türkische atic for a charismatic movement in which culminated in Kaplan declaring himself the charisma of his father, faced consider- Islamisten in Deutschland. Eine Studie in religiöser fascination born out of success is of existen- locum tenens of the caliph in 1992. He also able problems in the community. In early Evidenz. Frankfrut am Main: Suhrkamp, 2000. tial importance. A charismatic movement ei- proclaimed a government in exile. With this 1996, the movement split and a counter E-mail: [email protected] 2 8 Regional Issues I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

North America MICHAEL W. SULEIMAN The Arab Community in

Arabs have been emigrating to North America for over a century, and they now number approximately three million. For most of this period of emigration, the overwhelming majority of Arab immigrants to North America America were Christian. However, large numbers of Muslim Arabs (and other Muslims) have settled in the ‘settlers’ or return to their former home- arrivals, however, choose ethnic isolation. know whether the perpetrator is indeed New World, especially since World War II. Almost lands. It had become increasingly difficult They are unwilling to change themselves, Arab or Muslim. In the case of positive role from the beginning, the Arab community in North for them to function as temporary aliens. and do not believe they can change the host models, however, such as Michael DeBakey America suffered from negative attitudes directed After World War I, it became clear to large s o c i e t y . or Ralph Nader, the media rarely, if ever, against it by the host society. An important ingredi- numbers of Arabs in North America that it Among those who want full integration or mention that these individuals are of Arab ent in negative stereotypes of Arabs is the general was not possible to go ‘home’ again and assimilation into American society, especial- background. In part, the reason is that, be- American impression that Arabs and Muslims are es- that, in fact, the United States and Canada ly middle-class Arab Americans, many em- cause of racism, many find it necessary to sentially the same people. Indeed, to Americans, the were their homes. This change from so- phasize the strong cultural link between hide their origins. Every now and then, lists term ‘Arab’ or ‘Muslim’ conjures up hostile reactions journer to permanent settler necessitated, Arabs and Americans. For most, accommo- of prominent Arab Americans are published to a large group of nations or countries (e.g. Arabs, and was accompanied by, other changes, dation is the easiest and most comfortable in the press to inform the public about the Turks, Iranians, Muslims, etc.) which are seen as in- both in the way Arabs in America thought stance. These men and women consciously community’s accomplishments. But the distinguishable. Such views have had a definite im- and in the way they behaved. Arabs in or subconsciously act in ways that reduce very fact that such lists are compiled indi- pact on the Arab community in North America. America now saw more clearly that they had their differentness from the American dom- cates that Arab Americans feel the sting of to become full-fledged Americans. Assimila- inant group. They attempt to blend in. Oth- negative stereotyping and try to correct tion was now strongly and widely advocat- ers, especially those who seek material suc- such bad publicity. ed, and citizenship training and naturaliza- cess, and particularly those who are in ‘pub- Despite the fact that Arabs have lived in tion were greatly encouraged. lic professions’ (television, radio, movies, America for over a century and despite their In the heyday of the melting pot approach etc.), often give in and convert to the pre- major successes, they are still struggling to to assimilation, Arabs in America strove to vailing view. Not infrequently, these individ- be accepted in American society. Full inte- remove any differences separating them uals – the very individuals who are looked gration and assimilation will not be achieved from the general American population, ex- down upon by the Arab-American commu- until that happens. ♦ cept perhaps for food and music. They also nity – are then selected to speak for and rep- neglected (or deliberately chose not) to resent Arabs in America. teach their children Arabic or to instill in them much pride in their heritage. The re- The Arab-American sult was that, by World War II, Arabs in North community in the 1990s America were, for all practical purposes, a After more than a century of immigration, group indistinguishable from the host soci- it is clear that the basic reasons that Arabs ety. It took a second wave of immigration came to America are no different from those and other developments to rekindle interest that drove or attracted other groups to in their Arab heritage and to revive them as come. They came for a variety of reasons: an ethnic community. the promise of a quick fortune and a sense of adventure; the threat of war or economic Building a new future disaster; education, training, and technolo- Among the most important issues with gy; or the thrill of living in a free democratic which Arabs in America have had to wrestle system. Whatever their reasons, true inte- is the definition of who they are, their sense gration and full assimilation have so far gen- of identity as a people, especially as they en- erally eluded them. In part, this is the result countered and continue to encounter bias of the many developments leading to the and discrimination in their new homeland. debunking of the notion of a melting pot While Arabs in the United States and and greater tolerance of a multicultural so- Canada constitute an ethnic group, they ciety. The more important reason, however, were not an ethnic minority in their former has been the hostility the host society has homelands. Their new identity has been shown toward Arab immigrants. shaped by many factors but especially by an Nevertheless, on the whole, Arabs in Until World War I, Arabs in North America active and continuing interaction between America have done very well. Since the may be considered sojourners exhibiting conditions in the old and the new home- 1960s, there has always been at least one many traits of a middleman minority, that is, lands – as well as the interplay between representative of Arab background in the a community whose members primarily en- their perceptions of themselves and how US Congress (for example, James Abourezk, gage in one particular specialized activity others see them. Thus, while the early immi- Mary Rose Oakar, Mark Joe (Nick) Rahal II). such as migrant work or peddling. Indeed, grants spoke Arabic and came from a pre- Others have served as state governors (Vic- substantial numbers of Arabs in America en- dominantly Arabic culture and heritage, tor Atiyeh) or on the White House staff (John gaged in commerce, most often beginning they nevertheless did not think of them- H. Sununu). Similarly, individuals of Arab de- as peddlers commissioned by their own selves as ‘Arabs’. The main bond of solidari- scent have been elected to the Canadian countrymen. Their objective was to make ty among them at that time was familial, parliament (for example, Mac Harb and the greatest amount of money in the short- sectarian, and village- or region-oriented. In Mark Assad), as well as to provincial legisla- est possible time in order to help their fami- fact, the plethora of names by which they t u r e s . lies in the country of origin and/or to even- were known in the New World reflects both Furthermore, Arab Americans have not tually retire in comfort in their village or their own lack of ‘national’ identity as well only done well, but have even fared better neighbourhood. In the meantime, in Ameri- as ignorance or confusion on the part of the economically than the general population ca, they spent as little of their income as host society. average in many areas. The 1980 and 1990 possible, often living in crowded tenements In a very real sense, the search for an ade- US census data, for instance, show that Arab and, while on the road, in barns, or shacks to quate or ‘comfortable’ identity for Arabs in Americans reached a higher educational avoid expensive hotel costs. They did not America has been guided (or perhaps com- level than the American population as a live rounded lives, allowing themselves no plicated) by the need to feel pride in their whole. In fact, according to the 1990 census, luxuries and finding contentment and so- heritage and simultaneously avoid preju- 15.2% of Arab Americans have graduate de- lace in family life. They developed few last- dice and discrimination in their new home- grees or higher – more than twice the na- ing relationships with ‘Americans.’ A l - N i z a l a, land. For most, the search is neither success- tional average of 7.2%. Household income the term the Arab-American community ful nor final. They continue to feel and expe- among Arab Americans also tends to be used to refer to itself, is a name which clear- rience marginality in American society and higher than the average. They have also ly described its status and purpose. It means p o l i t i c s . proven to do well in professional, manage- a ‘temporary settlement’, and it was used in They try to overcome this in various ways. ment, and sales professions. contrast to ‘the Americans’ to indicate the Some resort to ethnic denial: they de-em- Although many Arabs in America have alien or stranger status of Arabs in America. phasize their Arab background by claiming reached the highest level of their profes- World War I was a watershed for Arabs in connection with what they believe is more sion, in almost all professions, the American North America, cutting them off from their acceptable in America. Instead of proclaim- media primarily highlight the negative people back home. An important identity ing their Arabism, for instance, they claim achievements of Arabs. Quite often, in fact, Michael W. Suleiman is university distinguished crisis occurred when these peripatetic so- that they are Lebanese or Egyptian. Some the media will announce the ‘Arab’ (or ‘Is- professor at the Department of Political Science, journers realized that they had to make a may even deny their heritage altogether, lamic’) origin or affiliation of anyone ac- Kansas State University, USA. major decision about whether to become claiming to be Greek or Italian. Some new cused of a terrorist act – even before they E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Regional Issues 29

Western Europe YASHA LANGE A Handshake

When may a headscarf be forbidden or not? Case law determines where the boundaries of an individual culture are drawn. The alderwoman of education in Almere, a town in the vicinity of Amsterdam, the May Be Refused Netherlands, extends her hand in a friendly way to- wards the director of the Islamic school. He keeps his lands, always the father in Morocco. In these arms stiff at his sides. The alderwoman’s extended sorts of cases, judges seldom give an across- hand dangles uncomfortably in the air. A discussion t h e - b o a r d verdict, says Rutten. ’A weighing takes place. The council of the Al-Iman school says of interests occurs.’ that Muslims are not permitted to have physical con- As an example, she takes the case of an tact with the opposite sex. The alderwoman eventu- Muslim woman who receives unemploy- ally decides to respect this. What else can she do? ment benefits. The woman refuses a job be- cause only men work in the company. Her In a reaction in the Dutch daily T r o u w, M a y o r benefit payments are threatened, legal pro- of the conservative Christian municipality of ceedings follow and the woman is judged to Staphorst, W. Plomp asked rhetorically, be within her rights. It would cause prob- ‘How far should the tolerance [of the major- lems with her faith, her husband and her en- ity] go if this gives minorities the room to vironment if she went to work for that com- exercise a form of intolerance that serves pany. Thus, ‘within reason’ it can not be re- Role-play at the what we, in our culture, consider as rude- quired that she accept the job. Fatima School in ness and discrimination against the oppo- However, that is true for just this case. A Amsterdam, site sex? Shouldn’t you expect some give Moroccan woman requests benefit pay- the Netherlands. and take from both sides?’ Of course, but ments and says at the same time that she is Mothers learn the council of the Islamic school is still with- not suitable for the work market because to listen to in its rights – that is, if the findings of the she already does housework. The benefits a d o l e s c e n t s . Commission of Equal Treatment are any in- are denied, the woman initiates legal pro- d i c a t i o n . ceedings, but does not win the case and re- At the end of 1998, an Muslim couple goes that it is not explicitly stated that mixed rifice) to be a national holiday, a place for ceives no benefits. to the dentist. The wife refuses to shake swimming is forbidden. The case goes to prayer in the workplace and single-sex gym Different factors influence the judges’ hands with the male dentist. The dentist is the Supreme Court. The judgement is am- classes in school. They believe that integra- weighing of interests. ‘The call of religion is so angry that he, in turn, refuses to examine biguous. The school is right because the fa- tion will go more smoothly if the Nether- a strong argument’, says Rutten. ‘To coun- the husband’s teeth. He also submits a com- ther had never submitted a formal request lands makes space for the cultivation of in- teract that, you need something very impor- plaint to the Commission of Equal Treat- for exemption. But the father is right in that dividual identity. tant.’ An example is the verdict of the ment: discrimination on the basis of gender. the Dutch judge should not have pretended Minister Van Boxtel (Minority Policy) is in- Supreme Court on the wearing of head- However, the Commission rules that there is to be an authority on the Koran. deed in agreement. His position: everything scarves by students at a public school in the no discrimination. The Muslim woman is Another example: a woman has already is fine, as long as the borders of the Dutch town of Alphen aan den Rijn. Since then, al- within her ‘rights’. Religion wins over social worked as a hairdresser for six years. One legal system are not crossed. ’I think praying most all cases concerning the headscarf n o r m s . day, she decides to wear a headscarf. The in a public school is fine. But the boundary is have been won by the wearers – except in Around ten years ago, the concept of ‘in- owner of the hair salon believes that this the Dutch constitution. That should not be gym class. Rutten: ‘The Commission of Equal tegration with the preservation of culture’ cannot be permitted; his clientele will drop t o u c h e d . ’ Treatment then asked the girls to do a som- was introduced. A stroke of genius, a ‘win- off and he wants to fire the woman. She According to Susan Rutten, teacher of pri- ersault, to see if the headscarves presented win’ situation, everyone happy. Sometimes, fights her dismissal in court, which decides vate law at the University of Maastricht, that a danger. Good, huh? Finally, the Commis- however, integration and the preservation in her favour. According to the judge, the also does not happen in practice. Years ago, sion found that for safety reasons, it was not of culture seem to clash. And now and then, owner has ‘not sufficiently demonstrated’ she wrote an overview on Moslims in de Ned- discriminatory to forbid headscarves during that sort of collision is fought out in court. that a hairdresser wearing a headscarf erlandse Rechtspraak (Muslims in the Dutch gym class. In another case, however, the Then, case law also gives a reasonable would be detrimental to his business. In the Justice System), for the Ministry of the Inte- Commission found that long sleeves may in- amount of insight into the question of discussion over integration and the preser- rior. Since then, she has kept up with all case deed be worn in gym class. where the boundaries are drawn between vation of culture, the term ‘making space’ law. ‘In decisions regarding compulsory ed- Other influential factors are the fairly the two sometimes conflicting ideas. regularly surfaces. ucation or in criminal cases, the fundamen- broad equality principle and the degree to An example: a Moroccan father does not Representatives of minority organizations tals of Dutch law are not touched.’ which an individual is integrated in the want his daughter to participate in the re- believe that the Netherlands should not However, it is not always so clear. Recog- Netherlands. The better integrated, the less quired mixed swimming lessons at school. only profess integration in theory, but nizing a child from a polygamous marriage? the claim to a ‘cultural background’. A good He points out a verse in the Koran to the should also make room for different cultures An employee who wants to pray during example of the weighing of interests is the judge. The judge finds that the text in the in practice. Therefore, they want days off on working hours? Who gets custody of a groundbreaking decision of the Supreme Koran has been interpreted quite freely and Islamic holidays, Eid al Adha (Festival of Sac- child? Mostly the mother in the Nether- Court in 1984 regarding a woman who was fired on the spot because she refused to work on an Islamic holiday. Verdict: if some- one asks well in advance for an extra day off for an important holiday, that cannot be Continued from front page: Muslims in Europe / by Olivier Roy grounds for firing the person. But the Supreme Court also had a proviso: if the in- terests of the employer would be seriously true Islam. In a word, the modern communi- a g g i o r n a m e n t o in theology and religious theology. The real processes at work among impaired, then no day off. ty is virtual, and not embedded in a society thinking, a ‘liberal Islam’ as opposed to fun- the Muslim are that of individualization and It appears from case law that judges take or a territory.2 This individual re-appropria- damentalist Islam. Of course there are many reconstruction of identities along different into account the cultural background, faith tion of knowledge and authority is also an Islamic thinkers working on this issue. But patterns, all phenomena that undermine and sometimes the inequalities between indicator of the westernization of the rela- their impact on the Muslim population the very idea of ‘one’ Muslim community in the sexes in other cultures. Is that also true tion to religion. seems rather weak. Any visit to an Islamic Europe. There is no Western Islam, there are for incidences of crimes of honour, such as Of course, the ‘salafi’ or fundamentalist an- bookshop shows that the most popular Western Muslims. ♦ the recent shooting at a school in Veghel? swer to westernization and globalization is books are not related to an ‘enlightened’ Rutten: ‘The judge will never say: someone not the only answer, even if it is the more vis- perception of Islam, but to basic or even is not punishable because “honour” crimes ible. In fact most of the Muslims who would fundamentalist description of what religion N o t e s are seen differently in Turkey. But the cir- define themselves as ‘believers’ tend to find is and what the duties of the believer are. 1 . The confusion between religious and ‘ethnic’ cumstances of each individual are consid- their own personal way of adapting to this But this is not in contradiction with the groups, or more exactly the perception of a ered. It is not unthinkable that in such cases, western environment, which by the way is ‘salafi’ trends within the Muslim popula- religious group as a quasi one has some cultural background could fall under the not a ‘Christian’ one, but a secular one. There tions. In fact, the two real trends which are antecedents in Europe: one can be an atheist category of overpowering psychological is no symmetry between religions, because working among the European Muslims are: ‘Protestant’ or ‘Catholic’ in Northern Ireland. f a c t o r s . ’ ♦ the western religions have left the public firstly, a vocal fundamentalist school of 2 . ‘La communauté virtuelle: l’Internet et la scene to become private. The process we are thought, trying to build a reconstructed déterritorialisation de l’islam’ (2000). R é s e a u x. witnessing today is one of individualization community by preaching individuals, and Paris: CENT/Hermes Science Publication. This article is a translated version of Lange’s and privatization of religious practices, of addressing the real concerns of individuals ‘Een handdruk mag worden geweigerd’, the relation of the self with religion. who lost most of their community links; and Olivier Roy is senior researcher at the CNRS, Aix-en- N R CH a n d e l s b l a d, The Netherlands, 23 March 2000. Here we come to another issue. It is wide- secondly, the silent majority of the believ- Province, France, and is author of Vers un Islam ly admitted, among western public opinion, ers, who found their way on the basis of E u r o p é e n, Editions Esprit, 1999. Yasha Lange is an editor of the NRC Handelsblad, that westernization should go along with an compromises, adaptations, and makeshift E-mail: [email protected] the Netherlands. 3 0 Publications I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

E d u c a t i o n NIMAT HAFEZ BARAZANGI The Equilibrium in American Muslims do face misconceptions, yet their view of the woman as morally dependent, hence so- cially and politically non-central to issues of Islamic and multicultural education is indeed problematic. How is it plausible for a morally dependent individ- Islamic Education ual to instil the character of an autonomous spiritual and intellectual Muslim who can integrate effectively in a ‘pluralistic’ society? A change in the paradigm of moral or religious education – beyond multicultural- ism – may be the solution. in the US

In 1998, a special edition of Religion and Ed- This relegation makes ‘religion’ seem as if it heteronomy. How constructive this balance t a q w a can also be the criterion by which a u c a t i o n (R & E, 25, 1&2, Winter 1998, St. Louis, were something of the past, neglecting the is in our own character and interaction with course of study is declared ‘Islamic’ or ‘non- MO: Webster University), a journal of the Na- lived experience of it, even though some, ourselves, others and nature, is what makes Islamic’. It is only when education achieves tional Council on Religion and Public Educa- particularly Muslim educators, have made us human. We need a constant reminder to this (conscious) balance, this equilibrium, tion, focused on ‘Issues of Islamic Education great strides not to let that happen (Susan recognize our human limitations, and so our that we can call it ‘Islamic’. To focus on in the US’, suggesting a transformation in Douglass, Audrey Shabbas and Sharifa job is to figure out how to strike this bal- whether Muslim/Islamic schools are impart- the framework of investigating moral or reli- Alkhateeb’s articles). On the other hand, ance, not to dictate the criterion to each ing ‘Islamic education’ or ‘religious educa- gious curricula if we seek significant Muslim educators are trying to restore the o t h e r . tion’, and what is being projected as ‘Islam- changes resulting from the contemporary relationship between ‘values’ and ‘facts’, or To recognize that Muslim learners in the ic’, is to understand the relationship be- ‘educational reform’ movements. As issues soul and mind, while nonetheless ignoring US need a different schema from that of tween two domains in the pedagogy of of character building and religious identity their discrepant practices concerning non-Muslim learners is as significant as real- moral judgement and ‘religious education’, are making a visible dent both in education- women’s autonomous morality. The US con- izing that these Muslim learners also need a particularly in ‘pluralistic’ societies like the al assessments and religio-ethnic cultural stitutional framework that separates ‘teach- different schema from that of Muslims any- US. The relationship between the ontologi- studies, a main concern comprises cross- ing about religion’ from ‘teaching religion’ where else. How we may bring an equilibri- cal domain (the beliefs about the nature of cultural understandings of education that may have resulted in a split between teach- um between the ideals of Islamic pedagogy, reality) and the intellectual domain (the take religion, values, character, or morals as ing and educating, but more problematic is and the prevailing views and practices of causal and associational standards by which a sub-text, particularly when a woman’s the Muslims’ splitting between the female’s education in the United States, based on Pi- we investigate reality) is almost absent in morality is viewed as a proxy to that of her ability to consciously choose Islam as her aget, Dewey and others is one step forward. the American Muslim educators’ debates, male household. worldview or belief system and her ability to To recognize the centrality of Muslim especially when women’s perspectives and The theme of this special edition of R & E i s cognitively participate in the interpretation women’s Islamic higher learning and active participation in jurisprudence and consulta- t a q w a. T a q w a is an Arabic word often over- of this belief system. agency in interpreting Qur’anic pedagogy is tive community affairs are concerned. Fur- simply translated as ‘piety’, but which bears The first matter is being addressed by in- the first step toward equitable Islamic edu- thermore, these are rarely discussed in con- the meaning of ‘a conscious balance be- troducing ‘Islamic education’ as an alterna- c a t i o n . temporary educational debates. Is there a tween the individual, the society, and the tive measure (Salwa Abd-Allah and Zakiyyah I am concerned with integrating these relationship between the absence of such limits set by Allah or God as the source of Muhammad’s articles). The demand on and other views into a balanced pedagogy discussions and the misunderstandings that value and knowledge.’ As the guest editor teachers to be ‘neutral’ when teaching for Muslims – both males and females – and surround Islam (and Muslims)? How does of this edition, three overarching issues for- about religion and its ‘sacred language’ – o r for teaching (about) Islam in the United this relate to the prevalent views of Muslim mulated my thinking on it – from selecting values in general – can reduce teaching to States at the turn of the 21s t century. This women’s and girls’ morality, education and the theme to the significance that this edi- the transmission of ‘facts’ and reduce reli- implies a pedagogy in which there is equi- acculturation? I challenge the reader to find tion of R & E may have for the debate over ed- gion to a sterile ‘factual’ entity. This reduc- librium between the need for deciding the the connection. ♦ ucation in the US as a whole. The first issue tion seems to disregard the human need for moral, religious, as well as secular founda- is how to achieve a balance between the be- a value system that is learned in a particular tions of multicultural education and the lief systems of individuals (often referred to language and taught within a specific his- need for determining how best we may pre- as religion or philosophy) and the US uni- torical and cultural environment (Mary El- pare the next generation to consciously versal schooling system which has tradition- Khatib and Yahiya Emerick’s articles) using think about, and to effectively act within, ally intended, to a large degree, to meld di- specific instructional material (Abidullah the parameters of these foundations. verse individual views into the ‘common Ghazi and Tasneema Ghazi’s article). The One of the focal points of Piaget’s social ground’ of a ‘pluralistic’ social framework. second matter, the conscious choice of the theory is the concept of equilibrium. ‘Equili- The second issue is questioning the efficacy belief system needs to be addressed further. brated exchanges among adults’, writes of ‘teaching about religion’ and ‘teaching a We educators – Muslim or non-Muslim – Rheta De Vries, ‘are those in which discus- religion’. This issue comes out in particularly have missed the practice of the basic princi- sants share a common framework of refer- sharp relief in teaching about Islam as a be- ple for clear cognition and constructive be- ence (which may be political, literary, reli- lief system, and about Muslims, in a ‘neutral’ haviour, autonomous morality, especially gious, etc.), conserve common definitions, manner when many teachers have little or when we continue to rely solely on male in- symbols, etc., and coordinate reciprocal no knowledge of Islam, and what they do terpretations of Islam and of woman’s propositions. Piaget (1941/95) calls this know too often offers an inaccurate picture. morality from her male household. phenomenon “reciprocal valorization” by The third issue, which was the core of this “co-exchangers” within a particular scale of edition, is how to introduce a discourse on Prospects of change values.’ (Educational Researcher, 1997, 26: ‘Islamic education’ from females’ perspec- No matter what we call this process of im- 1 1 ) . tives – only two of the thirteen contributors parting knowledge, the problem lies in that are males – when females have traditionally we continuously talk about change, expect- The equilibrated education been perceived as lacking the full privilege ing change by the ‘other’ without changing Valorizations – being ‘affective and cogni- to interpret Islam. ourselves first. Some refer to the Qur’an as tive’, and eventually social – represent the The centrality of Muslim women’s and stating that God will never change the con- ‘equilibrated exchange’ that the contribu- girls’ education and acculturation (Barazan- dition of a people until they change what is tors (the ‘valorizers’) in this special edition gi and Mohja Kahf’s articles) to Islamic edu- in themselves (Qur’an, 13: 11). How can we, of R& E hope to achieve. As important is rec- cation – and even their very contribution to for instance, teach about Abrahamic reli- ognizing a representation of these valoriz- this edition of R & E – may seem contradicto- gions equitably, or about other worldviews, ers’ frame of reference – being predomi- ry and perhaps difficult to understand by when some of us still perceive the ‘other’ as nantly feminine and paradigmatically differ- those whose knowledge of Islam is limited inferior without attempting to understand ent from those who follow precedent to the perception that males are the only ‘le- the basis of the particular behaviour we find (m u q a l l i d u n). Also significant is the realiza- gitimate interpreters’ of Islamic texts or the o b j e c t i o n a b l e ? tion that learners who identify themselves perception that females are ‘oppressed by When the majority of us still consider our with Islam as a worldview (encompassing their patriarchal religion’. own standard interpretations and practices both religion and culture) or with Muslims as the measuring stick for how others think as a cultural group have special needs. Challenges and responses and what they ‘ought to do’ – instead of Depending on the reader’s frame of refer- The challenge facing Muslim educators – considering facilitating them to learn to ence, this special edition of R& E m a y and those who would learn or educate oth- think autonomously – then we have not yet achieve either a ‘cooperative equilibrium’ or ers about Islam – is twofold. On the one acknowledged our shortcomings as human result in a constraining system that I would hand, teaching about religion, particularly educators. Various teachings and philoso- call ‘window-dressing tolerance’. I am not about Islam, has been relegated to courses phies have set certain limits, yet these ‘reading history backward’ when I bring to in history, social sciences, area studies or teachings also remind us that the judge of the readers’ awareness the fact that equilib- world religions (Maysam al Faruqi and our work and intention is not our own crite- rium, t a q w a, in the Qur’an is the measuring Dr Nimat Hafez Barazangi is a research fellow at the Gisela Webb’s articles address the higher rion, but the guiding principle of t a q w a, or stick by which a human character is judged Women’s Studies Program, Cornell University, USA. education dilemmas). the equilibrium between autonomy and (Qur’an, 49:13). By extension, I argue that E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Publications 31

