Faith-Inspired Organizations and Global Development Policy a Background Review “Mapping” Social and Economic Development Work

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Faith-Inspired Organizations and Global Development Policy A Background Review “Mapping” Social and Economic Development Work

in Europe and Africa BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

A project of the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University

Supported by the Henry R. Luce Initiative on Religion and International Affairs Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs

From 2006–08, the Berkley Center and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service (SFS) collaborated in the implementation of a generous grant from the Henry Luce Foundation’s Initiative on Religion and International Affairs. The Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs convenes symposia and seminars that bring together scholars and policy experts around emergent issues. The program is organized around two main themes: the religious sources of foreign policy in the US and around the world, and the nexus between religion and global development. Topics covered in 2007–08 included the HIV/AIDS crisis, faith-inspired organizations in the Muslim world, gender and development, religious freedom and US foreign policy, and the intersection of religion, migration, and foreign policy.

The Berkley Center

The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs, created within the Office of the President in March 2006, is part of a university-wide effort to build knowledge about religion’s role in world affairs and promote interreligious understanding in the service of peace. The Center explores the intersection of religion with contemporary global challenges. Through research, teaching, and outreach activities, the Berkley Center builds knowledge, promotes dialogue, and supports action in the service of peace. Thomas Banchoff, Associate Professor in the Department of Government and the School of Foreign Service, is the Center’s founding director.

The Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service

Founded in 1919 to educate students and prepare them for leadership roles in international affairs, the School of Foreign Service conducts an undergraduate program for over 1,300 students and graduate programs at the Master’s level for more than 700 students. Under the leadership of Dean Robert L. Gallucci, the School houses more than a dozen regional and functional programs that offer courses, conduct research, host events, and contribute to the intellectual development of the field of international affairs. In 2007, a survey of faculty published in Foreign Policy ranked Georgetown University as #1 in Master’s degree programs in international relations. About this report

This paper was prepared as background for a consultation focused on faith and development on June 24–25, 2008 at the Institute of Social Studies in The Hague. A report on that event is published separately.

The June 2008 event focused on Europe and Africa, as part of a broader comparative project on Religion and Global Development within the Luce/SFS Program on Religion and International Affairs. The program examines both the role of religious groups and ideas in donor and developing countries, and the prospects for greater religious-secular cooperation in the development field. Its components include graduate student research fellowships; a religion and development database; and the creation and dissemination of “religious literacy” materials for development professionals in government, NGOs, and international organizations. Through a series of meetings with stakehold- ers and background reports, the Luce/SFS Program on Religion and Global Development maps 2009 the role of faith-based organizations around the world and points to best practices and areas for | collaboration. Prior events in Washington DC in April 2007 focused on the United States and in December 2007, in Doha, on the Muslim World. A January 2009 event in Antigua, Guatemala focused on Latin America.

About the authors:

The report was prepared by a team comprising Alex Thurston and Vanda de la Mata, working under the supervision of Katherine Marshall, Senior Fellow, Berkley Center and Visiting Associate Professor of Government, Georgetown University. Esther Brazil, World Faiths Development Dialogue, provided significant input. Contributions from Melody Fox Ahmed are gratefully acknowledged. Comments are welcome to [email protected]. The partnership of Professor Gerrie Ter Haar, Institute of Social Studies, and comments from June Consultation participants were invaluable. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

1 Table of Contents

Introduction...... 5

Part 1: Europe...... 9 Religion in Europe...... 10 Faith-Inspired Organizations and the EU: ECHO and EuropeAid...... 10 Religion in Europe: Demography and Politics...... 10 Case Studies by Country: The Netherlands ...... 14 Germany...... 16 The United Kingdom...... 17 Some Major European Faith-Inspired Organizations: World Vision Germany: Focusing on Children...... 20 GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| Caritas Internationalis: A Political Force...... 20 Solidaridad: Development Through Economics ...... 21

Part 2: Africa ...... 25 Religious Organizations in Africa: A Brief Historical Overview ...... 25 A Current Profile of Faith-Inspired Organizations in Africa...... 27 International Players in African Development...... 31 Emerging Issues Related to Faith and Development in Africa...... 33 Country Profiles: BERKLEY CENTER Ethiopia...... 35 Ghana...... 36 Nigeria ...... 37 South Africa...... 39 Uganda ...... 41

2 Boxes Box 1: The Public Face of Muslim Charities in Europe...... 13 Box 2: The Political Face of FIOs ...... 14 Box 3: Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im and Interpretations of Shari’a...... 28 Box 4: Conflict Resolution and Christian Organizations in Angola and Mozambique. . . . 28 Box 5: Dr. Abdoul Aziz Kebe: A Progressive Faith Voice...... 30 Box 6: Baha’i Development Work in Africa...... 30 Box 7: The Traditional Health Practitioners’ Association of Zambia...... 31 Box 8: Kuwaiti Influence in African Islamic Development...... 32 Box 9: Muslim Leaders Contribute to the Success Stories of Senegal, Mali, and HIV/AIDS. . 34 Box 10: HIV-Positive Christian Pastors in Eastern and Southern Africa...... 34 Box 11: Ayesha Imam, Sindi Medar-Gould, and BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights...... 39 2009 | Tables Table 1: ECHO FBO Partners...... 45 Table 2: ECHO Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, 2006...... 46 Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities...... 52

Appendix 1: Annotated Bibliography...... 57

Appendix 2: Acronyms Used in the Report...... 65

Endnotes ...... 66 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Faith-Inspired Organizations and Global Development Policy A Background Review “Mapping” Social and Economic Development Work in Europe and Africa

Introduction presents new challenges and concerns. The European his report explores issues confronting organiza- Union, with its stated goals of promoting democracy, tions working on international development peace, and prosperity, has absorbed many of the aid- Tthat are, in different ways and to varying granting capacities of its member nations. degrees, inspired by religious faith. Part of a global review of such work, this particular paper focuses on The many faith-inspired aid organizations in Europe are Europe and Africa. The overall project responds to known and trusted partly as a result of Europe’s history, mounting evidence of the significance of faith dimen- the development of individual members’ welfare states, sions and institutions in development activities and and the long-standing presence of these organizations. gaps in knowledge about their work. Some faith-inspired organizations (FIOs) possess large budgets and employ large numbers of (predominantly) The diverse issues that arise have profound implications. Europeans. Nonetheless, using FIOs as instruments 2009

Some involve political challenges, shaping relations of aid often presents a thorny problem for Europeans. | between governments and faith-inspired organizations; The Enlightenment tradition’s emphasis on scientific, others are social, particularly involving public percep- “objective” approaches to problems has at least left the tions of how religious faith and its organizational forms impression of Europe as a continent on which religion intersect with approaches to charity, relief, and broader must be strictly separated from the public arena, which development. Many operational issues arising are com- includes the fields of political and economic develop- mon to civil society organizations, but others apply ment. Philosophical currents have even painted the use more specifically to faith-inspired organizations as they of FIOs as a form of neocolonialism, and governments engage in what is seen, from a religious perspective, as often require that there be clear differentiation between “secular” work. In different ways, by place and organiza- development or humanitarian activities (which they tion, these issues spark public dialogue about religion’s are willing to fund), and missionary or faith-inspired role in daily life. activities (which they will not). However, this image of Europe as an entirely secular society is inaccurate in

This report has a geographic focus in Africa and Europe, many respects, and the boundary between Church and BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS both as distinct entities and with respect to their inter- State is not as entrenched as many assume. As Muslim section as a result of historical and contemporary inter- immigrants comprise increasingly larger percentages of actions. As in other facets of the exploration, boundaries many European populations, the role of religion is inevi- tend to be blurred as organizations overlap and cross tably becoming tied up with political reality. Increasing national boundaries. Missionary work in Africa, while tension between Muslim and non-Muslim populations admirable in many respects, is stained by its associations has encouraged many governments to use faith-based with imperial conquest, and the bloodshed and death institutions to support communication between com- that accompanied the exploitative and disrespectful munities. Western religion has helped shape the Europe actions of Europeans on the African continent. Now, of today: the drive to create an “ideal” society is strength- decades after many African nations first declared their ened and shaped around religious ideals. European FIOs independence, the relationship between the continents are therefore charged with an important task: to help

5 Europeans understand the importance of religion in development work, and to help develop secular cohesion within immigrant states. With the conflicts that arise between religious populations, European FIOs can help bridge these gaps and move European society forward into a more pluralistic age.

Religion is a central part of African life. It is thus important that European NGOs, religious or secular, take into account the fabric of religious life and its societal impact when conducting development work. In the 2006 article “The Role of Religion in Development: Towards a New Relationship Between the European Union and Africa,” Gerrie Ter Haar and Stephen Ellis argue that “European development policy needs to be rethought in terms of the world-views of those most immediately concerned, the very people development work aims to assist.”1 To that end, they describe multiple policy areas (conflict resolution, governance, wealth creation, and health and education) which are informed by religion in Africa. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | BERKLEY CENTER

Part I Europe

Religion in Europe world religions. Denmark, France, the Netherlands, o appreciate the evolution of faith-inspired orga- and Slovenia are the only member-states that either do nizations and their place in the EU, it is impor- not conduct, or expressly forbid, religious instruction Ttant to first understand something of religion’s in public schools. In the United Kingdom, schools in role within a European context. In the United States, England and Wales conduct daily Christian prayers in the separation of church and state is considered a foun- addition to religious instruction. dational virtue and core characteristic of civil society, principally because it is enshrined in the nation’s found- Many states consider it a cultural and civic responsibility to ing documents. While such a separation is true in the allow religious groups to teach religious values in public majority of European states, the dividing line between schools, since religion is seen as a vehicle for teaching the two areas of society is often less clear than in the lessons in morality and ethics, which is why some states US. Of the EU’s 27 member-states, five have state reli- feel it appropriate to substitute philosophical instruc-

2 2009 gions; a sixth, Sweden, separated the state government tion for religious instruction where requested. However, | from its state religion in 2000. Furthermore, EU states due to the EU’s predominantly Christian populations, often subsidize religious groups, though classifications this religious instruction is usually Christian in nature; for funding are made on a country-by-country basis. other religious traditions, though not specifically Many traditions receive income tax revenues, on either discriminated against, have leveled complaints against a voluntary basis or in the form of a mandatory tithe member governments for perceived inequalities on members of the church. In a few countries, direct between religious groups. subsidies supplement tax revenues. These subsidies are usually spent on the construction and repair of religious In Germany, religious groups can apply for multiple sites, religious instruction (meaning generally teaching levels of recognition; the most significant of these (in about religion), and religious schools, with subsidies of terms of tax benefits) is that of “public law corpora- (officially recognized) clerical salaries in some states. tion”, which at the time of writing has not yet been granted to any Islamic tradition. In the Netherlands

American readers might be surprised to learn that almost the government has decided that imams trained outside BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS all EU member-states mandate some form of religious of the country must take a one-year integration course instruction in public schools, although there is often the to ensure that they understand the local population’s possibility of course substitution: Finland, Lithuania, culture and values. To the same end, the Dutch gov- Luxembourg, Poland, and the Slovak Republic offer ernment subsidizes domestic universities that train ethics as an alternative to religious instruction, which imams. In Italy, crucifixes can be displayed in public students can opt out of (usually at the beginning of buildings, including courthouses; lawsuits against the the school year, and with parental consent). In coun- state concerning these religious symbols have all been tries where religious instruction is provided in public dismissed on the grounds that they are symbols of schools, such instruction is often conducted by officially Italian culture, not merely of religion. An example of recognized religious groups. In Portugal and Sweden, the complexities of defining approaches to religion is religious instruction is required to cover all major the Czech Republic’s instruction to schools that certain

9 state-recognized religions—among them the Hare humanitarian crises that do not figure prominently in Krishna mantra, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Mormonism, and the popular media, or are of long duration. Scientology—were on par with “Satanism, drug abuse, and the sexual exploitation of children.” 3 In order to assure continuity and effectiveness of aid, the EU closely monitors projects which it funds through Christianity is also a much-discussed aspect of what ECHO. In order to receive funding for a project, an orga- it means to be “European.” In 2006, after a meeting nization must have established a “Framework Partnership with Pope Benedict XVI, German Chancellor Angela Agreement” (FPA) with ECHO. These agreements Merkel said, “We spoke about the role of Europe and ensure that channels of communication and trust exist I emphasized the need for a [European] constitution between the EU and the organization receiving funds. and that it should refer to our Christian values.” 4 This Currently, 170 organizations have FPAs with ECHO; of sentiment has been echoed by other public figures, but these, 43 are faith-based or faith-inspired organizations. has caused consternation among those who would see a more pluralist EU in the future. The External Co-operation Programs office conducts development work for EU member states, though This discussion aims to demonstrate that the relation- the structure of grant-making is different from that ship between church and state within the EU is tighter employed by ECHO. EuropeAid functions bureau- than that existing in the US. It is also meant to outline cratically through the process of “devolution,” whereby some of the challenges that are currently facing reli- different countries each maintain a EuropeAid office; gious groups in Europe. While European governments there are currently 110 delegations operating in Africa, often consider religion to be an important part of an Asia, the western Balkans, the Caribbean, Eastern individual’s ethical development, tension exists between Europe, Latin America, the Mediterranean, the Middle governments and minority religious groups. Political East, and the Pacific. Each of these delegations is then GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | and popular clashes between religious groups are chang- responsible for seeking grant proposals and allotting ing the way some faith-based organizations in Europe funds as they see most beneficial. These field offices also operate, with the result that governments are trying to conduct monitoring and evaluation for the European find ways to work with religious organizations in order Commission in Brussels. Devolution allows local NGOs to bridge these gaps in understanding. to receive funding, as it is the Commission’s belief that organizations acquainted with local realities are best Faith-Inspired Organizations and equipped to handle development work. EuropeAid does not discriminate between faith-based and secular the EU: ECHO and EuropeAid NGOs, requiring only that the grantee not discriminate BERKLEY CENTER European aid to Africa has been a central endeavor of based on religion in the fulfillment of its projects. both humanitarian and developmental organizations. With the creation of the European Union, a significant portion of the aid coming from member governments Religion in Europe: was channeled through two principal institutions of Demography and Politics the EU: ECHO (European Community Humanitarian Europe has a predominantly Christian population, Aid Office) and the European Commission’s External with large indigenous Muslim populations in Serbia, Co-operation Programs office (EuropeAid). The first Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, of these is dedicated to emergency relief, defining its and Macedonia. Muslims comprise a religious majority mandate as “[providing] emergency assistance and relief in Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Turkey.5 to the victims of natural disasters or armed conflict outside the European Union. The aid is intended to go A 2005 Eurobarometer survey indicated that 52% of directly to those in distress, irrespective of race, religion, the population of the EU-25—(the EU prior to the or political convictions.” In an attempt to expand accession of Romania and Bulgaria in 2007)—believe in the breadth of their activities, ECHO also conducts God, 27% believe in “some sort of spirit or life force,” yearly assessments of what it terms “Forgotten Crises,” and only 18% do not believe in God, or any form of

10 spirit or life force.6 The exact size of religious populations also often issued by high-ranking officials of the Holy in Europe can only be estimated, in large part because See. Caritas Internationalis has also made such state- many states forbid the collection of census data on reli- ments and wages campaigns on issues of public policy gion (many of these laws were enacted in the aftermath significance. In April of 2008, Cardinal Oscar Rodriguez of the Holocaust). The indigenous Muslim populations Maradiaga, the president of Caritas, made an appeal to of Europe are largely Sunni. Orthodox Christianity is the UN Security Council to impose an arms embargo on the largest religion in Eastern Europe.7 Catholicism Zimbabwe after violence broke out in the country.11 is the principle religion in mainland and southern Europe.8 Various non-Catholic Christian denomina- Other Christian denominations in Europe have dif- tions represent the majority in northern Europe.9 ferent approaches to development and humanitarian aid. Many, for example, take quite different views on Catholicism has a very high profile in Europe. reproductive health and gender issues and thus on Historically one of the continent’s largest and oldest strategies for HIV/AIDS. Protestant denominations religions, the Catholic Church has played an extremely have a high profile in many parts of Europe alongside significant role both in shaping European history and Catholicism, and high-ranking members of Christian the modern European identity. Compared to some churches and charities also pursue secular policy advo- other Christian denominations, the Catholic Church cacy. In July 2007, Christian Aid, one of the largest has a strongly hierarchical structure, with the Pope as UK-based Christian charities, sent “Ministerial Survival supreme spiritual head who articulates both doctrine kits” to British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and five and social priorities. As a well-recognized figure in of his ministers. The kits were meant to communicate Europe, the Pope is capable of great political influence, the problems many in the developing world face as a not only through exhortations to Catholics around the result of environmental problems, exclusion from the world, but also as a representative of Europe and a large global economy, HIV/AIDS, a lack of potable water,

12 2009 percentage of Catholic Europeans. malaria, or malnutrition. In March 2008, Christian | Aid supported the Climate Change Bill going through With the election of Cardinal Ratzinger as Pope Benedict Parliament, moving for an 80% reduction in carbon XVI, the Catholic Church has taken a more vocal and emissions by 2050, coupled with a lobbying effort conservative approach with regard to social issues. aimed at stopping the construction of coal-powered Central to the Church’s approach to development is the plants in the UK.13 Christian Aid is a member of I issue of the sanctity of life. Since it is against Catholic Count, the public-facing campaign of Stop Climate teaching to use “artificial” birth control or perform/ Chaos, a coalition of major non-governmental orga- undergo an abortion, Catholic charities generally adopt nizations committed to making a difference around a corresponding approach to sexual health and HIV climate change.14 prevention, some elements of which are shared with other faiths. Policies on sexual health, particularly abor- The Geneva-based World Council of Churches tion, are contested in various forums. In 2007, Renato (WCC) has a global scope, though it is firmly rooted

Martino, Vatican cardinal and president of the Pontifical in the Protestant tradition. It is an active player in BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Council for Justice and Peace, appealed to Catholics to international development both as advocate and, in stop funding Amnesty International due to a change in some areas, an operational entity. Indeed, the WCC policy advocating abortions for victims of rape, incest, or argues that the ecumenical movement in which it whose lives are in danger due to the pregnancy.10 plays a central part has paved the way for development, and has been a leader on a wide range of issues The Catholic Church often works through a wide variety in the field since its founding in the late 1940s. In par- of Catholic religious orders and NGOs, including its ticular, it has provided significant support for churches major humanitarian and development aid confederation, and church-related institutions as they address issues Caritas Internationalis, which is discussed in more detail of justice, peace, and development. Its influence has below. Due in large part to the visibility and distinctive been particularly marked through programs such as hierarchy of the Church, public policy statements are Justice, Diakonia, and Responsibility for Creation