Book Review ALLAN CHRISTELOW Re-collecting Algerian

On his way through an airport in 1988, Professor Bilqasim S aca d a l l a h of the University of Algiers expe- rienced a scholar’s worst nightmare. He lost a brief- case containing a partially completed manuscript, re- Cultural History: search notes, and documents difficult to replace. This disaster might be read as a metaphor for his ob- ject of study, Algerian cultural history. On a far larger scale, French colonialism posed a potentially irre- versible disaster for the Arabic and Islamic cultural The Work of heritage of Algeria. With the initial French onslaught in the 1830s, many documents and manuscripts were destroyed; some for no better reason than that c French soldiers found them convenient for lighting their pipes. French confiscation of Islamic endow- Bilqasim S a a d a l l a h ment properties in urban areas left educational insti- tutions dependent on meager allocations from colo- Michel, an engineer posted in Tebessa to nial authorities. The prolonged upheaval of the revo- work on the nearby phosphate mines, and a lution from 1954 to 1962 also took its toll as the mili- partisan of the Société des Droits de tant settlers of the Secret Army Organization (OAS) l’Homme. As a result, Bin Hamana’s case was used their incendiary skills on the National Library, taken all the way to the Chamber of Deputies and as private collections of books and periodicals in Paris where he was vindicated in 1913. The were destroyed or dispersed, and archives were cart- following year he was murdered, ostensibly ed off to France. as a result of a local political vendetta. Bin Hamana’s career, while obscure, might The task of re-collecting the materials of Al- be seen as a microcosm of themes that con- geria’s cultural heritage is, despite all that tinued to weigh heavily on Algerian political has occurred, by no means impossible. To life: links with international Islamic and anti- Professor Sacadallah it was a compelling task. imperialist causes; human rights activism; He continued with his work and, some ten Islam as a factor in popular mobilization; and years after the briefcase disaster, published a factional violence, perhaps manipulated by nine-volume work, Tarikh a l - J a z a i ' i r a l - higher authorities, but with a dynamic of its Traditional bard t h a q a f i (The Cultural History of Algeria) with own, and the potential for undermining pro- p e r f o r m i n g . Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, a Beirut publishing jects to build a stable political hierarchy. house specializing in works on the Maghrib. ria. A reasoned discussion of the issue re- the major French language studies of Alge- A reformer in the z a w i y a Scope of the Work quires an examination of the three decades ria. If her photograph is an accurate indica- Another complex figure that captured This work is encyclopedic in scope, cover- prior to the First World War (abundantly cov- tion, she was prim and proper. She also ap- S aca d a l l a h ’ s attention is cA b d a l -cA z i z Bin al- ing aspects of Algerian culture ranging from ered in these volumes), a period when Islam- pears to have been at least partly of African Hashimi Bin Ibrahim. Though he was head of Quranic interpretation and Islamic law to ic policy was at the heart of France’s p o l i t i q u e ancestry, perhaps with family origins in the a Qadiriyya Sufi lodge, or z a w i y a , in the oasis decorative arts and music. Several sections c o l o n i a l e. The colonial authorities then nur- French West Indies. It may be that part of community of El Oued, his father had sent reflect the Islamic tradition of scholars’ bi- tured an orthodox religious establishment in Jonnart’s intent in fostering her enterprise him to study at the Zaytuna Islamic universi- ographies. The first two volumes cover from Algeria but, as alliances between religious was to create a socially conservative alterna- ty in Tunis where he absorbed s a l a f i c r i t i q u e s 1500 to 1830, from the eve of the Ottoman elites and governments often are, it was frag- tive to a l - A k h b a r, the paper run by French of Sufism. In 1937 he joined the Association era to the start of the French conquest. The i l e . radical Victor Barrucand, chief promoter of of Algerian cU l a m a, who supported modern next six volumes cover the colonial era, and S aca d a l l a h ’ s work does not propose any the Eberhart mystique. Islamic education with a strong s a l a f i o r i e n- the final volume consists of an exhaustive simple, clear-cut thesis about the evolving Jonnart’s efforts to create a sort of Franco- tation. He opened a school under the aegis i n d e x . relationship between Islam and the state. Algerian synthesis in early 20t h-century Alge- of this association in the family lodge in El The Tarikh al-thaqafi casts a wide net, cov- Rather, he provides examples that might ria soon broke down, and for many reasons. Oued. But soon thereafter he fell victim to a ering not only major and minor Algerian Is- serve as grist for discussion of the issue. He It was an imperial cultural synthesis, built combination of local rivalries and interna- lamic scholars and religious leaders but also often displays his greatest enthusiasm when from the top down, opposed from the outset tional tensions. He was accused of support- French educators, interpreters, and Oriental- discussing individuals who defy easy catego- by French settler politicians, supported by ing German and Italian plots and incarcerat- ists, as well as French educated and bi-cultur- rization, who invite us to see the complexity diverse individuals who, because of their ed- ed in the notorious Kudiyit Aty prison in Con- al Algerian Muslims. Its encyclopaedic style, of forces shaping the Algerian past. ucation or disposition, identified with the ef- s t a n t i n e . at once broadly comprehensive and narrow- fort to promote what we would now call a ly segmented by topic, offers an alternative Launching Arabic journalism multi-cultural society. The effort was also From El Oued to Minneapolis to the monograph, a Western scholarly for- Take for example Jeanne Desrayaux, crippled by the French law on separation of The story is of particular relevance to Pro- mat that has dominated the writing of Alger- daughter of an Algiers lycée professor, and state from religion, passed in 1905. fessor S aca d a l l a h, for he was growing up in El ian history in the post-colonial era. It allows herself recipient of a diploma in Arabic. In Oued when the above events occurred. With for the exploration of persons, events, and 1905, she was sent by the then Governor Islamic activist the support of the Association of cU l a m a, he themes that escape the attention of scholars General Charles Jonnart, along with her fa- with a colonial medal pursued his education first in Tunis, then in guided by narrow theoretical concerns. ther, on a mission to Tunisia and Egypt. As the imperial synthesis crumbled, new Cairo. His educational career took a novel The immediate purpose of the Tarikh al- There she studied girls’ education and Arabic expressions of Islam in Algeria took on a turn in 1962 when he went to the University thaqafi is to create a practical reference work. publications. Inspired by what she saw, she more popular and political character. Symp- of Minnesota on a Fulbright grant to prepare But it is hard to separate this practical task returned to Algeria to establish a l - I h y a (R e- tomatic of this transformation was cA b b a s a PhD in history. Some three decades later, from larger issues. A product of the 1980s v i v a l), the first Arabic-language magazine Bin Hamana, who was instrumental in estab- he was to conduct much of the work for the and 1990s, this work appears at a time when published in Algeria. Leading Algerian fig- lishing the first community-supported mod- present volume in the quiet stacks of the it has become evident that Algerians cannot ures in the state-sponsored Islamic educa- ern Islamic school in Algeria, in Tebessa, a University of Minnesota library, with the aid simply retreat comfortably into their Arabic- tional establishment collaborated on the town near the Tunisian frontier, some 200 of its interlibrary loan staff, who helped him Islamic tradition, and that Algeria is inextrica- publication. It published articles on the cul- kilometres south of the Mediterranean. pull together some of the dispersed frag- bly involved in a wider global society. In tural and political ferment sweeping the Is- Tebessa was remote in location, yet situated ments of Algerian cultural history that the these decades, many Algerians, both of secu- lamic world at the time. A key premise of a l - so that it was exposed to new winds blowing winds of fortune had transported to North lar and Islamic orientation, have found them- I h y a was that assimilation had failed and the in from Tunis and Tripoli. A m e r i c a . ♦ selves destined to live and raise their families future well-being of Algeria depended upon Bin Hamana was in many ways a model in Europe or North America. An element in moral and intellectual regeneration based colonial subject, decorated by the French for the evolving identity of these communities is on Arabic-Islamic tradition. Though it lasted his zeal as an agricultural entrepreneur. But the conviction that dialogue between Islam- less than two years, publishing some thirty- when the Italians invaded Libya in 1911, Bin ic and Western cultures is possible, and that four bi-weekly issues, al-Ihya helped inspire a Hamana, like many assimilated Algerians, be- Algerians, because of their long and intense number of other Arabic newspapers in the came an ardent supporter of the rebels. He exposure to the West, have an important role years before the First World War. corresponded with Tripolitanian rebel leader Allan Christelow is professor of history at Idaho State in spearheading such dialogue. In this con- S aca d a l l a h contrasts Desrayaux to her con- Sulayman al-Baruni. University in Pocatello, Idaho, USA. He is the author text, an investigation of cultural interactions temporary, Isabelle Eberhart, a figure who Not long after this Bin Hamana got caught of Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial in the colonial period is highly relevant. has attracted much attention from Western up in the fray of municipal politics in State in Algeria (Princeton, 1985) and Thus Ruled Second, the relation between religion – academics, drawn to her image of swash- Tebessa. He incurred the wrath of the local Emir Abbas: Selected Cases from the Emir of and, more broadly, culture – and the state buckling adventure and lifestyle experimen- French mayor, who had him thrown in jail. Kano’s Judicial Council (Michigan State, 1994). has emerged as a central problem for Alge- tation. Desrayaux receives scarcely a line in But he also struck up an alliance with Charles E-mail: [email protected] 3 2 Publications I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Book Presentation PATRICIA SLOANE Islam, Modernity

Islam, Modernity and Entrepreneurship among the Malays is the result of nearly four years of research con- ducted between January of 1993 and January of 1998, on entrepreneurship, networking, and corporate cul- a n d ture among the middle- and upper-middle-class Malay population of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The book is an analysis of an initial period of fieldwork (from 1993 to 1995). It is the first in-depth anthropological study of Malay Muslim enterprise and entrepreneurial culture E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p since the inception of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in Malaysia in 1970, a systematic programme intended to develop the economic skills of Malays in an ethnically diverse nation after the ethnic riots in 1969. among the Malays

Certain ethnographic studies have discussed trepreneurial societies, college alumni co- est and group interest and clarifies the cul- Finally, the crucial role of entrepreneurship in the economic situation of Malaysians – horts, and executives’ networking organiza- ture of social and moral entailments in which establishing and legitimizing Malay identity Malays, Chinese, and Indians – who have tions established to capture greater entre- the informants operate. Also examined was and representing Malay ideals of morality, been disadvantaged by the dramatic preneurial opportunities. I attended work- the belief informants had that they were pre- egalitarianism, harmony, and tradition in the changes brought about by the NEP. This shops (accompanied by informants) on serving – through entrepreneurship – egali- contexts of rapid social and economic study, however, discusses the lives and en- Malay entrepreneurship, Malay entrepre- tarian and communal traditions and values change is discussed. It is demonstrated that terprises of the Malay men and women who neurs’ clubs, entrepreneurship talks, entre- from the Malay past, when in fact, entrepre- through its seemingly endless incorporative- have been advantaged the most by Malay- preneurial development societies, entrepre- neurship has resulted in greater social dis- ness, through the enmeshing of material and only government policy. Many economists neurial award ceremonies, and huge confer- tinctions and the formation of a new elite. I affective ties in networks, Malay entrepre- and political scientists have argued over the ences and trade shows sponsored by gov- argue that entrepreneurship implies, to the neurship, to its actors, symbolizes diminished consequences of NEP for the Malaysian na- ernment ministries and agencies to develop informants concerned, an Islamic develop- eliteness and Malay classlessness, and im- tion as a whole and the economic and social local, regional, and global Malay entrepre- ment process which could reveal key, group- plies openness, shared power, and free ac- consequences of Malaysia’s ethnicized poli- neurial networks. oriented moral and traditional behaviours – cess to opportunity. What was learned from tics, but there have been few ethnographic Malay entrepreneurship and the changes the material demonstration of ‘good works’ – the informants can be described as a Malay studies of the social group most directly in- it implies affected other, less visible aspects until Malay entrepreneurs see themselves theory of entrepreneurship, one which lo- volved in and affected by NEP – the new of life, especially in relationships between acting not just for themselves, but for all cates Malay entrepreneurs in their local cul- Malay middle and upper-middle class. Al- men and women, children and parents, Malays, Muslims, and the very fate of the na- ture, validates the pro-Malay policies of NEP, though there is recent literature focusing on brothers and sisters, individuals and cohorts, tion and Malaysian society. and connects Malay development to a global the spectacular culture of consumption and even human beings and Allah. As such, I culture of capitalism. Then a theory of Malay choices of the new rich of Asia (one publish- spent a great deal of time in Malay homes, Networks – Malay entrepreneurship is elucidated. A description er even has a series dedicated to that sub- discussing marriage, family, modern entrepreneurship in action is given of the way in which entrepreneur- ject), the analysis in Islam, Modernity and En- women’s roles, and the consequences of The second part of the book, presented ship tends to confirm, determine the gender trepreneurship among the Malays p r o v i d e s rapid social change. It was found generally under the rubric of ‘Networks’, is an attempt of, and politicize Malay eliteness, while simul- insight into the culture of business – the eco- everywhere that Malay men and women ac- to elucidate how the informants enact their taneously closing out many of the entrepre- nomic decisions, the investments, and the tively seek to understand the role of Islam in understanding of Malay economic modernity neurs aspiring to wealth and power who are capital and social networks – that have re- contexts of social and economic change, and and entrepreneurship; that is, how they in- met in the pages of the book. Moreover, it is sulted in Malay wealth. There is also very re- follow or react to d a k w a h , the intensification fuse their altruistic image of ‘good works’ into argued that the theory of Malay entrepre- cent literature on the spectacular economic of Islamic practice in Malaysia since the economic and social action. A description is neurship conceals the crucial role of the state downturn among the Asian ‘Little Dragon’ 1 9 8 0 s . given of the way in which networks and rela- in creating and supporting high-level, politi- economies in late 1997; I venture to suggest Later on in the first period of fieldwork, in- tionships form in Kuala Lumpur society and cally-connected Malay entrepreneurs – pre- that the book offers retrospective insight creasing focus was placed on several partic- the ways in which social life can be manipu- cisely the group that I then went on to study into why that crisis occurred in one Little ular ventures which seemed characteristic of lated in pursuit of economic gain. Case stud- in later periods of research in Malaysia. ♦ Dragon, and perhaps even offers prognos- the various kinds of entrepreneurship in ies of entrepreneurial networking and the en- ticative insight into the nature of Malaysia’s which my informants were engaged. These trepreneurial objectives of three of the enter- recent, but exaggerated, economic recovery, were established businesses, a year or so old, prises concerned are given. The first case which also silenced the voices of political well beyond the drawing-board stage in the study illustrates how alliances form among dissent in 1999. sense that they had already been capital- Malay entrepreneurs, often as a consequence ized, registered with the government, and so of the way in which the government repre- Research among Malay on. The enterprises focused upon had been sents modern economic opportunity and en- e n t r e p r e n e u r s formed with the injection of government or terprise to Malays. The expectations infor- Entrepreneurship is, in Malaysia, what NEP private capital, and consisted of several large mants had of each other and of their ventures intended it to be: a middle-class, even elite, manufacturing concerns, as well as enter- in pursuing such opportunities, and the often phenomenon. It earns grand-scale public at- prises which represented the non-industrial disappointing returns that their swiftly tention in the Malay community; the govern- sector into which much Malay private capital formed alliances brought are dealt with. ment honours individuals who are deemed is flowing: real estate, insurance, tourism, ad- The second case study examines the con- successful entrepreneurs, bestowing titles vertising, publishing, communication, and sequences of achieving a high profile for one and honorifics upon them, while magazines c o n s u l t a n c i e s . female entrepreneur in Kuala Lumpur. The and the media report endlessly on the positive effects of networking used for build- lifestyles and management secrets of Malay Good works – Malay ing alliances are described along with the entrepreneurs. Hundreds of Malay entrepre- entrepreneurship and Islamic negative effects of networking – when gos- neurial people, who were participating in v a l u e s sip and rumours of sorcery are used by net- the modern economy in Kuala Lumpur or at- The first part of the book, presented under work participants to diminish the identity of tempting to cast a wider net to economic the rubric of ‘Good Works’, argues that an entrepreneur who is thought to be dan- and social niches in the rest of Malaysia, among the Malay middle class, entrepre- gerously self-interested, and even un-Islamic. Southeast Asia, and the world, offered in- neurship has become the main vector of eth- It is suggested that these consequences are sight through our conversations. I inter- nic, religious, and moral worth, and a test of often experienced by autonomous women in viewed people in their houses and their of- virtue and modernity among the beneficia- Malay entrepreneurial society, who induce a fices, factories, and country clubs. Male and ries of the NEP. The complex themes of Islam- certain cultural ambivalence about the true female entrepreneurs – both participated ic duty and financial obligation, which en- source of their powers. Patricia Sloane, Institute of Social and Cultural with equal fervour in the modern economy – frame Malay life in relationships with parents, An entrepreneurial venture that harnessed Anthropology and JASO, Oxford University, earned were contacted. Also interviewed were par- spouses, cohorts, and the communal group, its very existence to the role of Malay net- a PhD in Social Anthropology from Oxford University ents and children, students, and teenagers are explored. Also explored are the crucial, works to the point at which networking be- in 1996. She was appointed as a research fellow at (every one of them wanting to be an entre- self-consciously ‘modern’ redefinitions of Is- came the primary purpose – indeed, the the Institute of Malaysian and International Studies preneur one day); recent university gradu- lamic economic beliefs and meanings which product – of the enterprise itself, is exam- at the National University of Malaysia, where she ates (all wanting to be entrepreneurs); pro- have shaped the Malay understanding of en- ined. These networks are then related to researched middle-class culture, and later conducted fessors and professionals in big corporate trepreneurship and human agency. Focusing other forms of Malay action which explicitly an in-depth study of corporate culture in a major businesses who were planning to go out ‘on upon several individual stories of eschatolog- use social relations for economic ends, and it Malay-owned conglomerate. An editor for JASO, their own’ or were already doing so on the ical and economic self-development, I exam- is shown how this strategy has become in- The Journal of the Anthropological Society of side. Furthermore, groups were met with or ined the ways in which a Muslim world-view creasingly concatenated to the Malay theory O x f o r d , she is currently preparing an article on spoken to, such as women’s and men’s en- establishes balanced definitions of self-inter- of ‘good works’. sexual harassment in the Malay workplace. I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Publications 33

P e r i o d i c a l ROBERT WATERHOUSE The Azur Decade: A Brief History of Mediterraneans

Millions of words are published every year by and Made in Manchester Moments of destiny doldrums and Durrellian ties. ‘Istanbul, about the peoples of the Mediterranean. Its place at The first two issues of M e d i t e r r a n e a n s b o r e The first of the themed issues, Algeria, Many Worlds’ (Autumn 1997) explored the the crux of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa the imprint of Didsbury Press, a small inde- Summer 1993, came at a moment of destiny Turkish dilemma of embracing the West and its historical importance overlaid with present- pendent Manchester publishing house as civil war loomed. This was closely fol- while fighting a war in its own eastern back- day relevance means that Mediterraneans are never whose owner, Patrick Quinn, personally lowed by Beirut/Sarajevo and Israel/Pales- yard. ‘Voices from Morocco’ (Winter 1999- far from the news. Many cultures, speaking many funded the venture. They carried an extraor- tine. M e d i t e r r a n e a n s showed no aversion to 2000) captures Mahgreb aspirations at the tongues, have shared interests and concerns, even if dinary selection of contributors – novelists, the hot spots, though it retained a section of millennium, with a change of king and per- the act of sharing often seems more like smash and poets, journalists, artists and photographers Varia at the back, and had the ability to at- haps of regime. grab. Yet among all the words and images there are a – covering an extraordinary variety of top- tract spicy pot-pourri contributions like An- precious few voices saying just what it is to be a ics. From the outset, M e d i t e r r a n e a n s p u b- dreu Martin’s story of sex – and worse – Five-year programme Mediterranean today. lished uncompromisingly in English or among beach hoodlums (Issue 4). M e d i t e r r a n e a n s has survived almost a French, without translation. Designed on Financial support from the Centre Nation- decade in the tough theatre of international desk-top by Trevor Hatchett, edited from al de Lettres helped establish Me d i t e r- publishing. It commences the millennium in the garrets and pubs of South Manchester, r a n e a n s in Paris, but the review remained – good spirits with the next issue, on Mar- M e d i t e r r a n e a n s proved an immediate t o u r and remains – at the commercial margins, seille, planned for Autumn 2000, homes de force: ’a new bold literary review’ wrote depending upon the goodwill of contribu- both in the Maison des Sciences de the G u a r d i a n. Le Monde Diplomatique c a l l e d tors and subscribers. Involvement with l’Homme in Paris and the Friche Belle de Mai it an ‘éblouissant sommaire […] de très Med-Media, the EC programme for journal- in Marseille, and high hopes of a five-year beaux écrits de poètes, journalistes, ro- ist training led to a Spring 1994 seminar in publishing programme based on two issues manciers de la région.’ Marseille and subsequent publication of an per year. The proposed subjects for 2001 are hors serie title, ‘Etre journaliste en Méditer- Haifa and Salonika. Goytisolo, Durrell, Moravia ranée’ (also in Spanish and Arabic, but not The struggle, as ever, is not for good ma- Issue 1 of Summer 1991 had Juan Goytiso- English). A second such seminar took place terial but for the financial wherewithal to lo on Cairo’s City of the Dead, Lawrence Dur- in Alexandria in cooperation with Al Ahram, publish. In a world where book selling is be- rell on bull-worship in Provence, Alberto il manifesto and M i l l i y e t. Continuation of the coming more global by the day, small oper- Moravia in conversation, David Hirst on Sad- project awaits de-freezing of the EC ators have a huge marketing challenge. dam before Kuwait, Clarisse Nicoidski on a Mediterranean programme budget. M e d i t e r r a n e a n s is soon to fight back via its French soldier’s diary from the Algerian For Issue 7, Autumn 1995, Brown and own website (mediterraneansreview.com) front in 1960. Mahmoud Darwish described Davis devoted almost a whole review to the which will offer readers the opportunity to how he risked on a daily basis a sniper’s bul- falling apart of Yugoslavia, ‘Le pont détruit’. sample back issues, as well as being able to let to make early-morning coffee during the The title referred to Mostar, the Bosnian city order and subscribe on line. ♦ height of the Beirut civil war; Yigal Sarna de- dismembered by Croats. M e d i t e r r a n e a n s ’ tailed an infamous sectarian murder in Is- by-now proven mix of reportage, short sto- Or so it seemed to Kenneth Brown when, rael. Lucia Graves told how her father Robert ries, poetry and telling images described, in the spring of 1990, he began testing his came to Mallorca, while Claudia Roden ex- with passion but without side, a Balkan thoughts and ideas on a group of friends plored Italy’s regional cuisine. tragedy which continues to unfold. in Manchester, where he was a senior lec- So it went on. By the third issue, Brown turer in sociology. Brown’s working back- had taken himself and the review to Paris, Alexandria, Istanbul, Morocco For further information: ground in Morocco, Tunisia and the Mid- where the official funding climate was more More recent issues have been, perhaps, E-mail: [email protected] dle East, and his knowledge of Arabic and promising. He found a new co-editor, Han- less consciously from the frontline yet are Hebrew as well as Spanish and French nah Davis, and set about widening a circle hardly irrelevant. ‘Alexandria in Egypt’ (Au- Robert Waterhouse is president of l’Association should have warned those of us he cor- of supporters who eventually evolved into tumn 1996) found the ancient waterfront Méditerranéens and a co-editor of M e d i t e r r a n e a n s. ralled that the ride would be lively. an advisory panel. city at the point of shaking off economic E-mail: [email protected]