11 (www.oikoumene.org). Christian Aid, ICCO, NCA, between Muslim and Christian populations in Europe. Danchurchaid, Finchurchaid, EED, and other ecu- In 2006, UK-based Muslim FIO Crescent Relief had its menical development organizations are all recognized as assets frozen on suspicion of diverting funds to the terror- “specialized ministries” in the WCC. ist cell responsible for the foiled attempt at destroying a transatlantic aircraft out of Heathrow Airport.17 In order Both Protestant and Catholic ecumenical development to increase their profile and ensure transparency of trans- organizations have joined forces for EU-level coordina- actions, Islamic Relief founded the Muslim Charities tion and advocacy by collaborating in alliances: CIDSE Forum in the UK, which currently has four members (www.cidse.org) and APRODEV (www.aprodev.org). besides Islamic Relief: Human Appeal International, Human Relief Foundation, Muslim Aid, and Muslim Muslim FIOs in Europe are growing in size and sig- Hands. Box 1 offers a short discussion of some of the nificance, but are far fewer in number than Christian problems Muslims charities in Europe face today. FIOs. Muslim organizations also tend to focus on work in Muslim countries. Muslim Aid and Islamic Relief are Climate change is an increasing focus for domestic two widely-recognized Muslim FIOs based in Europe. advocacy on the part of FIOs. One large umbrella The Aga Khan Foundation presents itself as a non- organization in the UK, Stop Climate Chaos, gathers denominational organization, but it should be noted 70 different organizations which are opposed to global that they also describe themselves as “a modern vehicle climate change, believing that it wreaks havoc on eco- of the Ismaili Muslim community.” systems and unfairly disadvantages the poorest nations. Their domestic campaign, I Count (http://www.icount. The position of Muslim FIOs is particularly important org.uk/) has the support of its member organizations, in Europe. As Ter Haar and Ellis describe it, which include several Christian FIOs,22 Muslim FIOs,23 and the Church of Scotland. I Count aimed to include GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | “The rise of Islamic NGOs often causes ner- a 20% reduction in emissions by 2050 in a climate vousness among Western governments due to change bill, and also sought to halt construction of the suspicion that any form of Islamic activism eight new coal-powered plants in Great Britain. could be tainted by association with terrorism. Development officials need to discriminate clearly With the rising numbers and increasing visibility of between Islamic NGOs or other organizations Muslim populations in Europe, the role of religion that can play a constructive role in development in the region is becoming increasingly contentious. and the small number that are inclined towards Particularly important in the debate is the potential violence. A sensible way for the European Union accession of Turkey, a majority Muslim country with BERKLEY CENTER to do this would be to work with Islamic NGOs a large population (it is second only to Germany in wherever this is feasible, learning what they do, size within Europe). Given the system of digressional- and gaining an ability to distinguish those that proportional representation in the EU Parliament, are relevant for development purposes from those this would give Turkey a very large voting bloc, very that are not. This is particularly important in view likely on par with Germany’s (which has only 12 of the vast numbers of Muslims in Africa.15” million more citizens). Among various flare-ups over Turkish accession were comments by Fritz Bolkestein, A dearth of umbrella Muslim organizations in Europe a European Commissioner who prophesied an “implo- has led some countries to open dialogues with Muslim sion” of the EU should Turkey be granted member- FIOs in order to bridge the divide between Muslim ship. Citing Bernard Lewis, Bolkestein said “If he populations and European governments. In November turns out to be right, the liberation of Vienna in 1683 2006, a four-person Muslim delegation from Britain will have been in vain.”24 While this voice was in the was sent to Bosnia-Herzegovina to discuss Muslims in minority, it came simultaneously to the release of an the UK. Among the delegates was Saif Ahmad, head official report supporting Turkish membership and of Islamic Relief.16 Muslim charities often come under continued talks, mitigating any positive effects of the public scrutiny, which can further exacerbate the tension report. A 2006 Eurobarometer report on EU enlargement

12 reported that “of all the candidate and potential can- A central answer from participants was “Inreach,” with didate countries, Turkey’s accession generates the most the emergence of a clear belief that FBOs and Western disapproval.” Within the EU-25 (the EU before the societies need to be willing to recognize that their own accession of Romania and Bulgaria in 2007), 48% of peoples are not doing as well as they hope to help for- those polled were opposed to Turkish accession “once eigners to be. A conference theme was that faith-inspired Turkey complies with all the conditions set by the organizations like CORDAID and ICCO should reflect European Union.”25 on their own religious roots and how these inform their identity and development practice. These organizations Some religious misunderstandings stem from cultural were warned not to instrumentalize religion and to differences. “Religion: a Source for Human Rights make the connection between their development work and Development Cooperation,” a report based on a in the south and poverty/immigration issues in their September 2005 conference, found that there are ques- own societies. Inreach requires that a society realize that tions about the relationship on both sides: “Religion it also has problems, and that it works to solve those should not be studied merely as a ‘strategic tool’ in devel- as it also tries to help others solve their problems. In opment cooperation. The West also needs to link into questioning the “ideal” society being aimed at by the its own lack of religion/spirituality. And the impact of Dutch, the participants bring up a central point about pseudo-religious Western belief in progress and science European societies: what form do their members wish to should be investigated critically.” The participants also produce? With what goal in mind have various policies asked, “What kind of society are the Dutch FBOs and been implemented? The precise nature of integration is religious organizations dreaming of in the Netherlands a difficult question in Europe, which is experiencing a and what is their attitude towards migrants?” wave of immigration for which it feels unprepared. It

BOX 1 2009 The Public Face of Muslim Charities in Europe |

After September 11, several Islamic charities came under who receive monies from the European Commission, fire for alleged connections to terrorist organizations. Islamic Relief is audited on a yearly basis to ensure that Within three months, American president George W. its funds are in no way misappropriated.20 Bush closed down the Holy Land Foundation, which had Muslims in continental Europe have been targets of been the largest Islamic charity in the United States.18 violence. In April 2007, the Milan office of Islamic Relief European Islamic organizations have also undergone Italia was attacked by unidentified assailants bearing scrutiny, and are still experiencing political troubles. Molotov cocktails. Only the building’s façade was dam- One example is Islamic Relief, the largest of more aged, and there were no injuries, nor any property dam- than 1,000 Muslim charities in the UK.19 In 2002, the age to the interior offices. Paolo Gonzaga, the head of UK branch listed just under US$12m in income. Islamic Islamic Relief Italia, had attracted attention for organiz- Relief’s widespread work includes projects in Albania, ing seminars during the Easter holidays. The Milan Fire BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Chechnya. Department received a phone call from an unidentified man who said, “We are the Fighting Christian Front; In 2006, Ayaz Ali, a British Muslim serving as pro- we have destroyed the office of the Islamic Relief fund gram manager at the Gaza office of Islamic Relief, was in Milan. An armed fighting unit went into action in via accused of aiding Hamas and arrested by Israeli police. Amadeo this morning. Paolo Gonzaga has been sen- Israeli officials suspected Islamic Relief of supporting tenced to death by a Christian court.”21 the Palestinian government. In spite of this, however, Ali was released after twenty days of interrogation, and all With the perception of rising anti-Muslim sentiment in charges were dropped. Ali had worked for the organi- Europe, Muslim organizations face significant public zation for five years when he was deported back to the relations problems, despite their official support from UK. Like all charities in the UK, as well as all charities European governments.

13 BOX 2 The Political Face of FIOs

Faith-inspired organizations in Europe may hold more but, with Benedict XVI, we dare say that a state that political capital than is immediately apparent. They isn’t run by the principles of justice will degenerate have considerable capacity to lobby European govern- into a band of good-for-nothings.”26 These objections ments for increased aid, changes in aid policies, and proved effective in altering government policy: while raise awareness of a specific problem. This capacity the law was eventually passed, it included over 300 takes on new dimensions in the face of conflicts in the amendments. Middle East (which accentuate tensions among some European FIOs are also active in transnational politi- communities in Europe) and, more generally, mount- cal and cultural projects. A cultural exchange program ing hostility towards immigrant populations in Europe, organized in part by the British Foreign Office sends especially Muslims. representatives of Muslim organizations to countries When the French government drafted a new immi- with Muslim majorities, and receives delegates from gration law that threatened to restrict family reuni- those countries in turn. In February of 2008, a seven- fication allowances and increase the difficulty of the person delegation visited Iran. Four of the seven mem- naturalization process for illegal residents, various bers of the delegation were from Muslim FIOs: Seyyed groups protested the new measures. Many French Nadim Abbas Kazemi, the international affairs manager FIOs took part in these protests: a group of 46 dif- of the Al-Khoei Foundation; Jahangir Malek, manager ferent Christian organizations and parishes, including of Islamic Relief; Dr. Husna Ahmad, director of the Cimade and the Catholic Committee against Hunger Faith Regen Foundation; and Roghieh Jaraj, from the and For Development (CCFD), issued a public state- Muslim Youth Helpline.27 With their close ties to gov-

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN ment condemning the law. At a press conference, ernment, FIOs also carry a certain degree of official | the president of Caritas France (Sécours catholique), authority, providing a face and a point of contact not Jean-Pierre Richet, said, “We aren’t calling to our indi- only for European populations, but for foreign gov- vidual churches, we respect the government in power, ernments as well.

appears, therefore, that one of the central roles of FIOs the Council of Churches in the Netherlands, described in Europe may be to help bridge gaps in understanding her country as “one of the most secularized and—at the between “native” and “immigrant” populations, thereby same time—most developed countries in the world” at working towards building a more cohesive society. a development workshop in 2005.28 The Dutch govern- BERKLEY CENTER ment subsidizes schools, hospitals, and other institutions founded and run by religious groups, provided Case Studies by Country that they meet a minimum standard of care and/or The Netherlands educational commitment. Of the roughly 400 mosques History: The Netherlands, historically a Christian coun- in the country, around 140 are administered by imams try, faced major religious conflicts in the 16th century selected by the Turkish Divanet. It is required that all between Calvinists and Roman Catholics. These clashes foreign-born or foreign-recruited imams complete a continued over several subsequent centuries, with one-year “integration” course that aims to instill aware- Calvinists splitting into two camps: liberal and ortho- ness of Dutch social values.29 dox. The solution of “pillarization” emerged, beginning in the 19th century, and based around the idea that sepa- Religious demographics: Demographically, the rate religious groups can have separate political parties, Netherlands is a predominantly Christian country. 55% trade unions, schools, hospitals, and other social bodies. of the country identifies as Christian, 6% Muslim, and This sectioning of Dutch society continues to this day. 3% belong to some other religious tradition (largely Hindu, Jewish, and Buddhist). A 2006 book published Religion in the law: Ineke Bakker, General Secretary of by the Social and Cultural Planning Office found that

14 church membership has declined sharply in recent (and sometimes offensive) opinions on various issues, decades: from 76% in 1958 to 30% in 2006. Of the including what he perceived as the backwardness and 55% who identify themselves as Christian, only around hypocrisy of Dutch Muslim communities. His murder 30% believe in God, with the rest identifying them- by a Dutch Muslim in 2004 greatly aggravated the selves as Christian agnostics.30 This evidence is sup- tensions between native (mostly secular) Dutch people ported by a Special Eurobarometer Report published in and the Muslim minorities.34 2005, which showed that the Netherlands has a notably low percentage of the population that believes in God The Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, like the UK’s (34%) among the EU-2531, with lower percentages Department for International Development (discussed found only in Sweden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, below), has made great strides towards incorporating and Estonia. It should be noted that a large percentage an understanding of religious contexts into its develop- of the population (37%) does self-identify as believing ment work. The inception of the Knowledge Forum on “in some sort of spirit or life force.” When these two Religion and Development Policy was announced in a numbers are combined to produce the figure 77%, the September 2005 press release, which stated that “The Netherlands still displays a relatively low belief in some importance of religion and religious leaders in fighting greater force as compared to other EU nations; only poverty and in conflict resolution is underestimated.”35 France (61%), the Czech Republic (69%), and Estonia The Dutch Advisory Council on International Affairs (70%) have smaller percentages of the population that also published a report in the same year on religion’s believe in some greater force.32 influence on development.36 The report found that “Experience has shown how important it is for develop- This is not to say that religious affiliations have not ment interventions and policy to be compatible with produced conflicts within Dutch society; in particular, the complex and flexible belief systems of people in the pillarization strategy has not experienced much developing countries. It is only by taking account of the 2009 success with Muslim communities. Because the gov- cultures and religions of all participants that the motiva- | ernment works largely with umbrella organizations, tion and energy necessary for sustainable development it is considered imperative for Muslim populations can be mobilised.” to establish such an organization. However, the Islamic population in the Netherlands is largely either FIOs in the Netherlands: According to a study published Turkish or Moroccan, which demonstrate significant by the Social and Cultural Planning Office, “religion differences in religious policy. Conflicts with the and religiousness have been of major importance for the Muslim population are primarily the product of ten- Dutch nonprofit sector.”37 The report continues, how- sions between secular (native Dutch) and religious ever, to state that religion, while fundamental to early (Muslim) worldviews. Christian communities in the nonprofits, is no longer as central. Rather, it has become Netherlands have consistently expressed openness and more important in the arena of private education, wel- respect for their Muslim neighbors, and have tried fare offices, and certain major international development in various ways to defuse tensions: for instance, they organizations. Sectarian nonprofits in the Netherlands

have organized Interreligious encounters at various still exist, but are no longer as intimately connected to BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS levels. Tensions have been fueled by statements such their religious roots as they were in the past. as those of Fritz Bolkstein (previously cited), a Dutch EU Commissioner who likened Turkish Muslim The landscape of Dutch faith-inspired development immigrants to invaders threatening to destroy Dutch organizations is rich and complex and includes both society,33 and by movies such as “Submission, part I”, large and small organizations, often in the form of the product of Ayaan Hirshi Ali, a former Dutch politi- confederations. The Knowledge Center for Religion cian of Somali origin, who has left Islam and has played and Development is a multi-religious, innovative effort a vocal role in addressing injustices within Islamic of five faith-based development and academic orga- communities in the Netherlands and abroad. The film nizations (Cordaid, ICCO, OIKOS, SEVA-Network was directed by the movie-maker and opinion colum- (a Hindu development organization), and Islamic nist Theo van Gogh, who was known for his strong University of Rotterdam).38

15 Two of the larger players are ICCO and Cordaid. larger budgets. Cordaid also works within the Netherlands In 2006, ICCO formed a Strategic Alliance with to improve relations between different religious groups in five other protestant development organizations, the Dutch society, a point which should be central to FBOs ICCO-Alliance, which includes PRISMA, an umbrella in Europe. of smaller reformed and evangelical Christian organizations (Tearfund, ZOA Refugee Care, Worldvision. Germany nl).39 Under the so-called Co-Financing System of History: Germany has a particularly tortured religious the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFS or Mede history, which has left important legacies. The Protestant Financierings Stelsel), the ICCO-Alliance receives the Reformation began in Germany during the 16th cen- largest single amount of government funds for its work tury, and the subsequent Thirty Years’ War between (€167 million annually for 2007–2010). In addition to Catholics and Protestants severely damaged the German these government funds, the Alliance receives EU funds population. The Federal Republic of Germany was first and private donations from foundations and individu- unified in 1871 from a number of smaller nation-states, als, representing about 25% of its income. and was reunified in 1990 after having been divided into separate states during the Cold War. In the 20th Cordaid is one of the largest NGOs in the Netherlands, century, Germany was the site of World War II and the and is the Netherlands branch of the Catholic network Holocaust, in which the German state undertook the Caritas Internationalis. Working in over 40 developing extermination of the entire European Jewish population. nations, Cordaid has a budget of €160 million, which it Under Adolf Hitler, six million European Jews were gathers partly through donations but more significantly killed in addition to three to five million “undesirables,” from EU, UN, and Dutch government grants. This orga- including Roma, Poles, homosexuals, people with dis- nization conducts a variety of projects with the coopera- abilities, and prisoners of war. tion of other Dutch organizations; many of these projects GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | are aimed at reconciling some of the perceived tensions Religion in the law: Religious groups in Germany can among religious traditions. For example, one project register with the government to receive certain legal conducted in cooperation with the Foundation of Muslim benefits, including tax exemption. There exist several Aid Organizations (SMHO), a network of 36 Muslim “degrees” of registration under German law, with the organizations, prepares and sends Ramadan care packages greatest benefits afforded to those religious traditions to target countries, as well as mobilizing local populations. registered as “corporations under public law.” This Because these target populations are often EU member type of registration allows a religious group to tithe its states or candidate states (Romania, Turkey, and Kosovo members through the state’s income tax system, and were chosen for the year 2007), Cordaid serves a function institutions maintained by these groups are subsidized. BERKLEY CENTER in furthering the process of European integration. In some Approximately 180 religious groups are currently reg- cases, these integration efforts involve further cooperation istered as public law corporations.40 The German gov- between NGOs, with expertise-sharing as a primary focus ernment faces potential conflicts with a large Muslim of a new umbrella group, ERSO. This group consists population among which no community has yet been mostly of Caritas Europe members, and is aimed at creat- granted public law corporation status. The Muslim ing a framework for migrant integration. The results of Coordination Council was established in 2007 with this project are still unknown, as ERSO was only formed the goal of coordinating Muslim groups under a single in 2008. A pilot project launched in 2008 in Ukraine is umbrella organization; however, this group represents the new group’s first major undertaking. The number of a maximum of one-third of German Muslims, and these umbrella organizations is multiplying with every perhaps as little as a tenth.41 year, and various such cooperatives exist, mostly between FBOs of the same denomination or similar denominations Religious demographics: As in several other European (all Christian, for example). This is due in large part to states, the collection of census data on religion was Europe’s predominantly Christian heritage, which means made illegal after World War II. Current estimates have that there are far more Christian than non-Christian orga- Roman Catholics and German Evangelicals accounting nizations, and they have substantially more experience and for approximately one-third each of the total popula-

16 tion of 82 million. Muslims account for around 3.5 Diakonisches Werk, besides its social institutions such million people, making Islam the largest minority reli- as schools, hospitals, and counseling centers, also runs gion, followed by Eastern Orthodoxy. There are only campaigns within Germany to increase public aware- about 200,000 Jews in Germany today.42 According ness of its mission and other topics.51 The 2008 agenda to the 2005 Special Eurobarometer Report on Social included advertisement of its pregnancy counseling Values, 47% of Germans believe in God, and a further centers, whose importance has increased since the clash 25% believe in “some sort of spirit or life force,”43 put- between the Catholic Church and Caritas Germany ting German citizens just below the EU-25 averages over its policies on pregnancy counseling (see the (52% and 27%, respectively).44 Caritas Internationalis case study on page 20 for more information). Caritas Germany also holds yearly public FIOs in Germany: After World War I, the German information campaigns, with the 2007 campaign focus- social welfare system began to take the form it has ing on children (particularly those of immigrants). As in today, which is intimately linked with two major FIOs. many other countries, the website reports that German Diakonisches Werk (an Evangelical Lutheran organiza- children born to immigrant parents are doing sig- tion) and Caritas Germany (a Catholic organization) nificantly worse in school than children with German were in large part responsible for implementing state parents; often, schools with largely minority popula- welfare policies.45 In 1961, these organizations became tions are understaffed and ill-equipped. According to part of the Federal Working Committee of the Free their website, “15% of any class does not graduate with Welfare Agencies, and subsidiarity 46 was enshrined in formal training (the proportion among children born the 1967 constitution. In the 1980s, Caritas employed of immigrant backgrounds is 33%), 9% (19%) do more Germans than the largest private industrial not complete school, and over 15% of young people employer, Siemens AG;47 by the late 1990s, the German between the ages of 15 and 24 are unemployed.”52 Catholic Church Welfare Organization (DC) was the Diakonisches Werk has a special section of its website

48 53 2009 second-largest non-state employer, after Siemens AG. and mission devoted to “Diakonisches and Islam.” In | The 1997 Meyer article lists charitable organizations as general, these campaigns are very well-financed, and accounting for 3% of Germany’s wages, and thus repre- involve advertising and drives to increase their public senting a significant corporate presence. presence. This public presence is particularly important in the field of integration policy, as it is in this area that This division of the social welfare system among three European populations will face the most difficulty in groups—Diakonisches Werk, Caritas Germany, and the near future, and also where European FBOs stand Workers Welfare (Arbeiterwohlfahrt, AWO)—meant in the best position to help. that immigrant-state relations were, for many decades, defined by religious denomination. Allocation of immi- The United Kingdom grant groups to welfare associations was determined History: Religious conflict has existed on British soil by the religious affiliation of the immigrants’ home for centuries. In 1290, Jews were officially driven out country: Catholic, Christian non-Catholic, or “other.”49 under the Act of Expulsion, and only allowed back

This situation was further complicated because the into the country during the 17th century. The English BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS immigrant populations were divided up by nationality. Reformation in the 16th century saw the creation of the Non-Catholic Italian immigrants had their portfolios Church of England when Henry VIII officially broke assigned to Caritas Germany. Tensions increased within with the Catholic Church. The occupation of Ireland the population as immigrant organizations began to brought conflicts between Catholic and Anglican flourish at the local level and above; since the nonprofits populations that continue to this day. Today, the United did not work with immigrant associations, preferring to Kingdom is one of five EU member-states with a state guard their “service monopoly,” these immigrant orga- religion. The Churches of England (Anglican) and nizations faced powerful opposition.50 This structure Scotland (Presbyterian) represent the official religions of has since been decentralized, with immigrant organiza- these countries. Constitutionally, the reigning monarch tions acting as intermediaries between immigrant popu- must be a member of the Church of England, and by lations, the government, and welfare organizations. law s/he cannot be married to a Roman Catholic.