P E R I O D I C A L P E R I O D I C A L Studies in Prologues: Revue Contemporary Islam Maghrébine du Livre

age. Intended to serve as a forum for schol- from North and South and to reach out to arly dialogue and exchange, Studies in Con- broader audiences. Although literacy levels temporary Islam does not to promote a par- in the Maghreb are on the rise, public expo- ticular point of view or ideology. The editors sure to the world of ideas remains limited. are Mumtaz Ahmad ([email protected]) and With its critical reviews, interviews and es- Mustansir Mir ([email protected]). says, P r o l o g u e s aims to facilitate access to The first issue (Spring 1999) includes the this world. The journal expresses disagree- following articles: ment over the way Islamic dogmas and laws – Farhang Rajaee, ‘Paradigm Shifts in Mus- are invoked and used in the political arena lim International Relations Discourse’; and advocates democratic alternatives, ar- – Anas B. Malik, ‘Understanding the Political guing that these are probably closer to Is- Behavior of Islamists: The Implications of lamic ethics or, at the least, not incompati- Socialization, Modernization, and Ratio- ble with them. nalist Approaches’; A bilingual (French-Arabic) scholarly and – Timur Yuskaev, ‘Redeeming the Nation: cultural journal, P r o l o g u e s has been pub- Redemption Theology in African-Ameri- lished quarterly in Casablanca since 1993. can Islam’; To date, eleven issues have been published. – Frederick M. Denny and the Late Olga It is distributed in particular in the Maghreb, Studies in Contemporary Islam is a new, ref- Scarpetta, ‘Jailhouse religion: The Chal- but also reaches readers in Europe, the Mid- ereed journal focusing on Islam and Muslims lenge of Corrections to the American Mus- dle East and North America. Abdou Filali- in the contemporary world, published by the lim Community’; and Ansary is the editor. ♦ Center for Islamic Studies at Youngstown – Mumtaz Ahmad, ‘Democracy on Trial in P r o l o g u e s is a Maghrebin book revue. Above State University. It is published two times a M a l a y s i a ’ . ♦ all it is the voice of a group of intellectuals For information, contact: year and is devoted to the understanding, who seek to renew, from within, contempo- Prologues: revue maghrébine du livre review, analysis, and critique of contempo- For information, contact: rary Arabic thought through debate and 34 Rue Mohamed Smiha rary Islamic religious and intellectual devel- Center for Islamic Studies analysis. For this reason, P r o l o g u e s seeks to BP 125 144 Ain Diyab 20052 opments, on the one hand, and of socio-po- 421 DeBartolo Hall bring together themes that are of central Casablanca, Morocco litical changes in Muslim societies, on the Youngstown State University concern in the Mediterranean region. It E-mail: [email protected] other. The journal aims to be interdiscipli- Youngstown, Ohio 44555-3448, USA aims to stimulate communication among Fax: + 212 2 449 551 nary and international in its range and cover- Fax: +1 330 742 1600 social scientists, scholars, and intellectuals URL: http://www.ned.org/page_3/Prologues 3 4 Space & Architecture I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

M o r o c c o ANTON J. ESCHER & SANDRA PETERMANN Neo-colonialism

At the beginning of the 21s t century, the Medina of Marrakesh is facing significant changes. The old town had been isolated and preserved by the French protectorate policy during the first half of the 1900s. or Gentrification After the withdrawal of the colonial power, the for- mer incarnation of Muslim cultural life declined to a residential area for the poorest rural population. in the Medina During the sixties, individual members of a growing gay community settled Marrakesh. In the 1980s, UNESCO acknowledged the exotic attractiveness and the cultural signif- icance of the ‘oriental Medina’ of Marrakesh of Marrakesh by including the town in the world’s cultural heritage programme, and the characteris- international tourism had already discov- Other equally important arguments are in- which is evaluated positively because it tics of the Medina also attract the interna- ered the old towns along with all other old dividuality and independence, which one helps preserve the precious fabric of the tional mass tourism today. Helped by the cities of cultural interest in the world. UN- can express and enjoy behind the closed buildings rich in tradition, or it represents - structural condition of globalization, nu- ESCO took the cultural significance of the walls one’s own house. The r iyad. is consid- neo-colonialism, which uses the product of merous western foreigners had moved into Medina into account by including it into the ered a symbol of freedom by both tempo- Islamic culture to meet the expectations of the old town by the end of the 20t h c e n t u r y . world’s cultural heritage programme in rary and permanent immigrants. Europeans the European settlers. One should recall in All forms of media, first and foremost the In- 1985. However, the town-planning restora- are still attracted by a world which seems this context the origin of the imagination ternet, offer real estate for rent and for sale tion measures were restricted at first to indi- strange and mystical to them, and which ‘Orient’, as Mary Anne Stevens2 outlines: ‘Be- in many quarters of the old part of Mar- vidual buildings and to the paving of the may evoke sentiments of being a colonialist tween 1798 and 1914, North Africa and the rakesh. In the Medina, the growing group of most important streets of the old town. amidst the omnipresent poverty of the Mo- Near East, as a closest non-Christian region western foreigners live excessively on a r o c c a n s . to Europe, exercised a fascination upon the grand scale together with the increasingly Western foreigners Hollywood films, TV reports, magazines, West, which responded in a variety of ways: impoverished Moroccans. Does all this in the Medina of Marrakesh newspapers, and the Internet add to the the scholarly study of ancient civilisations speak for symptoms of neo-colonialism? Or, During the 60s and 70s, the process of de- subjective conveying of information about and of contemporary cultures, imaginary due to the fact that well-off foreigners con- colonization took place comparatively the Medina of Marrakesh and to the promo- evocations in poems and novels, literary de- - tribute to the renovation and preservation peacefully in Morocco. Foreign real estate tion of living in a r iyad. . Currently, architects scriptions and tourists’ enthusiasms, as well of the fabric of the buildings, does it rather property was not expropriated. This led to and real estate agents are offering hundreds as representations by artists.’ More than a - indicate gentrification? individual western foreigners settling in the of r iyad. s on the market. French Moroccan hundred years after the Europeans created Medina of Marrakesh already in the early estate agents pursue aggressive marketing the image of the ‘Orient’, they now once and 2 0t h-century town planning 60s, when one could still find the French strategies, which range from face to face for all (peacefully) start to redesign their ‘Ori- The policy of Governor Lyautey and his population of the protectorate in the v i l l e s contact on the Jemaa el-Fna to interactive ent’, i.e. the old towns of Morocco, struc- chief architect Prost during the time of the n o u v e l l e s. That would not have been possi- communication on the Internet. Western turally and ideologically according to their protectorate helped to spatially isolate the ble during the time of the French protec- foreigners also buy in other old towns of imagination. They do that from the inside, old towns of Morocco, including the Medina torate because of urban apartheid. Many of Morocco, such as Essaouira and Asilah. where the Islamic urban way of life, the cu m- of Marrakesh, from modern town expan- these foreigners were artists and architects rân hadarî, is rooted. ♦ sions as well as to preserve the fabric of the ‘looking for the Orient’ and/or looking to Gentrification buildings. This did not only include the ‘find themselves’. An international gay com- vs. neo-colonialism View of an inner preservation and protection of the historic munity was established, which functioned The prominent American architect Bill courtyard and old towns, but also the building of modern as the initiator for the massive influx of Willis, who has been living in a former a roof garden ‘European’ towns, so-called villes nouvelles, western foreigners at the end of the 20t h palace in the north of the Medina since the with swimming at a distance from the old towns. c e n t u r y . 60s, formulates the arguments brought into pool of an old After the end of the French protectorate A fascination with the oriental aura, the discussion on the presence of western for- town house in 1956, the Moroccan upper and middle colours, the fragrances, the year-round eigners in the old town of Marrakesh by the renovated by a class left the old town, and a poor rural pop- warm climate, the reasonable cost of living, new inhabitants: ‘It’s very good for the Med- E u r o p e a n . ulation spread into the Medina. By the 60s, and expectations of Dionysiac joys con- ina because these foreigners are bringing in tributed to the expansion of the communi- a lot of money and are fixing up all these old ty. By the mid-80s, the number of western houses that are falling into ruins […] or are foreigners in the Medina had risen to sever- tearing them down and are building some- al dozen, but it remained a manageable thing marvelous in the place […], so that’s quantity. By the mid-90s, Europeans had be- very good. […] It cleans up the city. It brings come increasingly interested in buying a lot of money to Morocco. It employs hun- houses in the old town. At this time, the first dreds of Moroccan workmen, and so that inns (maison d’hôtes) and several exclusive part is very, very good’. These observations N o t e s restaurants were built. During the final years cannot be contradicted if one applies them 1 . The ordinary house with an inner courtyard in the of the 20t h century, the real estate business exclusively to the fabric of the buildings and Moroccan town is called d a r. The central element boomed in the old town. The demand for to the financial input. Similar to the eco- is the inner courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, real estate has especially exploded in the nomically and socially declined districts of at which rooms facing each other are located. In last two years, and supply has been extend- industrial countries, those districts of Mo- the corners are usually an entrance, a kitchen, and - e d . rocco which seem to be left to fall into a stairwell with a bathroom. In Morocco r iyad. In September 1999, western foreigners socio-economic ruin are structurally saved stands for a special form of a house with a garden. - lived in approximately 150 r iyad. s Most pre- and revalued by the wealthy population. In The basic type has residential buildings on the ferred were accommodations which stood addition, another way of life is being estab- shorter sides that face each other. The other sides out for their not yet completely dilapidated lished in the district: gentrification in the display high boundary walls. In today’s Marrakesh - fabric, close proximity to the Jemaa el-Fna, ‘oriental town’ – indeed in the ‘oriental every residential house is called r iyad. in colloquial and easy accessibility by car. town’ because the houses, apart from some context with foreigners. In contrast to previous years, last year’s exceptions, are designed in the ‘oriental’ 2 . Stevens, Mary Anne (1984). ‘Western Art and its buyers no longer mainly came from the style that shaped the image 19t h- c e n t u r y Encounter with the Islamic World 1798-1914’. In upper class or the artist scene, but rather Europe had of the Orient. Thus, a hybrid The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse. European from the broad middle class of Europe. area was created with an imaginary oriental Painters in North Africa and the Near East, Mary There is a wide variety of newcomers, from ambience and a sumptuous way of life, Anne Stevens. London: Royal Academy of Arts, pp. immigrants and transmigrants, to bour- which consciously contrasted the poverty of 1 5 - 2 3 . geoisie and illustrious holiday guests, to Eu- the neighbourhoods. This contrast, which is ropean Muslims. manifest especially in the availability of ser- Prof. Dr Anton J. Escher is head of the Center for - Many buy r iyad. s in Marrakesh because of vants in houses, hotels, and restaurants, Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Institute of the comparatively low cost – with respect to adds to the fact that western foreigners feel Geography, Johannes Gutenberg-University of European prices. However, not only the pur- they live in a ‘sort of gracious colonial at- Mainz, Germany. chase price is decisive: the standard of living mosphere’, as Mr Willis says. E-mail: [email protected] in general has improved. In Marrakesh, a Depending on what perspective is taken, Sandra Petermann is a researcher at the Center for house with an inner courtyard and em- the process of change in the Medina of Mar- Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Germany. ployed servants is affordable for many. rakesh either proves to be gentrification, E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Space & Architecture 35

U K PETER CLARK From Fantasy

Islamic architectural influences in Britain from India and Andalusia go back to the 18t h century. Inspiration from the Middle East appears in private houses, syna- gogues and mosques from the 19t h century. Since the to Faith immigration and growth of a British Muslim communi- ty in the last fifty years, purpose-built mosques have been constructed and have absorbed an older ‘orien- talist tradition’. Other mosques have been converted cinemas, private houses, churches and factories, often Islamic Architectural with some decoration intended to Islamize the build- 1 i n g . Influences in Britain

one architectural historian has observed, ‘in the small number of converts, about industrial premises. The rest have been small domes or “pepper-pots” of every 600,000 are of Pakistani origin, 150,000 from adapted from private houses. What is likely shape, some of them deliberately oriental.’2 India and 200,000 from Bangladesh. A ma- to be the largest mosque, in Darfield Street, Brighton Pavilion had an impact on many jority of British Muslims have now been has been under construction since 1986.6 new buildings throughout the 19t h c e n t u r y , born in Britain. Part of it has been opened for prayer, but but other influences were reaching Britain The South Asians have tended to occupy problems of funding have led to slow from Andalusia and from the Middle East. particular areas of inner cities. In many progress. Nonetheless the architect, Neil Orientalist painting has been fully docu- places South Asian Muslims have often Waghorne, has a clear vision of how the mented. Thanks to the development of been the latest wave of outsiders. The ap- building will develop. He is a student of steam-driven ships, travel to the Middle East pearance of an area may be like a Turkish architecture. Part of his inspiration is from the 1830s became easier. Travellers re- palimpsest with physical evidence of earlier the Suleymaniye mosque in Istanbul. A su- turned with souvenirs, and also ideas of de- settlements. Manningham in Bradford, for perb m u q a r n a s doorway has been carved by sign and notions of space and leisure. example, has been successively the home of a local stonemason, David Bedford, from Two outstandingly self-conscious at- German Jewish immigrants, then Irish and Yorkshire stone. tempts at reproducing Arab architecture in now South Asians. Near the synagogue al- Islamic architecture has historically adapt- the 19t h century have survived. ready mentioned, is an Irish pub. Syna- ed to local traditions of building. In Britain One is at Leighton House in London, built gogue and bar are incongruous prominent many purpose-built mosques have been in in 1865 for the artist Lord Leighton who col- buildings in an area inhabited by people a tradition of ‘orientalist’ architecture, going lected ceramics and other Islamic artefacts overwhelmingly of Pakistani origin. back to the 18t h century. The best models during visits to the Middle East. The house There are today about 1200 mosques and from the Islamic world have been studied, was built to house his souvenirs. The model praying areas in Britain, of which approxi- used or copied. The sponsors of the build- Gujarati Mosque There is nothing alien about Islamic archi- was La Zisa in Palermo, but the 17t h- c e n t u r y mately a hundred have been purpose-built. ings today are Muslims but the architects, at Manningham, tectural influences in Britain. Nor is British wooden lattice-work came from Damascus. The major mosques of Britain – at Regents designers and craftsmen are likely to be B r a d f o r d , Islam a peculiarly 20t h-century phenome- Another example is the Arab Room at Park London, in Whitechapel, the cathedral- non-Muslims. What makes a building an Is- formerly a factory. non. Close connections between the Islamic Cardiff Castle, built by William Burges for mosques of Birmingham, Leeds and Edin- lamic building? Its purpose? Its owners? Its world and Britain go back for over four cen- the Marquess of Bute. Burges had been to burgh – have been built with funding from source of inspiration? turies, through trade, diplomacy, travel, art, Turkey. He had taken time off from design- outside Britain. The others have been con- Is a distinctly British Muslim style emerg- the Empire and scholarship. In the early 17t h ing the Crimean Memorial Chapel in Istan- versions of houses, warehouses and cine- ing? Is it the blending of work from the Is- century there is evidence of a small commu- bul to study the city’s mosques. The floor mas. Richly carpeted rooms where shoes are lamic world with local materials? Or is it the nity of Muslims in London – including crafts- pattern of the room, to quote John Sweet- discarded, calligraphic texts and some dec- striking adaptation of a building originally men and a lawyer, though there is no record man, ‘sets out the Islamic eight-fold figure, oration have helped to ‘Islamize’ the build- designed for other purposes? ♦ of a mosque. which is developed with pyrotechnic virtu- ing. In the 1960s, the architect Gulzar Haider osity in the domical ceiling.’3 arrived in Britain from Pakistan and attend- Imperial fantasies ed prayers at a Wimbledon house. ‘There The 18t h century was a great age for build- Faith takes over was no m i h r a b niche, just a depression in a ing in Britain. Styles often reflected an atti- Meanwhile fantasy was yielding place to side wall, a cold fireplace with a checker- tude of philosophical curiosity about the faith. The first religious buildings to owe in- board of green and brown ceramic tiles. A world. From Islamic countries there were in- spiration to Islamic models were actually small chandelier with missing pieces of crys- fluences from buildings from Grenada to new synagogues. Newly prosperous Jewish tal was suspended asymmetrically in a cor- India. Mosques were designed, not as places communities eschewed the Gothic or the ner. A rickety office chair with gaudy plush of worship but as ‘garden embellishments’. Classical styles. One was associated with rug draped over its back acted as the m i n b a r One such example was at Kew where medieval Christianity, the other with 18t h- pulpit.’ Twenty five years later he returned William Chambers built an exotic collection century rationalism. The adopting of a to the house-mosque which was ‘now of oriental buildings for Frederick Prince of ‘Moorish’ style was a reminder of Jewish wrapped with a glazed finish: arched win- Wales. His mosque (now disappeared) had glories in Arab Andalusia. The finest exam- dows sat squeezed into what seemed like an ‘Gothic ogee arches’ above the doorways ples have been in mainland Europe, but endless line of sharp crescents: and there with quotations from the Holy Qur’an in there is one good example in Liverpool. An- was a number of token minaret domes, gold lettering. other in the heart of Muslim Bradford has a whose profile came less from any architec- Britain’s closest contacts with the Islamic horse-shoe arched doorway and horizontal tural tradition than from illustrations of the N o t e s world two centuries ago were through the banding of alternate colours of stone. Arabian Nights. ’4 1 . This article is based on a talk given at the Felix expanding Empire in India. In the first twen- Some new churches also displayed Islamic The Sussex area has a small, but ethnically Meritis Foundation, Amsterdam, 24 January 2000. ty years of the 19t h century there was a influences, albeit indirect. The best example heterogeneous community of Muslims, with 2 . Conner, Patrick (1979). Oriental Architecture in the vogue for an Indian style. British architects is Christ Church Streatham in South London, 39 mother tongues. Of the three Brighton W e s t. London: Thames and Hudson, p. 141. relied on artists’ drawings that would have whose architect, James Wild, used horse- mosques, one occupies a private house that 3 . Sweetman, John (1988). The Oriental Obsession: been produced in expensive folio editions. shoe shaped arches and a grand west door- was previously a Jewish school, another is a Islamic Inspiration in British and American Art and One pioneering artist was William Hodges way modelled on the doorway of the Sultan converted shop, the third is above five Architecture 1500-1920. Cambridge: University who produced Select Views of India b e t w e e n Hasan Mosque in Cairo. shops. To the east, is the Hastings mosque – Press, p. 193. 1785 and 1788. Hodges was impressed by From the late 19t h century there was a a converted church – and to the west is the 4 . Haider Gulzar (1996). ‘Muslim Space and the what he called ‘Moorish grandeur’ and ar- growing Muslim presence in Britain. At first, Worthing mosque – a converted warehouse. Practice of Architecture: a Personal Odyssey’. In gued, as had Sir Christopher Wren a century prayers were held in private houses or in The new town of Crawley, inland, near Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, earlier, that there was an historic connec- rented halls. Sometimes there were rallies at Gatwick airport, has a purpose-built edited by Barbara Daly Metcalf. Berkeley: tion between Islamic architecture and the Leicester Square (ironically by the Alhambra m o s q u e .5 This pattern is fairly representa- University of California Press, pp. 36, 42. Gothic arch. Theatre, now the Odeon cinema), Hyde Park tive of British mosques. 5 . I am grateful to Imam Dr Abduljalil Sajid JP for The supreme example of replication of In- Corner or Peckham Rye. The first purpose- information in this paragraph. dian Islamic architecture was the Royal built mosque was at Woking, south of Lon- Orientalism revived? 6 . I am grateful for guidance on Bradford to Dr Philip Pavilion at Brighton, whose architect, John don. This was constructed from funds left by By contrast, the Manningham area of Lewis and Mr Neil Waghorne. Nash, studied volumes on Indian Islamic the Ruler of Bhopal, and was built in 1889 by Bradford is almost wholly Muslim. Of the 30 buildings. Though a classicist throughout a British non-Muslim architect. mosques in the city, four have been pur- Peter Clark is a freelance consultant and translator his life – he designed the Regents Park es- Today it is reckoned that there are about pose-built, two are in former cinemas, three from Arabic to English, Brighton, UK. tates – Nash was versatile and delighted, as 1.5 million Muslims in Britain. In addition to are former churches and nine are converted E-mail: [email protected] 3 6 Visual Arts I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

F i l m CLAUDIA PRECKEL Muslim Actors

As could be read in the Indian newspaper MP Chroni- c l e in November 1999, the word ‘Bollywood’, sobri- quet for the glamorous Indian film industry in Bom- bay, will be among several new entries of Indian ori- in ‘Bollywood’ gin (like b i n d i or m e h n d i) to be included into the mil- lennium editions of famous British dictionaries. Bom- tion of their biographies. The following his father’s side of the family, Saif Ali Khan is ian ethics are taught, and their grandmoth- bay has been the centre of India’s film industry since questions were to be answered in this re- related to two former ruling families of ers play an important role in this religious 1895, when the films of the Lumiere brothers were search: Is it important for Muslim actors to India, namely to the n a w a b families of education. Thus, Muslim actors seem to re- shown in the Watson’s Hotel. Although there are stu- be clearly identified as Muslim? Do they Pataudi (Haryana) and of Bhopal (Madhya gard themselves as models for tolerance dios in other Indian cities where films in various lan- convey a particular Muslim identity? Do Pradesh). When asked about his n a w a b i o r i- among all Indian religions. This can be stat- guages and dialects are produced (e.g. Telugu films they come from a specific social back- gin, Saif Ali Khan stated that n a w a b i s h o u l d ed not only for their family life, but also for in Hyderabad or Tamil films in Madras), Bollywood ground? As there are no published studies stand for dignity, grace and good living, but their jobs as actors. There are many friend- clearly remains the most important centre for the on this matter, one begins with surfing the had in recent years become a synonym for ships established with Hindu colleagues. production of Hindi films. Many Bollywood actors Internet, which is nowadays an ideal medi- debauchery. However, he added that at the Further, most Muslim actors see no difficulty are Muslim – as are important composers and lyri- um for the Bollywood star cult. It was very end of his film career, he plans to return to in playing characters from another religious cists – and it is therefore interesting to investigate easy to trace 183 biographies of present Bhopal to work for several social projects. community, as shown by Shah Rukh Khan, the biographies of these stars. Bollywood stars, 50 of whom are Muslims. This, in his eyes, would be a good means for who played a Sikh in a television series (with The most popular among them are Shah using his popularity as well as his social a turban), thus exposing himself to heavy b a c k g r o u n d . criticism from some Muslim organizations. The question of education is connected to In conclusion, one can state that Muslim that of social origins. Is Islamic religious ed- Bollywood stars stress their Islamic identity ucation a part of superstars’ education? It is without, nonetheless overemphasizing it. Ex- very interesting to see that many Bollywood treme attitudes in religious matters are total- actors (not only the Muslims) have a univer- ly rejected by them. They rather regard them- sity degree, though none of them studied selves as citizens of a secular India which, in acting as such. Shah Rukh Khan, for exam- their eyes, is a place of religious coexistence. ple, studied mass communication at the However, only the future will show if they will renowned Jamiyya Milliyya Islamiyya in be able to maintain their image as modes of Delhi, Saif Ali Khan is Oxford-educated and religious tolerance in an Indian reality of Feroz Khan obtained a degree in business growing religious tensions. ♦ management from a university in the USA. None of them give out facts or details con- cerning religious education, the study of the Qur’an or the Arabic language. Bollywood stars seem to regard religious education as a private or family matter.