17 Religion in the law: Religious groups in the UK do not up 18% of the non-Christian religious population (1% receive government subsidies, but the government does of the total population). An even smaller percentage of fund 90–100% of the costs of running religious schools. Hindus than Muslims had been born in the UK; 63% There were 7,000 state-funded faith-based schools in the were born overseas (39% in Asia; 21% in Africa). These UK as of the 2004 Office of National Statistics report on two non-Christian groups were followed, in descending Religion in the UK, which account for 35% of all primary order of size, by Sikhs, Jews, and Buddhists. and 17% of all secondary schools. Ninety-nine percent of these faith-based schools are Christian, able to accept The Department for International Development and 1.7 million students (there were 5.1 million school-aged religious communities/groups: In order to engage the Christian children in 2001). For the 371,000 Muslim Muslim community in the UK, the government set up school-aged children in the UK, there were four state- a Race, Cohesion, and Faith directorate in 2006. Efforts funded Muslim schools, with a total capacity of 1,000 at increasing public awareness and intercommunity students. For Sikh students, of which there were 64,000, dialogue include department-by-department recom- there were 600 places available in the two state-funded mendations, detailed as follows. The Department for Sikh schools. Proportionally, Jewish students had more International Development (DFID), in order “to under- opportunities to attend faith-based schools than either stand the role of faith in its social and cultural context of these two faiths, with 13,000 places available in an and to put this rhetoric into reality, […] have initiated unspecified number of state-funded Jewish-run schools a programme of work to understand the role of faith in for the 33,000 Jewish children in the country. According development and how DFID should work with faith to the US State Department’s 2007 Report on Religious groups.”54 As a result, DFID has embarked on multiple Freedom, schools in England and Wales hold daily lines of research with international and national actors. collective Christian prayer and religious instruction. It has funded research at the University of Birmingham The Community Security Trust, a British organization on faith in development (http://www.rad.bham.ac.uk/ GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | that monitors anti-Semitic activity in Great Britain, index.php?section=1), a report on “Faith Communities reported 594 anti-Semitic incidents in 2006, the highest and the Development Agenda” (http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ number on record. Although that total dropped to 547 pubs/files/faithdevcom agenda.pdf). DFID holds regu- incidents in 2007, this was still the second-highest num- lar meetings with FIOs such as Islamic Relief, Christian ber ever recorded. An All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry Aid, and CAFOD, and supports a “Connections for was convened, and released a report with findings and Development” network that aims to improve relations recommendations in September 2006. The committee across ethnic and religious lines. concluded that anti-Semitism was on the rise in Great Britain, and needed to be firmly addressed by the gov- Shaping the domestic agenda is the Development BERKLEY CENTER ernment and police forces. Awareness Fund, a grant-making program with a four- part goal of reducing poverty (as per the MDGs). One Religious demographics: Demographically, the UK is a specific goal is “to build and support a worldwide alliance predominantly Christian country. The 2001 census with the Christian church and other Faiths to eliminate identified 72% of the population as belonging to some poverty.”55 However, it should be noted that of the 28 denomination of Christianity, for a total of 41 million large projects funded (as opposed to the “mini-funds”), Christians. The non-Christian religious population only two directly mentioned religion or faith in the posted reached just over 3 million people, with over half (3% project descriptions (Tzedek and Y Care International’s of the total population) recorded as Muslims. Non- projects).56 Within the 2006/7 mini-grants project, only Christians also represent the youngest of all the reli- three of the 48 posted descriptions specifically mention gious groups, with about one-third of Muslims in the religion or faith (Y Care International, Chichester Inter- UK under the age of 16 in 2001. British Muslims are Diocesan West Africa Link/Chicester Diocesan Board of also predominantly of South Asian origin; of the 54% Education, and ALTERnativity’s proposals).57 of Muslims living in the UK who were born outside the country, 39% were born in Asia. The next-largest Religious society in the UK is generous. A 2007 report non-Christian religious group was Hindus, who make on donation patterns in the UK conducted by the

18 Charity Aid Foundation found that “Most money was clash on their HIV/AIDS strategies. For 2007/8, DFID donated to medical research (17% of all donations) and granted CAFOD £3.7 million in order to achieve their religious (16%) causes in 2006/07.”58 Within the UK, common goal of poverty eradication. DFID has made available booklets with donation cards entitled “Target 2015, Halving World Poverty: a Shared Progressio does not operate as closely with DFID as Vision of Reducing World Poverty.” The booklet’s core CAFOD, as it works mostly in countries with no DFID content, and some of the supplementary information, presence. Progressio specializes in combining on-site were developed in concert with all the major faiths in hiring at its regional offices with the employment of the country. Different booklets, however, contain dif- UK citizens, with the result of a “South-South” training ferent language. For example, the “template” brochure59 mechanism. Progressio is more independent from the (produced in cooperation with Christian Aid)60 and the Catholic Church than CAFOD, and does not share Muslim brochure refer to the price of a “kebab roll” CAFOD’s position on questions of reproductive health instead of a hamburger; the Jewish and Sikh versions and HIV/AIDS prevention. The organization received refer to a “beefburger,” and the Hindu version to “two £2.8 million for the 2007/8 fiscal year. samosas.” The reports also present different facts: for example, where the template reads: “And people are As non-Catholic organizations, Christian Aid and having smaller families—it used to be 4.7 children on World Vision do not have the same conflict with DFID average, now it’s 3 children,” the Muslim pamphlet on HIV/AIDS policies. Christian Aid represents 39 reads: “That’s all very encouraging [referring to the Christian denominations in the UK (non-Catholic). It other facts on the page], but not good enough if you is Christian Aid’s Latin American work that is particu- happen to be the 1 child in 10 still excluded from larly interesting to DFID, and Christian Aid received school. Or one of the 2 in every 10 people still without £5.03 million for the 2007/8 fiscal year. World Vision access to clean water. We must work to ensure that no is running a program on the mainstreaming of the dis- 2009 one is excluded from their basic rights and needs. There abled that makes its partnership with DFID unique; for | is much more to be done.” the 2007/8 fiscal year, they were granted £2 million.

DFID has Partnership Program Agreements (PPAs) While VSO’s origins are religious, including support with 26 NGOs; among them are the Catholic Fund from a previous Bishop of Portsmouth and what is now for Overseas Development (CAFOD), Progressio (for- Christian Aid, their current documents do not stress merly the Catholic Institute for International Relations their religious roots. DFID’s partnership with VSO [CIIR]), Christian Aid, World Vision, Voluntary Service focuses on its cost effectiveness; as an organization that Overseas (VSO), the Aga Khan Foundation, and Islamic relies on volunteers and the expertise they can share Relief. These partnerships have as their central goal the with people in developing countries, the costs associ- eradication of poverty, in line with the MDGs. ated with their programs are unlike those of any of the above organizations. For the 2007/8 fiscal year, VSO CAFOD is the England and Wales branch of Caritas was granted £27.96 million.

Internationalis. As a Catholic agency, CAFOD’s activi- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS ties do not precisely match either the UK government’s The only two non-Christian FIOs that have signed official or unofficial policies. Their PPA clearly states PPAs with DFID are the Aga Khan Foundation and that “While CAFOD and DFID have policy differ- Islamic Relief. The status of the Aga Khan Foundation ences on reproductive health and HIV/AIDS, CAFOD as an FIO is debated; as the “grant-making agency for and DFID will collaborate on approaches, which are the Shia Ismaili Imamat,” the Foundation has religious jointly held, to address the shared view that the HIV/ connections. Their focus in the DFID partnership is AIDS pandemic has a devastating impact to progress in on creating stable and pluralistic societies; they were international development.”61 The main point of con- granted £750,000 for the 2007/8 fiscal year. Islamic tention between the two agencies is reproductive health, Relief’s partnership focuses on reducing poverty in East resulting in a deadlock that hampers coordination of Africa, and the organization was granted £750,000 for activities in this area. By extension, the agencies also the 2007/8 fiscal year.

19 Some Major European 1. Families caring for orphaned children should be Faith-Inspired Organizations supported, by preserving the health of families and World Vision Germany: Focusing providing them with economic and sociological On Children support. 2. Friends, relatives, and neighbors should be mobi- World Vision Germany was founded in 1979, lized to help the affected. a branch of the larger American World Vision 3. Orphans and endangered children should be umbrella. Originally, its projects were centered around guaranteed social security benefits, such as educa- US$5-a-month child sponsorships; it has since tion and health care. expanded to more developmental work aimed at 4. Governments should guarantee the protection of improving the communities those children live in. endangered children by improving the political World Vision’s development program focuses on five and legal conditions and resources for families. areas: water, health care (particularly HIV/AIDS care), 5. Anti-stigma campaigns should be conducted to nutrition and agriculture, education and training, and create a favorable climate for children and families economic development. touched by HIV/AIDS.

World Vision Germany focuses much of its atten- Caritas Internationalis: tion on Africa, and particularly HIV/AIDS work. A Political Force Prevention is one of their major strategies, and educa- Caritas was founded in Freiburg, Germany in 1897, and tion programs are designed to reach children before by 1910 had branched out into the United States and they reach sexual maturity. According to their 2006 Switzerland. The organization continued to grow, and Hope Initiative Report, which focuses on their HIV/ the “Caritas Catholica” conference was held in Lucerne, AIDS activities, many World Vision staff members are Switzerland every two years, disrupted only the Second GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | themselves infected, leading to the publication and World War. After the war, Vatican City’s Secretariat of distribution of a handbook entitled Overflowing with State made the organization the official representative of hope: Faith and Response in a time of HIV and AIDS, all Catholic welfare organizations. Caritas Internationalis which states “A survey of 116 WV staff found that staff was founded in the 1950s, as an umbrella organization in Africa have, on average, experienced 1.4 deaths and for what are now 162 different Catholic charities. care for one orphan in their immediate families, with 5.2 deaths and 8.5 orphans cared for in their extended Today, Caritas Internationalis concentrates its efforts families.”62 In fiscal year 2006, World Vision commit- on advocacy work, with individual branches conduct- ted $74.9 million to combating HIV/AIDS, and raised ing development and humanitarian aid. As a well- BERKLEY CENTER $64.1 million of that amount; from 2002–6, World known and well-funded organization representing a Vision has spent $328.7 million specifically on HIV/ “traditional” European religion through 48 branches in AIDS programs. They are particularly interested in Europe alone, the heads of Caritas have a good deal of partnering with local faith groups/churches, particu- visibility. From 30 April to 4 May, 2007, a delegation larly through their Channels of Hope workshops and of cardinals and archbishops from Africa, Asia, Latin congregational HIV and AIDS Task Teams (CHATTs). America, and Europe met with the European G8 heads World Vision Kenya helped 11 different religious com- of state in order to emphasize the importance of the munities in the country formulate a response to the Millennium Development Goals and those countries’ HIV/AIDS pandemic. commitments to larger aid donations. They also mobi- lized to build fourteen Caritas Iraq centers in Baghdad, In keeping with their emphasis on children, World Basra, Kirkuk, and Mosul just before the bombing Vision Germany’s advocacy has focused on ensuring began, and had Caritas branches in neighboring coun- that children orphaned by AIDS are well cared-for. A tries prepared for an influx of refugees.63 five-point framework of political demands has been adopted by the German Ministry for Development and In Germany, Caritas has nearly 500,000 full-time Economic Co-operation: employees. As one of the larger Caritas institutions, it

20 is also fairly representative of the work done by other understand the religious values and traditions of their Caritas branches. In Germany, the organization runs new neighbors. Furthermore, with the perceived escala- kindergartens, hospitals, youth homes, nursing homes, tion in religious tensions due to the terrorist attacks rehabilitation centers, technical colleges (to train wel- of 11 September, 2001, and the subsequent military fare workers), refugee centers, and welfare and counsel- conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, it is very important ing offices, making up over 25,400 institutions.64 to increase Interreligious respect and awareness, and European FBOs are in a position to clarify and open Unsurprisingly, given that the official seat of Caritas lines of communication between faiths. Because they Internationalis is in the Vatican City, all of its member are so often contracted by the government to undertake organizations are closely tied to the Catholic Church social welfare work, and due to their international pres- and its doctrines. The result of this is that there are ence, organizations like Caritas are well-known and sometimes conflicts between the official policies of respected by local European populations. Caritas organizations and those of the governments in their respective home countries. In 1999, Pope John A distinction should be made, however, between efforts Paul II issued a letter asking that Caritas German preg- at proselytizing, providing relief, and opening channels nancy counseling centers stop issuing counseling “cer- of communication. Unfortunately, this remains one of tificates.” In Germany, abortions can only be conducted the more difficult hurdles for FIOs, which are informed during the first trimester, and may only be performed and strengthened by their faith ties but are sometimes on women who are able to prove (by producing the seen to act (or do act) in a way that discriminates against relevant certificate) that they have attended pregnancy other religious traditions. In 2005, the tsunami relief counseling. With 270 centers capable of issuing these efforts in Indonesia were complicated by comments certificates (out of the 1,600 total in Germany), and made by the Defense Minister, who gave Christian with 40% of Caritas Germany’s funding coming from charities the impression that some of them might be 2009 the government, the pope’s call put the organization in asked to leave the country. This was denied by the | a difficult position. However, individual dioceses came Welfare Minister Alwi Shihab, who was quoted in the into compliance per the Pope’s request.65 Jakarta Post as saying that “There is no such thing as ‘you are Christians, so you are not allowed; if you are Caritas Germany is also involved in domestic efforts to Muslim, you are more welcome.’ […] As long as you promote multiculturalism, which is vital in an increas- can demonstrate your skills, your past experience and ingly pluralistic Europe. With the looming demo- capabilities, then you are most welcome to stay to be graphic crisis, Germany can look to increasing numbers part of the reconstruction phase.”67 Duncan MacLaren, of pensioners of Turkish origin, who often require Secretary General of Caritas Internationalis at the time, culturally sensitive care. For example, one pensioner’s said, “Unfortunately, nowadays a lot of organizations home found that a Turkish woman in their care was not —not only Christian—are coming in with a Bible or a eating much, and assumed it was because she did not Koran in one hand and humanitarian aid in another.” want to eat with the men in the home, and so she was Caritas funded an Islamic learning center in the region

made to eat alone in the kitchen. A Caritas worker who to help promote the importance of the Qur’an. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS spoke Turkish was eventually called in, and discovered that the woman had not been eating much not because Solidaridad: Development Through of the men in the home, but rather because the food was Economics not prepared in the Muslim tradition.66 Solidaridad is a unique charity, in both being fairly recently founded (1976), and in being an interfaith This sort of cultural misunderstanding is one of the charity. Also known as the Inter-Church Foundation areas in which charities can help Europe. Not only do for Action for Latin America, this charity is a joint a number of these misunderstandings occur in Europe action on the part of the Christian churches in the due to the influx of immigrant populations, but many of Netherlands, and is usually headed by members of the them are also religious in nature: with growing Muslim Protestant Church of the Netherlands and the Catholic populations, it is imperative that Europeans better Church. Their focus is on sustainable economic

21 development. As a corollary to this work, Solidaridad 6. Political will also looks to combat human rights abuses, believing Does the official discourse of the political authori- them to be a symptom of the larger pathology of social ties reflect concern about impunity and recogni- injustice. Impunity Watch, founded in 2005, is meant tion of the state’s duty to combat it? Has adequate to help local governments fight civil rights abuses, as legislation been adopted to facilitate criminal well as being an advocate on the part of those who have justice under international law for crimes against suffered. Serbia and Guatemala have been chosen as humanity?68 countries for the pilot project, whose framework was developed in 2005/06. The framework is designed to As a pioneer in fair trade, Solidaridad has managed measure the level of impunity in a government, and to build a few successful fair trade brands, as well as focuses in large part on bringing people to justice for helping push for fair trade labeling in Europe. The Max genocide and crimes against humanity, believing that Havelaar coffee was the first fair trade coffee in Europe, justice served is a part of the healing process for many introduced in 1988; in 1996, Solidaridad also began a communities. fair banana trade label, AgroFair BV’s Oké bananas. The market share of this banana label in Switzerland is 48%. 1. Normative framework Finally, Solidaridad has also worked to begin fair trade Has an amnesty been declared for the perpetrators clothing companies, including Kuyichi BV. In Africa, of genocide or other crimes against humanity? Do their work consists largely of fair trade textiles. individuals have right of access to their dossiers which are in the hands of the state or other bodies? Due to their advocacy work, Solidaridad has not only helped push for fair trade labeling, but has also completed 2. Resources and capacity the first year in a pilot program that would have the De What sort of budget is available for prosecutions Nederlandsche Bank (the Central Bank of the Netherlands) GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | for serious crimes or for compensation programs? using fair trade cotton noils (byproduct of the spinning What are the capacities and educational levels process) in the production of Dutch euronotes, cotton of government officials carrying out the work of noils being the entire content of the notes. investigation, adjudication and compensation? Unlike many FIOs, this organization focuses on eco- 3. Institutional independence and willingness nomic problems, and how best to construct a “pyramid” Do the ruling powers have control or influ- in the countries they work in: by helping individuals ence over the appointment of judges? Is there on the ground to create sustainable development, the evidence of corruption in the police force or the economy will continue to grow and will improve the BERKLEY CENTER Prosecution Council? lives not only of the original group they helped, but of all the communities around theirs as the economy 4. Entrenched interests expands. This is also a more bottom-up approach to What is the role of interest groups which negatively building economic plans; one criticism of NGOs is that influence the course of justice? How do such they often adopt top-down approaches to fixing eco- groups go about their work? nomic problems, working directly with governments to make structural changes that affect the lives of everyone 5. Societal factors at the individual level. Do the victims of serious crimes expect justice to be done at national level, and are their expecta- tions different to those involved in ordinary crime cases? Is there a security risk for human rights and social organizations working in the field of impunity and human rights?