Inter-religious marriages In this context it is interesting to observe the choices of spouse made by Bollywood actors. Whereas Muslim actresses in most cases chose (and still choose) a Muslim as husband, many male Bollywood stars have married Hindu women (e.g. Shah Rukh Khan, Saif Ali Khan, and Aamir Khan). In recent times, it has not been seen to be necessary Hindi films (which last at least two hours) Rukh Khan, Salman Khan and Saif Ali Khan. for these women to convert to Islam before are traditionally melodramatic love stories, Figures indicate that 27% of Bollywood marriage, although even the superstars marsala western, or adaptations of US hits. stars are Muslims, while only 12% of the In- admit that they had to face difficulties with The revival of Hindi love stories has attract- dian population is Muslim. It is also interest- regard to acceptance of their marriages. ed, since the 1980s, millions of viewers into ing to see that only five of these superstars Shah Rukh Khan, for example, has said that at least 12,000 Indian cinemas. Spectators (e.g. Tabu, her sister Farah, and Zeenat that his wife’s family was at first strictly op- are terrified when a hero’s life or virgin’s Aman) are Muslim women, whereas some posed to their marriage, because they con- chastity is endangered, are relieved when decades ago Muslim female actors were sidered him to be ‘the wrong man with the the hero discovers the intrigue and applaud much more prevalent on screen. A probable wrong religion, the wrong attitude and the when the heroine finally falls into the hero’s reason for this may be that with the growth wrong profession.’ Some Muslims also a r m s . of influence of several strict religious demonstrated in front of his house to Some say that these romanticized love groups, Muslim families may not want their protest against his inter-religious marriage. stories are a typical expression of Indian cul- daughters to appear on screen – an issue But this did not prevent Shah Rukh Khan and ture because music and dance are its tradi- that requires further examination. his wife Gauri from marrying in a court cere- tional media. Other defenders of Bollywood mony (which is obligatory for inter-religious films add that films often propagate reli- The social origin marriages) as well as in a Hindu ceremony. gious tolerance and harmony, which may of Muslim actors Aamir Khan said in an interview that he be an important social function for them in Having stated that the percentage of Mus- would not regard a Hindu-Muslim marriage India’s multi-religious society. Critics, on the lims in Bollywood’s film and show business as a problem in a secular state such as India. other hand, say that Bollywood films only is above average, one may ask about the In his view, the fundamentalists among the support the status quo of India’s social sys- stars’ social origin. Here one can clearly ob- Hindus as well as among the Muslims should tem. Whatever may be said for and against serve that being a Bollywood star is (mostly) get used to this fact. He further explained: it, India’s film industry produces more films an upper-class phenomenon. Actors often ‘Somehow I have a feeling that despite the than any other country in the world. state that their father was a doctor, lawyer, attempts of fundamentalist parties to polar- A visitor to India cannot ignore Bolly- or restaurant owner. Some come from a ize communities – and to a certain extent wood’s charm and the omnipresence of its family of actors, directors, scriptwriters or they have succeeded in this polarization – superstars, as witnessed by huge, painted producers. Often, the mothers were practis- when it comes to love, that polarization film posters and video clips on MTV Asia or ing professionals as well. Shah Rukh Khan’s somehow doesn’t work. That’s what my ex- Channel V. Film magazines like G o r mother, for example, was a well-educated perience is.’ He added that, as in his case, it C i n é B l i t z provide the hottest gossip about Muslim woman who had studied in Oxford should be possible to celebrate Muslim as the stars, contributing to a very impressive and later worked in social service. The most well as Hindu festivities together with the ‘star cult’. famous example of an upper-class Bolly- whole family without a problem. Watching the popular music shows on wood actor is Saif Ali Khan: his father is the It is also interesting to observe that chil- television, one can easily recognize that the famous cricketeer Mansoor Ali Khan Patau- dren of these Hindu-Muslim couples some- essential film music is very often provided di. His mother is the actress Sharmila Tagore times have a Hindu name, sometimes a Mus- Claudia Preckel MA, is a PhD student and member of by Muslim composers and lyricists, the most (Mississippi Marsala), a niece of the writer lim one. For example, Aamir Khan’s son’s the research group on ‘Islamic Educational Networks famous of whom is A.R. Rahman. One also Rabindranath Tagore. Before her marriage, name is Junaid, whereas his daughter has in Transnational and Local Contexts (18t h- 2 0t h notices that many Bollywood stars are Mus- Sharmila Tagore converted to Islam and the Sanskrit name Ira. In their educational centuries)’ at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany. lims, which is what inspired the examina- took on the Muslim name Aisha Sultan. On upbringing, Muslim, Hindu and even Christ- E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Visual Arts 37

F i l m LEYLA BOUZID DISCACCIATI The Image of Women in

Women, taken as cinematographic figures, evoke mul- tiple images of a cultural and social discourse and draw attention to gender and family relations in a broader sense in a specific society, in this case, Tunisia and Al- Algerian and geria. The process of research and analysis of the films goes beyond a simple collection of female figures. Rather, it focuses on the representation of female iden- tity in the films and how this identity (as a mirror of so- ciety) has changed and continues to change. Tunisian Cinema

without a real political conscience and in emancipation and for national develop- Maghreb is often generated by strictly polit- search of her son who has disappeared, ment. The girl’s behaviour is given a positive ical reasons or by claustrophobic patriarchal without whom she is lost. Likewise, in Rache- value, also because economic development family structures: this is the theme of films di’s Al-afyun wal-‘asa (Opium and the Stick, needed emancipated and educated women. such as T o u c h i a by Benhadj (T o u c h i a, Alge- Algeria, 1969) the female figures are por- ria, 1992) and A l - q a l ’ a by Chouikh (The Cita- trayed only in the home environment and The search for a personal d e l, Algeria, 1988). The screams of the pro- appear cut off from the political situation of i d e n t i t y tagonist in the first film and of the little girl the period. In the 1980s and 1990s, with the advent in the second, both in the last sequences, Another role for female figures is that of and consolidation of a u t e u r films, a consid- show the need to express pain and put an the wife, probably the most suitable role to erable change can be noticed in the film- end to silence in order to bring about consolidate the formation of a young na- maker’s artistic approach and, consequently c h a n g e . tion. Shams al-diba by Behi (Hyenas’ Sun, in the contents and aesthetics of film pro- Tunisia, 1977) and Dhil al-Ardh by Louhichi duction. The search for a new identity and a The discourse of (Shadow of the Earth, Tunisia, 1982) show personal – individual and no longer collec- e m a n c i p a t i o n wives who are attentive to the needs of tive – dimension which has characterized A constant reality in Tunisian society is their children, husbands and families, thus a u t e u r films from the Maghreb since its be- highlighed by two films: Soumt al-Qusour b y consolidating the identity of the Arab family ginnings, also affected representations of Tlatli (Silences of the Palace, Tunisia, 1994) n u c l e u s . women in film. What is new in these films is and Bent Familia by Bouzid (Bent Familia, In films which ‘preach’ a social debate (for mainly the search for the past and present Tunisia 1998). Both films focus on the dis- this reason defined by critics as ‘social in the collective imagination and the sur- course of emancipation and the improved Soumt al-Qusour, An analysis of the female figure in Tunisian films’), another image of the woman mounting of the stereotypes presented in social and juridical condition of women in Silences of the and Algerian films1 must take into consider- emerges: a woman oriented towards West- previous films: the discourse goes from the society. In the first film, hope for change is P a l a c e. ation one of the dominant characteristics of ern-style ‘modernity’, who fights for her social to the introspective and from political placed in the future generations, who will the cinema of these countries, namely their rights. In many Algerian films, this image is issues to personal questions. conclude the slow and difficult march of short history, as they came into being only based on a specific socio-cultural process. The women represented are looking for progress, begun by their mothers upon the with national independence (in 1956 and Following the agrarian reform in 1972, new models and life styles and a dimension country’s independence. Bent Familia, on 1962 respectively). As they are of recent cre- women were considered an active part of of their own, with the concentrated effort to the other hand, underlines that forty years ation, these cinemas are the articulation of a the economic process for development, be considered thinking individuals in soci- on, little has really changed in how Tunisian quest for a specific national identity rather based on the Socialist model. As a conse- ety. The female figures are no longer ‘ideal- women are considered. Despite their im- than a creative need for expression. The cin- quence, this political p l a i d o y e r is reflected istic or theoretical constructs’.4 It is there- proved juridical position, women experi- ema is seen as a way of expressing a socio- within the couple or preferably within the fore the diversity and multiplicity of these ence the paradox of ‘false modernity’ where cultural discourse and imposing images family. In A l - F a h h a m by Bouamari (The Char- figures that represents the leitmotif of films they are not yet considered free and think- drawing attention to specific political inten- coal Burner, Algeria, 1972) the wife of the made in the past twenty years. Moreover, ing individuals but still as belonging to a tions. The representation of women in films charcoal burner who has gone to work in a male and female filmmakers deepen the dis- family, which thinks, decides and acts on has thus been influenced by the interpreta- factory following the sector’s economic cri- course on women, investigating the mecha- their behalf. tion of women’s role in society. sis, becomes aware of her situation and re- nisms of the relations between the sexes in In the final analysis, women’s search for jects her traditional role as a housewife, not a broader sense, for example touching upon their own identity and dimension continues Mother, wife and daughter: because she has become aware of herself as such delicate taboo subjects as homosexu- in daily life in Tunisia and Algeria. Such a representation in early films a woman but for reasons linked to an eco- ality or male chauvinism. search is mirrored in representations of There was no lack of films about women in nomic change. M. Léon comments: ‘Le cou- By emigrating and fleeing abroad, women women in film in these societies and will the 1960s and 1970s. However, limited and ple n’est utilisé que comme le moyen ser- look for the opportunity to express their real continue to do so as the societies them- generalized images were conveyed. Female vant le mieux à l’exposé didactique, et le identity which has been oppressed by claus- selves undergo change. ♦ figures were always present in the films, plus apte à toucher la sensibilité du specta- trophobic family environments. This is high- even if their representation was without sig- t e u r . ’3 Women’s active participation in the lighted in Ben Mabrouk’s a l - S a m a (T h e nificance. They appeared ‘alongside’ the national economy is shown in two other ex- T r a c e, Tunisia, 1982) where, at the end, the main male characters or were utilized as part emplary films: A z i z a by Ben Ammar (A z i z a, protagonist, suffocated by a restrictive envi- of the environment where the action took Tunisia, 1980) and Laila wa akhawatuha b y ronment, burns her textbooks from the place. The representation of the woman in Mazif (Leila and the Others, Algeria, 1978). In exams she has failed5and leaves for Europe. her roles as mother, wife and daughter, was both films, the protagonists suggest that In C h e b by Bouchareb (C h e b, Algeria, 1990) linked to a socio-political discourse. The ten- women’s emancipation will occur (and and Keswa, al-haitu al-da’i by Bornaz (K e s w a , N o t e s dency of these films was, in fact, based on thereby contribute to national develop- the Lost Thread, Tunisia, 1998), the problem- 1 . All the titles of the films quoted are in transcribed the need of these young nations, Algeria and ment) if they enter the world of work out- atic confrontation between the culture of and simplified Arabic for technical reasons and Tunisia, to create a national identity. The side the home environment. Both protago- origin and that of the country of immigra- have been taken from the Dictionnaire des family acted, for example, as a microcosm of nists become self-aware, leading them to tion is treated differently. The discomfort af- cinéastes du Maghreb (Armes, Roy (1996). the whole social system. In the familial rebel: against the claustrophobia of the fects above all female b e u r s6 who, having Paris: Editions ATM). Where there is no original sphere, the representation of women, in family environment (in A z i z a) and against appropriated European customs and habits, title in Arabic, the French title is quoted. roles defined only by their relationships with the ill-treatment of women in the workplace find themselves at grips with a now lost 2 . Maherzi, Lofti (1980). Le cinéma algérien. male figures, consolidated religious, social and in the public sphere (in Laila wa identity on their return to the country of ori- I n s t i t u t i o n s - i m a g i n a i r e - i d é o l o g i e. and political values. a k h a w a t u h a) . g i n . Algiers: Sned, p. 291. In a number of Tunisian films of the 1960s, The other figure chosen by filmmakers for With different approaches, two other films 3 . Léon, Maryse (1981). ‘L’image de la femme dans la the figure of the woman is often represented a social discourse is that of the daughter, deal with the identity of woman in society, littérature et le cinéma algérien’. In L’Algérie vue as a dominating and self-confident mother representing the new generation. The main but by observing the difficult quest by North par son cinéma, edited by J.P. Brossard. who enjoys considerable decision-making characteristic of the daughter is her contro- African men for their own sexual identity Locarno: Editions Festival du Film, 1981, p. 122. power within the family. However, in the pro- versial relationship with her father, her de- and through the analysis of the controversial 4 . Bouzid, Nouri (1995). ‘New Realism in Arab lific Algerian productions which idolized the sire for freedom and an adequate educa- relationship between the sexes. Rih al-sadd Cinema’. A l i f 15, p. 249. war of independence, stressing and mythi- tion. In two films, Rih al-Janub by Riad (W i n d by Bouzid (Man of Ashes, Tunisia, 1986) and 5 . Symbolically this means breaking away from and cizing the strong and heroic character of the from the South, Algeria, 1975) and H o u r i a b y Asfour stah–Halfaouine by Boughedir (H a l- eliminating every trace of the past. male fighter, only stereotyped figures of suf- Mazif (H o u r i a, Algeria, 1986), the young pro- f a o u i n e, Tunisia, 1990) deal with these taboo 6 . Inversion in French of the consonants of the word fering mothers or wives were portrayed. As tagonists face up to paternal authority, rep- subjects by placing the accent on the vio- a r a b e indicating the second generation of Maherzi emphasizes, in these films women resenting the previous generation and rebel lence generated by negating sexual identity immigrants of North African origin. took on the classic functions of protectors against it so that they can gain access to ed- and, in the latter film, on the ‘territoriality’ of and nurturers.2 An example is the remarkably ucation and consequently, to emancipation. sexuality as conceived by Islam. Leyla Bouzid Discacciati studied Islamic Studies successful film Rih al-Awras by Lakhdar-Ham- For example in the first film, the protagonist The psychological and physical violence at Humboldt University and Comparative Literature ina (The Wind from the Aurès, Algeria, 1966), explains to a shepherd in clearly didactic that blocks and forms an obstacle to at the Free University, Berlin Germany. where the protagonist is a mother in despair, tones that education is fundamental for her women’s progress in the society of the E-mail: [email protected] 3 8 Obituaries I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Maulana Sayyid Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (Ali Miyan)

The recent death of Maulana Sayyid Abul Hasan Ali Miyan succeeded as rector in 1961. One significant Nadwi, known by the simple title Ali Miyan, has dimension of Ali Miyan’s scholarly work was to been mourned not only in his home of India but help shape a historical heritage of Muslim political, among the many Muslims and non-Muslims intellectual, and spiritual leadership by writing his- throughout the world who knew him and his con- tories and biographies of the great figures of the tributions as a scholar and public figure. He was Indian Muslim tradition from Shaikh Ahmad Sirhin- widely respected as a scholar of Q u r ' a n i c c o m m e n- di in the l7t h century to the leaders of the contem- tary and other traditional knowledge; he was a porary Tablighi J a m aca t m o v e m e n t . prolific writer of biography, history, and contem- His connection with the Tabligh movement porary commentary; and he was a renowned began in 1939, and he supported the movement leader in numerous institutions focusing on the through his writings and also by his own participa- political, educational, and social life of Muslims tion in d a w a as well as his influence on those asso- today. He is credited with writing perhaps a hun- ciated with Nadwa to participate as well. It is as dred books in Urdu and in Arabic, many of which someone whose energy was focused on spiritual have been translated into English and other lan- and educational matters that he became an influ- g u a g e s . ential spokesman for Muslims in India. Born in Rae Bareli, India, in 1914, Ali Miyan was Those who gathered in Lucknow, Rae Bareli, and associated, from his student days, with the Nadwat elsewhere to condole his death included Muslim al cU l a m a in Lucknow, an institution founded early leaders from India and abroad and Hindu, Bud- in the century to bridge the gap between the dhist, and Christian luminaries who lauded him for Western and the classically educated elites. A fur- his compassion, tolerance, and vision as well as for ther goal of the Nadwa was to foster interaction his extraordinary scholarship. ♦ with the Arab world and to cultivate a high stan- dard of Arabic learning. Ali Miyan’s own life richly BARBARA D. METCALF fulfilled those objectives. His grandfather was among the founders of the institution; his father, Barbara D. Metcalf is professor of History at the University of the eminent scholar cA b d al-Hayy Hasani (d. 1926), California, Davis, California. USA. was its rector, as was his elder brother, whom Ali E-mail: [email protected]

Ferdinand Smit (1959-2000)

During the first week of March, the shocking news interest in academic pursuits. In his position, he was that Ferdinand Smit and two friends were brutally several times instrumental in setting up and finding murdered in North Mali was made known. The three funds for academic research projects. In spite of his were on a motoring trip from Amsterdam to Ba- busy and demanding job, he was able to complete mako. A proficient Arabist and knowledgeable Mid- his PhD research and write his thesis. Just before he dle East expert, Ferdinand worked as a diplomat for left for Mali, he had handed in his dissertation, The the Dutch Foreign Office and had extensive field ex- Battle for South Lebanon: The Radicalization of Leba- perience in the Middle East. In the early 1980s, dur- non’s Shi’ites (1982-1985). It is for a large part based ing his studies (Arabic at the Universities of Amster- on documents that he was able to acquire during dam and Leiden and Middle Eastern Archaeology at his work as a UNIFIL intelligence officer. The the University of Amsterdam), he served several Catholic University of Nijmegen, where he was to times in South Lebanon as an interpreter and intel- defend his thesis, has now decided to award the ligence officer for the Dutch Battalion in the UNIFIL. doctorate posthumously. Moreover he participated in a number of archaeo- For many of us, it is difficult to realize that Ferdi- logical campaigns in Syria. After finishing his stud- nand is not amongst us anymore. We will remember ies, Ferdinand entered the Dutch Foreign Service in him as warm friend, a solid scholar and an expert 1986. He was posted in Cairo and Damascus and with varied and multifaceted interests in Middle worked for some time at the Middle East and Africa Eastern and Islamic affairs. ♦ Desk in the Hague. His last posting abroad was on secondment with the United Nations in Gaza. RUUD PETERS Ferdinand was fluent in Arabic. A keen observer of Middle Eastern political affairs, he also had a great Ruud Peters, University of Amsterdam, the N e t h e r l a n d s .

Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1916-2000)

On the 7th of February, W.C. Smith died in his na- School of Oriental and African Studies, London, tive Toronto, Canada, aged 83. To many readers of where I had just completed an undergraduate de- the ISIM Newletter, Smith’s name will be associat- gree. Smith, although ordained to the Presbyter- ed with the founding of the modern discipline of ian ministry and who had taught at the Forman Islamic Studies. At the age of 33, he established Christian College in Lahore, brought to the study the distinctive Institute of Islamic Studies at of Islam a broader, sharper vision of a modern, plu- McGill University, where he taught until 1963. By ralist world that previous generations of mission- this time his first four books - and for some, his aries to the sub-continent had lacked. His sensitiv- best known - had already appeared: Modern Islam ity to other cultures and languages also informed in India: a social analysis (1943) and Islam in Mod- his approach to Christian theological debate, pos- ern History (1957), The Meaning and End of Religion sibly best expressed in his book Towards a World (1962), and The Faith of Other Men (1962). Each of T h e o l o g y (1981) which had built upon his earlier these books reflected the author’s special rela- Questions of Religious Truth (1967) and Religious Di- tionship to the study of Islam as well as his deep v e r s i t y (1976). Writing a new preface for his Faith of concern for the personal, individual quality of Other Men (re-issued 1998 as Patterns of Faith faith inspired by the world’s religions as key to around the World), Smith expressed his irenical ap- their being vital, living traditions. proach to comparative religion in these character- The Smith years still marked the Institute’s ethos istic terms, ‘Classically the Church, or similarly the when I became a graduate student there shortly Muslim world, was right that faith is fundamental- after his departure from Montreal for Harvard. ly one, wherever it be found. They were wrong that Scholars and students, both Muslim and non-Mus- its only form is a particular pattern with which they lim, shared in a joint venture of scholarly enquiry were familiar.’ ♦ formerly dominated by Western orientalists. Here, understanding a religious tradition entailed a de- DAVID WAINES gree of empathy with its participants but without surrendering critical and historical analysis. This David Waines is professor of Islamic Studies, Department of was in fresh contrast with the vestiges of a colo- Religious Studies, Lancaster University, UK. nial, orientalist mind-set which lingered on at the E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Media 39

Knowledge and Technology JON W. ANDERSON New Media in the

The Muslim world is experiencing a media explosion – from street-corner kiosks to satellite television and the Internet. Islamic messages and discussions of them are everywhere. They are proliferating, thanks to increas- Muslim World: T h e ingly accessible, user-friendly technologies, from the already-familiar tapes and the lowly telephone to the hi-tech Internet, from pulp fiction to new law review journals, from popular culture magazines to multime- dia Islamic educational material. Redrawing the dimen- Emerging Public Sphere sions of Islamic discourse, identity, and consciousness extends beyond audience fragmentation to an ex- same themes are taken up on Internet chat concepts, and ideas about how to live prop- pares that to how people use the telephone panding public sphere of new genre and channels of and World Wide Web sites. The channels of erly; modernity itself becomes a topic of rep- for mobilizing and combining personal net- expression for new voices and interpreters. such discourse also include desktop publish- resentation and discussion in the popular works for public action. On a more global ing, faxes, the increasingly ubiquitous tele- press, where it is endlessly deconstructed, level, the Internet has become a favoured Observers and analysts of the Muslim world phone, and the Internet. These genre and and also instructed. The slippage between tool of the dispersed and of emerging elites have become familiar with how cassette channels dramatically lower the barriers and subject and object can be seen in the blurred across the Muslim world, from ordinary Mus- tapes and satellite television have changed risks of entry to the public sphere, and elude genres of Islamic novels that introduce lims with extraordinary command of the the propagation of Islam. The face-to-face of efforts to contain communication within ac- themes of Islamic manuals written by cu l a m a ' medium to vernacular preachers. They in sermons and fatwas are increasingly mediat- ceptable – most narrowly within ritual – into vernacular fiction and pop culture mag- turn lead the way for more orthodox institu- ed, and Islamic discourse is increasingly em- t e r m s . azines, both significantly aimed at female au- tions, including new, international Islamic bedded in the media tools of modern life. In this blurring of boundaries, a vast middle diences. Other messages also migrate from universities, Muslim academies that arose in This integration process is as diverse as its ground is opening between elite, super-liter- one medium to another, increasing the hori- response to colonialism, and now the vener- channels, as messages migrate between ate, authoritative discourse and mass, non- zontal circulation of communication and able Al-Azhar University and Sufi orders that media and the range of interpreters, if not of literate, ‘folk’ Islam thanks to increasingly ac- shifting its registers toward a sense of partic- were already transnational. interpretation, expands accordingly. Expan- cessible technologies for mediated commu- ipation quite beyond the experience of mere Commenting on this practical pluralism, sion is not just of the field. Through the new nication. The old communications ecology of r e c e p t i o n . Richard Norton describes responses of ‘the media, increasing numbers of participants the mass media, with their few senders and These are indicators of an emerging public slowly receding state’. Behind the specific take part in a public sphere in which all have many receivers, is giving way to a new public sphere of mediated communication be- face of dissent, ‘the discourse that will give an authority to talk about Islam. In the space with nearly as many senders as re- tween elite and ‘folk’ representations, of in- shape to change’, he argues, emerges from a process, ideas and understandings about Is- ceivers. Cast in the vernacular, they are root- termediate forms between face-to-face inter- broader society in which new media are lamic thought and practice may be frag- ed in the conditions of modern life – which action and mass media speaking to mass au- moving to the centre.2 Media have been a mented and recombined with ideas and ex- they often address – are multi-channel, and diences, and of increasing participation measure of modernization at least since periences of contemporary, often immedi- tied to consumer-level technologies that are through a continuum of forms, discourses, Daniel Lerner’s The Passing of Traditional Soci- ate, contingencies of how to lead Muslim associated with and sometimes essential for and channels. Its significance is that this e t y.3 Mass media were channels of nation- lives in increasingly global societies. contemporary professional and middle class range is both broader and more embedded building states and stages for ritualized com- The new media enabling these changes ex- life. Above all, they are participatory. Recep- than the limiting cases captured in the ‘civil munication to mass citizens as witnesses. The tend functionally and experientially beyond tion, and the sorts of informal deconstruction society’ discussion focused on associations, new media, in their comparative diversity, the already familiar tapes of preachers and among intimates, is replaced by participation citizenship, and civility or in characterizations flexibility, and lower barriers to entry, are their satellite outlets. They are vernacular that displaces authority with engagement, of ‘activist,’ even ‘fundamentalist’, Islam that channels for diverse, flexible, and more ac- and down-market, often overlooked in text- broadening both the forms and content of increasingly appear overloaded as categories cessible participation than mere witness. This based scholarship focused on intellectuals engagement. Precedents range from the in- for analysis. Those limited cases are embed- emerging public sphere is not only one of and the more social and behavioral analyses troduction of printing to desktop publishing, ded in a wider range which is expanding and talking back to power, but also one of a wider applied to the masses. The new media range from leaflets to home-produced tapes of emerging along multiple other dimensions range of actors who talk to each other, some- from pulp novels and popular culture maga- everything from sermons to folk music. The that come into view in the volume, New times about power, and often about the zines to new kinds of law reviews in which range of skills linking the singer and the stu- Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Pub- power of the new media in their communica- n o n -cu l a m a ' join the cu l a m a ' in thinking dio, for instance, is increasingly available lic Sphere.1 tion. What also emerges from New Media in about the s h a rica and its contemporary ap- through user-friendly and distributed ‘intelli- the Muslim World are the multiple dimen- Cover of an plications. They also discuss how to be and gence’ built into consumer technology – and Multiple dimensions of new sions of their embeddedness. ‘Islamic romance’ become Muslim, and how to share Islam with into consumers through two generations of media in the Muslim world We are widely recognized to be in a period published others in non-Muslim countries and in the spreading mass education. Continuities in Egyptian popular culture of exploration, which moves into increasing- in Bangladesh. face of existing Islamic conventions. The commentary, Walter Armbrust shows, form a ly accessible media with more diverse play- The horizontal circulation tradition of reflection and self-reflection de- ers, means, and channels. Cassettes, pulp fic- of communication constructing alternative framings of moder- tion, cheap magazines, but also law reviews The ground is shifting and enabling more nity that belie easy interpretations of ‘hybrid- and the Internet, are media of migrating than opportunities to answer back. While dis- ity.’ In a ground-breaking discussion of Islam- messages and ‘blurred genres’, which con- sent initially attracts attention (of analysts, if ic romance novels, Maimuma Huq re-sorts found authority, including that formerly re- not of authorities), the new media facilitate a the contest of Islamists and secularists in served (sometimes self-reserved) for intellec- much wider range as well as volume of views Bangladesh. John Bowen focuses on contem- tuals. This is also a period of exposition, of in entering the public sphere. These include porary proliferation of Islamic law reviews in messages moving into mediated communi- alternative views, to be sure, but also mobi- Indonesia that engage a wide range of con- cation from more restricted face-to-face lization that is horizontal and structured tributors, who in turn explore western social realms. Here, a new communications ecology around shared interests and concerns in con- science as well as Islamic learning, to give a is emerging that expands the public sphere trast to the top-down model in mass commu- close account of contemporary consensus- and participants in it. It is clear that we need nications. The telephone becomes a tool for building in one of the Muslim world’s larger to pay more attention to precisely where and extending personal networks into communi- publics. The multiple registers of connec- how contemporary Islamic (and other) fer- ty mobilization, and new law journals offer tions with wider publics is the subject of Gre- ment is occurring, including the range of arenas for engaging a wider range of actors gory Starrett’s account of the consumption media between its anointed exemplars and than traditional authorities in the ci j t i h a d t h a t and reuse of Islamic teaching materials in an supposed bases. ♦ actually links the s h a r ica to contemporary American Black Muslim congregation. In it, is- life. Similarly, pulp romances with Islamic sues of personal morality are tied to knowl- themes exemplify the increasing promi- edge, including both technology and knowl- N o t e s nence of the vernacular in new media while edge of the community of Islam. Hakan 1 . Edited by Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson the Internet, the medium par excellence o f Yavuz provides an account of today’s media- (1999). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. the ‘virtual community’, creates them on a saturated Turkey, where new media figure 2 . ‘New Media, Civic Pluralism, and the Slowly global scale. prominently in community-building that cir- Receding State’. In New Media in the Muslim World: In the past, information deficits encour- cumvents rather than merely challenges au- The Emerging Public Sphere, edited by Dale F. aged reliance on skilled interpreters to fill in thority and previously fixed positions and in- Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson, p. 27. the gaps and impose structure. Such struc- terpretations. Eickelman describes the cen- 3 New York: The Free Press, 1958. tures of political, religious, intellectual au- sors’ new dilemma with a world where mes- thority are giving way to skills to compose sages easily migrate into alternative chan- Jon W. Anderson is chair of the Anthropology and sift messages, to link and also to move nels, alternative media, sometimes subtly Department of the Catholic University of America, messages between media, to translate and borrowing their authority as well as their Washington DC, and co-director of the Arab apply both messages and channels. Moderni- means. Jenny White tells a more grassroots Information Project at Georgetown University’s ty poses such surpluses of representation in story of how television in Turkey puts events Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, USA. multiple, sometimes alternative lifestyles, before the public as they happen, and com- E-mail: [email protected] 4 0 Research I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Project Presentation LIISAMAIJA JURVALA Islam in the Far North of Europe: ’An old Muslim minority in Finland’; ‘an offi- cially acknowledged religious community The Tatars of Finland since 1925*…’; ‘Secularization or still active religious worship…’. Such statements about the Tatars of Finland caught my at- I have been writing a dissertation on the Framework of the dissertation project my aim is also to analyse more care- tention some years ago. The Tatars are an contemporary religious worship of the I intend to focus on the following questions: fully the far too general and loose characteri- old ethnic Turkic Islamic national minority Tatars in Finland since February 1999, What is the role played by the five pillars, i.e. zation of the Islam practised by the Tatars in consisting of about 850 people, hardly specifically concerning such matters as the the creed, prayer, the alms tax, the fast in the Finland as Euro-Islam and to use a more pre- known either in Finland or the rest of Eu- importance of Islam to the Tatars in ordi- month of Ramadan and the pilgrimage to cise definition for the term Euro-Islam in this rope. nary everyday life, their understanding of Mecca? What does the celebration of reli- connection. ♦ essential Islamic concepts, norms, values, gious festivals mean to a Tatar? Is religiosity moral conception and their contacts visible in everyday life and behaviour? Who The ISIM Newsletter would like to urge abroad. From August to October 1999, I transfers religious knowledge (imams, the N o t e researchers to introduce their projects in this conducted research in Finland: establishing oldest members of families, influential fami- * The second country in Europe to officially contact with the Tatars, making inquiries, lies or other actors) and to whom? acknowledge the rights of a Muslim community section. Introducing new research in the field interviewing the imam Ahmet Naim Atasev- The contemporary religious worship of the was Belgium in 1974. of Islamic studies can serve to stimulate er, and participating as an observer in Fri- Tatars in Finland is seemingly of no interest in interest as well as to strengthen networks day prayer at the community centre in scientific discussions and publications. It is Liisamaija Jurvala, M.Pol.Sc., is a doctoral candidate H e l s i n k i . commonly assumed that the Tatars are a ho- at the Institute for Asian and African Studies at amongst researchers. mogeneous group in view of their religion, i.e. Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany Sunnites and secularized Muslims. Within this E-mail: [email protected]

Project Presentation CAROLINE PLÜSS Hong Kong Muslim Identities

Muslims in Hong Kong are characterized by another, to their Hong Kong surroundings, Methodology and funding a high degree of ethnic and religious diver- as well as to their societies of origins or of This study started in 1998 and uses sity. They came from China, India, Pakistan, previous residences. archive research, interviews and participant Malaysia, Indonesia and from further places The principal organizations surveyed are: observation. It is part of Dr Plüss’ umbrella or origins, and belong to various religious (1) the Trustees of the Islamic Community project researching transnational communi- traditions, such as the Sunni, Shi’a, or Bohra Fund, which is the oldest organization in ties in Hong Kong. The Muslim project has groups. This project examines how the in- charge of the administration of the mosques received funding from the CRCG (the Com- volvement, or non-involvement, of different and cemeteries; (2) the Islamic Union, which is mittee for Research and Conference Grants Caroline Plüss obtained a PhD in the Sociology of Muslim groups into common organizations the second oldest organization of which also of the University of Hong Kong), the Religion from Oxford University in 1995. Since 1996, explains how Hong Kong Muslims built up Chinese are members; and (3) the Chinese Freemason’s Fund for East Asian Studies she has been working as a post-doctoral fellow at the their identities. In addition, the policies of Muslim Cultural and Fraternal Organisation, and the Hang Seng Golden Jubilee Educa- Centre of Asian Studies, the University of Hong Kong. different Hong Kong Muslim organizations which has become especially important since tion Fund. ♦ Her research includes the Jewish community in Hong from the 19t h century to today, and the Chinese Muslims had become the largest Kong, the Hong Kong Indians, and the Church of Jesus changes in these policies, are investigated Muslim group in Hong Kong, and since Hong Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) in Hong Kong. as indicators of how Muslims related to one Kong has returned to Chinese sovereignty. E-mail: [email protected]

A D V E R T I S E M E N T I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Research 41

F i e l d w o r k BRUCE KOEPKE R e s e a r c h i n g

Relatively few academic studies have commented on Badakhshan Province in northern Afghanistan. Dur- ing the period of the political ‘Great Game’ between Tsarist Russian-Central Asia and British India in the Performing Arts 1 9t h century, British and Russian adventure-style of- ficers occasionally returned with reports. Last centu- ry, a number of German, Russian, Austrian, Swiss, as well as a few Danish, French, American and Afghan researchers discussed Badakhshan in terms of vari- in Badakhshan ous academic fields ranging from history, anthropol- ogy, ethnomusicology, geography, and linguistics, controlled by the Taliban and their strict street, Khiaban, and close to the Kokcha In spite of the serious economic and politi- to geology, botany, and mountaineering. All of these policies are reinforced by the Department of River. Many local hand-made items, such as cal instability, Badakhshi continue to revel accounts refer to conditions prior to the Communist Vice and Virtue. In contrast, in the non-Tal- traditional Badakhshi shoes, coats, caps, in the few cultural events that are sanc- coup in April 1978. Recent fieldwork experiences in iban northern regions an official decree pottery, lapis lazuli jewellery, saddle goods, tioned by local authorities, such as, for ex- Badakhshan (1998 and 1999) have allowed an exam- against expressive traditions has not been and urns are sold next to imported Pakistani ample, the traditional and religious festivals ination of the impact of Afghanistan’s civil war upon issued. These areas, comprising almost 20% and Iranian basic household wares. of Nowruz, Jeshen, and Eid. Celebrations cultural traditions, particularly those involving per- of Afghanistan’s territory, are ruled by the In order to travel within Badakhshan and surrounding the Nowruz festival on 21 formance, notably music and dance. former post-Communist government of to pass frequent checkpoints, appropriate March 1998 were accompanied by a tradi- President Burhanuddin Rabbani and loosely travel documents are essential and have to tional b u z k a s h i horse tournament and a fair. aligned commanders. At present, the be issued by district governors or key com- On another occasion, several weeks later, provinces of Badakhshan, Takhar and most manders. Only limited motorized public the Jeshen festival was also commemorated of the provinces of Kapisa, Parwan and transport is, however, available within the with a b u z k a s h i tournament in Ishkashim in Baghlan are under the control of the anti- province. The few operative jeeps belong northeastern Badakhshan. Although Jeshen Taliban alliance, as are several smaller dis- mainly to commanders and together with was once an independence day celebration tricts in Kunar, Balkh, Samangan, Kunduz the only other irregular form of motorized in August, it is now held on April 28, the an- and Jowzjan. public transport – travel on heavily laden niversary of the defeat of the former Soviet- trucks – reflect Badakhshan’s poor econom- backed government. Travel into Badakhshan ic state and fragile infrastructure. No roads With the Taliban’s continued attacks on Considering Afghanistan’s precarious po- are surfaced and are thus prone to frequent opposition-held territories, a general trend litical situation, the physical task of reaching washouts and landslides. Closures can last towards conservative Islam is noticeable in Badakhshan was not only time-consuming, for anything from five hours to two weeks. Badakhshan among the local population but, at times, quite challenging. The hospi- When the province’s main trade arteries are and commanders alike. In direct response to tality of the Badakhshi and Afghan people, impassable, especially the western road this religious orthodoxy, expressive tradi- however, more than compensated for these connecting Faizabad with neighbouring tions, such as music performances, occur efforts. Other than the aeroplanes of the Takhar Province’s capital Taloqan, the usual- rarely and have been driven underground. United Nations and International Red Cross, ly poorly stocked bazaars empty out quickly. Prior to the civil war, Badakhshan’s leading which irregularly enter Faizabad from Pe- I recall one occasion when wheat, an essen- musicians were able to travel freely shawar and Islamabad in northern Pakistan tial food item, was unavailable in Faizabad’s throughout the main cities in Afghanistan. so as to transport international and Afghan bazaar and local bakers were forced to close Some were even selected for appearances aid workers as well as medical patients, their businesses for three days. These un- on Kabul television. Currently, entertain- there is currently no other air service avail- predictable conditions mean that walking ment, either private or public, occurs only if able to Badakhshan. Issued with a visa valid with a loaded donkey or riding a horse re- the local commander or community leader for travel to Rabbani-governed territories, I mains the most reliable form of transport. condones such non-religious performances. arrived in 1998 at Faizabad’s airport which Agriculture, both as subsistence farming However, upon hearing of my research, consists of a Soviet-built runway composed as well as for local export, provides the main local musicians in more remote regions of of corrugated steel sheets. Although the air form of economy. As a consequence of a Badakshan would not infrequently arrive traffic control facilities were destroyed dur- lack of employment prospects and regular unannounced at my residence and proudly ing the jihad against the Communist paid salaries, which are generally only avail- display their instruments, being delighted regime, this airport remains Badakhshan’s able with aid organizations, bartering con- to perform if the situation allowed. With the B u z k a s h i Afghanistan’s mountainous Badakhshan only serviceable port for small aircraft. tinues to be a common practice throughout strict interpretation of s h a rica, the profes- tournament in Province is inhabited predominantly by eth- Due to the unforeseen earthquake in the the province. Traditionally, wheat, rice and sion of musician seems to have virtually dis- F a i z a b a d , nic Tajiks who are speakers of Dari, a Persian Shahr-e Bozurg region several months later, millet were the main crops grown, but in- appeared. Every performer I interviewed is Nowruz, 1998. language, but also by other, bilingual, eth- I was forced to abandon my fieldwork pre- creasingly opium poppies, although labour now primarily occupied as a subsistence nic groups such as Uzbeks, Kirghiz, and maturely. After unsuccessfully attempting intensive, have become the most common farmer, working on either private or leased Pashtuns. Since the Soviet invasion of to re-enter Badakhshan by plane the follow- type of cash economy. As a result of l a n d . Afghanistan in 1979 and the subsequent ing year, I eventually managed to return Badakhshan’s isolation, as well as the cost of Unfortunately, with the current situation ongoing civil war, very few researchers have overland from Tajikistan. Whilst this route is limited and expensive imported fuel re- of a politically non-unified nation, it seems travelled to Badakhshan. Only a small num- primarily utilized to enable essential hu- sources, deforestation has become ram- unlikely that long-term academic research ber of foreigners working as international manitarian aid to reach Afghanistan across pant. This environmentally disastrous prac- can be carried out in Afghanistan in the near aid workers and occasionally photo journal- the Amu Darya, it is not an official border- tice has led to Faizabad’s once famed pista- future, especially in regions that are in rela- ists and adventure seekers have recently vis- crossing and consequently requires many chio forests virtually having disappeared tive proximity to current frontlines. Similar- ited Badakhshan. The latter visitors tend to essential documents and permits which are over the last two decades. Moreover, the ly, the survival of non-religious, perfor- publish their experiences in the commercial obtainable only in Dushanbe. Kokcha River’s muddy brown water caused mance traditions is questionable. Yet, if a category of ‘the most dangerous places in by eroding mountains and landslides is a di- popular government were to be soon for- the world.’ First impressions rect attribute of uncontrolled deforestation. malized, and were to include a representa- With a noticeable rise in orthodox Islam Within Badakhshan, hotels and guest- tion of Afghanistan’s various ethnic groups throughout Afghanistan following the de- houses catering to international tourists or Cultural life and political factions, conditions could feat of the Soviet-backed Communist gov- researchers no longer exist. The only re- Despite the economic hardship, change quickly. The Badakhshi are certainly ernment in 1992, and particularly since the maining hotel in Faizabad, which once ac- Badakhshan has probably still one of the more than ready to embrace a peaceful pe- rise of the Taliban in 1994, performance tra- commodated tourists in the 1960s and best education systems on offer in riod, to rebuild their economy and to con- ditions have been relegated to the fringes 1970s, has now become a residence for visit- Afghanistan for both girls and boys. This is solidate fragile cultural traditions. ♦ of society. The Taliban are a fundamentalist ing commanders. Elsewhere, local teahous- currently relatively well supported through Islamic militia comprised of Pakistani and es, c h a y k h a n as, and hostels, s e r a is, are still the assistance of international aid organiza- Afghan religious students originating from an option, but are frequented by many tions. Before the Taliban take-over of Mazar- Pakistani m a d r a s as along the Afghanistan- traders for overnight stay and are therefore e Sharif in northwestern Afghanistan in Pakistan border as well as from disillusioned inappropriate for longer lodging. Fortunate- 1997, male and female secondary school former m u j a h i d e e n from predominantly ly, I was generously allowed to rent accom- students could, upon graduation, pursue Pashtun-inhabited regions in southern modation in some of the compounds of in- tertiary education. But with all universities Afghanistan. Following the Taliban’s inter- ternational aid organizations. in Afghanistan now being controlled by the pretation of s h a rica law, all ‘non-religious’ The centre of any activity in Badakhshan, Taliban, and because of fears of reprisals Bruce Koepke is a research scholar at the Centre for forms of cultural expression that include and for that matter anywhere in against residents from opposition-held ter- Arab and Islamic Studies (the Middle East and human actions – and this definition includes Afghanistan, is the bazaar, no matter how ritories, students from Rabbani-governed Central Asia), The Australian National University, entertainment music and dance – are re- small and limited the range of available territories are unable to enrol for higher ed- and is currently completing his doctoral dissertation garded as un-Islamic and sinful. As a result, goods. Faizabad’s bazaar is in the old part of ucation in Afghanistan. Moreover, women on performance traditions in northern Afghanistan. expressive arts have been banned in areas town in Shahr-e Kohne, along the main are barred from education in Taliban areas. E-mail: [email protected] 4 2 Research I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

Programme Presentation RAINER BRÖMER DAVO Study Group on

The development of scientific activity in the Ottoman Empire and other contemporary Muslim countries has so far attracted little if any attention from either disciplines of ‘Oriental’ or Science Studies, despite A r a b i c - O t t o m a n the long established fact that in the ‘classical’ age, Is- lamic civilization actively contributed to the elabora- tion of scientific traditions, which originated in differ- ent surrounding cultures (Hellenistic, Sassanid, Indi- an, etc.). At the Sixth Annual Congress of the German Sciences in the Middle East Studies Association (DAVO) in December 1999 in Hamburg, the study group on ‘Arabic-Ot- toman Sciences in the Modern Period’ organized a panel in which five research projects covering the 1 7t h through 19t h centuries were presented. Modern Period

Contrary to what Edward Said’s notorious ac- thoughts of al-Afghani, cAbduh, Rida, al- Western scientific theories, the discursive Notes cusations of ‘Orientalism’ suggest, pupils of Banna, and Qutb and the present day teach- structures of the initial treatise and commen- 1. Charette, François (1995). Orientalisme et histoire Sylvestre de Sacy, the archetype of Saidian ings of the Muslim Brethren.8 tary literature (rasa’il, shuruh) still remained des sciences: l’historiographie européenne des orientalism, started as early as the mid-19th Paradoxically, many ‘oriental’ thinkers today visibly rooted in traditional forms of scientific sciences islamiques et hindoues, 1784-1900. century to pinpoint the specific accomplish- seem to subscribe to this traditional account practice,14 this did not prevent Arab scientists Université de Montréal: MA thesis in History. ments of classical Islamic sciences in their which claims that there is a remarkable intel- from participating in Western-based interna- 2. A recent example is given by Rashed, Roshdi, ed. proper historical context.1 lectual gap encompassing half the history of tional scientific ventures like the global map- (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. However, even today, the assumption of a Islam.9 ping of geomagnetism. Rainer Brömer London: Routledge. gradual decline of Islamic sciences between (Jena/Göttingen) showed in his paper how 3. Lewis, Bernard (1982). The Muslim Discovery of the 13th and 18th centuries is hardly contested C o n t i n u i t i e s the later director of the Egyptian observatory, Europe. New York, London: Norton, p. 238. – though the notion of ‘decline’ is hard to de- More recent research in the history of sci- Mahmoud Bey al-Falaki (1815-85), in the 4. Schulze, Reinhard (1998). ‘Die islamische Welt der fine.2 The view is held that these sciences ence presents a different picture. Sonja Brent- 1850s travelled through a number of Euro- Neuzeit’. In Der islamische Orient - Grundzüge seiner were only rediscovered after the clashes with jes (Frankfurt am Main) who was unable to at- pean countries, publishing his geophysical Geschichte, edited by Albrecht Noth and Jürgen European colonialism and imperialism in the tend the panel had a paper read ‘On the rela- data in different periodicals.15 Paul. Würzburg: Ergon, pp. 333-403, 351. course of the 19th century, when ‘Western sci- tion between the Ottoman Empire and the 5. Wulff, Karl (1998). Gibt es einen ence’ eventually supplanted the ‘classical’ sci- West European Republic of Letters (17th - 18th Science and the public naturwissenschaftlichen Universalismus? Cuxhaven, ences almost completely.3 The fact is, howev- centuries)’ in which she traced a continuous The second half of the 19th century saw the Dartford: Junghans, p. 63. er, that many disciplines flourished until the flow of scientific knowledge across the massive spread of interest in scientific mat- 6. Philipp, Thomas, and Moshe Perlmann, eds. and mid-20th century. Mediterranean Sea which contradicts the ters to a growing literate public, in the ‘West- trans. (1994). cAbd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of ‘iron curtain’ concept promulgated by, for ex- ern’ world, but to a similar degree in the Arab Egypt. 4 vols. in 2 plus Guide. Stuttgart: Steiner. Decline of sciences? ample, Edward Lewis. speaking countries. Dagmar Glaß (Leipzig) 7. Hasselblatt, Gunnar (1968). Herkunft und A number of possible reasons have been At the same time, classical texts continued characterized in her study the relationship Auswirkungen der Apologetik Muhammad cAbduh’s suggested to account for this alleged decline. to be read and annotated throughout the between Arab journalists and their readership (1849-1905). Diss. Göttingen. Ghazali’s ‘destruction of the philosophers’, the 18th century which is documented by the in the late 19th century as a ‘pedagogical dia- 8. Abu-Rabi’, Ibrahim M. (1996). Intellectual Origins of Ottoman defeat in the naval battle at Lepanto reading and possession marks on Islamic logue’ in which the former actively sought to Islamic Resurgence in the Modern Arab World. (1571 AD) and subsequent persecution of ‘hu- manuscripts preserved in libraries around the create a public understanding of science. In Albany: SUNY. manist’ scholars,4 and the missing connection world, as François Charette (Frankfurt am this process, only subsequently would the im- 9. Hanafi, Hasan (1991). Muqaddima fi cilm al-istighrab. between scholars and artisans – a crucial fac- Main) pointed out in his contribution on the portance of religious aspects of science gain Cairo: ad-Dar al-fanniya, p. 703. tor in the rise of modern Western science5 – library of the Ottoman scholar Mustafa Sidqi greater importance, which leads to a more 10. See the Islamic Science homepage at the University are some examples. (d. 1769). Likewise, modern commentaries on fundamental question dominating much of of Oklahoma at http://www.ou.edu/islamsci/ Each of these factors, however, can arguably classical texts may well include an apprecia- the contemporary debate: Can science be Is- 11. Although more recent research in Science Studies be called into question. A condemnation of tion of the latest data from scientific observa- lamic? tends to privilege experimental practice over the tenets of natural philosophy occurred in tions. It therefore appears that, on the one From a completely different point of view, institutional form, Shapin, Steven (1996). The Paris 1270/77; the Inquisition threatened Eu- hand, detailed studies are still urgently re- over the last three decades a number of pro- Scientific Revolution. Chicago, London: Chicago UP. ropean scholars in the same period Schulze quired in order to document the available jects has been initiated by Muslims through- 12. E.g. the case of Muhammad as-Sanusi, Vikør, Knut S. examines in the Ottoman Empire; and, on the sources of scientific activity to which little at- out the Islamic world and in the diaspora (1995). Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge. London: other hand, the connection between learning tention has been paid thus far10 – a conse- which aims at creating an ‘Islamic science’ or Hurst, p. 63. and the trades is documented (e.g. in a rele- quence of the self-fulfilling prophecy that lit- the ‘Islamization of scientific knowledge’ 13. Reichmuth, Stefan (2000). ‘Murtada az-Zabidi vant number of instances in al-Jabarti’s fa- tle of interest was to be found in more recent (ISTAC in Kuala Lumpur, IIIT in Herndon/Vir- (1732-91) - Netzwerk und Lebenswerk eines indo- mous chronicle of Egypt covering the years documents. On the other hand, it seems nec- ginia, etc.).16 On closer inspection, many con- arabischen Gelehrten des 18. Jahrhunderts’. In from 1694 to 1821); to name but a few.6 essary to take a broader look at the manifold tributions to this contemporary debate rather Islamische Bildungsnetzwerke im lokalen und Remarkably, scholars in the colonized coun- institutional settings where different forms of a-critically subscribe to the assumptions of transnationalen Kontext (18.-20. Jahrhundert), tries, very early on, confronted the challenge scientific ventures might have been pursued. Western ‘scientific fundamentalism’ (Ziaud- edited by Michael Kemper. Bochum: Sem. of Western technological superiority, reacting din Sardar) which is to be Islamized in form Orientalistik. See also Reichmuth (1999). Murtada with bewilderment, as in the case of al-Jabarti, Institutions of science and rather than in content.17 In this respect, the az-Zabidi (d. 1791). In Die Welt des Islams yet without questioning the superior moral networks of learning ‘Islamized disciplines’ show less similarity to (Biographical and Autobiographical Accounts. and cultural values of Islam. Thus, the self-pro- Though it is assumed that a specific set of classical Arabic sciences than, perhaps, the Glimpses of Islamic Scholarship in the 18th Century) claimed moral and cultural superiority of Islam institutions in the West supported the Scien- writings of the 19th century Darwinism de- 39 (1), pp. 64-102. inaugurated a whole new thread of apolo- tific Revolution (such as universities, corre- bate in which a considerable number of Arab 14. E.g. Shumayyil, Shibli (1884). Sharh Buchnar cala getic literature during the Arab Renaissance spondence networks, learned societies, pri- Christian authors were involved. ♦ madhhab Darwin. Cairo. Cf. Ziadeh, Susan Laila (nahda), projecting the ideal fulfilment of Is- vate presses, and scientific journals),11 there is (1991). A Radical in His Time: The Thought of Shibli lamic duties back to the times of the pious an- some evidence that in the Islamic cultures Shumayyil and Arab Intellectual Discourse (1882- cestors of early Islam (as-salaf as-salih, hence: one might rather have to examine different 1917). Diss. Univ. Michigan. Ann Arbor: UMI. salafiyya).7 Though the structure of discourse spaces of research and communication (from 15. Mahmoud, M. (1854). ‘Observations et recherches is changing in the course of decolonization, mosques and Sufi brotherhoods12 to observa- For further information on this group and sur l’intensité magnétique et sur ses variations there is considerable continuity between the tories, hospitals, the hajj, private salons, mili- submission of paper proposals (in English or pendant une période de 25 ans, de 1829 à 1854’. tary institutions, etc.). Stefan Reichmuth German) please contact: Bulletins de l’Académie royale de Belgique 21 (9). (Bochum) presented his work on the Indian- Rainer Brömer, MA Bruxelles: Hayez. It is the intention of the study group on ‘Arabic-Ottoman Sciences born scholar Murtada az-Zabidi (1732-1791), Inst. Wissenschaftsgeschichte 16. Stenberg, Leif (1996). ‘The Islamization of Science. in the Modern Period’ to create a platform for the discussion of who created an intellectual network around Humboldtallee 11 Four Muslim Positions Developing an Islamic ongoing research on these and related issues, as well as to create his dwellings in Medina and Cairo, which ex- D-37073 Göttingen, Germany Modernity’. Lund Studies in History of Religions, 6. a wider awareness of the desiderata in the field, thus possibly tended throughout the Muslim world, from Tel: +49 551 39 9468 17. Ghamari-Tabrizi, Behrooz (1996). ‘Is Islamic Science attracting more scholars to Modern Islamic Science Studies and West Africa and Ethiopia to Anatolia and Cen- Fax: +49 551 39 9748 Possible?’ Social Epistemology 10 (3-4), pp. 317-330. offering an interface of discussion between Western-based tral Asia.13 Networks of teaching in the Mus- See also Lotfalian, Mazyar (1999). Science Studies and Islamic science projects, bridging the lim world from the 18th to 20th century are the Rainer Brömer is preparing a dissertation in the ‘Understanding Muslim Technoscientific Identities’. historical gap between the ‘lingering’ classical sciences (B. Lewis) subject of a Junior Scholars’ Research Group History of Science on the role of Darwinism in Italian ISIM Newsletter 4, p.8. and the present Islamic science debate. At the next DAVO based at the Ruhr University in Bochum, co- biology during the kulturkampf. His further interest congress in Mainz (12-14 October 2000), another panel on Arabic- ordinated by Michael Kemper. lies in examining the role of science in Western and Ottoman Sciences is planned. While in the second half of the 19th century, Islamic societies in the 19th and 20th centuries. when Arab scholars discussed contemporary E-mail: [email protected] I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Research 43