Part II Africa

frican communities, African governments, with forms of ancestor worship or the worship of sacred and international bodies increasingly recog- places or objects, hold great importance across the con- Anize that the continent’s many faith-inspired tinent. These religions exhibit some degree of common- organizations, some of which have existed for decades, ality, but also vast differences based on region, ethnic are important actors in the development field. In areas group, or community. In many cases, local traditions ranging from education to health care and women’s have fused with other faiths to create syncretistic forms rights, local, faith-inspired organizations have pioneered of worship. Africans have shown a remarkable capacity innovative ways to address deep-seated problems, to adapt practices and creeds to meet their own needs and have participated in important partnerships with and reflect their own identities. many organizations including the United Nations, the World Bank, and USAID. International faith-inspired Contact with foreign powers has deeply affected the organizations, meanwhile, have undertaken significant religious composition of Africa. Major world religions, 2009 projects across the continent, often working with local especially Islam and Christianity, came to parts of Africa | governments and both public and private institutions soon after they were established. These faiths became the and groups. Taken together, these efforts are a signifi- basis for pre-colonial African empires such as Aksum, a cant part of the face of development work in Africa. Christian kingdom that later became modern-day Ethiopia. Trans-Saharan trade introduced Islam to parts European influences play a powerful role in shaping of West Africa and led to the rise of Muslim empires like this process. The legacies of Euro-African contact, Mali, the emergence of centers of learning like the city including the slave trade, the diverse forms of colonial- of Timbuktu, and the spread of Sufi brotherhoods like ism that existed over hundreds of years in Africa, and the Tijaniyya. Arab traders also brought Islam to parts more recent relationships, both public and private, have of the East African coast, and for centuries the Arab been major determinants of the form of contemporary slave trade flourished in Africa. African states and societies. This, in turn, has affected the development of African faith-inspired organiza- After the 15th century, contact with Europe became

tions. Moreover, European FIOs are often significant an especially important force in African history. The BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS partners for African governments, communities, and European slave trade disrupted societies all along organizations. Africa’s west coast, leaving new political units based on participation in trafficking. The eventual end of the slave trade, as well as greater competition among European Religious Organizations in Africa: powers for control over territory and resources, ushered A Brief Historical Overview in the era of colonialism. From pre-colonial times to the present day, the African continent has been home to a staggering diversity of European colonialism altered African societies, eco- religious traditions. Throughout African history, reli- nomic relationships, and patterns of faith adherence. gion has been a major factor in the life of communities The effects of colonialism varied widely depending and whole nations. Local traditions, often connected on how colonial rule proceeded in different areas. In

25 Senegal and Northern Nigeria, colonial administrators channeling resources to African Christian groups and partnered with local religious leaders to support policies welcoming them into worldwide religious networks. At of indirect rule, while suppressing local religious groups the same time, religious shifts have affected politics and such as those deemed “bad Muslims.”69 In many areas, civil conflict. In some African states, rebel movements particularly along coasts, Christian missionaries affili- affiliated with militant forms of Christianity and Islam ated with colonial projects converted large numbers have emerged—examples include the Lord’s Resistance of Africans. This legacy continues to the present time, Army in Uganda and the Union of Islamic Courts in especially in deeply Christian nations such as Zambia Somalia. African nations have also felt the effects of inter- and South Africa. Africans also adapted Christianity to national terrorism and the Bush administration’s War on their own cultures, creating indigenous churches and Terror. Terrorist attacks on US embassies in Kenya and developing syncretistic movements that fused Christian Tanzania in 1998 shook these countries, while accusa- and indigenous practices. tions of terrorist affiliation have shut down Islamic charities operating in Sudan, Somalia, and elsewhere. Colonialism also opened a path for the spread of Islam, through the political unification of formerly decentral- Finally, patterns of migration are changing African faith ized polities and the backlashes colonialism provoked— communities. Immigration has brought new faiths to such as the long revolt of the Sudanese Islamic leader Africa. Indian communities in South Africa and else- Mahdi in the late nineteenth century. During the late where along the Indian Ocean rim practice Hinduism colonial period, increased travel and contact between and other faiths in addition to Islam and Christianity. the Arab world and sub-Saharan Africa began to change Baha’i groups are also active on the continent, run- the dynamics of African Muslim communities. Islamic ning schools and health care facilities, and Buddhists, reformers established new schools, social movements, Jews, and other groups are present in small numbers. and political parties during this time whose relevance Emigration has also proved to be an important factor in GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | would continue in the post-colonial era. religious and communal change; many Africans living abroad, especially in Europe, remain deeply connected In some countries, the stage was set for post-indepen- to their home communities. Organizations such as the dence Interreligious conflict by colonial policies that Council of Christian Churches of an African Approach treated religious groups differently. In Sudan, British in Europe (CCCAAE) help to fulfill the religious needs colonizers’ hasty decision to unite the largely Christian/ of African Christians in Europe,70 while bodies such as animist south and the predominately Muslim north the Union of Islamic Organizations of France (UOIF) contributed to the pre-independence civil war. In carry out similar functions for African Muslims.71 Nigeria, discriminatory colonial policies regarding Meanwhile, transnational religious networks strengthen BERKLEY CENTER education, as well as Muslim and Christian political financial and human ties between African communities participation, helped fuel prolonged Muslim-Christian abroad and their home countries. It is estimated, for violence during the postcolonial period. Other coun- example, that an astonishing 80% of street peddlers in tries, however, achieved relatively peaceful coexistence Italy belong to Senegal’s Mouride brotherhood, a Sufi between religious groups. Tanzania, which united the organization famous for its global reach.72 As Benjamin largely Christian mainland colony of Tanganyika and Soares shows in his discussion of the African Muslim the majority Muslim island of Zanzibar shortly after followers, living in France, of a Senegalese sheikh, the independence, has proved to be a comparatively suc- phenomenon of global interconnectedness among core- cessful example of Interreligious cooperation. ligionists can often hold true for relatively small faith communities as well, even over long periods of time.73 The post-independence period has witnessed further shifts in religious identity. Across much of sub-Saharan African history, particularly over the last two hundred Africa, even in predominantly Muslim nations such years, has witnessed massive shifts in religious affiliation. as Niger, Pentecostal Christian movements have seen In many African countries, colonial and postcolonial remarkable growth. American and European missionary contexts have seen dramatic growth in Christian and groups and international FBOs have fueled the process, Muslim populations, although traditional faiths and

26 syncretistic practices continue to shape many Africans’ populated by religious minorities. Even in economically lives. The map of FBOs on the continent reflects Africa’s stable nations like Ghana and Cameroon, FIOs play an religious diversity and the remarkable dynamism of its important role in development work in northern, rural many religious communities. Muslim regions, where the state’s influence is weaker.

A Current Profile of Faith- Although most African states have constitutions that guarantee freedom of religion, assembly, and con- Inspired Organizations in Africa science, there are several countries wherein the state There is an extraordinary diversity of organizations employs religion, or religious laws, as a tool for its own across Africa that are inspired by or affiliated with ends. For example, Zambia is one of the world’s only religions. African FIOs operate in a variety of political, official Christian nations, and in Angola a colonial-era legal, geographic, religious, and economic contexts. statute banning non-Christian religions remains on These differences translate into important differences in the books, though it is seldom enforced. Sudan has approach and choice of projects. implemented shari’a at the national level, though various arrangements permit exemption from Islamic law In recent years, the presence of faith-inspired orga- for non-Muslims. Box 3 describes the groundbreaking nizations in Africa has expanded, for several reasons. work of Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im, a Sudanese scholar Democratic openings in many African countries in the and activist interpreting shari’a law with the objective of 1990s expanded the field of NGO responsibilities and effecting social change. projects, and FIOs were no exception. International donor organizations and foreign governments began In Nigeria, twelve northern states imposed shari’a to take a more active interest in partnership with FIOs between 1999 and 2001. Continent-wide, many during this time, resulting in greater funding oppor- governments require religious groups to register with 2009 tunities for both local and international FIOs and the state, and religious minorities in nations such as | missionary organizations, along with higher visibility Ethiopia and Tanzania have complained about institu- for their work. Finally, some FIO projects represent a tionalized discrimination. Practitioners of traditional continuation of many years of European and American religions also sometimes feel themselves to be under missionary work in Africa, while others are part of a attack by the state. In Zimbabwe, for example, the growing phenomenon of missionary activity by foreign Witchcraft Suppression Act prohibited many tradi- Muslim organizations and governments. tional magical practices since 1899 until pressure from activists led to its amendment in 2006.74 Political and Legal Climates for FIOs Civil organizations, including those with religious links, Government support for religion varies by country. operate in varying political and legal climates in Africa, In Africa, the colonial legacy will often perpetuate a ranging from the relatively open civil societies of South Christian influence even in government-run schools. In Africa and Senegal to the tightly controlled environment Senegal, Nigeria, and elsewhere, governments provide

of Sudan, where the state has often targeted religious support to citizens making pilgrimages. In a number BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and ethnic minorities with violence. In zones of endemic of African countries, governments have successfully conflict—Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the partnered with FIOs in order to tackle social and health Congo and (until recently) Angola—African FIOs have problems, especially the HIV/AIDS epidemic. operated with considerable autonomy and varying levels of effectiveness. In most African countries, FIOs enjoy Religion can also play a strong role in electoral politics. In a significant degree of freedom, and often engage with South Africa, for example, Muslims have strong political the state in a positive and cooperative manner. In some representation through the Africa Muslim Party despite cases, FIOs are able to fulfill functions that the state is making up only a small percentage of the population. not entirely capable of in the fields of education and Politicians in Zambia have taken advantage of Christian health care. FIOs also take on an important role in the identities, and often make use of support from church numerous African countries with autonomous zones leaders. In Nigeria, religious differences intersect with

27 ethnic and regional differences in a complex fashion. their involvement in social issues has the potential to Nigerian leaders attempt to maintain a delicate balance spark political debate. Nigerian Muslim FIOs have been of religious affiliations in government, often choos- active in campaigns for human rights under shari’a, and ing to rotate the presidency between a Christian and some observers feel that Islamist Senegalese FIOs such a Muslim, and state-level politicians sometimes make as the Jama’at Ibadou Rahman use development efforts use of religious affiliations for political gain, as with the as a means of bringing about greater Islamization of governor of Zamfara’s decision to implement shari’a law state and society. Religion has also had a major a role in his state. In Senegal, despite the secular character of in political conflicts in countries such as Somalia and the state, religious leaders have proved to be important Uganda, where rebel movements have defined them- supporters of the current President, Abdoulaye Wade. selves in terms of faith. FIOs are frequently involved in While FIOs rarely participate directly in African politics, helping to resolve such conflicts and in promoting peace

Box 3 Box 4 Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im and Conflict Resolution and Christian Interpretations of Shari’a Organizations in Angola and Mozambique Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na’im, a legal scholar and human rights activist from Sudan, has devoted a Angola and Mozambique concluded bitter indepen- lifetime to exploring relationships between shari’a dence struggles against Portuguese colonialism in law, constitutionalism, and human rights. As a profes- 1975. Civil war soon broke out in both countries, last- sor with the Faculty of Law at Khartoum University ing until 1992 in Mozambique and 2002 in Angola. from 1976 to 1984, an-Na’im watched the hard-line, Christian leaders have made a significant contribution GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | shari’a-oriented Islamism of Hasan al-Turabi’s National to reconciliation and conflict resolution efforts. Islamic Front play an increasingly dominant role in In Mozambique, Catholic and Protestant leaders Sudan’s government, and as a member of the pro- began working for peace in the early 1980s. Church gressive Muslim movement the Republican Brothers leaders made contact with the RENAMO rebel group an-Na’im experienced government repression first- in 1988 and organized peace talks in Nairobi, Kenya hand. Compelled to leave the country in 1985, he in 1989 that paved the way for direct talks between began a career in the United States, teaching in the government and RENAMO in Rome the follow- universities, serving as Executive Director of Africa ing year, brokered by the Community of Sant’Egidio. Watch (a division of Human Rights Watch) from

BERKLEY CENTER Clergy eventually participated in these talks as well; 1993 to 1995, and subsequently joining the faculty at and, along with southern African leaders, helped push Emory University as the Howard Chandler Professor the two sides to a final resolution in October 1992.76 of Law. His numerous books and articles, including Toward an Islamic Reformation (1990), African In Angola, Christian leaders took on a similar role, Constitutionalism and the Role of Islam (2006), and though many have questioned their effectiveness. In Islam and the Secular State: The Future of Shari’a 1999, several Christian organizations came together (forthcoming, 2008), have made an important con- to form the Inter-Ecclesiastical Committee for Peace tribution to the study of religion and development in Angola (COIEPA), which had some degree of in Africa. As a body, an-Na’im’s works make a strong success in building dialogue with the international case for an approach that respects believers’ desires community. Churches also helped to organize the to express themselves in the public arena, while Luanda conference in 2000, the first such event advocating the development of locally grounded held within Angola. Since the end of the civil war forms of constitutionalism and secularism that would in 2002, COIEPA and other Christian groups have protect the rights of women, as well as ethnic and continued to work on conflict resolution and recon- religious minorities.75 ciliation efforts.

28 and reconciliation. Box 4 describes the challenges facing poverty in Africa, combined with geographical and eco- Christian organizations working on conflict resolution logical factors such as desertification, drought, and lack in Angola and Mozambique. of access to water, have similarly curtailed development activities in countries such as Niger, Chad, and Burkina Non-political factors can also shape the environments Faso. These landlocked countries in the Sahara region where FIOs operate, and these environments, in turn, consistently rank among the poorest on the continent, shape the challenges FIOs face and the type of work and their civil society and development sectors are cor- they perform. War, environmental problems, disease, respondingly weak. and political instability have inspired the creation of FIOs across the continent and have prompted others to All of these variables—religious and political outlook, revise their missions and outlooks. For instance, issues the perceived needs of local communities, and access to of oil exploitation in countries like Cameroon, Chad, resources and funding—condition the approaches FIOs Angola, and Sudan have spurred activism by African take to development. Local African FIOs often focus Catholic churches. After a long period during which on community issues such as women’s rights, school churches neither participated in politics nor actively construction, conflict resolution, and interreligious dia- supported the state, structural adjustment programs logue. This stems, in part, from scarce funding and inad- and debates over inequality prompted churches to take equate resources for larger projects, and in part from the a larger role, advocating for more equitable distribution fact that the resources they do have, such as knowledge of wealth and greater attention to the environmental and of the community, can be deployed more effectively at humanitarian consequences of oil projects.77 Changing the local level. International FIOs who work in Africa, religious demographics and patterns of religious conflict and African FIOs with international backing, are able to have also affected FIOs to varying degrees, and with dif- engage in larger projects targeting infrastructure, public ferent outcomes. The effects of crisis on mixed religious health, and humanitarian aid to refugees and victims of 2009 communities can open new spaces for dialogue and armed conflict and natural disasters. | cooperation, but they also have the potential to exacerbate Interreligious hostilities. Geography It is possible to make some generalizations about the The strength and diversity of civil society within each geographical distribution of FIOs in Africa. These country also affects the trajectories of FIOs. In South geographical patterns follow the historical outlines Africa, for example, a strong civil society has permit- of various religions’ dominance at different times. As ted a broad range of development actors, including discussed earlier, European colonialism had a strong FIOs, to establish niches for their work. This climate effect on religious identity in Africa, and today these has also allowed religious minorities to operate suc- patterns continue to influence where and how FIOs cessful FIOs. Paradoxically, authoritarianism can also work. Most Islamic FIOs in Africa tend to work in contribute to the growth of NGOs, FIOs, and civil Muslim-majority countries like Senegal or Mali, or society itself; this proved to be the case in South Africa in the Muslim regions of countries such as Ghana,

under apartheid rule. Despite the fact that they have Nigeria, and Tanzania. These Muslim FBOs tend to be BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS encountered substantial repression, NGOs and FIOs smaller than their Christian counterparts, which have a have flourished in Zimbabwe under Mugabe, though broader range of sizes and often have more ready access to a lesser extent.78 It appears that the factors that have to resources, particularly from international Christian the most limiting effect on the emergence of powerful bodies. While many Muslim FIOs in Africa receive FIOs and civil societies are war and poverty. Long and overseas funding, particularly from Arab governments brutal civil wars disrupted development in countries and NGOs operating in countries such as Kuwait and such as Sudan, Angola, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Saudi Arabia, there are far fewer large international Democratic Republic of the Congo. Religious leaders Muslim organizations operating in Africa than there are and organizations have often attempted to halt conflict Christian ones. Box 5 describes the work of Dr. Abdoul or alleviate the suffering of civilian populations in times Aziz Kebe, a Senegalese Muslim leader working through of conflict, with mixed results. The worst conditions of an FIO founded by the Senegalese government.

29 The largest Christian FIOs in Africa are international Project for Human Promotion in Tokombere, founded organizations, and this is true particularly of groups in 1959 by Christian missionaries. The Project initially based in the United States (such as World Vision) or focused on schooling and health, but was expanded to in Europe (such as Caritas and DanChurch Aid).82 take on a range of other issues, including agricultural While Christian groups operate across the continent, projects and initiatives for women and youth.83 it can be said in a general sense that Christian FIOs’ activities are strongest and broadest in southern and Differences among FIOs According to eastern Africa: particularly in Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Religious Affiliations Kenya, Uganda, and South Africa. Local Christian The vast majority of FIOs working in Africa have a FIOs, often led by clergy, are also strongest in southern Christian or Muslim background, but FIOs have also and eastern Africa. Many Christian organizations in been established by practitioners of other traditions. Africa are affiliated with Protestant denominations, and Jewish organizations can be found in South Africa and often with US-based evangelical organizations. Catholic parts of east Africa, but are not widely represented on the groups have a strong presence on the continent as well, continent as a whole. Organizations based in religions however, especially in countries such as Mozambique such as Baha’ism and Hinduism make up a small but and Angola. Some local African FIOs were, in fact, significant segment of development efforts in Africa; the originally founded by Europeans, such as Cameroon’s Baha’is in particular have launched a number of schools

Box 5 Box 6 Dr. Abdoul Aziz Kebe: A Progressive Baha’i Development Work in Africa Faith Voice The international Baha’i community, together with Dr. Abdoul Aziz Kebe is a prominent advocate for a

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN local Baha’is in Africa, estimated that in 2006 Baha’i | progressive approach to family planning and Islam groups were running 298 projects in African coun- in Senegal.79 An expert on Islam, population, and tries, including 93 schools.86 Such projects often development, he teaches in the Arabic Department focus on issues like literacy, as in the “Enlightening at Cheikh Anta Diop University and belongs to sev- the Hearts” program in Ghana, where students eral faith-based development organizations. Kebe learned to read and write in native languages whilst has spoken out against female genital mutilation in improving their English skills.87 Community-building Senegal, arguing that Islam does not sanction the is another priority; in Uganda, for instance, a Baha’i- practice, and he has encouraged other religious lead- produced film expressed the views of local leaders to involve themselves in the debate.80 With the ers on questions of development.88 Finally, in their BERKLEY CENTER Reseau Islam et Population (Islam and Population many health and educational projects, Baha’is place Network), an FIO founded by but run independently a strong emphasis on improving the social status of of the Senegalese government since the late 1990s, African women.89 This can be seen in the “Traditional Kebe has worked to create dialogue between reli- Media as Change Agent” initiative in Cameroon, gious leaders on issues like abortion, condom use, which utilized local governmental structures to facili- and HIV/AIDS. The Network also holds workshops tate discussions of problems surrounding women’s for the public, and issues regular publications on status in the community, and in Zambia, where the matters related to family planning and reproductive Baha’i-run Banani School trains rural girls in the health. Kebe and other like-minded religious leaders fields of agriculture and science.90 Baha’i projects are a major force for change in Senegal.81 are intentionally grassroots-based and local, though Baha’is view their development efforts as a con- certed global effort.