D e b a t e DAVID SHANKLAND Studying Secularism:

Any researcher interested in modern Turkey can hardly escape the controversy that has surrounded religion in the last decade. The rise and fall of Er- bakan and the Welfare Party, the National Security Modern Turkey Council’s secular ‘recommendations’. in February 1997, the partial closure of the Im a m - H a t i p ( r e l i- giously-oriented) schools, and the formation of ‘Western Working Groups’ to investigate alleged in- filtration into the civil service by religious activists, and the Alevis are just a few instances of how prominent these is- sues have been. How, as observers, are we to attempt nouncements of the Islamifying move- as a religion at all, rather as a moral ethic to if, the Republic having escaped much of the to understand the significance of these and similar ments, such as the Nurcus and their related help guide their everyday existence within bloody conflict between sectarian move- events in today’s Republic? groups, and discount the more moderate the Republic. These may regard ‘Aleviness’ ments that was prevalent in the Ottoman voice of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, as being henceforth unnecessary as a sepa- Empire, we as researchers were to con- There is no simple answer, but it seems pos- perhaps assuming that since it is govern- rate or distinct category. There are those tribute to it now through misplaced whole- sible to suggest, at least as a starting point ment-led, the people with whom it is associ- who, whilst accepting the Republic, wish to sale attribution of characteristics where, in for discussion, two simultaneous but con- ated must in some way be less ‘Islamic’. Yet, maintain closer contact with their traditions fact, no such unanimity exists. ♦ tradictory trends. First, there appears to be a many of the thousands of people who work within a sharply secular nation: these peo- rapidly growing heterogeneity, particularly for the Directorate, along with those who ple are likely to be active members of the in the large urban centres such as Istanbul, worship in its mosques and participate in its political left. It is perhaps the smallest dis- Izmir and Ankara. The precise reasons for wider activities, certainly regard themselves tinct group that seeks more explicit recogni- this are unclear, but certainly linked to as genuine Muslims and accept the secular tion. For instance, Cem V a k f ı , led by an Alevi Turkey’s growing integration with the out- s t a t e .2 Likewise, we have a far greater religious figure, wishes to make the govern- side world, and encouraged by the highly knowledge of the inner workings of the S ü- ment teach ‘Aleviness’ explicitly, basing its successful (if uneven) economic transforma- l e y m a n c ı s than we do of the increasingly argument on the political principle ‘no taxa- tion of recent decades. visible jeunesse dorée who spend great parts tion without representation’. These people At the same time, it seems that Turkey is of their lives in clubs, restaurants, pop con- are likely to regret the social change that tending to bifurcate sharply between pro- certs and summer-houses. Yet these people has been forced on to their communities, and anti-secular movements. On the anti- are still capable of taking vows at a shrine and wish for something that they might secular side, there are the popular Islamist outside Bosphorus University in an attempt refer to as ‘traditional’ Alevi values, though political movements, the Islamic brother- to pass their university degrees, or of planti- as their leaders have rarely spent much time hoods, the followers of Said-i Nursi, a con- ng a rose bush at the time of H ı d ı r ı l l e z i n in Alevi villages, they are unlikely to be so at stellation of Islamic business, media, chari- early May with a little wrapped image of a l l .4 ties and associations, and the extremely vio- their desired goal suspended from one of its lent Hizbullah. On the secular side, there are branches. Many of these people would re- Varying belief the followers of the original Republican ject with anger any imputation that they are As researchers, what sort of language People’s Party, moderate believers (such as not ‘Islamic’, though they are not in the should we use to discuss this diverse social those who might find themselves holding slightest interested in Islamist politics or in change? To imply that social change among the central ground in the True Path Party), opposing the secular state. the Alevi is predominantly a religious refor- parts of the senior bureaucracy (particularly mulation is mistaken. This is not meant to the judiciary), much of an increasingly con- ’ C u l t u r a l i s m ’ imply that the Alevis have become ‘unbe- sumerist oriented youth, the military (led by It can be suggested that this imbalance is lievers’ – something which would distress the army), and not least, almost the entirety partly a question of the language that we and irritate many of their members. Never- of the unorthodox minority, the Alevis.1 use, and the categories that we employ to theless, the shift undergone by the majority It can be argued that this split is profound. label Islamic societies. To give an immediate appears rather akin to that which Christiani- Even taking into account the fact that peo- example, within the immense amount of ty has undergone in Europe: most Alevis ple may change their perspective, that journalistic (and therefore prominent if not predominantly experience their music and movements may sometimes blur into one in itself powerful) coverage that is attendant dance as a cultural rather than a religious another, and that there is a vast difference upon Turkey and the European Union, there experience; roughly akin, for example, to at- between rhetoric and action, the side that is a core of writers, such as Hugh Pope of the tending a Mozart requiem or a Bach cantata an individual takes in this ideological divide International Herald Tribune or the sepul- in a cathedral, an event not primarily moti- may lead them into quite different social chral anonymous scribes for The Economist, vated by religion, regardless of the music’s contexts in their daily lives: the one likely to who maintain that the secular state is in original social function. include a combination of religious rituals, some way by definition illegitimate, that the In spite of this emergence of what appears mosque-going, t a r i k a t membership, Koran correct course for Turkey would be to re-in- to be a secular moral humanism, there is an courses, right-wing or religious political par- troduce some form of more overtly Islamic increasing sense among those who study ties, Islamic discussion groups, Islamic foun- central state.3 This, bluntly, is part of an ex- the Alevis that their ‘predicament’ should dations (both economic and pious), the Is- panding curse in sociological writings that be linked with that of the Kurds in the east; lamic media and a personal rejection of rev- might be deemed ‘culturalism’: an implica- casting them as a deprived minority that are N o t e s elry, ostentation, and overt displays of emo- tion that just because people are from one being deprived of their religious rights with- 1 . For a fuller discussion of the issues set out here, tion; the other leading to a less structured particular group they have to behave in the in the Republic.5 This is precisely the ‘cultur- see my recent Islam and Society in Turkey ( 1 9 9 9 ) . life, but likely to include broad acceptance presumed standard fashion for that com- alism’ against which I am attempting to Huntingdon: Eothen Press. of the republican state, its secular ceremony m u n i t y . warn in the study of Turkey. Precisely who is 2 . A notable exception is the research of Tapper N. and ritual, alcoholic drink, dance, and if also being ‘deprived’ of their rights? It is worth and Tapper, R. (1987). ‘Thank God We’re Secular! politically committed – usually though cer- The Alevis re-iterating that, first, within the anti-secu- Aspects of Fundamentalism in a Turkish Town’. In tainly not exclusively – involvement in left- The Alevis, the heterodox minority that lar/secular divide, described above as being Aspects of Religious Fundamentalism, edited by L. wing groups. Indeed, it is this tendency to make up perhaps slightly less than 20% of so important and so significant, yet over- Caplan. London. ‘bunch’ along the two sides of the secular/- the population, are a further case in point. In looked, the Alevis have almost in their en- 3 . E.g. The Economist, 17 April 1999: editorial, or T h e anti-secular split that explains much of this the dozen years that I have been studying tirety come out in favour of the founding Wall Street Journal, 4 May 1999: article by Hugh divide’s volatility, and its potential to harm and conducting fieldwork among them, Kemalist reforms. They have conspicuously P o p e . Turkey in the coming decades. there is not the slightest doubt that they resisted open calls from the Welfare and 4 . See my ‘Anthropology and Ethnicity: The place of have been undergoing a transformation: a now the Virtue Party to re-identify them- Ethnography in the New Alevi Movement’. In A l e v i Studying secularism process of codification of their previously selves primarily a religious minority. Sec- I d e n t i t y, edited by T. Olsson, E. Ozdalga, and C. We often remind each other, both at con- oral tradition, one that has been rapid and ondly, when the immense and growing het- Raudvere. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, ferences and in our writings, that we should interesting to witness, resulting in a large erogeneity of the Alevi population is taken transactions, 8, pp. 15-23. be as sensitive as possible to diversity with- number of publications, an increasingly on board, it is only the minority who are 5 . E.g. see Yavuz, M. (1999). ‘Media Identities for in Islamic societies. In spite of this healthy strong public profile, and above all, a large seeking reaffirmation of their traditions Alevis and Kurds in Turkey’. In New Media in the discussion, it seems that the emergence of part of its population becoming profoundly through explicit acknowledgement from Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere, edited overtly secular movements in Turkey has s e c u l a r . the state. Of course, they wish to be free to by Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson. not attracted the same attention as the This does not mean that Alevi people are act as they wish: this goes for any popula- Bloomington: Indiana University Press, more actively Islamist trends, whether that all the same, far from it. Whilst it is necessary tion, but the majority have no desire what- p p . 1 8 0 - 1 9 7 . latter study be to stress the Islamist move- to make the caveat that the situation is ex- soever to be recast a millet either by their ments’ rise or, conversely, their supposed tremely fluid, there are those who embrace traditional religious figures or by well-wish- Dr David Shankland is a lecturer in Social decline. There is, for example, a persistent secularism enthusiastically, so much so that ing advisers in international academic and Anthropology, University of Wales Lampeter, UK. tendency to give more weight to the pro- they wish no longer to regard their culture institutional politics. It would be a tragedy E-mail: [email protected] 4 4 Institutes I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0

I I S M M LUCETTE VALENSI Institut d’Études de l’Islam et The IISMM, a research centre of the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), is devoted to des Sociétés du Monde Musulman the study of societies and cultures in the Muslim world. It is organized around a group of scholars rep- resenting all the social sciences of the regions where world have returned that world to its histo- er about 30 students preparing for doctor- progress. The first of these seminars con- Islam is present: anthropology, history, anthropolo- ry, a history that is being both made and ates in France and in the host country cerned ‘The Figure of the Literati in Islam’ gy and history of law, political science, linguistics, unmade. Former oppositions are fading around a broad academic theme, allowing (May 2000). and sociology. Its goal is to simultaneously amplify away or being rearranged. Nevertheless, for exchanges and field visits. Applications and mobilize existing resources by providing sup- ‘Islam’ remains a fully valid topic of study. It should be addressed to the Institute, ac- ’One Book/One Event’ port for research projects conceived by specialists of constitutes the only common feature defin- companied by a statement of purpose. The series of meetings entitled ‘One Islam and societies of the Muslim world. ing the domain that the IISMM intends to The first study-cycle will be held in Mo- Book/One Event’ are open to an invited cover, extending from Senegal to North- rocco, in collaboration with the Faculty of public. The first of these focused on Nasr The IISMM is not intended as a replacement west China, from the Balkans to Indonesia. Arts and Human Sciences of Saïs-Fès, from Abu Zaid, Egyptian professor in exile in the for the already existing research groups in The weight of religious tradition and the 13-22 September 2000, around the theme Netherlands and the author of A Critique of universities or in the Centre National de la search for renewal cannot obliterate the ‘Memory/Memories: Forms, Functions, and the Religious Discourse, which has been Recherche (CNRS). It intends, rather, to pro- multiplicity of references – political, scien- C u s t o m s ’ . translated into French. The next meetings vide assistance to specialists in completing tific, aesthetic or cultural – in the Islam of will feature French specialists on modern projects under way and in preparing events today or yesterday, that fall outside of a Postgraduate workshops I r a n . (e.g., round tables, seminars, colloquia, etc.) strict Koranic genealogy. Islam is not the The Institute supports and initiates meet- that will highlight and disseminate this re- sum of its commandments. Whether it has ings intended to encourage contacts and Continuing education search. Mobilizing the resources in this field been so remains a question of paramount discussion between postgraduate students Annual courses, summer schools, and in- is done by lifting the routine-based barriers importance to the IISMM. working in the same cultural area and on tensive courses are organized on specific that have, on occasion, so rigidly compart- The role chosen by the IISMM is to coordi- the same period. These sessions, in which themes and disciplines for groups and insti- mentalized research on the Muslim world. nate research and specialized instruction, teaching staff also participates, will be led tutions that request them. ♦ The IISMM intends to organize seminars and to open a venue of training and infor- by the students. and encourage research focused on broad- mation to a wide, non-specialized public. It er topics than those that have usually been proposes a programme of research and Research and teaching skills studied, where specialists of a particular pe- teaching activities. Parallel to the research programmes of riod or region can enrich their thinking external teams supported by the IISMM, the through exposure to other approaches, de- Institute is also developing its own acade- veloped in different areas of Muslim studies mic programme of cross-disciplinary semi- or through the analysis of other civiliza- Research training nars linking different disciplines and cultur- t i o n s . al areas. This call for an association of energies is Weekly or bimonthly seminars imposed by the evolution of the research These seminars are given within the con- Research subjects subject itself. Without breaking with the text of specialized courses concerning Mus- The following are the research topics des- long tradition of oriental studies of which lim societies at the EHESS. The courses lead ignated for the academic year 2000 and France may be justly proud, the IISMM to the DEA (postgraduate diploma), a doc- 2 0 0 1 : For further information: seeks to free research from the tendency to torate or the EHESS Diploma. The pro- Islam in the Feminine; Faces of Islam; In- I I S M M confine Islam to a discourse so particularist grammes and admission requirements will ternationalization of the Religious; Oriental- 96 Boulevard Raspail as to make the object into a kind of irre- be announced by the EHESS. ism and Social Sciences; and Contemporary 75006 Paris, France ducible reality, incommensurable, regard- Artistic Creation in the Islamic Countries. Tel.: +33 (0)1 53 63 02 40 less of how it is approached, with any other Summer schools Fax: +31 (0)1 53 63 02 49 r e a l i t y . Every year, in a Muslim country and in Occasional one-day seminars E-mail: [email protected] The profound changes of the past centu- collaboration with the higher educational These special events allow a wide public ry combined with the improved knowledge establishments in that country, the IISMM to benefit from the presence of scholars in- of the societies and cultures of the Muslim will organize study cycles bringing togeth- vited by the EHESS to discuss research in Lucette Valensi is director of the IISMM.

C O M M E N T WOLF D. AHMED ARIES Muslims in Germany The article entitled ‘Is Islam soluble in Germany?’ published in the last ISIM Newsletter (page 30) con- Muslim communities in Germany. Discussions The 1980s saw the birth of two umbrella or- educational developments. On the other centrated primarily on Muslims originating in Tur- were initiated with the education ministry ganizations for Muslims in Germany. One, hand, DITIB can rarely publish anything key, as if they are a unique phenomenon and not a over the question of religious education in ac- established in 1986, was called the Islamic without approval from Ankara. Certainly, lively part of the community as a whole. While it is cordance with federal and land constitutions. Council for the Federal Republic of Ger- after its foundation, the board of the Islamic true that Turkish Muslims account for almost 80% of Such discussions led to a series of seminars, many. The other, established a year later, Council had to adapt to this German norm; the German Muslim population, there are also small- encounters and unofficial meetings in which became the Central Council of Muslims in while German Muslims had little difficulty in er groups whose members originate from other Is- the partners attempted to find intersections Germany. Through the years, a number of offering their opinion, those of other back- lamic societies globally. The smallest segment of the between Muslim communities and the Chris- local Islamic associations have joined these grounds had to adjust to this. German Muslim population is formed by Germans to-secular German system, which had been coalitions, and today, the Islamic Council in- Today, the differences are not significant. who are often characterized by terms such as ‘con- molded by the thousand-year relationship of cludes 38 member associations, while the The two councils mentioned above (The verts’ and thus overlooked. A few of these German the churches and different political forces. In Central Council has 28. Members of these Central Council of Muslims and the Islamic Muslims have been engaged in issues concerning the other words, where were the crossroads of a coalitions include associations with diverse Council) are committed to organizing the Muslim community in Germany since the 1960s and church-molded legal system and a churchless national, cultural, social and theological future of Muslim communities in Germany have been engaged in social work as well as in dis- Abrahamic community living in such a soci- b a c k g r o u n d s . within the framework of German societal cussion of fundamental questions relating to Mus- ety? These public and semi-private encoun- Meanwhile, the Turkish side reacted by and legal contexts. An important step in this lims within German society. It is therefore appropri- ters took place in a changing society that mar- creating the so-called DITIB at Cologne. This direction has been the foundation of a com- ate to briefly describe the history of involvement of ginalized religious life and its public symbols is an association under German law, but the mittee on religious education (founded last indigenous German Muslims. and thus, such questions were at the heart of head and most of the personnel are Turkish a u t u m n ) . ♦ important debates within German society as civil servants who are, ostensibly, ‘on leave’ In the early 1960s, a handful of German Mus- a whole. and normally stay up to six years in Ger- lims gathered around what later became At the same time, official Turkish repre- many without learning any German. Last the Islamic Archives of Germany. Through sentatives often intervened in order to hin- year, some younger men who grew up in the efforts of this group, the first rules of a der access to greater freedom for their fel- Germany became involved in DITIB as secre- local Islamic association were written and low countrymen and women. An example t a r i e s . registered under German law. At the same was the rent of a local hall for a meeting. A German Muslims have attempted to coop- time, Germans met in Hamburg, Munich, Turkish diplomat protested at the municipal erate with DITIB but the contrast between Cologne and Aachen and began to organize hall against permission being granted for Turko-French l a i c i t é and German secularism facilities for daily worship. use of the hall. German Muslims followed is so deep that one might say that each prin- Wolf D. Ahmed has been a lecturer at the Universities During the 1970s, these individuals utilized and insisted on the proper application of ciple almost destroys the other. For exam- of Paderborn and Kassel as well as a scientific advisor their membership in different societal organi- German law. The meeting was held. In this ple, German society expects that the for the Board of the Islamic Council for the Federal zations – political parties, unions, and the like way, Muslims originating in Turkey learned churches and religious organizations com- Republic of Germany. – to discuss the developing situation vis-á-vis to enjoy the benefits of secular freedom. ment publicly on political, ethical, social and Fax: +49 5241 339986 I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Institutes 45

I D M P MUHAMMAD SYUKRI SALLEH Islamic Development

The Islamic Development Management Project (IDMP) was established in 1995 at the School of So- cial Sciences, University of Science Malaysia. As a re- search and education project, which gathers its Management Project: members from various disciplines and schools within the University, IDMP aims at enhancing the field of Islamic development beyond the confines of devel- opment per se. It takes a multi-disciplinary approach to development, integrating social, economic and Managing Development political tools of analysis to understand develop- ment in an integrative and holistic manner.

The IDMP goes beyond the study of Islamic economics, Islamic development and Islamic the Islamic Way economic development to scrutinize and construct a conceptual and practical frame- To date, the IDMP has enjoyed cooperation work of the management of economics, de- with various institutions in organizing its in- velopment, and economic development in house seminars, academic meetings, inter- an Islamic perspective. As development is national conferences and publications. It seen as an all-embracing aspect of life, from hopes to continue such cooperation, taking spiritual to material and physical, and from it further to include the training of its mem- the level of the individual to that of society, bers, and by being involved in coordinated state and beyond, IDMP intends to cover the efforts and activities both at the national and P r o f e s s o r whole range of horizons of human life, for- international levels. ♦ Khurshid Ahmad mulating and pioneering a new integrated d e l i v e r i n g discipline that IDMP terms ‘Islamic Develop- c o n c l u d i n g ment Management’. remarks at the First International A c t i v i t i e s Conference on In realizing the above objectives, IDMP N o t e s I s l a m i c undertakes the task of strengthening its 1 . The ‘Seminar on Development Management: An D e v e l o p m e n t members with knowledge of Islam and re- Islamic Approach’ was co-organized with the M a n a g e m e n t lated disciplines, as well as disseminating Association of Kelantan Civil Servants while the organized by the this knowledge through weekly Qur’anic ‘Book Discussion: Napoleon and Islam’ (by Christian I D M P - I D B . studies, monthly in–house seminars, acade- Cherfils, Utusan Publications and Distributors, mic meetings, international conferences 1999) was co-organized with Utusan Publications (every two years), research, publications was signed with Utusan Publications & Dis- such as a centre or institute (and perhaps a and Distributors. and teaching. While Qur’anic studies, in- tributors on the publication of an IDMP bi- school in the future) would help create a 2 . The first international conference on ‘Islamic house seminars and academic meetings annual Journal of Islamic Development. more encouraging and active future for the Political Economy in Capitalist Globalization: comprise regular gatherings for IDMP mem- The above activities run concurrently with IDMP. It would bring IDMP members who A n Agenda for Change’ was co-organized with bers and interested individuals to share and research and consultancy works. To date, come from various schools and fields to- t h e Institut Kajian Dasar (IKD, Kuala Lumpur) deepen their knowledge on subjects related IDMP has completed two research projects, gether into one formal institution, research- w h i l e the second, on ‘Islamic Political Economy: to Islam and Islamic Development Manage- firstly on the ‘Islamization of Development in ing, developing and disseminating the Is- Methodology and Practice from an Asian ment, the international conferences bring Kelantan’ and secondly on the ‘Implementa- lamic Development Management discipline Perspective in Response to Globalization’, IDMP members and international learned tion of Islamic Development: A Comparative through their respective fields, such as Is- was co-organized with the Secretariat for Islamic persons together to present and exchange Analysis of Kelantan and Terengganu’. At the lamic Economics, Islamic Development, Is- Philosophy and Science (Penang), Yayasan Nurul their ideas and research findings on a cho- moment IDMP is carrying out two other re- lamic Management, Islamic Politics, Islamic Yaqeen (Kuala Lumpur) and the Japan Asia sen theme. search projects on the ‘Commercialization of Political Economy and so on. All these could Foundation (Tokyo). The IDMP has, for nearly two years now, Agriculture’ and ‘Management of Islamic Re- culminate in a practical, applied living Islam. 3 . The book, edited by M.A. Choudhury, Abdad M.Z. conducted its weekly Qur’anic studies class- vivalism in Malaysia’. It has also begun con- As such, achieving a formal status for the and Muhammad Syukri Salleh, is entitled I s l a m i c es, organized numerous in-house seminars, sultancy work for the Higher Education De- IDMP within the organizational structure of Political Economy in Capitalist Globalisation: An two academic meetings and three interna- partment of the Malaysian Ministry of Educa- the university is a main objective for the Agenda for Change, and was published by Utusan tional conferences. The first academic meet- tion, investigating the ‘Entrance of Religious coming years. Publications and Distributors, 1996. ing, a seminar on An Islamic Approach to De- Studies Students into the Public Higher Edu- The IDMP also aims at formulating acade- 4 . The books, all published by Utusan Publications velopment Management was held in Kota cation Institutions in Malaysia’. mic packages to be offered to both under- and Distributors, are Political Economy of Bharu, Kelantan in 1998; while the second, a As IDMP has yet to have its own teaching graduate and post-graduate students. Spe- Development in Malaysia (edited by B.N. Ghosh and book discussion on Napoleon and Islam was programme, it utilizes the present structure cific academic programmes, such as a major Muhammad Syukri Salleh, 1999); Foreign Workers held at University Science Malaysia in 1999.1 of the university to teach undergraduate and minor in Islamic Development Manage- in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges (by A.H.M. The first two international conferences, held courses and supervise post-graduate stu- ment for undergraduates, as well as a mas- Zehadul Karim, Moha Asri Abdullah and Md Isa in 1994 and 1996, dealt with Islamic political dents. Undergraduate courses on ‘Islamic ter’s programme and PhD programme, are in Bakar, 1999); and Pembangunan Industri Kecil dan e c o n o m y .2 The third, held in 1998 and co-or- Economics’ and ‘Islamic Economics Analysis’ the planning pipeline. As an initial step, a Sederhana di Malaysia (by Moha Asri Abdullah, ganized with the Islamic Research and Train- are taught within the Economic Section of proposal has been made for the master’s 1 9 9 9 ) . ing Institute (IRTI) of the Islamic Develop- the School of Social Sciences and School of and minor programmes in Islamic Develop- 5 . The two theses were entitled: ‘Pondok Pesantren ment Bank, dealt with the Management of Distance Learning, respectively. Two other ment Management, to be launched during Cooperatives in Sumatera Utara’ (PhD) and Economic Development in Islamic Perspective. courses – ‘Principles and Implementation of the Eighth Malaysia Plan, 2001-2005. Offer- ‘Administration of Waqf Land in Medan, Indonesia’ Currently, IDMP is preparing for its fourth in- Islamic Development’ and ‘Islamic Develop- ing such programmes would not only enrich (MA). The on-going research consists of the ternational conference to be held in the very ment Institutions’ – are taught within the the discipline of Islamic Development Man- following themes: ‘Agriculture Financing: A near future. The emphasis of this conference Development Planning and Management agement, but would also hopefully be able Comparative Study between Conventional and will be placed on the conceptualization and Section of the School of Social Sciences. At to expedite the implementation of Islamic Islamic Systems’; ‘The Link between Bay’ Al-Salam realization of Islamic Development Manage- the post-graduate level, a master’s degree in development in various Muslim countries, as an Islamic Mode of Financing and Instruments ment within the socio-economic and politi- Social Sciences and a PhD degree have been through the training of their Islamic devel- of the Agricultural Investment Sector in the Light cal realities of today. completed by two students from the School opment managers at IDMP. of Islamic Economics’; ‘Development Perspective During the second international confer- of Social Sciences. At present, three students of Gerakan Muhammadiyah in Indonesia’ (for MA ence held in 1996, the first IDMP book, con- are preparing their master’s degrees and The way forward degrees); ‘Islamic Finance for Small and Medium sisting of papers presented at the first inter- three for their PhD degrees.5 The IDMP would not be able to accomplish Entrepreneurs in the East Coast of Peninsular national conference3 was launched. The third its objectives without the cooperation, sup- Malaysia’; ‘In Search of a Truly Interest-Free international conference held in 1998, saw Plans for the future port and acknowledgement of the University Financial System’; and ‘Zakat Accounting: The the appearance of three other books written At this time, the IDMP merely exists as a Science Malaysia, as well as without that of Cases of Some Selected Islamic Institutions in and edited by IDMP members.4 IDMP is now project under the School of Social Sciences. established institutions worldwide. Being a Malaysia’ (for PhD degrees). editing the papers of this conference to be Although it receives basic office facilities and project that depends, for its day-to-day oper- published in one volume, as well as simulta- enjoys moral support from the School, the ations, on research and consultancy grants, Associate Professor Dr Muhammad Syukri Salleh is neously editing a book based on the seminar IDMP is actually a self-sponsored project, fi- continual assistance in goods, services and Head of the Islamic Development Management on development management held in Kelan- nancially independent of both the School monetary forms from established organiza- Project (IDMP), School of Social Sciences, tan. At the official opening of the 1998 con- and the university. A formal status within the tions and philanthropists would greatly help University of Science Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. ference, a memorandum of understanding organizational structure of the university IDMP to advance at a greater pace. E-mail: [email protected] 4 6 Info Pages I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Art & Culture Agenda

THE NETHERLANDS 17 March - 29 May 2000 R U S S I A tion and women. Performances in- cludes a folio from a minute, 9t h- c e n- • Ottoman Calligraphy’s Collections of Tate’s Duveen Galleries clude recitations from the Qur’an, tury Koran, a 15t h-century royal wine E x h i b i t i o n s the Sakip Sabanci Museum. The exhi- E x h i b i t i o n s L o n d o n music, dance and coffee and tea cere- cup from Iran, and contemporary bition presents around 70 works be- m o n i e s . works exploring the power of Arabic longing to the collection of the Sapik 24 March - 9 July 2000 l e t t e r s . De Nieuwe Kerk The State Hermitage • Mona Hatoum is a Lebanese-born Gravenstraat 17 Sabanci University in Istanbul. They M u s e u m Los Angeles County Muse- are all works by the most famous cal- Palestinian British sculptor who fo- um of A r t 21 November 1999 - 28 May 2000 1012 NL Amsterdam St Petersburg cuses on confrontational themes T e l: +31 20 638 69 09 ligraphers of the period between the T e l: +812 110 9079 / 96 25 5905 Wilshire Boulevard • Antoin Sevruguin (late 1830s–1933) 1 5t hand early 20t hc e n t u r i e s . such as violence and oppression and Los Angeles, CA 90036 and the Persian Image includes fifty F a x: +31 20 622 66 49 F a x: +812 312 1550 the vulnerability and resilience of the E - m a i l: [email protected] U R L: www.hermitage.ru T e l: +1 323 857 600 images of rulers, courtiers, and com- Musée Jacquemart-André human body. For this first large solo moners, and scenes of daily life in show, she has created large-scale 16 December 1999 – 24 April 2000 158, bd. Haussmann, 75008 Paris C o n t i n u i n g 30 March - 31 July 2000 Iran from the late 1870s to the 1930s. T e l: +33 1 465 11 414 works that reflect her interest in • A Bold Aesthetic: Textile Arts of Cen- • Earthly splendour, celestial art. Trea- • Art of the Near East is represented in everyday objects. sures from Islam. Persian carpets, In- F a x: +33 1 465 11 412 the museum by an excellent collec- tral Asia features 60 outstanding ex- 3 May 1998 - Indefinitely t h t h amples of the dress, textiles and jew- • Arts of the Islamic World. Some 60 dian miniatures and jewellery are tion covering the 7 to 19 c e n t u r i e s Brunei Gallery shown against a background of 1 April - 2 July 2000 which includes several exquisite mas- ellery of the peoples of western Cen- works – Koran pages, metalwork, ce- L o n d o n t h ponds, fountains, flowers and a • Brilliance’s of Ottoman ceramic t e r p i e c e s . tral Asia from the early 19 to the ramics, glass, paintings, and calligra- T e l: +44 20 7898 4020 t h t h t h aviary, recalling Paradise as it is de- w o r k s . early 20 century. The exhibition pre- phy – from the 9 to 17 c e n t u r i e s U R L: www.soas.ac.uk/Brunei/exhi- sents extraordinary examples of explore Islamic artistic traditions. scribed in the Qur’an. The exhibition S I N G A P O R E b i t i o n s . h t m l is organized in co-operation with the G E R M A N Y what is perhaps the greatest artistic Themes include the forms and func- t h State Hermitage, St. Petersburg. E x h i b i t i o n s achievement of 19 - c e n t u r y tions of the works of art, the role of E x h i b i t i o n s 13 April - 17 June 2000 and Bukhara: intricately patterned silk calligraphy, the use of figurative dec- 1 0 July - 16 September 2000 and velvet textiles, fashioned into oration, and the meaning of abstract Zijdemuseum Grijpskerke Asian Civilisations Museum • In the Shade of the Tree: Photographs Kerkstraat 1 Vorderasiatisches Museum 39 Armenian Street robes and hangings. d e s i g n s . Entrée Pergamonmuseum by Peter Sanders, who has been pho- 4364 AJ Grijpskerke Singapore 179939 tographing Islamic cultures around T e l / F a x: +31 118 593 305 M u s e u m i n s e l 2 July - 25 September 2000 C o n t i n u i n g Am Kupfergraben the world for more than three • Gold of the Nomads: Scythian Trea- • Luxury Arts of the Silk Route Empires: E - m a i l: [email protected] From November 1997 d e c a d e s . B e r l i n - M i t t e • Calligraphy from the Tareq Rajab Mu- sures from Ancient Ukraine. Approxi- In these two galleries connecting the 30 May - 15 July 2000 T e l: +49 30 2090 5401 seum Kuwait. The Qur’an was central mately 165 works of art will comprise Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Egee Art Gallery the finest Scythian gold objects from Sackler Gallery, examples of metal- Oman: Textiles from the desert to the development of the art of 9 Chelsea Manor Studios 15 May 2001 - 30 September 2001 beautiful writing. In this exhibition is the Treasures of Ukraine Museum work and ceramics from the collec- • Agatha Christie and the Orient Flood Street, London SW3 5SR and the Archaeological Institute in tions of each museum illustrate the G e m e e n t e m u s e u m explored the various scripts that de- T e l: 44 171 351 68 18 D e n H a a g veloped over the centuries and also Kiev. This exhibition will be the effect of multicultural interaction on Museum of Islamic Art F a x: 44 171 376 85 10 largest and most complete ever as- the arts of the first millennium AD Or- Stadhouderslaan 41 calligraphy as a decorative motif on URL: w w w . e q e e a r t . c o m 2517 HV The Hague M u s e u m i n s e l various media like ceramics and met- sembled from the Scythian material naments, bowls, cups, bottles, jars, T e l: +31 70 338 1111 B e r l i n - M i t t e a l w o r k . in Ukraine. mirrors, ewers, and ritual objects in T e l: +49 30 2090 5401 C o n t i n u i n g gold, silver or silver and gilt, earthen- • Contemporary and antique Middle Metropolitan Museum ware and porcelain from Iran, China, Continuing exhibition S W I T Z E R L A N D Eastern Art. • Islamic crafts. The renewed exhibi- C o n t i n u i n g o f A r t Turkey, Syria, and Afghanistan are in- tion from its own collection, in par- • The continuing exhibition is dedicat- 1000 Fifth Avenue cluded in this exhibition. E x h i b i t i o n s Sony Gallery n d ticular ceramics. Other objects illus- ed to the art of Islamic peoples from at 82 S t r e e t the 8t hto the 19t hcentury. The works 25 Connaught Street Marble Arch New York, New York 10028 Textile Museum trating Islamic art. Völkerkundemuseum London W2 of art originate from an area stretch- der Universität Zürich T e l: +1 212 535 7710 Washington, D.C. ing from Spain to India. T e l / f a x: +31 171 262 9101 Wereldmuseum Rotterdam Pelikanstrasse 40, 8001 Zürich U R L : w w w . s o n i g a l l e r y . c o m Willemskade 25, Tel: + 41 1 634 90 11 26 April - 24 September 2000 18 February- 30 July 2000 3016 DM Rotterdam Ifa-Galerie Stuttgart Fax: + 41 1 634 90 50 • Riding across Central Asia: Images of • Flowers of Silk and Gold: Four Cen- Charlottenplatz 17 C o n t i n u i n g the Mongolian Horse in Islamic Art, turies of Ottoman Embroidery offers a T e l: +31 10 270 71 72 • International contemporary art espe- F a x: +31 10 270 71 82 70173 Stuttgart 16 January - 3 September 2000 examines the depiction of horses in unique window on urban Ottoman so- T e l: +49 7 1122 25 173 cially from the Indo-Pak subcontinent Islamic art, especially during the ciety, for embroideries played a role in E - m a i l: mediatheek@wereldmuse- • Embroidered prayers: prayer rugs from and the Arab World. u m . r o t t e r d a m . n l F a x: +497 1122 25 194 the Hazara of Afghanistan, an ethnic Seljuq and the Ilkhanid periods (ca. most aspects of domestic and public t h t h U R L: http://www.ifa.de minority of Shiite Muslims who live in 1 2 - 1 4 century) in Iran. The Mongo- life. • Due to renovations the Museum will the hostile environment of the Sunni UNITED STATES lian horse can also be viewed as a be closed until 26 November 2000. It C o n t i n u i n g Taleban. The prayer rugs are an identi- swift carrier of different cultures and Corcoran Gallery of Art E x h i b i t i o n s t h will reopen with a permanent exhibi- • Exhibitions and contemporary art fication mark of the Hazara culture, traditions to the Islamic world. Unit- 500 17 Street, N.W. from the Middle East. ing some 25 objects from the Muse- Washington, D.C. 20006 tion of Islamic art from its own collec- which remained unknown outside Harvard University Art t i o n . their own environment until some um’s collection, this exhibition dis- T e l: 1+ 202-639-1700 I R A N M u s e u m s plays representations of the horse as years ago. A representative choice Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Galerie A from a private collection of about 900 seen in various media, including illus- 1 March - 15 June 2000 E x h i b i t i o n s Cambridge, Massachusetts trated manuscripts, inlaid metalwork, • he Topkapi Palace: Jewels and Trea- Oldenzaalsestraat 256 pieces. T e l. +1 617 495 9400 7523 AG Enschede ceramic tiles, stone, and textile. sures of the Sultans features more T e l / F a x : +31 53 3413788 Islamic Period Museum T U R K E Y than 200 artefacts and works of art T e h r a n 8 June - 3 September 2000 Brooklyn Museum of Art from Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, for • A Decade of Collecting: Recent acqui- C o n t i n u i n g E x h i b i t i o n s 200 Eastern Parkway 400 years not only the residence of C o n t i n u i n g sitions of Islamic and later Indian Art. Brooklyn, NY 11238 the rulers of the Ottoman Empire but • Intercultural art • Beginning in March 2000, the Har- • Continuing exhibition of Koranic The Museum of Turkish T e l: +1 718 638 5000 also the centre of the empire’s dynas- manuscripts, ceramics, metalwork vard University Art Museums will em- F a x: + 1 718 638 3731 tic power, its military administration A U S T R I A and Islamic Art bark on a year-long, multi-gallery and textiles. I s t a n b u l and its religious leadership. E x h i b i t i o n s programme of exhibitions showcas- 27 Oct. 2000 - 21 Jan. 2001 K U W A I T ing recent additions to the collec- • Gold of the Nomads: Scythian trea- The Balch Institute for Eth- C o n t i n u i n g tions. On 8 June 2000, the Islamic and Museum für Völkerkunde • Exhibition of Ottoman and Islamic sures from Ancient Ukraine. Although nic Studies E x h i b i t i o n s Indian Department’s recent acquisi- the Scythians are often portrayed as 18 S. 7t h S t r e e t Neue Burg Art, Folk Art and Folk Life. tions exhibition will open. A-1014 Vienna warring barbarians, they also left be- Philadelphia, PA 191106 T e l: +43 1 534 30 0 Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah UNITED KINGDOM hind a wealth of gold pieces fash- T e l: +1 215 925 8090 Mahboula, Kuwait C o n t i n u i n g ioned by Greek craftsmen in the Black U R L: http://www.balchinstitute.org F a x: +43 1 535 53 20 • Harvard’s collection of Islamic and E-mail: v*@ethno-museum.ac.at T e l: +965 565 3006 E x h i b i t i o n s Sea region. This exhibition consists of later Indian art is small but magnifi- 170 Scythian treasures, most of which 12 February - 12 August 2000 cent. It comprises a broad range of t h 13 April - 17 September 2000 C o n t i n u i n g British Museum are gold, dating from the 7 c e n t u r y • A Community between Two Worlds: works, from Samanid pottery and n d • Agatha Christie and the East: Crimi- • Al-Sabah Collection of Islamic art. and Museum of Mankind to the 2 century, with a heavy con- Arab Americans in Greater Detroit. Mamluk calligraphy to Qajar lacquers centration on the 5t hthrough 3r dc e n- nology and Archaeology traces those Great Russell Street and Ottoman textiles. Its masterpieces two strands in the life of the ‘Queen of The Tareq Rajab Museum London WCIB 3DG t u r i e s . 3 March – 30 August 2000 Hawelli 32036 include a group of miniatures from • Ahlan wa-Sahlan! Welcome to our Crime’, displaying diaries, hitherto T e l: +44 171 412 71 11 the extraordinary 14t h-century Great unpublished photographs of Christie K u w a i t F a x: +44 171 3238614/8480 The Art Museum, Princeton Home! Philadelphia’s Arab Americans T e l: +965 531 7358 Mongol (‘Demotte’) Shahnama, the U n i v e r s i t y and her husband, archaeologist Max Safavid master Mir Sayyid-’Ali’s Night- Mallowan; more than 200 artifacts F a x: +965 533 9063 C o n t i n u i n g Princeton, New Jersey 08544-1018 UNITED NATIONS time in a Palace, and the miniatures T e l: +1 609 258 3787/3788 from his excavations in Iraq and • Continuing exhibition of the Oriental of the ‘pocket-size Divan of Anvari Syria; and a compartment from the C o n t i n u i n g collection. Its Islamic pottery is con- M a g a z i n e s • Arts of the Islamic world: Qur’ans, cal- produced for the Mughal emperor Spring 2000 Orient Express. sidered the best outside the Islamic Akbar. The department also has one ligraphy, pottery, metalwork, glass, w o r l d . • Islamic Art Museum International ivory and jade carvings, costumes, of the most important representations UNESCO, Paris B E L G I U M of Rajasthani painting in the world. textiles, embroideries and jewellery. Leighton House Museum Spring 2000 Blackwell Publishers The exhibitions include also relevant • Letters in Gold: Ottoman Calligraphy 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF E x h i b i t i o n s 12 Holland Park Road De Paul University Art objects from Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. London W14 from the Sakip Sabanci Collection, Is- United Kingdom G a l l e r y t a n b u l . Paleis voor Schone T e l: + 44 20 7602 3316 John T. Richardson Library K u n s t e n M A L A Y S I A • Draws upon one of Turkey’s leading 2350 North Kenmore Avenue private collections to display 70 ex- The Agenda is produced by Koningsstraat 10 / 15 April - 30 April 2000 Chicago Il 60614 Ravensteinstraat 23 E x h i b i t i o n s • Teliz. Woven paintings. An exhibition ceptional examples of Ottoman-era t h e Centre of Islamic Culture T e l: +1 773-325-7863 c a l l i g r a p h y . B r u x e l l e s of post-modernist rugs selected by URL: w w w . d e p a u l . e d u / ~ i s l a m in Rotterdam, The Nether- T e l: +32 2 507 84 66 Islamic Art Museum Rose Issa in collaboration with Pusat Islam Malaysia The Arthur M. Sackler lands. Please send all Bokhara Gallery, Iran. 11 March - 15 July 2000 25 February - 21 May 2000 Jalan Perdana Gallery information with regard to 50480 Kuala Lumpur • A kaleidoscopic 11-week programme and Freer Gallery of Art • Borderline: inimitable pieces of 15 April - 30 April 2000 illustrates the global significance of activities related to culture Berber textile art, created by Moroc- T e l: +60 3 2274 2020 • Aneh Mohammad Tatari. An exhibi- Smithsonian Institution, Islamic cultures. Exhibits cover Washington, D.C, 20560. and art in the Islamic World can and Tunisian countrywomen. tion of paintings by an Iranian-Turko- themes such as the weaving culture C o n t i n u i n g man artist. T e l: +1 202 357 2700 (voice), +1 202 t o : • Collections of local and international of Morocco, incense, faces of Islam, 357 1729 F R A N C E mosque design in North America, Per- The Centre of Islamic Culture, Islamic art objects. The museum Victoria and Albert holds local and international orient- sian painting, Persian tiles and con- 17 November 1999 - 7 May 2000 P.O. Box 361, E x h i b i t i o n s M u s e u m temporary Arabic art. Exhibit items ed exhibitions at intervals. • Imaging the Word: Selections of Cal- 3 0 0 0 AJ Rotterdam, Cromwell Road, London SW7 2RL are on loan from e.g. Indianapolis Musée du Louvre, T e l: +44 171 938 8500 ligraphy from the Islamic World pre- Museum of Art, Minneapolis Institute sents some of the principal calli- T h eN e t h e r l a n d s 75058 Paris U R L: http://www.vam.ac.uk of Arts, Belghazi Museum, Sale, Mo- T e l: +33 1 40 20 50 50 graphic styles that have evolved in Fax: +31 10 270 71 82 rocco, Oudaia Museum, Rabat, Mo- t h F a x: +33 1 40 20 54 42 C o n t i n u i n g the Islamic world from the 9 to the E-mail: mediatheek@wereld rocco. Lectures and Forums are held 2 0th century as they appear in differ- E - m a i l: [email protected] Paris • The collection includes a rich collec- on a wide variety of topics: cuisine, m u s e u m . r o t t e r d a m . n l tion of Islamic metalwork. ent media, from silk to agate and sociology, history, medicine, educa- parchment to steel. The selection in- I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 Info Pages 47 Academic Meetings