30 and projects specifically focused on women’s issues. Baha’is and traditional healers, respectively. These faiths are often overlooked, despite millions of Africans’ con- In addition to influencing the type of issues addressed by tinued adherence to them. Many Christian and Muslim FIOs, an organization’s religious outlook can influence its Africans maintain contact with traditional practices, internal culture in complex ways. For example, scholars though there are few formal development organizations have argued that the “non-missionary” and locally- related to traditional (indigenous) religions. focused approach of the Mennonite Central Committee has built strong local relationships and promoted accountability,84 while others have pointed out that International Players in African Christian FIOs in Zimbabwe (such as Christian Care and Development World Vision) foster a participatory religious atmosphere The Religious Dimensions of American in their rural offices, but a more controlling climate of Aid in Africa religious surveillance in central urban offices.85 The Berkley Center report, “Mapping the Role of Faith Communities in Development Policy: The US Case in The boxes that follow highlight some of the differences International Perspective,” details many dimensions of among faith traditions in the types of work done by American FBOs and their work that are beyond the FIOs. Boxes 6 and 7 describe the work being done by scope of this report.95 To comment briefly on America’s role in Africa and its development, it is worth noting Box 7 that American missionaries have had a strong presence in Africa since the 19th century. Contrary to common The Traditional Health Practitioners’ misconceptions, American missionary activity has in Association of Zambia fact increased in Africa in recent decades.96 Missionary The Traditional Health Practitioners’ Association of groups and American FBOs such as World Vision oper- 2009 Zambia was founded in 1978 and numbers its mem- ate throughout the continent, but they are especially | bers in the tens of thousands.91 In recent years, the strong in southern African countries like Uganda, Association has begun partnering with outside orga- Kenya, and South Africa. nizations such as USAID, John Snow, Inc., and the Zambian Ministry of Health in order to deliver more Under President Bush, various branches of the US gov- effective health care to Zambians. In a recent proj- ernment have sought to form closer partnerships with ect, for example, some of the Association’s mem- FIOs in order to conduct development and relief work bers received training in “timely referral of cases to in Africa and beyond. USAID, through the President’s health centers and in basic information on HIV/AIDS, Emergency Program for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and malaria, child health and nutrition, and tuberculo- other programs, has formed relationships with local 97 sis.”92 A study of these efforts criticized their slow African FIOs, providing funding and training. pace, and pointed out that both traditional health practitioners and their biomedical health counter- Religious Dimensions of Arab Aid

parts are often ambivalent to collaboration; however, in Africa BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS the study also found that training helped increase Africa has long been connected with the Arab world, the effectiveness of traditional health practitioners, especially in the Sahelian region and along the East and that many of them were eager for further col- African coast, where trade contacts promoted cultural laboration.93 In the context of severe shortages of and religious exchange. However, beginning in the health care workers in disease-stricken populations 1960s, Arab countries like Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, such as Zambia’s, such partnerships may prove criti- and Libya took a renewed interest in Africa and began to cal to successful campaigns for recovery, especially deliver aid through more formal channels. The extensive in rural areas. In addition, researchers are testing tra- work of the Kuwaiti government is described in Box 8. ditional remedies to determine whether they can be used in the fight against HIV/AIDS.94 As is the case with international Christian organizations that work in Africa, some observers worry that

31 Arab Muslim FIOs may wield inappropriate levels of Siad Barre regime, which had relied heavily on Arab aid influence over domestic African religious communities through the 1980s.100 or local political systems. This concern has in some instances been shared by local Muslim leaders. In Arab aid work in Africa raises many of the same issues Ghana, for example, Muslim FIOs in the north came to as that of other faith traditions. Like Christian orga- feel that they were relying too heavily on outside contri- nizations, Arab NGOs and FIOs are often accused of butions, which prevented the development of a donor exploiting their role in development to proselytize, structure within Ghanaian Muslim communities.99 and also of altering the relationships between religious communities in the areas where they operate. Under the Elsewhere in the Arab world, institutions such as Bush Administration’s “War on Terror,” Arab Muslim the World Muslim League (founded 1962), the FIOs have faced another complicated set of questions Organization of the Islamic Conference (founded and issues, as some are accused by western governments 1969), and the World Assembly of Muslim Youth of them of supporting terrorist organizations or activi- (founded 1973) not only attracted African Muslim ties. Legal proceedings brought on them by western countries as members, but also began to facilitate governments have resulted in the freezing of funds for development projects in Africa, building wells and some groups, and the disbandment of others. schools in addition to mosques and religious centers. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan also sparked greater Religious Dimensions of European Aid Arab interest in undertaking development and relief in Africa efforts elsewhere in the Muslim world, including the Deep ties between Europe and Africa have endured to the African continent. Arab NGOs became especially active present, and the work of European FIOs in Africa forms in Somalia in the 1990s following the collapse of the one aspect of this relationship. European FIOs, both large and small, make important contributions to relief GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | Box 8 and development efforts in many African countries.

Kuwaiti Influence in African Islamic One example of a small European FIO working in Development Africa is Abaana, a small British organization founded African Muslims have been in significant contact in 1998 with the aim of alleviating poverty among with the Middle East since Islam came to Africa, due African children, through child sponsorship and proj- 101 especially to pilgrimages to Mecca. In the twentieth ects such as school and well construction. The major- century, changes in transportation and technology ity of Abaana’s projects have been completed in Uganda, made greater exchange possible, and with the bur- but the organization has also worked in Ghana, DRC, BERKLEY CENTER geoning of oil wealth in Arab countries during the Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, and Zambia. Abaana has 1970s, Arab Muslim organizations began extending just four full-time staff members, and has raised over significant funding to African Muslim groups, includ- £500,000 in donations (since 1998). Abaana also helps 102 ing those involved in development. Kuwaiti Islamic to organize the Fast 4 Africa project. FIOs, usually funded by zakat contributions and private donations, have been particularly influential in The African Religious Health Assets Program (ARHAP) Africa. The Kuwaiti organization Direct Aid98, its divi- is an example of a larger organization with European ties. sion the Africa Muslims Agency (founded 1981), and Based in Africa, it draws on partnerships with European the independent government organization Zakat and American institutions. ARHAP grew out of a 2002 House (founded 1982) have funded various proj- meeting at the Carter Center on FBOs and health issues ects in majority-Muslim countries like Senegal, Mali, in Africa, and was officially launched at the end of that and Sudan, but also in countries with large Muslim year in Geneva. ARHAP “seeks to develop a systematic minorities like Ghana and Malawi, building mosques, knowledge base of religious health assets (RHAs) in orphanages, and wells, and sponsoring the projects Sub-Saharan Africa to align and enhance the work of of local Islamic FIOs. religious health leaders, public policy decision-makers and other health workers in their collaborative efforts to

32 meet the challenge of disease such as HIV/AIDS, and At the same time, some feel that FIOs may bring to to promote sustainable health, especially for those who development work certain motives that are incompatible live in poverty or under marginal conditions.” ARHAP’s with the broader goals of development. For example, institutional partners are mainly located in South Africa, FIOs can inadvertently fuel interreligious confliction as and they include the University of Cape Town, the a result of evangelism or insensitivity to other religious University of KwaZulu Natal, and the University of groups. The perspectives of FIOs on topics such as Witwatersrand. ARHAP also partners with the WHO, women’s rights, condom use, and female genital mutila- Emory University, the Center for Disease Control, tion may also conflict with the recommendations of the Modum Bad Center for Pastoral Counseling and medical experts, government policy, and secular devel- Care (Norway) and the German Institute for Medical opment professionals. Further, most criticisms typically Mission (DIFAEM). The organization’s primary projects leveled at NGOs also apply to FIOs: corruption, lack of are to map health-related FIOs in Africa, build connec- accountability, interference with legitimate state functions between religious groups and other public health tions, and masking neocolonialist motives. In African groups, and conduct and review research.103 settings, these concerns are magnified because of Africa’s dependence on foreign aid, and the fact that foreign As these examples demonstrate, European FIOs can NGOs and FIOs often stand in positions of power in offer valuable assistance to African communities, and relation to the communities they claim to serve. Finally, often form valuable partnerships with African FIOs. given increased global fears of terrorism, some FIOs have Issues of accountability, which will be dealt with in the been accused of being conduits for the finance, training, next section, can have a significant affect on European or concealment of terrorist groups and activity. FIOs, damaging their credibility or ability to work effectively with local organizations or governments. At the level of interreligious conflict, development work Nonetheless, European FIOs represent an important has varying effects on relationships between religious 2009 component of faith-based development work in Africa. communities in African societies. In 2000, for example, | a UNDP-sponsored beauty pageant in Niger, which Emerging Issues Related to Faith aimed to stimulate the local fashion industry, resulted in interreligious riots that caused underlying com- and Development in Africa munal tensions to surface in a violent manner.104 Yet Observers have noted a number of potential side effects, the opposite can also prove the case: religious conflict both positive and negative, of FIO participation in devel- is capable of sparking the creation of new partner- opment. On the positive side, some argue that FIOs can ships and organizations. In neighboring Nigeria, a effect change in ways that secular NGOs, governments, Muslim and a Christian leader who first met in 1995 and international organizations cannot. For secular responded to religious violence in Kaduna by creating NGOs, lack of sensitivity to local customs and beliefs can the Muslim-Christian Dialogue Forum and the Inter- hamper development work on intercommunal violence, Faith Mediation Center. When the Miss World pageant health issues, women’s rights, and other areas. Often, provoked outcry and rioting among Kaduna’s Muslims

FIOs are uniquely placed to achieve progress, especially in 2002, the two men encouraged other religious lead- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS by involving community members in productive dia- ers to visit disrupted neighborhoods and to appear on logues and by appealing to core values and traditions television to calm the violence.105 when advocating for change. For example, African religious leaders in Kenya and Uganda have demonstrated Another issue in faith and development work has to the capacity to influence community attitudes regarding do with the attitudes of faith communities toward problems like HIV/AIDS and female genital mutilation. healthcare and sexuality. This concern has been mag- Given the diversity of religious expression and practice in nified by the HIV/AIDS crisis: some critics charge Africa, and the importance of religious organizations in that because many faith communities in Africa reject many African communities, there are circumstances in condom use and other preventative measures, FIOs which FIOs offer some hope of resolving issues whose that deny the existence of HIV/AIDS or treat victims solutions have eluded secular organizations. of the diseases as sinners and outcasts could actually

33 impede efforts against the epidemic. While there is admitted their own HIV-positive status, and have con- some basis for these concerns, stereotypes about FBOs ducted outreach to raise awareness about the disease. and their attitudes toward HIV/AIDS are challenged by numerous examples of religious leaders, both Christian FBOs, like secular NGOS, also confront issues of and Muslim, who have committed themselves to a accountability and transparency while working in progressive outlook regarding the disease. For example, Africa. Such issues have generated tension between the boxes below describe how Muslim leaders and FIOs European and African governments. In October 2007, in Senegal and Mali have advocated condom use while the government of Chad imprisoned six workers from Christian pastors in countries like Uganda have openly the French charity Zoe’s Ark. Chad accused Zoe’s Ark, which claimed to be rescuing orphans in the Darfur con- Box 9 flict zone, of kidnapping children whose parents were Muslim Leaders Contribute to the still living. Though the French citizens were extradited Success Stories of Senegal, Mali, to France and eventually freed, the case raised a number and HIV/AIDS of questions about how outside NGOs, and NGOs in general, work in African communities.116 The incident In majority-Muslim Senegal, leaders of Islamic brotherhoods have contributed to the country’s success Box 10 in keeping HIV infection rates both low and stable. Senegal adopted a “broad-based response” to HIV-Positive Christian Pastors in the epidemic as early as the mid-1980s, when reli- Eastern and Southern Africa gious leaders (including the Catholic Church) joined USAID has partnered with a number of African forces with political leaders and the Senegalese Christian leaders and organizations, particularly in government under Presidents Abdou Diouf and southeast African nations, to raise public aware- GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Abdoulaye Wade to spread awareness about both | ness of HIV/AIDS. By fighting the stigma associ- the disease and its prevention. By the mid-1990s, ated with the disease, openly HIV-positive religious over 200 NGOs were contributing to these efforts,106 leaders play an especially powerful role in these including Islamic FIOs such as Jamra and Reseau campaigns. Leaders such as Ugandan clergyman Islam et Population, which use radio and television Canon Gideon Byamugisha, who in 1992 became to disseminate information to the Senegalese pub- the first African Christian leader to announce public. International organizations have recognized the licly his HIV-positive status, can have tremendous importance of religious leaders in distributing aid influence: Byamugisha and his educational methods and educational materials in Senegal; USAID,107 the 108 inspired the 2004 creation of the Kenyan organiza-

BERKLEY CENTER World Health Organization, and Johns Hopkins tion Kenerela, a group of religious leaders infected University109 have all designed educational kits spe- with or affected by HIV/AIDS, which worked with cifically for religious leaders and have helped them the US government to combat AIDS in Kenya.112 The to organize productive workshops and symposia Reverend Annie Kaseketi, of the Apostolic Church around the issue of HIV/AIDS. of Zambia, has been another important HIV advo- In neighboring Mali, which has maintained a low cate in the region, holding workshops throughout infection rate similar to Senegal’s, outreach efforts the country to promote more frank discussion of to recruit Muslim leaders into the anti-HIV struggle the disease and encourage Zambians to seek test- have also been successful. Malian Imams working ing and treatment,113 building on the work of other with USAID and other organizations have advocated Christian leaders in Zambia.114 In Swaziland, as in for changes in family planning,110 including condom other African countries, pastors have even used use,111 and have used Friday sermons and other plat- the pulpit as a platform from which to discuss how forms to spread their views. As in Senegal, religious issues of gender, culture, and belief affect the spread leaders have proven to be valuable partners in slow- of HIV/AIDS.115 These efforts represent an important, ing infection rates. community-based approach to the problem.

34 of Gillian Gibbons, a British schoolteacher arrested in Another factor in Ethiopia’s changing religious Sudan in late 2007 for allowing her students to name a composition is an influx of Somali refugees, who are teddy bear after the Prophet Muhammad, also demon- overwhelmingly Muslim. Thousands of ethnic Somalis strates the thorny problems that can occur when outside fled from Ethiopia into Somalia after the 1977–1978 aid workers become involved with local religion. Ogaden War, but thousands of Somalis fled in the opposite direction during the period of instability that On the other hand, such risks can be exaggerated, and began in the late 1980s in Somalia and has continued stereotypes about religion can negatively affect the legiti- to the present.121 Ethiopia has historically had a mostly mate work of FIOs. For example, Fatima Adamu argues Jewish population, though many Ethiopian Jews have that many secular development projects focusing on relocated to Israel since the 1970s. gender suffer from a lack of attention to the role of religion in shaping women’s lives, and the needs of men to Despite these demographic shifts, Ethiopia’s Christian feel included in development. Meanwhile, Adamu says, heritage continues to influence the nation. Ethiopia Islamic women’s organizations face the great challenge in was one of the first African countries where Christianity trying to obtain funding while confronting societal hos- and Islam took hold: Christianity came to Ethiopia in tility. Such obstacles limit the potentially groundbreaking the fourth century BCE with the conversion of the king work of which such organizations are capable.117 of Aksum by shipwrecked missionaries, and an early Muslim community sought refuge in Ethiopia from Finally, accusations of connections with terrorism have persecution in Mecca during the time of the Prophet become a major issue for some African FIOs under the Muhammad. A series of Muslim jihads in the sixteenth Bush administration’s “War on Terror.” FIOs operating century destroyed a number of churches and contrib- in the Horn of Africa with financial backing from the uted to political instability, but the country maintained Gulf have come under major scrutiny in recent years, a largely Christian character. Modern Ethiopia came 2009 leading to the closure of charities such as the Saudi- into being in 1855 with the reunification of the country | financed al-Haraweyn Foundation in 2003.118 under Tewodros II.

Country Profiles Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two African countries not colonized by European powers during the Ethiopia “scramble for Africa” in the pre-World War I period, Ethiopia, home to around 78 million people, is considered though Ethiopia was briefly occupied by Italian forces the third most populous country in Africa.119 Determining from 1936–1941. From 1930 to 1974, Ethiopia the country’s religious demographics is a complex task; the was ruled by the Christian Emperor Haile Selassie. State Department and CIA World Fact Book list markedly Selassie worked to promote the autocephaly of the different figures. The latter puts the Christian population Ethiopian Orthodox Church, one of whose archbish- at 60.8% and the Muslim population at 32.8%, with ops was elevated to Patriarch in 1959. Selassie was traditional religious groups making up just under 5% and a widely respected world leader, and is seen as the

other religions slightly less than 2%; the former states that returned Jesus Christ by many Rastafarians, whose BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Christians are 40–45% of the country, while Muslims appellation derives from Selassie’s birth name, Ras make up around 45%. One Ethiopian source, based on Tafari Makonnen. 1984 and 1994 censuses, gives roughly the same figures as the CIA. “Interestingly,” he says, “what is new is the Following an economic downturn and severe drought rapidly changing composition of the Christian popula- and famine, Selassie was deposed in a coup in 1974, and tion. Insurgent Protestantism has reduced the share of Ethiopia passed through a period of Marxist rule and civil the [Ethiopian Orthodox] Tewahido Church.”120 This war during the late 1970s and 1980s. Under the Marxist observation fits with the State Department’s report, which regime of 1974–1991, the Ethiopian state abandoned its notes that “Christian evangelical and Pentecostal groups official Christian character, and the regime persecuted continue to be the fastest growing groups and constitute and executed a number of church leaders as it attempted an estimated 10 percent of the population.” to bring the church under its control.

35 Since the fall of Marxism, and Ethiopia’s partial mote urban agricultural and sustainable environmental democratic transitions in the 1990s, the federal govern- practices, and reunite children with their families.126 ment’s record with respect to religious groups has been generally positive, though laws require that religious Numerous Ethiopian Muslim organizations exist as groups undergo a cumbersome process of registration. well. One example is the Addis Ababa Muslim Women’s Additionally, the US State Department reports that Council (AAWMC), founded in 1997 with the help of many Ethiopian believers, both Christian and Muslim, the Islamic Affairs Supreme Council of Addis Ababa. complain of discrimination by local officials. The State The organization promotes women’s rights through Department also reports some incidents of interreli- awareness-raising campaigns and also addresses social gious violence between Christians and Muslims, and issues including reproductive health, female genital also between “the traditional Sufi Muslim majority and mutilation, conditions for orphans, and poverty.127 Salafi/Wahhabi Muslims who derived support from foreign nongovernmental organizations.”122 Ethiopian organizations have also formed partnerships with European groups: for example, the Italian Today, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church continues to Association for Women in Development and Ethiopia’s exert a strong influence on the country, and a number National Committee on Traditional Practices joined of Christian FIOs work in Ethiopia, many of them forces to campaign against female genital mutilation connected with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. In in Ethiopia.128 1972, the Church established the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Inter-Church Aid Commission (EOC- Ghana DICAC) to handle development projects. Working Ghana’s population of approximately 23 million is pre- with a network of parish churches, the organization dominately Christian (68.8%, with Pentacostals con- tackles problems such as HIV/AIDS, refugees, poverty, stituting the largest subgroup), but Muslims (15.9%) GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | and development.123 EOC-DICAC also collaborated and practitioners of traditional religions (8.5%) make with ARC in 2005 to promote sustainable organic up significant minorities.129 The State Department farming in Ethiopia.124 notes that many Ghanaians incorporate elements of more than one tradition into their religious practice: Another organization affiliated with the Church is Catholics attend Pentecostal services, local religions the Christian Relief and Development Association such as Zetahil combine Christian and Islamic worship, (CRDA), an association of Ethiopian NGOs and CSOs and some Christians and Muslims draw on traditional which was founded in 1973 as a result of meetings held indigenous forms of worship. To a great extent, religious by church leaders in response to the ongoing drought. demographics follow geographic patterns; Muslims BERKLEY CENTER Focusing on relief and development work, CRDA tend to be more present in the northern part of the “serves as a forum for collective vision and action. It country, and practitioners of traditional religious tend allows resource mobilization and the sharing of expe- to live in rural areas.130 riences for effective and sustained impact.” CRDA helps build the institutional capacity of its nearly 300 Such differences have their roots in Ghana’s history. member organizations by holding forums and events, Patterns of trade brought northern Ghanaians into maintaining a database of information for FBOs, and contact with Arabs and other West African Muslims issuing studies and publications.125 hundreds of years ago. The Mali and Ghana Empires, two of the most important pre-colonial Muslim polities Christian FIOs also exist outside of the framework of in Africa, exercised an influence that reached to present- the Orthodox Church, with examples such as Jerusalem day northern Ghana, where their legacy continues to Children and Community Development Organization influence religious adherence. (JECCDO), which has been working with orphaned and vulnerable children since 1985. JECCDO coordinates Christianity came to Ghana with European explorers with CBOs, communities, and families to improve and missionaries. Beginning in the fifteenth century, health care and educational standards for children, pro- European traders established forts in Ghana, which

36 they called the “gold coast.” In addition to searching that they are underrepresented in politics at the national for gold, Europeans trafficked in slaves. English, Dutch, level. The issue of religious education in schools has also and Swedish traders competed in Ghana until 1874, caused some tensions between religious groups.131 when the British claimed the area as a protectorate. Though Ghana’s economy is comparatively stronger Christian missionaries began arriving in Ghana shortly than those of many other African countries, and despite after the first Portuguese expeditions, but it was the anticipated profits from recently discovered offshore Baptist and Methodist missionaries who came in the oil reserves, the country still suffers from a number of nineteenth century who exercised the greatest influence economic problems, and depends to a great extent on during the colonial period. This influence appears most foreign aid. However, political stability has contributed clearly in Ghana’s educational system; up to the present, to the emergence of a strong civil society in Ghana. most schools can trace their origins to missionaries, For example, Catholic and Protestant leaders figured though in recent years they have come under govern- prominently in the calls for democratization in the early ment control and are open to all, regardless of faith. A 1990s. In Ghana’s pluralistic religious climate, a variety national Christian organization, the Ghana Christian of faith traditions, including not only Christians and Council, was founded in 1929. Muslims but also Baha’is, Jews, Buddhists, adherents of traditional religions, and other groups, play a strong In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African role in development activities. A number of FIOs oper- country to gain its independence. The anti-colonial ate in Ghana in fields such as education, health care, leader Kwame Nkrumah, who served as the country’s and women’s rights. first president, espoused an ideology of pan-Africanism and African socialism. A 1966 coup removed Nkrumah One example of a Christian FIO is the Christian Rural from power and sparked an era of instability that lasted Aid Network (CRAN). CRAN, which is affiliated with 2009 until Jerry Rawlings, a military officer, took power in a Germany charity of the same name, evangelizes and | 1981. Under Rawlings, Ghana saw overall political conducts development projects in rural Ghana. Many stability; though, like other African countries during of CRAN’s projects concern education; the organiza- this period, it experienced severe economic problems tion has established schools in several villages, and pro- during structural adjustment. In 1992, Ghana began vides supplies to others. CRAN has also created special a democratic transition, though Rawlings remained in institutions for women in order to offer job-training power for eight more years. Rawlings stepped down and skills workshops.132 in 2000 and handed power to John Kufuor, winner of that year’s presidential election. Kufuor was re-elected An example of a Muslim FIO is the Muslim Relief in 2004, in an election that observers pronounced free Association of Ghana (MURAG). MURAG was founded and fair. All three of Ghana’s major leaders in the post- in Accra in 1992 as an offshoot of the Concerned independence period have had a Catholic background, Muslim Organization which began six years earlier. though this does not appear to have influenced gov- MURAG works across Ghana to promote development,

ernment policy. particularly in the areas of retraining and microcredit for BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS women and the elderly. The group has also worked on Despite the fact that contemporary Ghana is the environmental and HIV/AIDS issues.133 product of a merger of several different colonies with different religious and demographic patterns, Muslims Nigeria and Christians have coexisted peacefully in the post- Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country, though independence period. Most observers agree that a large estimates of its population vary widely. The CIA World degree of religious freedom exists in the country, though Fact Book cites a figure of over 138 million, but other some have expressed concern about Pentecostal prayer sources cite higher numbers. Religious demographics camps and allegations that these camps permit serious in this extremely diverse nation are also difficult to human rights violations in the name of exorcising spir- describe accurately; most observers agree the Muslim its and mental illness. Additionally, some Muslims feel population equals or slightly exceeds the Christian

37 populations, while adherents of traditional religions A national debate regarding the question of secular- make up a minority of perhaps 10%.134 ism in the government and the constitution pre-dates Nigerian independence; and, at several junctures, The complicated relationships among Nigeria’s religious pressure from Muslim groups to include shari’a regula- groups are partly a result of historical legacies. Northern tions in the constitution has provoked strong counter and southern Nigeria took markedly different trajecto- reactions from Christian groups. Ultimately, however, ries during the pre-colonial and colonial periods. The shari’a was adopted at the state level, not the national southwestern coast became a major slave-trading point, level; the governor of Zaria state in northern Nigeria and political units which arose in the south were strongly decided in 1999 to impose “full shari’a,” and eleven connected with European economic networks. When other northern states soon followed suit. Cases con- Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, political col- nected with shari’a have drawn condemnation from lapse followed in some of these communities, drawing the many Nigerians, both Christian and Muslim, as well British further into the country. As missionaries spread as from the international community. However, it into Nigeria as well, British political domination was appears that, over time, the shari’a has not been rigor- accompanied by conversions to Christianity. By the 1870s ously applied, especially in capital cases. and 1880s, the British controlled much of the south. The 2007 election of Umaru Yar’Adua was marred by seri- In the north, political fragmentation among Muslim ous accusations of fraud, but since taking power Yar’Adua rulers set the stage for the jihad of Usman dan Fodio, has taken positive steps to promote religious coexistence a sheikh from the Tijani brotherhood who unified in Nigeria, including the formation of an interfaith advi- much of the north under the Sokoto Caliphate in the sory council. Yar’Adua, who was governor of Katsina state first decade of the nineteenth century. As the British when it adopted shari’a in 2000, is nonetheless seen as a expanded north around the turn of the century, they figure who might bring unity to the country. However, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | defeated the rulers of the Caliphate in several major the government must still contend not only with divi- contests. The British would continue to rule the north sions between north and south, but also with a major through the Caliphate’s institutions during the next conflict over oil in the Niger Delta region. half-century, often making conscious efforts to maintain the power of Islamic leaders, laws, and institutions. The adoption of shari’a and the reaction to the September 11th attacks have also affected the religious Many Christian and Muslim leaders became important climate in Nigeria. While some groups (such as Nigeria’s players during the struggle for independence. However, “Taliban,” which emerged briefly in 2004) have the heterogeneous nature of Nigeria was reflected in the attracted notoriety, other groups have received posi- BERKLEY CENTER different approaches of southerners and northerners to tive international attention: one example is BAOBAB questions of nationhood, differences which continued for Women’s Human Rights, which defended Amina after independence. Nigeria entered its independence in Lawal, a woman threatened with stoning under shari’a 1960 deeply divided by ethnicity, religion, and regional laws after being accused of adultery. affiliations. The country’s wealth in resources has perhaps exacerbated political instability, as the struggle for A number of Christian and Muslim organizations control over oil and other sources of wealth has increased are active in Nigerian civil society, promoting human corruption and infighting among elites. After 1966, the rights, fighting Nigeria’s HIV/AIDS epidemic, assisting country experienced a series of military coups and fell in development work, and tackling other problems. under military rule several times before the civilian For example, the BAOBAB organization mentioned transition in 1999. During this time, inter-ethnic and above, which is affiliated with the international NGO Interreligious conflicts increased, particularly during Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML), works riots in the 1980s in various parts of the country. to improve Nigerian women’s status under all forms of law, religious and secular. Founded in 1996, the organi- Interreligious tension has produced divided viewpoints zation raises awareness through its published materials with respect to a definition of Nigerian nationhood. and organizes workshops, campaigns, and events.135

38 BAOBAB includes a number of Muslim members and en’s groups in Nigeria. Since 1985, they have worked focuses explicitly on promoting readings of the Islamic to spread Islam, improve the status of Muslim women tradition that are not misogynistic. BAOBAB has been and children, and coordinate development projects in particularly active in calling for more open and public areas such as health and education. The organization has discussion of the process of “shari’anisation” (imple- inspired the creation of similar groups in Ghana, Liberia, mentation of shari’a law) in northern Nigeria.136 Sierra Leone, Gambia, Mauritius, and Niger.138

The Federation of Muslim Women’s Associations in Muslim FIOs have also formed important partnerships Nigeria (FOMWAN) is another important Muslim with international actors. Pathfinder International’s FBO, and is an umbrella organization for Muslim wom- ENHANSE project, for example, works with religious leaders and FIOs in northern Nigeria to raise awareness of issues involving HIV/AIDS, reproductive health, Box 11 and safe motherhood. ENHANSE trains Imams on Ayesha Imam, Sindi Medar-Gould, and how to incorporate health-related information in their BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights sermons and community outreach.139 The Society for Family Health (SFH), founded in 1985 as a project of Ayesha Imam was the founding Director of the the American NGO PSI, tackles issues of HIV/AIDS, Nigerian NGO BAOBAB for Women’s Human malaria, reproductive health, and child survival in Rights in 1996, and Sindi Medar-Gould is its current Nigeria.140 While SFH itself is not an FIO, it collabo- Executive Director. Their work combines feminist rates with local Christian and Muslim FIOs to increase activism, the willingness to challenge tradition, and the effectiveness of its programs.141 a belief that religion can play a positive role in public life. Through direct legal action as well as workshops, Christian FIOs play an important part in Nigerian

conferences, and publications, BAOBAB fights to 2009 development, both locally and internationally, such | improve women’s legal standing in Nigeria. Ayesha, as the Rural Development Counsellors for Christian Sindi, and other BAOBAB activists have striven to Churches in Africa (RURCON), which was organized in include local Muslim voices in this process. 1971 to help Christian churches and Christian develop- Since the establishment of shari’a law codes in ment organizations in sub-Saharan Africa manage their northern Nigeria beginning in 2000, BAOBAB has development projects. To this end, RURCON, based in worked for greater local and international under- Nigeria, provides short- and long-term consulting for 142 standing of how the laws affect women. For exam- its partners. Other notable Christian organizations ple, BAOBAB organized a legal defense team for include the Gembu Center for HIV/AIDS Advocacy Amina Lawal, a Muslim woman sentenced to death Nigeria, which has adopted a faith-based approach to 143 by a shari’a court in 2003. However, following the fighting the spread of the disease, and the Global international outcry over Lawal’s sentence, Ayesha Relief organization, which conducts development work 144 and Sindi wrote an open letter cautioning inter- in northern Nigeria and elsewhere in the region.

national observers that protest and letter-writing BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS campaigns on Lawal’s behalf, if undertaken with- South Africa out critical attention to the nuances of women’s South Africa, the continent’s “superpower,” is home to situations in northern Nigeria, could harm Lawal’s almost 44 million people, with Christians constituting case and propagate unhelpful stereotypes about nearly 80% of the population. Other religious groups, Islam.137 Through these actions, and their partner- including a prominent but small Muslim minority, ships with international groups like Women Living make up around 4% of the remainder; in the 2001 cen- Under Muslim Laws, Ayesha, Sindi, and BAOBAB sus a significant portion of South Africans declined to have harnessed effective means of reconciling com- state their religious adherence. The country’s Christians munities’ religious commitments with demands for belong to a vast array of denominations, the largest greater rights for women. being Zion Christians, Methodists, Dutch Reformed Christians, and Roman Catholics. Indigenous African

39 churches such as the Zion Christian Church have Nelson Mandela in the 1994 presidential elections. witnessed substantial growth in recent years; a plurality of South African Christians belongs to such churches, Some observers have argued that the long years of resis- which promote their own development activities. In the tance to apartheid were a major factor in producing the area of religious coexistence, South Africa has enjoyed vibrant civil society that exists in South Africa today, remarkable success. Minor incidents of intolerance and a sphere that includes many religious groups. South violence have occurred, however, such as public anti- Africa’s majority Christian population boasts a number Semitic remarks by an ANC parliamentarian and reports of important FIOs and the country is home to major of attacks on persons accused of practicing witchcraft. pan-African and regional religious organizations. With poverty, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and other problems South Africa’s religious makeup has been influenced by that continue to plague South Africa, these organiza- its long and often tragic history. A brutal era of settler tions still face a wide array of challenges. Additionally, colonialism in South Africa began when the Dutch East South Africa’s unique history of racial struggle and India Company established a permanent fort on the cooperation has set the stage for powerful partnerships Cape of Good Hope in 1652. Over time, the settlement and interactions between Christians, Muslims, and expanded, and Europeans imported huge numbers of Hindus. The first two are highly visible minorities in the slaves to work in the colony. Amidst conflict with the local country, and are also represented by strong FIOs. population, European powers began to vie for control of the Cape, and in 1814 the Dutch permanently ceded Despite its political transitions, and its strong economy, the colony to Britain. In the nineteenth century various South Africa still faces many challenges, particularly independent African kingdoms and communities arose its high rate of HIV infection. South Africa’s President in the region, some of which embraced Christianity. Thabo Mbeki has been criticized for his public skepti- cism regarding the connection between HIV and AIDS, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | British missionaries began to arrive at this time in signifi- a dismaying rejection of scientific evidence. Religious cant numbers, and played a role in the conflicts between organizations will continue to play a critical role in deal- the British and the Boers regarding how the African ing with the epidemic. population should be treated. These conflicts, along with other issues, culminated in the Boer Wars of the late Christian FIOs working to address the problem of nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1910, the HIV/AIDS in South Africa span all denominations, Union of South Africa was formed as a dominion of the and ecumenical organizations are also active, with a British Empire. The dominion system ended in 1948, wide range of Catholic organizations prominent among and South Africa officially became a republic in 1961. this group, as well as the Christian AIDS Bureau for BERKLEY CENTER Southern Africa (CABSA)/Christian AIDS Resource From the early years of the Union of South Africa, and Information Service (CARIS). CABSA, a project racial discrimination was institutionalized through a coordinated by Huguenot College and begun in 2001, system of harsh laws and segregation. After the victory promotes coordination between Christian churches and of the National Party in the 1948 elections, the regime organizations around the AIDS epidemic. With a staff passed even stronger codes, which came to be known as of only four, CABSA offers workshops as well as various apartheid. Some Christian churches, such as the Dutch informational services, on and offline.145 Community Reformed Church, actively supported these policies, AIDS Response (CARE) is another noteworthy FBO. though some church leaders spoke out against them, and CARE provides medical and spiritual care to South organizations like the South African Council of Churches Africans living with HIV/AIDS, and concentrates provided a platform for anti-apartheid activism. on building individual relationships with and among patients. CARE’s efforts to provide holistic care for After a decades-long struggle, African groups like the patients have drawn the organization into other types African National Congress (ANC) finally won greater of development work as well, such as involvement in an rights to participation and representation in the early initiative to produce a special type of corn-based food, 1990s, culminating in the victory of ANC leader and by organizing drives for used clothing.146

40 Other Christian FBOs work in areas that answer the needs South African civil society also includes a number of of children and youth. Some of these FBOs also tackle the non-Christian FIOS; one example is the Union of HIV/AIDS epidemic: one example is the Morning Star Jewish Women of South Africa, founded in 1931. This Children’s Center, which began in 2001 as a day care organization worked throughout the apartheid period facility for children with HIV/AIDS and now promotes to help educate poor mothers and to strengthen Jewish income-generating activities for women and families, identity. In recent years, the organization has launched also holding counseling sessions and support groups a number of projects, including the delivery of kosher for parents and relatives of children in the Center.147 meals, health services, and support for Hebrew Rehoboth, a Christian charity initiated in 2000, conducts University in Israel.153 similar work, operating ten homes in Kwa-Zulu Natal for orphans infected with HIV/AIDS.148 Uganda Uganda has a thriving community of FIOs from Other youth organizations take on projects in different Christian, Muslim, and other faith backgrounds, and is areas. The Joseph Project, a part of the international also the site of major regional and international FIOs. Christian organization Youth with a Mission, works Its population of approximately 31 million is composed with youth in Johannesburg by providing spaces where primarily of Christians (around 84%), though a promi- youth can do homework, recruiting teachers to come nent Muslim minority exists as well (around 12%). to the city, and providing educational/school readiness Religious influences have shaped much of contempo- services to young children.149 Youth for Christ, a similar rary Uganda’s history and have sometimes formed an organization, has been working in KwaZulu Natal since axis of violent conflict. the 1980s to promote Christian values and address issues among the youth population such as homeless- Uganda’s complex history has been influenced by reli- ness, HIV/AIDS, and poverty. The organization’s gious forces that remain powerful to this day. In the 2009 projects include the Change Agents youth group, which nineteenth century, Arab traders began to move deeper | conducts workshops at schools in order to educate other into East Africa, including the area that is now Uganda. youth about HIV/AIDS, and Khayalethu, which works These contacts precipitated conversions to Islam among with homeless children and their families.150 many local rulers and populations, especially in the northern regions. At the same time, Egyptian ivory South Africa often serves as a base for regional and traders came further south, eventually opening the transnational organizations. An example is the door to British expansion. British Anglican and French Solidarity Peace Trust, an FIO run by Catholic and Catholic missionaries arrived in the 1870s, converting Anglican bishops. The group publishes reports on great numbers of Africans. Interreligious tensions were violations of civil, political, and human rights, pri- largely responsible for the outbreak of war in the 1880s marily in Zimbabwe.151 South Africa also boasts a between Christians and Muslims, which Muslim forces number of umbrella and ecumenical organizations for eventually lost. During the 1890s, after British victories churches and FBOs, perhaps most prominently the over the French, Uganda became a British protectorate.