Institute for Studies and Cooperation with Freie Universität Berlin, Arbeitsstelle Politik Recent Conferences and Twenty-five years of Middle East Timor, Alameda da Guia, 139-3o Esqo 3 6t h International Congress of des Vorderen Orients, Ihnestr. 31, Middle East Studies Association Public Lectures Eastern and Islamic Studies in 2750-370 Cascais, Portugal. Asian and North African D-14195 Berlin, Germany (MESA) Annual Meeting the Netherlands tel: +351 969 033 618 / Studies tel: +49 30 838 6640 / fax: +49 30 838 6637 Date: 16-19 November 2000 Arab World 2000: Date: 19 May 2000 fax: +351 222 003 599 (ICANAS 2000) [email protected] Venue: Orlando, Florida Transformations and Venue: Theological University, Date: 27 August - 1 September 2000 Information: MESA of North America, s t th C h a l l e n g e s Kampen, The Netherlands The Mediterranean in the 21 Venue: Montreal, Canada 7 Annual Congress of the University of Arizona, 1643 E. Helen Street, Date: 30-31 March 2000 Information: Ruud Strijp, Century: Enduring Differences Information: ICANAS 2000 Secretariat, Bureau German Middle East Studies Tucson, Arizona, 85721 USA Information: Ms. Anne Marie Chaaraoui, Dr. Jan Berendsstraat 132-A, and Prospects for Co-operation des congrès, Université de Montréal, P.O. Association (DAVO) tel: +1 520 621 5850 Center for Contemporary Arab Studies 6512 HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Date: 3-14 July 2000 Box 6128, Date: 12-14 October 2000 fax: +1 520 6269095 Georgetown University, tel: +31 24 360 5852 Venue: European University Institute, Station Downtown Montréal, Venue: Centre for Research on the Arab World [email protected] Washington, D.C. 20057-5793 [email protected] Florence, Italy Québec H3C 3J7, Canada (CERAW), University of Mainz, Germany URL: http://w3fp.arizona.edu/ tel: +1 202 687 6215 or +1 202 687 5793 Information: Ann-C. Svantesson, tel: +1 514 343 6492 / fax: +1 514 343 6544 Deadline for papers: mesassoc/Annualmeetings/ fax: +1 202 687 7001 Muslim Identities in North Mediterranean Programme Secretary [email protected] 12 September 2000 AnnualMeetings/htm [email protected] A m e r i c a tel: +39 55 468 5785 / fax: +39 55 468 5770 URL: http://www.bcoc.umontreal.ca. Information: DAVO-Congress Organization, Date: 20-21 May 2000 [email protected] Professor Dr. Anton Escher, Center for People and Power in 21s t r d Islam and Constitutionalism Venue: University of California, Irvine Religion and Society in Qajar Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Century Africa: 43 A n n u a l Date: 7-9 April 2000 Information: Prof. Karen B. Leonard Australiasian Middle East I r a n Institute of Geography, University of Meeting of the African Studies Venue: Harvard Law School, Boston, [email protected] Studies Association 2000 Date: 4-6 September 2000 Mainz, A s s o c i a t i o n Massachusetts USA C o n f e r e n c e Sponsored by: The British Institute of Persian D-55099, Mainz, Germany Date: 16-19 November 2000 Information: Professor Sohail Hashmi, The Third Biennial Conference Date: 5-6 July 2000 Studies and the Iran Heritage Foundation. tel: +49 6131 39 25654 Venue: Convention Center, Nashville, Mount Holyoke College (or) on Iranian Studies Venue: Melbourne, Australia Information: Robert Gleave (Conference fax: +49 06131 39 24736 Tennessee, USA Professor Houchang Chehabi, Date: 25-28 May 2000 Information: Dr. Shahram Akbarzadeh, Coordinator), Department of Theology and [email protected] Information: Loree D. Jones, Boston University Venue: Bethesda, Maryland Politics, Religious Studies, University of Bristol, URL: http://www.geo.uni-mainz.de/davo Executive Director, African Studies fax: +1 617 353 9290 Sponsored by: The American Institute of La Trobe University, Vic. 3083,Australia. Bristol, BS8 1TB UK Association, Rutgers, The State University Iranian Studies (AIIrS) fax: + 61 3 9479 1997 tel: +44 117 928 8168 / fax: +44 117 929 Islam and Society in the 21s t of New Jersey, Douglass Campus, 132 t h Mediation and Minority and The Society for Iranian Studies (SIS) [email protected]. 7850 Century: 29 A n n u a l George Street, C u l t u r e s Information: Kambriz Eslami SIS Executive URL: http://www.arabic.univelb.edu/au/ [email protected] Association of Muslim Social New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1400 USA Date: 15 April 2000 Secretary events/amesa/amesa3.htm Scientists (AMSS) tel: +1 732 9328173 Venue: Harvard Law School, Boston, [email protected] Seminar for Arabian Studies Date: 13-15 October 2000 fax: +1 732 932 3394 Massachusetts, USA URL: www.iranian-studies.org Navigation and Trade in the Date: 4-6 September 2000 Venue: Georgetown University, Washington, [email protected] th Information: Peri Bearman at: Mediterranean from the 7 to the Venue: The Institute of Archaeology, D.C. th th s t p b e a r m a n @ l a w . h a r v a r d . e d u Annual RIMO Conference: 19 centuries: 8 International University College London. Sponsored by: The Association of Muslim 1 Graduate Student (or) Asifa Quraishi at: Dutch Association for the Congress on Graeco-Oriental and Information: Nanina Shaw Reade, Secretary, Social Scientists (AMSS) in collaboration Conference on Ibn Sina a q u r a i s h @ l a w . h a r v a r d . e d u Study of the Law of Islam and African Studies Seminar for Arabian Studies, Institute of with The Center for Muslim-Christian Date: March 2001 (tentative) the Middle East Date: 5-9 July 2000 Archaeology (UCL), 31-34 Gordon Square, Understanding at Georgetown University. Venue: Yale University, New Haven, L’individu et ses rapports au Date: 27 May 2000 Venue: Oinousses, Greece London WC1H 0PY Information: The International Institute of Connecticut, USA pouvoir dans les sociétés Venue: Leiden, The Netherlands Sponsored by: the Institute for Graeco-Oriental fax/answerphone: +44 1367 850 130 Islamic Thought (IIIT), Information: David C. Reisman or Ahmed al- musulmanes de la région Sponsored by: ISIM and RIMO Studies, Athens, and the Department of [email protected] Attention: AMSS Conference 2000, Rahim, NELC, Méditerranéenne History, Cairo University P.O. Box 669, Herndon, VA, 20170, USA, (or) Yale University, P0 Box 208236, Immigrant Religious New Haven CT 06520-8236 USA Date: 3 May 2000 Upcoming Conferences, Information: Professor V. Christides, Institute Deonna Kelli for Graeco-Oriental and African Studies, Communities: tel: +1 703 471-1133, ext. 116 tel: +1 203 432 2944 Venue: Hammamet, Tunisia Lecture Series and Sponsored by: Université de Tunis, Faculté des Solomou 39, Kryoneri Attikis, 14568 Greece Ideas and Identities fax: +1 703 471-3922 fax: +1 203 4322946 Sciences Humaines et Sociales and Public Events. fax: +30 1 816-1037 Date: 8-10 September 2000 [email protected] [email protected] (or) European Science Foundation Venue: San Diego State University, California, URL: http://www.iiit.org/callpapers.htm [email protected] Afghanistan: Country without a Borders, Orders and Identities of USA t h Al-Andalus and Europe: Between S t a t e the Muslim World Sponsored by: The Institute of Druze Studies in 2 9 Annual Conference Medical Ethics and Law in Islam Orient and Occident Date: 15-18 June 2000 Date: 12-14 July 2000 collaboration with the Department of on South Asia Date: 19-21 March 2001 Date: 3-7 May 2000 Venue: Museum of Anthropology, Information: Michelle Speak, External Religious Studies, San Diego State Date: 13-15 October 2000 Venue: Haifa, Israel Venue: Bonn, Germany Munich, Germany Relations Officer, International Boundaries University (SDSU), The Society for the Venue: University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Sponsored by: The Department of Arabic Information: Secretary, Information: Conrad Schetter, Coordinator, Research Unit, Suite 3P, Mountjoy Academic Study of Religions (SDSU) and Information: Center for South Asia, University Language and Literature and the Center Seminar für Orientalische Kunstgeschichte Scientific Program, Center of Development Research Centre, University of Durham, the G.E. von Grunebaum Center at the of Wisconsin-Madison, 203 Ingraham Hall, for Health, Law and Ethics at the Law Regina-Pacis-Weg, Research, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, DH1 3UR, UK University of California, 1155 Observatory Drive, School, both of the University of Haifa, 53113 Bonn, Germany 53113, Bonn, Germany tel: +44 191 374 7705 Los Angeles (UCLA) Madison WI 53706, USA Israel. tel: +49 228 263144 fax: +44 191 374 7702 Information: Institute of Druze Studies, tel: +1 608 262 4884 / fax: +1 608 265 3062 Information: Dr. Vardit Rispler-Chaim, Perception According to Mulla [email protected] [email protected] San Diego State University [email protected] Department of Arabic, University of Haifa, Sarda and Western Schools of URL: http://www.rzuser. (or) Ali Ansari, Centre for Middle Eastern P.O. Box 22828, San Diego, CA 92192 Haifa, Israel 31905 s t Philosophy uni-heidelberg.de/~iv0/aga & Islamic Studies, South End House, [email protected] with copy to Samy s. The Third World in the 21 tel: + 972 4 8249789 t h Date: 12-13 May 2000 South Road, Durham, DH1 3TG, UK Swayd [email protected] Century: 18 Annual Meeting of fax: +972 4 8249710 Venue: The School of Oriental and African Islamic Origins: National tel: +44 191 374-2822 the Association of Third World [email protected] Studies (SOAS), University of London, UK. Endowment for the Humanities fax: +44 191 374-2830 Muslims of Europe in the New S t u d i e s Sponsored by: The Institute of Islamic studies, (NEH) Summer Institute 2000 [email protected] Millennium: Multiculturalism, Date: 19-21 October 2000 Islam in America: Series of the Department of Study of Religions at Date: 19 June - 21 July 2000 URL: Identity and Citizenship Venue: Denver, Colorado s e m i n a r s the School of Oriental and African Studies Venue: University of Chicago, Illinois, USA www.1bru.dur.ac.uk/conf/islam/intor/htm Date: 9-10 September 2000 Deadline for registration: September 1, 2000 A Seminar or a series of seminars are planned (SOAS) at London University and Sadra I n f o r m a t i o n: h t t p : / / h u m a n i t i e s . Venue: Islamic Cultural Centre of Ireland, Information: Professor Norman W. Provizer, to develop a comprehensive research Islamic Philosophy Research Institute. u c h i c a g o . e d u / i s l a m i c - o r i g i n s / Literature and Nationalism in Dublin Director, Golda Meir Center for Political program on the theme ‘Islam in America.’ Information: S. Safavi, the Middle East and North Africa Information: The Steering Committee, Leadership, Metropolitan State College of A working paper is to be developed shortly Director of the Institute of Islamic Studies, Muslim Europe: The Changing (MENA) Association of Muslim Social Scientists Denver, P.O. Box 173362, Campus Box 43, which will contain a series of research PO Box 8148, London, NW6 7ZS England, Cultural Contours of the West (An Date: 10-13 July 2000 (UK), P.O. Box 126, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 Denver, CO, 80217-3362 USA questions. The seminar will be based on UK Institute for Educators) Sponsored by: The Edinburgh Institute for the 2UD, UK tel: +1 303 556 3157 / fax: +1 303 556 2716 these questions and, subsequently, a tel: +44 20 8459 1000 / fax: +44 20 8830 Date: 19 June - 14 July 2000 Advanced Study of Islam and the Middle tel: +44 208 948 9511 or +44 208 948 9512 [email protected] special issue of the American Journal of 4013. Information: Hazel Sara Greenberg, The East fax: +44 208 940 4014 Islamic Social Sciences will be published. [email protected] American Forum for Global Education, 120 Information: Secretary, Edinburgh Institute for [email protected] God, Life and Cosmos: Information: Dr Abdul Hameed URL: www.islamic-studies.org Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY, the Advanced Study of Islam and the Theistic Perspectives Abusulayman, President, International 10005 USA Middle East, University of Edinburgh, 7-8 International Conference Date: 6-9 November 2000 Institute of Islamic Thought, Workshop on tel: +1 212 624 1300 / fax: +1 212 624 1412 Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh EH8 9LW, on Middle Eastern Popular Venue: Islamabad, Pakistan P.O. Box 669, Herndon, Islamic Thought in Africa Scotland Culture Sponsored by: The Center for Theology and VA 20172 USA Date: 12-14 May 2000 Time & Space in Islam fax: +44 131 650 6804 Date: 17-21 September 2000 the Natural Sciences (CNTS), the Islamic tel: +1 703 471 1133 Venue: Northwestern University, Illinois, USA Date: 1-3 July 2000 [email protected] Sponsored by: University of Oxford Research Institute of the International fax: +1 703 471 3922 Information: John Hunwick, Venue: The Islamic Foundation, Villa Park, URL: http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/eiasime/events Information: Professor Clive Holes Islamic University and the International [email protected] (or) Department of History, Northwestern I l l i n o i s /litnat-conf.html ([email protected]) or the NESP Institute of Islamic Thought Dr Ilyas Bayunus, Professor of Sociology, University, Evanston, IL, 60208 USA Sponsored by: The Iqbal Society, The American Administrator at Near Eastern Studies Information: Muzaffar Iqbal SUNY Cortland, 4339 Alexandria Drive, tel: +1 847 491-7412 / fax: +1 847 467-1393 Islamic Heritage, and the Ameer Khusro Conference on Oman Programme, University of Oxford tel: +1 780 922 0927 / fax: +1 780 922-0926 Cortland, NY 13045 USA Society of America Date: 17-19 July 2000 ([email protected]) [email protected] tel: +1 607 753 2475 Women and Society Information: Dr Habibuddin Ahmed, Venue: British Museum, London UK URL: users.ox.ac.uk/~neareast/middle.htm fax: + 1 607 753 5987 in the Middle East Coordinator Information: Julian Reade The US and the Middle East Date: 15-16 May 2000 tel: +1 630 739 9028 [email protected] Central Asia: Past, Present and after the Gulf War t h Venue: Emek Yezreel College, Israel. [email protected] Future (7 E u r o p e a n Date: 9-10 November 2000 Information: The Organizing Committee, Media, Religion and Culture: Conference on Central Asian Venue: La Plata University, Argentina nd WSME Conference, Emek Yezreel College, BRISMES 2000 Centre for 22 General Assembly and S t u d i e s ) Further information: Dr Virginia Petronis Emek Yezreel, 19300 Israel. Middle Eastern and Islamic Scientific Conference of the Date: 25-29 September 2000 tel/fax: +221 423 0628 tel: +972 6 6423456 / fax: +972-6-6423457 Studies: Annual Conference International Association for Venue: University of Vienna, Austria [email protected] (or) Michal Palgi at: [email protected] Date: 2-5 July 2000 Media and Communication Information: Dr Gabriele Rasuly-Paleczek, Chairperson, Middle East Department, Lic. (or) Venue: University of Cambridge, UK Research (IAMCR) Institute for Social and Cultural Pedro Brieger Khawla Abu Bakr at: Information: Faculty of Oriental Studies, Date: 17-20 July 2000, Venue: Singapore Anthropology, University of Vienna, A- [email protected] [email protected] (or) Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 9DA UK URL: http://www.iamcr2000.org 1010 Vienna, Universitatsstr. 7/IV, Austria Ruth Barzilai-Lumbroso at: tel/fax: +44 1223 335103 tel: +43 1 4277 4806 / fax: +43 1 4277 9485 Contesting and Constructing t h In order for the ISIM Info [email protected] [email protected] The 19 International Congress [email protected] Islamic Identities in the of Historical Sciences Periphery: A Panel at the Pages to prosper, we kindly The Second International Date: 6-14 August 2000 History and Historiography: American Anthropological Respect and Tolerance between ask for your participation by Islam and Christianity in the Conference on Jordanian Social Venue: Oslo, Norway New Approaches and Association Annual Meeting Texts History Information: Congress-Conference AS, PO Box Perspectives: International Date: 15-19 November 2000 filling out the forms for Date: 3-5 July 2000 2694 Solli, 0204 Oslo, Norway Summer Academy Venue: San Francisco, California, USA of History and Literature Vacancy Announcements and Date: 15-18 May 2000 Venue: Amman, Jordan tel: +47 22 56 19 30 / fax: +47 22 56 05 41 Date: September 2000 Information: Dr Ron Lukens-Bull, Assistant Venue: Canakkale, Turkey Information: Hani Hourani, URL: www.oslo2000.uio.no Venue: Germany Professor of Anthropology, University of Special Events. These forms Sponsored by: the Modernity and Islam North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224-2650 Information: Professor Zeki Cemil Arda, Director General, Al-Urdun Al-Jadid can be found online on the Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Research Center, P O Box 940631, Amman History of Religions: Working Group of Berlin Universities and USA Terziglu Kampusu, Canakkale, Turkey 11194, Jordan Origins and Visions extra-university institutions tel: +1 904 620 2850 ISIM website: Information: Arbeitskreis Moderne und Islam, tel: +90 286 213 02 05 or +90 213 01 55 tel: +962 6 553 3113/4 / fax: + 962 6 551 Date: August 5-12 2000 [email protected] h t t p : / / i s i m . l e i d e n u n i v . n l fax: +90 286 212 2030 1118 Venue: University of Durban-Westville, Geschäftsstelle: Wissenschaftskolleg zu [email protected] [email protected] South Africa Berlin Contesting and Constructing If you wish to have a formula Sponsored by: The International Association Georges Khalil Wallotstraße 19, Islamic Masculinities: A panel to sent by e-mail, fax, or post, Ethnic and Religious Conflict East Timor, Indonesia and the for the History of Religions (IAHR) and D - 14193 Berlin Germany be presented at the American please contact the ISIM in Cross-Cultural Perspective Region: Perceptions of History and hosted by the Department of Science and tel: +49 30 89 00 1258 / fax: +49 30 89 00 Anthropological Association Date: 18-19 May 2000 Prospects for the Future Religion at the University of Durban- 1200 Annual Meeting S e c r e t a r i a t : Date: 3-8 July 2000 Westville, South Africa [email protected] Date: 15-19 November 2000 Venue: Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA Tel: +31 71 5277905 Information: Polly Sandenburgh, Interethnic Venue: Lisbon, Portugal Information: Prof. P. Kumar, Dept. of Science Venue: San Francisco, California, USA and Religious Conflict Conference, Ohio Information: José Esteves Pereira Magalhães, and Religion, University of Durban- Congress of the International Information: Dr Ron Lukens-Bull, Assistant Fax: +31 71 5277906 Vice-Rector, Symposium and of the Westville, Private Bag X54001, Durban Association of Middle East Professor of Anthropology, University of University, E - m a i l : Center for International Studies, Universidade Nova de Lisboa Universidade 4000, South Afric Studies (IAMES) North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224-2650 Burson House, Athens, OH, 45701 Nova de Lisboa, Praça Príncipe Real, 26, tel: +27 31 204 4539 / fax: 027-31-204-4160 Date: 5-7 October 2000 USA I S I M @ r u l l e t . l e i d e n u n i v . n l 1250-184 Lisbon, Portugal (or) [email protected] Venue: Berlin, Germany tel: + 1 904 620-2850 António Barbedo, Coordinator of the URL: http://www.udw.ac.za.iahr Information: Prof. Dr. Friedemann Büttner, [email protected] 4 8 I S I M NEWSLETTER 5 / 0 0 C o n t e n t s

Olivier Roy Anne-Hélène Trottier Peter Clark Muslims in Europe: A Case of Grassroots Syncretic Sufism: From Fantasy to Faith: Islamic Architectural From Ethnic Identity to Religious Recasting The Fakir of Bengal Influences in Britain, 1800-2000 1 1 7 3 5

I S I M Matthijs van den Bos VISUAL ARTS Roots of modern S h ici t e Sufism in Iran 1 8 E d i t o r i a l Claudia Preckel by Dick Douwes Yoginder Sikand Muslim Actors in ‘Bollywood’ 2 The Sufi Shrines of Jammu 3 6 1 9 - 2 0 Islam and the Electoral Process Leyla Bouzid Discacciati The International Institute for Ziba Mir-Hosseini by Martin van Bruinessen The Image of Women the Study of the Modern World 3 Debating Gender with Ulema in Qom in Algerian and Tunisian Cinema 2 1 3 7 (ISIM) promotes and conducts A tribute to Prof. Dr. W.A.L. Stokhof interdisciplinary research on by Mary Bakker Sonja Hegasy N E W S 4 Transformation through Monarchy contemporary social and i n Morocco and Jordan intellectual trends and Visions of Modernity in the Islamic 2 2 O b i t u a r i e s Middle East 3 8 movements in Muslim societies Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi by Erik J. Zürcher and communities. The ISIM’s 4 The New Garments of Alevism M E D I A 2 3 research approaches are Muslim Intellectuals and expressly interdisciplinary and Imad F. Sabi’ M o d e r n C h a l l e n g e s Jon W. Anderson Islamic Associations in the Politics comparative, covering a large by Martin van Bruinessen New Media in the Muslim World: of the Turkish Earthquakes 5 The Emerging Public Sphere geographic range which includes 2 4 3 9 North Africa and the Middle East, Gudrun Krämer Vladimir Bobrovnikov On Difference and Understanding: R E S E A R C H Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, Mythologizing Sharia Courts The Use and Abuse of the Study of Islam in the Post-Soviet North Caucasus South and Southeast Asia, and 6 - 7 2 5 Research Project Presentations (Muslim communities in) the GENERAL ISSUES 4 0 Raymond Detrez West. Broad in its scope, the ISIM Religion and Nationhood in the Balkans 2 6 Bruce Koepke brings together all areas of Léon Buskens Researching Performing Arts in e x p e r t i s e . An Islamic Triangle: Changing Relationships Werner Schiffauer Badakhshan, Afghanistan c between S h a ri a, State Law, and Local The End of the Caliphate State? 4 1 C u s t o m s The Metin Kaplan Case 8 2 7 Rainer Brömer DAVO Study Group on Arabic-Ottoman ISIM Events Patrick Chabal Michael W. Suleiman Sciences in the Modern Period Africa: Modernity without Development? The Arab Community in North America 4 2 Journalists Day 9 2 8 Date: 5 June 2000 David Shankland Venue: Utrecht Henry Munson Yasha Lange Studying Secularism: Sponsored by: ISIM and the Scherpenzeel Islamism and Nationalism A Handshake May Be Refused Modern Turkey and the Alevis Media Foundation 1 0 2 9 4 3

ISIM PhD Workshop Sadik J. Al-Azm P U B L I C A T I O N S I N S T I T U T E S Date: 14 June 2000 Owning the Future: Venue: Leiden Modern Arabs and Hamlet 1 1 Nimat Hafez Barazangi Lucette Valensi Vingt ans après: The Equilibrium in Islamic Education in the Institut d’Études de l’Islam Islamist movements in the last Sylvia Wing Önder U S et des Sociétés du Monde Musulman quarter of t h e 20th century Indigenous Evaluations of Health Care in 3 0 4 4 Date: 21-24 June 2000 T u r k e y Venue: Paris, France 1 2 Allan Christelow Muhammad Syukri Salleh Sponsored by: ISIM and CERI Re-collecting Algerian Cultural History: Islamic Development Management Project: Sabine Strasser The Work of Bilqasim Saca d a l l a h Managing Development the Islamic Way Muslim Family Law Workshop Impurity as Criticism: 3 1 4 5 Date: 30 June - 1 July 2000 Reports from a Black Sea Village in Turkey 1 3 Patricia Sloane C O M M E N T Venue: Berlin, Germany Islam, Modernity and Entrepreneurship Sponsored by: ISIM and Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin Aisha Ali among the Malays Dances of the Ouled Naïl 3 2 Wolf D. Ahmed Aries Religion and Economy 1 4 Muslims in Germany Robert Waterhouse 4 4 in Muslim Societies Date: 14–15 August 2000 Jérôme Bellion-Jourdan The Azur Decade: Venue: Jakarta, Indonesia Islamic Relief Organizations: A Brief History of Mediterraneans INF O P AGE S Between ‘Islamism’ and ‘Humanitarianism’ 3 3 1 5 SPACE AND ARCHITECTURE For information on these and other ISIM Events: Art and Culture Agenda REGIONAL ISSUES 4 6 ISIM Secretariat Anton J. Escher and Sandra tel: +31 71 527 7905 fax: +31 71 527 7906 P e t e r m a n n Academic Meetings Ahmad F. Yousif Neo-colonialism or Gentrification 47 [email protected] Religious Life and Institutions in Brunei in the Medina of Marrakesh URL: http://www.isim.nl/ 1 6 3 4