South African Council of Churches (SACC). Founded BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS in 1968, the SACC comprises 26 member churches The Anglican Church was a significant force in Uganda from diverse denominational backgrounds as well as during the colonial period, particularly in the area of various other affiliated organizations. The SACC works education. During much of this period, non-Ugandan “for moral reconstruction in South Africa, focusing on colonists dominated the church hierarchy. In the 1950s, issues of justice, reconciliation, integrity of creation, the however, a generation of African leaders began to gain eradication of poverty, and contributing towards the more control over the church, and eventually played a empowerment of all who are spiritually, socially, and major role in the struggle for Ugandan independence. economically marginalized.” The SACC focuses on lobbying policymakers in addition to its work coordinating Following the country’s independence in 1962, early projects at the community level to address issues of years under Milton Obote were characterized by politi- health, education, and reconciliation.152 cal instability, assassination attempts on Obote, and

41 disputes between the government and various ethnic, to evaluate the effectiveness of traditional and herbal tribal, and political groups. In 1971, Obote’s military medicines.158 commander Idi Amin overthrew him and instituted an eight-year dictatorship characterized by widespread Uganda also has very active Christian youth movements human rights violations and corruption. Though Amin such as the Youth Alive Movement159 and Another was a Muslim, his deportation of the South Asian Hope Children’s Ministry (AHCM). AHCM works population and the brutality of his rule caused most with orphans and street children, providing them with Ugandan Muslims to distance themselves from him. educational assistance as well as food, clothing, shelter, After Amin’s defeat in 1979, Obote came back to power and medicine.160 Other Christian groups, such as the betwee 1980 and 1985, when another military coup Care and Share Foundation, work on the country’s displaced him. In 1986, Yoweri Museveni, leader of braoder development needs.161 the National Resistance Army, became president, and remains in power to this day. Uganda’s Muslim minority is represented by FIOs such as the Women’s Association for Da’wa (Islamic mission- Religious differences have exacerbated some of the power ary activity) and Development. UMWADD, founded in struggles in Uganda. The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), 1999, focuses on women’s religious education and pov- a major and long-standing rebel movement and self-pro- erty reduction throughout Uganda. The group provides claimed Christian army, has sparked 20 years of conflict. services to women, children, and the elderly, works on Its leader, Joseph Kony, believes himself to be in direct HIV/AIDS and environmental issues, and holds regular communication with the Holy Spirit and has sought to seminars and conferences on women’s issues. establish a theocratic Christian state in Uganda. Uganda is also home to a number of millenarian religious move- Catholic and Protestant leaders are actively involved in ments, such as Alice Lakwena’s Holy Spirit Movement, peacemaking and peace building in Uganda. They have GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | which staged a brief rebellion in the late 1980s. been prominent in advocacy and negotiations aimed at resolving the painful conflict with the LRA. The Acholi Uganda boasts a strong civil society with a number of Religious Leaders Peace Initiative, founded in 1998 Christian FIOs. These organizations are particularly to promote peace and reconciliation, is of particular active in the field of health. The Uganda Catholic note.162 Such leadership from churches will be extremely Medical Board154 and the Uganda Protestant Medical important in rebuilding the northern part of the coun- Board,155 umbrella organizations that evaluate and try, following decades of devastation due to war. coordinate the activities of religious health units, also facilitate coordination between religious groups and BERKLEY CENTER the government on health issues. Groups like the Christian AIDS Network (CAN), an FIO that helps to provide counseling and testing for several communities, and AIM for Restoration of Hope,156 also play a significant role, in conjunction with parishes that assist in development efforts by raising money, such as Mbuya’s Reach Out initiative.157 Together, such organizations have achieved some notable successes in fighting the AIDS epidemic, helping reduce the percentage of infection in Uganda from over 30% to the single digits in under a decade. Christian efforts against HIV/AIDS have been bolstered by those of groups like THETA, which was organized in 1990 to bring traditional health practitioners into the fight against the disease. The group trains traditional health practitioners, and also conducts clinical trials

Tables Table 1: ECHO FBO Partners

table 1: echo fBo partners FAITH-BASED ORGANIZATIONS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION BY COUNTRY Austria Caritas Austria Belgium Caritas Secours Internationale Czech Republic Caritas Czech Republic Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) Denmark DanChurch Aid FIDA International Finland FinnChurch Aid France Secours Catholique (Caritas France) Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) Diakonie der evangelischen Kirche (Diakonisches Werke) Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe e.V. (HELP) Germany Islamic Relief Germany Johanniter-unfallhilfe e.V. Malteser hilfsdienst World Vision Germany Greece International Orthodox Christian Charities (IOCC) Concern Worldwide

Ireland 2009

Trócaire (Caritas Ireland) | Associazione Italiana Amici di Raoul Follereau (AIFO) Italy Associazione Volontari per il Servizio Internazionale (AVSI) Luxembourg Caritas Luxembourg CORDAID (Caritas Netherlands) Interchurch Organization for Development Co-operation (ICCO) Netherlands World Vision Netherlands ZOA Refugee Care Caritas Spain Spain Entreculturas Sweden PMU-Interlife International Catholic Migration Commission (ICMC) Switzerland Medair Aga Khan Foundation BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD, Caritas England & Wales) Christian Aid Concern Universal Christian Outreach Relief and Development (CORD) United Kingdom Islamic Relief Germany Medair UK Mercy Corps Scotland Muslim Aid Tearfund The Salvation Army World Vision UK

45 Table 2: ECHO Grants to Faith-Based Organizations

table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Aga Khan Provision of shelters for landslide- 21,315.00 84.00% Foundation affected families Aga Khan Provision of safe drinking water and 581,666.00 96.20% Foundation sanitation in Baghlan and Takhar Aga Khan Drought relief through provision of food 199,989.00 88.15% Afghanistan Foundation in Bamyan province Tearfund Community- and child- focused services, 296,886.00 91.36% water and sanitation program Christian Aid Emergency employment, food and water 588,651.00 100.00% for families most affected by drought Islamic Relief Emergency assistance for Sathkhira and 350,000.00 100.00% Jessore water logging affectees Bangladesh Islamic Relief Disaster preparedness against the risk 283,705.00 85.00% of flood and earthquake Caritas Germany Seed market for displaced and 895,191.00 100.00% vulnerable populations Caritas Germany Cash for work and resilience program 278,000.00 100.00%

Burundi Cordaid Sanitation project, Makamba, Burambi, 550,000.00 100.00% GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| Buyengero, and Rumonge in the Bururi province Caritas Belgium Cash for work and renovations of rural 307,761.97 100.00% areas ZOA Refugee Safer communities in Oddar Meanchey 450,000.00 83.33% Cambodia Care through CBDRM Christian Quality healthcare—prevention and 242,691.00 48.71% Chad Outreach Relief provision (Gaga camp) Diakonie Our future today III: reintegration in 682,000.00 87.21% the educational system and increased protection against mines and UXOs

BERKLEY CENTER Colombia Caritas Spain Assistance support and accompaniment 450,000.00 82.83% for displaced and vulnerable population due to armed conflict in Meta and Huila Malteser Order Food assistance and security project 783,003.00 100.00% for the malnourished and their families in the Nyantende, Nyangezi, Kaziba, Mwana, Walungu, Mubumbano, Kaniola, and Mulungu health districts Malteser Order Medical and psychological assistance 1,980,463.00 100.00% Congo, for the populations of the Nyantende, Democratic Nyangezi, Kaziba, Mwana, Walungu, Republic of Mubumbano, Kaniola, Mulungu, and Mwenga (Lwindi) health districts Malteser Order Reinforcement and expansion of medical 128,384.43 100.00% aid to victims of sexual violence in the Mahagi and Aru regions AVSI Relocation assistance for 13,000 families 367,026.00 100.00% in the Fizi region

46 table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Medair UK Emergency health assistance to ensure 1,594,000.40 100.00% access to basic health care and response to epidemics in Ituri district Tearfund Reduction of families’ vulnerability to 650,425.00 100.00% Congo, contribute to their successful reintegra- Democratic tion into their original communities Republic of PMU Interlife Gynaecological and medical treatment 337,000.00 100.00% and psycho-social assistance to female victims of violence Cordaid Emergency water source rehabilitation 158,503.00 100.00% project in the Fizi region World Vision Health and improved shelter emergency 206,652.00 100.00% East Timor Germany response Catholic Agency Strengthening community and scientific 405,000.00 85.00% for Overseas capacities to reduce risk in vulnerable Development populations in the most disaster-prone Ecuador areas Catholic Agency Humanitarian aid for flood-affected 190,000.00 100.00% for Overseas families in Los Rios Development DanChurch Aid Dugda Dawa pastoralist drought cycle 400,000.00 100.00% management project Ethiopia Caritas Germany Emergency response to Dire Dawa 300,000.00 100.00% flood victims Trócaire Restoring sustainable access to basic 425,000.00 72.71% 2009

(Caritas Ireland) needs and strengthening disaster pre- | paredness capacities, in communities affected by Tropical Storm/Hurricane Stan in 6 municipalities in the depart- Guatemala ment of Sololá DanChurch Aid Rehabilitation of productive systems 349,500.00 90.00% and disaster preparedness for families affected by Hurricane Stan in western Guatemala Caritas Germany Post-conflict food security in the north 300,000.00 100.00% Guinea-Bissau (Suzana and Varela) Caritas Germany Shelter (incl. toilet/water and sanitation) 500,000.00 100.00% replacement for tsunami and flood victims in Tamil Nadu ADRA Germany Improving water and sanitation 300,000.00 100.00% conditions for Sri Lankan refugees in Tamil Nadu India DanChurch Aid Humanitarian aid to flood-affected 320,000.00 100.00% BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and marginalized families in two districts of Orissa Christian Aid Post-flood shelter restoration project, 294,511.00 90.76% Barmer Christian Aid School earthquake saftey initiative, 258,232.00 85.00% Shimla International Nias recovery: an integrated, 769,351.00 78.00% Catholic Migration community-based approach Commission Indonesia International Restoring livelihoods for tsunami- 398,651.00 50.00% Catholic Migration affected hosueholds Commission

continued ➤ 47 table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING World Vision Child and Community Health 184,934.00 100.00% Germany ICCO Support to those affected by severe 523,644.00 77.73% wasting and natural disasters through Indonesia outreach Cordaid Transitional houses for earthquake 650,000.00 90.00% victims in Yogyakarta DanChurch Aid Yogyakarta earthquake emergency 378,056.00 100.00% response Cordaid Drought emergency intervention 716,777.00 93.53% Kenya Cordaid Drought preparedness program 1,385,601.50 100.00% ZOA Refugee Livelihood development for vulnerable 650,000.00 100.00% Laos Care and remote communities as an alternative to relocation Caritas Austria Assistance to elderly Palestinian refugees 550,000.00 100.00% in Beirut, Bekaa, and Tyr Caritas Austria Emergency support to displaced families 400,000.00 96.76% in Lebanon World Vision Food and non-food emergency response 399,972.00 100.00% Germany for Ain El Remaneh area DanChurch Aid Assistance to conflict-affected civilians 658,000.00 100.00% in remote and vulnerable areas of South Lebanon Lebanon

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN DanChurch Aid Humanitarian mine action in conflict- 1,847,000.00 100.00% | affected areas in southern Lebanon Islamic Relief Food security program and emergency 402,962.00 100.00% water provision in South Lebanon, Nabatyie, and Asbayie casas Mercy Corps Emergency support to displaced families 499,473.00 100.00% Scotland in Lebanon AVSI Emergency intervention on water supply 500,000.00 100.00% for domestic and rural use in Baalbek and southern Lebanon Tearfund Integrated water and sanitation and pub- 250,000.00 85.54% lic health promotion in Nimba County BERKLEY CENTER ADRA Denmark Emergency revitalization water and sani- 500,000.00 100.00% tation project, phase II, Nimba County Cordaid Rehabilitation of health centers, 350,000.00 62.61% and capacity building of CHS staff in post-conflict Liberia Diakonie Community-based water and sanitation 320,000.00 73.72% intervention for supporting repatriation and reintegration in Nimba County PMU Interlife Secure the provision of primary health 300,000.00 100.00% care and emergency surgery at Foya Health Center, Lofa County ADRA Denmark Household food security recovery 500,000.00 100.00% project ADRA Germany Food and livestock security in Zavkhan 300,000.00 93.50% Mongolia Aimag, year 2 ICCO Food and cooking fuel to refugees 5,500,000.00 100.00% Myanmar from Burma

48 table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Malteser Order Malaria control in Wa Special Region II 230,000.00 100.00% (WSRII), Eastern and Northern Myanmar Shan State Malteser Order Improved environmental sanitation and 260,000.00 100.00% health for vulnerable groups in Dawbon DanChurch Aid Community preparedness for disaster 300,000.00 75.00% Nepal risk reduction in central and eastern Nepal Mercy Corps Joint public/community management of 312,551.00 100.00% Niger Scotland malnutrition treatment services Malteser Order Winter relief and support for the survival 285,600.00 63.38% of the earthquake-affected population of Palas sub-district, Kohistan Diakonie Bridging the gap—emergency relief and 500,000.00 90.29% rehabilitation operation in Salmiah Union Council; Southern Jhelum Valley Mercy Corps Emergency drinking water supply and 610,733.00 100.00% Scotland sanitation project in North West Frontier province Mercy Corps Strengthening capacities for disaster 279,710.00 85.00% Scotland preparedness and mitigation in vulner- Pakistan able communities Aga Khan Provision of safe drinking water supply 560,000.00 87.40% Foundation and drainage system in Chakhama Valley, Azad Jammu, and Kashmir 2009

Aga Khan Disaster preparedness and risk manage- 354,111.00 85.49% | Foundation ment project in mountainous districts of northern Pakistan Islamic Relief Building the resilience of communities 338,708.00 85.00% to disasters in the districts of Kharan in Balochistan, and Neelum and Bagh in Azad Jammu and Kashmir Johanniter Order Mobile outreach eye clinic 220,000.00 100.00% Palestinian Mercy Corps Emergency job creation for vulnerable 1,000,000.00 100.00% territory, Scotland families in Gaza occupied IOCC Improve food security for impoverished 250,000.00 83.32% rural communities in the West Bank Caritas Czech Partial rehabilitation of private houses in 285,000.00 100.00% Republic Chechnya Caritas Czech Community-based preschool preparatory 287,000.00 74.16% Republic classes in Chechnya BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Caritas France Assistance for medical care to injured 400,000.00 78.58% and seriously ill IDPs and Chechnyans Russia World Vision Income generation through small-scale 500,000.00 89.50% Germany agricultural businesses for vulnerable households in Chechnya World Vision Income generation through sheep 250,000.00 83.39% Germany breeding for vulnerable households in Chechnya Somalia ADRA Germany Emergency water assistance project 260,000.00 100.00% DanChurch Aid Improvement of shelters and water and 600,000.00 92.62% sanitation facilities for tsunami- and Sri Lanka war-affected persons living in the Batticaloa district

continued ➤ 49 table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING ZOA Refugee Resettlement and rehabilitation project 1,499,963.00 100.00% Care Sri Lanka ZOA Refugee Post-war resettlement and rehabilitation 499,990.00 100.00% Care project DanChurch Aid Water and sanitation crisis response 471,868.00 92.43% in Darfur DanChurch Aid Water and sanitation crisis response 450,000.00 76.91% in Darfur Islamic Relief IDP improved health project in 300,000.00 66.77% West Darfur Islamic Relief IDP/host community improved health 355,000.00 86.96% project ZOA Refugee Back on Track phase 2—relief program 300,000.00 70.09% Care for IDPs, returnees and war-affected host communities in South Darfur ZOA Refugee Back on Track III—relief program for 300,000.00 75.00% Care IDPs, returnees and war-affected host communities in South Darfur AVSI Emergency assistance to Torit Civic 200,000.00 100.00% Hospital AVSI Integrated relief and rehabilitation inter- 690,000.00 100.00% vention in Greater Torit, Eastern Equatoria Catholic Agency Emergency relief for spontaneous 400,000.00 78.90% for Overseas returns to South Sudan GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| Development Catholic Agency Provision of water and primary health 500,000.00 88.93% for Overseas services in Lyria and Northern Maban Development areas, southern Sudan Sudan World Vision Emergency relief and protection initiative 400,000.00 100.00% Germany for Upper Nile and Unity State Cordaid Supporting return to West and North 350,000.00 29.52% Aweil counties in South Sudan Cordaid Emergency primary healthcare services 500,000.00 39.18% to displaced people and host population in South Darfur BERKLEY CENTER Medair UK Emergency response to yellow fever 362,361.00 86.78% Medair UK South Sudan emergency health program 1,400,000.00 100.00% Malteser Order Tuberculosis/HIV/AIDS prevention and 624,627.00 100.00% control in South Sudan Tearfund Integrated nutrition, health and livelihood 533,000.00 96.53% response project, Wuror County, Upper Nile, South Sudan Tearfund Integrated emergency nutrition, water, 460,000.00 56.08% sanitation, and health promotion project Tearfund FAR IDP returnees support project 474,856.00 100.00% Johanniter Order Improvement of primary health care 380,011.00 100.00% services for returnees and war-affected local resident population in Bor Town, North and South of Bor County ADRA Denmark Sustainable water access improvement in 400,000.00 97.68% West Darfur

50 table 2: echo grants to faith-based organizations AMOUNT PERCENT BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Aga Khan Achieving health gains and facilitat- 126,708.00 100.00% Foundation ing reform through community-based initiatives in three districts in Khatlon, Tajikistan and by rehabilitating the Khorog sewage treatment system (phase 3) in Gorno- Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast

Malteser Order Health project for Karen and Burmese 870,000.00 100.00% refugees along the Thai-Myanmar border Malteser Order Health project for Karen and Burmese 950,000.00 100.00% Thailand refugees along the Thai-Myanmar border ICCO Food and cooking fuel for refugees 6,000,000.00 100.00% from Burma Medair UK Water and sanitation program 150,000.00 26.25% for Karamojong communities, Kaabong District Medair UK Health program for war-affected in 800,000.00 100.00% northern Uganda DanChurch Aid Drought cycle management project in 250,000.00 100.00% Uganda Moroto and Nakapiripirit districts Caritas Germany Food security intervention for conflict- 750,000.00 100.00% affected people in northern Uganda World Vision Strengthening reintegration in Gulu 775,000.00 100.00% Germany AVSI Humanitarian aid to conflict-affected 1,500,000.00 100.00%

population in Acholiland 2009 | World Vision UK Humanitarian aid for vulnerable popula- 206,407.00 97.60% Zambia tions suffering the cumulative effects of drought and HIV/AIDS World Vision UK Emergency agricultural program 1,064,840.00 93.00% Zimbabwe World Vision Emergency water and sanitation project 1,250,000.00 100.00% Germany BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

51 Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities

Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities AMOUNT PERCENT YEAR BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Holistic support to AIDS orphans and vulnerable children 2004 South Africa Caritas Germany 698,000 74% through community-based programs Youth unlimited support pro- 2004 South Africa Caritas Germany gram for urban and rural youth 624,084 75% at risk in the Western Cape Capacity building initiative Voluntary Service for organizations engaged 2004 South Africa 750,000 73% Overseas in HIV/AIDS treatment, care, and support Medici con l’Africa Reestablishment of municipal Fondazione, health services in Damba and 2004 Angola 750,000 68% “Opera San Maquela do Zombo, Uige Francesco Saverino” Province Horticulture development project for Chittagong Hill 2004 Bangladesh Caritas France 184,543.10 75% Tracts indigenous population, 2006–2008

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN SCORE: Strengthening | Voluntary Service 2004 Bangladesh Communities’ Rights and 350,590.50 75% Overseas Empowerment Economic and social development of rural and indigenous 2004 Bolivia Caritas France 750,000 75% families in four western municipalities Training and socioeconomic inclusion of youth from 2004 Brazil Kolping International 650,000 72% underdeveloped areas of northeastern Brazil Voluntary Service Mainstreaming inclusive

BERKLEY CENTER 2004 Cambodia 750,000 41% Overseas primary education Integrated rural development 2004 Cambodia FinnChurchAid through empowerment, 750,000 75% Project Thpong II Improving the situation for disadvantaged groups in rural 2004 Cambodia ICCO Cambodia: a capacity-building 1,036,701.07 75% approach to community mental health care Sustainable trade for social 2004 Cambodia Traidcraft Exchange 448,899.24 75% enterprises Promotion of public health for 2004 Congo, DR Tearfund the displaced and local popula- 1,441,776 75% tion of North Kivu and Ituri Catholic Institute El Salvadorean women making 2004 El Salvador for International 446,283.04 74% change Relations

52 Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities AMOUNT PERCENT YEAR BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Peace and empowerment in Guatemala: addressing land Mercy Corps 2004 Guatemala conflict and economic con- 750,000 74% Scotland straints in indigenous Kekchi communities Rural empowerment and pro- 2004 Guinea Bissau ICCO motion of citizenship in rural 731,090.66 75% communities in Oio and Cacheu Making trade work for the poor: 2004 India Traidcraft Exchange 216,554 75% promoting fair trade in India Don Bosco Third Integrated rural development 2004 India 367,385 75% World Youth program in Ahmednagar Addressing HIV in Jamaica: 2004 Jamaica Christian Aid 750,000 34% a holistic response Alleviating poverty through 2004 Madagascar ADRA UK improved livelihood and health 566,592 75% in Fandriana Medici con l’Africa Fondazione, Integrated sanitation project 2004 Mozambique 819,000 74% “Opera San in the rural Moma district Francesco Saverino” Dalit empowerment program, 2004 Nepal DanChurchAid 622,500 75% Western and Central Nepal Development of organizational,

production, and community 2009 2004 Nicaragua Caritas Luxembourg healthcare capacities in 18 500,000 70% | rural communities of northern Chinandega Strengthening farmers’ associa- 2004 Uganda Cordaid 747,821 75% tions for poverty eradication Establishing an export market for certified responsible coffee 2004 Uganda Solidaridad.nl 690,370 71% with smallholder producer groups Integrated development pro- 2004 Pakistan Islamic Relief Limited 750,000 52% gram for AJK and Balochistan Comprehensive community- Papua New Christoffel based rehabilitation services 2004 1,111,238 75% Guinea Blindenmission for people with disabilities in 12 provinces Program for rehabilitation and 2004 Philippines Christian Aid 476,689.50 75%

development in Mindanao BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Capacity building for sustain- 2004 Rwanda Bread for the World able livelihood in 4 districts 362,392.50 75% of Kibungo Province Support for professional train- 2004 Rwanda Amici dei Popoli 544,658 75% ing in the agricultural sector Profemme: empowerment of 2004 Senegal Caritas Austria women in the Tambacounda 478,186.50 50% Diocese Support for training and socio- 2004 Senegal Auteuil International professional integration of 694,798 75% disadvantaged youth

continued ➤ 53 Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities AMOUNT PERCENT YEAR BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Support program for local development of rural communi- 2004 Senegal Broederlijk Delen 450,284.90 75% ties in the periphery of Dakar and Thies Community-based response to 2004 Sierra Leone Christian Aid 750,000 75% HIV/AIDS Scottish Catholic Capacity building of educa 2004 Sudan International 710,000 74% tional system in Yei Payam Aid Fund Integrated development of agro-enterprise and reduced 2004 Tanzania Cordaid 562,203 75% impact of HIV/AIDS for sustained livelihoods Capacity building of civil society for conflict resolution 2004 Chad Bread for the World 746,300 75% and peace building in 15 departments Palestine, Improving the quality of life of Christoffel 2004 occupied deaf and other marginalized 750,000 54% Blindenmission territories people in the Gaza Strip Palestine, Mother and child health 2004 occupied Christian Aid program for vulnerable com- 850,000 57% territories munities in Gaza 4-year program for the promotion of sustainable develop- GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| ment in vulnerable social Franciscan Mission 2004 Uruguay groups in Rocha through the 592,323 75% Germany production and fair trade of natural products and the creation of a social network Professional training in marginalized communities of industrial Fundación zones: technical qualification 2004 Venezuela Entreculturas— 329,971.73 75% workshops in U.E. Jacob Perez Fe y Alegría Caraballo, Maracay, Edo, and Aragua Project for the reduction of

BERKLEY CENTER 2004 Zambia Harvest Help 627,292 75% poverty, Eastern Province Scottish Catholic 2004 India International 321,909 71% Aid Fund EIRENE International 2004 Nicaragua Christian Service for 660,928 85% Peace 2004 Sierra Leone Tearfund 558,575 76% 2004 Togo Wereldsolidariteit 269,534.92 85% 2004 Zambia Harvest Help 419,759.71 85% Information and awareness Italy, Belgium, Communità di 2005 campaign: “Treating AIDS in 240,000 42% Spain, Germany S.Egidio—ACAP Africa is possible” The Netherlands, Change the game: children 2005 Czech Republic, ICCO 1,077,000 74% living in the countryside Belgium UK, Belgium, The Fair Trade 2005 Fairtrade towns in Europe 355,683 75% France Foundation

54 Table 3: External Cooperation Grants to Faith-Based Organizations, Civil Societies, and Local Authorities AMOUNT PERCENT YEAR BENEFICIARY PARTNER PROJECT PROPOSAL TITLE GRANTED, € FUNDING Support for decentralization 2004 Angola ZOA Refugee Care project “Uviali uwa,” 90,000 90% 2005–2007 Establishment of a daycare 2004 Belarus Caritas Austria center for children with 100,000 82% disabilities in Vitebsk Capacity building of six Central African Caritas Central 2004 Caritas branches and their 71,552 90% Republic African Republic rural organizations Business and management 2004 Georgia World Vision Austria 100,000 88% skills for Abkhazia Facilitating Somalia’s energy 2004 Somalia ADRA Germany 90,000 90% policy dialogue Skills and knowledge training 2004 Somalia Caritas Luxembourg 100,000 89% for adults and young women Strengthening community Mercy Corps 2004 Somalia participation in peace building 100,000 89% Scotland and development 2009 | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Appendix 1: Annotated Bibliography

Adamu, Fatima L. “A Double-Edged Sword: based organizations in sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on Challenging Women’s Oppression within Muslim data collected from Zambia and Lesotho on the preva- Society in Northern Nigeria.” Gender and Development lence and community perception of FBOs working with 7:1 (1999): 56–61. HIV/AIDS patients.

Adamu argues that many development projects focusing Bellion-Jourdan, Jerome. “Islamic Relief Organi on gender suffer from a lack of attention to the role of zations: Between ‘Islamism’ and ‘Humanitarianism.’” religion in shaping women’s lives, and to the needs of men ISIM Newsletter (June 2000), http://www.isim.nl/files/ to feel included in development. Meanwhile, Adamu says, newsl_5.pdf. women’s Islamic organizations face the double challenge of obtaining funding and confronting societal hostility. Short overview of the mission of Islamic relief organizations, with special attention paid to their role in the Anheier, Helmut K. and Lester M. Salamon. The Afghan war. Nonprofit Sector in the Developing World. New York: Manchester University Press, 1998. Benthall, Jonathan and Jerome Bellion-Jourdan. The Charitable Crescent: The Politics of Aid in the Muslim Another volume in the Johns Hopkins Comparative World. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003. Nonprofit Sector Project, this volume focuses on Brazil, 2009

Egypt, Ghana, India, and Thailand. This book examines both Muslim aid in the Muslim | world, as well as non-Muslim aid in Muslim regions. An-Na’im, Abdallah Ahmad. “Human Rights in the Two case studies are included, one on the role of Western Arab World: A Regional Perspective.” Human Rights and Islamic charities in Sudan, and the other on Islamic Quarterly 23.3 (2001): 701–732. networks in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

An-Na’im reviews the current state of human rights activ- Berger, Julia. “Religious Nongovernmental ism in the countries of the Arab League, highlighting, on Organizations: An Exploratory Analysis.” Voluntas: the one hand, the existence of numerous organizations International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit involved in human rights work, but also the significant Organizations 14:1 (2003). barriers to progress, such as authoritarian governments, ideological conflicts between human rights activists and An article that uses data collected from 263 UN-affiliated Islamist groups, the weakness of civil society, and the lack of FBOs (RNGOs) to try to define the metrics by which

a culture of human rights in many Arab nations. An-Na’im these organizations should be classified. The author arrives BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS argues that although international human rights organiza- at classifications along four “dimensions:” religious, orga- tions perform important work in publicizing human rights nizational, strategic, and service. Includes an introductory abuses, in the present international context it is critical to section on the development of FBOs. strengthen and develop local organizations. Biekart, Kees. The Politics of Civil Society Building: “Appreciating Assets: Mapping, Understanding, European Private Aid Agencies and Democratic Transitions Translating and Engaging Religious Health Assets in in Central America. Utrecht: International Books and Zambia and Lesotho.” World Health Organization. the Transnational Institute, 1999. February 2007. This book describes the influence of NGOs in Central A report on the importance of partnerships with faith- America, as well as some of the failures, learning curves,

57 and strategies of European NGOs working in conditions This book is currently out of print due to a libel law- of democratic transition. suit. It is a work by a USAID relief coordinator and a historian, and examines the role some Muslim FBOs Blumi, Isa. “Indoctrinating Albanians: Dynamics of have in funding terrorism or terrorist organizations. The Islamic Aid.” ISIM Newsletter (November 2002), http:// book makes every effort to examine Muslim charities www.isim.nl/files/newsl_11.pdf. throughout the world.

Short case study on how Albania and Western allow- Chesworth, John A. “Fundamentalism and Outreach ances for Islamic aid in the region have resulted in the Strategies in East Africa: Christian Evangelism and fragmentation of the population through conflicts with Muslims Da’wa.” In Muslim-Christian Encounters in Saudi Islamic relief organizations. Africa. Edited by Benjamin F. Soares, 159–186. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2006. Bonney, Richard and Asaf Hussain. “Faith Communities and the Development Agenda.” UK Chesworth observes parallel trends among Muslim Department for International Development (January and Christian “fundamentalist” groups in Kenya and 2001), http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/faithdevcom Tanzania, noting that both tend to conduct outreach agenda.pdf. through large open-air meetings as well as offering social services in education and health care. A strong public Report prepared for DFID. Series of survey questions presence, however, sometimes brings religious commu- along with conclusions and policy recommendations. nities into conflict with one another. In his discussion People from eight religious traditions were surveyed: of Christianity, Chesworth looks at groups such as Bahá’í, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Muslim, African Evangelical Enterprise, Tanzanian Fellowship and Sikh. of Evangelical Students, Campus Crusade for Christ, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | and “televangelists” such as Bishop Margaret Wanjiru Bornstein, Erica. “Developing Faith: Theologies of from Jesus is Alive Ministries. In his discussion of Islam, Economic Development in Zimbabwe.” Journal of he explores the activities of BAKWATA, the Society of Religion in Africa 32:1 (2002): 4–31. Muslim Preachers of Kenya, the Tanzanian Muslim Youth League, and the Muslim Writers’ Workshop. Bornstein shows how faith shapes the development approaches of Christian Care and World Vision, two Clark, Janine A. Islam, Charity, and Activism: Middle- faith-based NGOs in Zimbabwe. In rural projects, a faith- Class Networks and Social Welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and based approach connects churches, empowers women, Yemen. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2003. BERKLEY CENTER and wins converts; in urban administrative offices, a discipline of faith shapes organizational culture and group Case studies on Islamic charities in three countries, interactions among staff. and their interaction with the middle classes in those countries. Bornstein, Erica. The Spirit of Development: Protestant NGOs, Morality, and Economics in Zimbabwe. New Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations: York: Routledge, 2003. Bridging the Sacred and the Secular. Edited by Gerard Clarke and Michael Jennings. New York: Palgrave This is a doctoral dissertation published in the “Outstanding Macmillan, 2008. Dissertations” series. Includes anecdotal evidence, as well as a list of FBOs operating in Zimbabwe. Its focus is on the A collection of essays on various topics in development interplay of religion, society, and development. and FBOs, including the place of gender in religion and development, and one essay that casts Hezbollah as a Burr, J. and Robert Collins. Alms for Jihad: Charity and FBO. Most of the essays are single-country case studies, Terrorism in the Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge covering state-FBO relationships with Christian, Muslim, University Press, 2006. and Hindu organizations.

58 Cooper, Barbara M. “Anatomy of a Riot: The Social the Ugandan Response to HIV/AIDS.” Transformation Imaginary, Single Women, and Religious Violence 54 (2004): 17–41. in Niger.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 37:2/3 (2003): 467–512. Fiedrich discusses the work of ActionAid, an NGO which offers adult education classes in Uganda, and asks why Cooper discusses how a fashion show promoted by out- local facilitators discussed HIV/AIDS eagerly during side development groups exacerbated religious tensions in training but felt uncomfortable doing so in real class set- a city in Niger, culminating in a destructive riot. Cooper tings. He believes that a greater awareness of local culture, pays special attention how competition over influence especially local attitudes toward (Christian) religious in local media, especially radio, fueled the conflict, and morality and boundaries of conversation, would help how issues of women’s dress came to symbolize the deeper prevent such problems in NGO work. tensions between religious communities. Outsiders, unaware of these dynamics, inadvertently contributed to Flanigan, Shawn Teresa. “Praying for God’s Work: A the violence. Rights-Based Examination of Faith-Based NGOs in Romania.” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary Council of Europe. The Strategies, Role and Functions and Nonprofit Organizations 18:2 (2007). of NGOs Working for the Promotion of equality Between Women and Men. International seminar, Strasbourg, Case study of Romanian child welfare NGOs. Aims to 13–14 June 1996. describe both the freedom of expression of FBOs working in an international setting, as well as the freedom to not Proceedings of a Council of Europe seminar on the assemble of their clientele. strategies, themes, and obstacles faced by NGOs working towards gender equality. Gary, Ian. “Africa’s Churches Wake Up to Oil’s 2009

Problems and Possibilities.” Review of African Political | Deron, Francis. “Un projet musulman de mondi- Economy 29:91 (2002): 177–183. alisation; Le sommet de Bali en quête d’une structure économique islamique planétaire.” Le Monde, 14 May, This article focuses on African Catholic churches’ 2006, Front page. increasing activism with regard to issues of oil exploitation in countries like Cameroon, Chad, Angola, and An article about the “D-8” (“Developing 8”) summit in Sudan. After a long period during which churches did Bali. This front-page article describes the D-8 as a coop- not participate in politics or actively supported the eration of the eight most populous Muslim countries, state, structural adjustment programs and debates about aimed at reconstructing and bringing peace to a “once inequality prompted churches to take a larger role, prosperous” Muslim community. advocating for more equitable distribution of wealth and greater attention to the environmental and humanitarian Dicklitch, Susan and Heather Rice. “The Mennonite effects of oil projects.

Central Committee (MCC) and Faith-Based NGO BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Aid to Africa.” Development in Practice 14:5 (2004): Ghodsee, Kristen. “Religious Freedoms versus 660–672. Gender Equality: Faith-Based Organizations, Muslim Minorities, and Islamic Headscarves in the New This article argues that the Mennonite Central Committee Europe.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, (MCC) achieves success in its development projects in State & Society 14:4 (2007). http://sp.oxfordjournals. twenty African countries because of its non-missionary org/cgi/content/abstract/14/4/526. approach to faith-based work and its emphasis on accountability and building connections with local communities. The article examines the role of Islamic FBOs in Bulgaria. The central author posits that, by advocating Fiedrich, Marc. “‘I told them not to love one another!’: religious freedom and a right to choose one’s own faith Gender, Christianity, and the Role of Adult Education in tradition, certain repressive practices are being advocated,

59 challenging feminism and women’s NGOs in the region Uganda, from the colonial state’s relationships with mis- in a difficult position. sionaries to Idi Amin’s favoritism toward Islamic groups. Yet Kassimir argues that the Ugandan Catholic Church, Glenn, Charles L. The Ambiguous Embrace: Government despite its historical importance during times of political and Faith-Based Schools and Social Agencies. Princeton: trauma in the postcolonial era, took on a more ambiguous Princeton University Press, 2000. and “exhortative” role in development work under its alliance with the NRM regime that came to power in 1986. Primarily examines faith-based schools in the United Though the Church continues its development work, par- States and Europe. Includes a case study of the Salvation ticularly in the fields of health and education, its closeness Army, as well as highlighting some of the general prob- with the state has meant that the Church has lost some of lems that need to be resolved in the partnership between its potential for political critique and mobilization. government and FBOs. Kuperus, Tracy. “Building Democracy: An Hearn, Julie. “The ‘Invisible’ NGO: US Evangelical Examination of Religious Associations in South Africa Missions in Kenya.” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 and Zimbabwe.” Journal of Modern African Studies 37:4 (2002): 32–60. (1999): 643–668.

This article calls for a greater understanding of mission- Kuperus compares the role that civil society, particularly ary work and faith-based NGOs in Africa; the present religious associations, played in the processes of democ- represents a high mark in missionary activity, in contrast ratization in South Africa and Zimbabwe. She argues that to the decline some experts forecasted a few decades ago. the strong civil society that developed in South Africa Hearn describes the projects of five FBOs in Kenya in under apartheid resulted in a number of powerful reli- areas such as food security, health care, AIDS/HIV, and gious groups which supported the state’s nation-building GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | family planning. efforts but also called critical attention to failures, while in Zimbabwe an incomplete democratic transition and the Herrmann, Peter. Politics and Policies of the Social in the consolidation of an effectively one-party system has kept European Union: Looking at the Hidden Agendas. New civil society weaker than in South Africa. York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2006. Laitin, David D. “Somalia: Intervention in Internal An academic perspective on the development and history Conflict.” In Military Intervention: Cases in Context of NGOs within the EU context, and their larger place for the Twenty-First Century. Edited by William within the “social model” of the European Union. J. Lahneman. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and BERKLEY CENTER Littlefield Publishers, 2004. “In the World of Good and Evil.” The Economist, 16 September, 2006. Laitin argues that the military and operational failures of the US-led international intervention in Somalia’s civil war, News article on European views of the Bush a mission that lasted from 1992–1994, overshadowed the Administration’s support for FBOs, as well as an argu- humanitarian achievements of the mission. Laitin believes ment against some of the biases of those who believe that that NGOs and FBOs, which were heavily represented in the US has a religion-based foreign policy. Somalia during the period of the mission, hampered the mission especially because it was difficult for the military Kassimir, Ronald. “Uganda: The Catholic Church forces to coordinate effectively with NGOs, particularly in and State Reconstruction.” In The African State at a terms of providing security to NGO personnel. Critical Juncture. Edited by Leonardo A. Villalon and Phillip A. Huxtable. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Le Bars, Stéphanie. “Election: Compagnie de Jésus un Publishers, 1998. ‘pape noir’ asiatique?” Le Monde, 8 January 2008.

Religion has long been a major part of state-building in News article on the focus of the next Superior General

60 of the Society of Jesus. The retiring Superior General Pemberton, Carrie. “For God’s sake not for sale: advocates a focus on development in Africa and Asia, trafficking and the church in Europe.” Gender & with a new program of Chinese cultural instruction in Development 14:3 (2006). the works for all new Jesuits. Case study of the UK-based FBO Churches Alert to Lim, Jaime. “Faith-based groups address social issues; Sex Trafficking (CHASTE). Considers the obstacles and HEALTH-ASIA: Religious Leaders Tackle HIV, AIDS.” advantages that arise from addressing sex trafficking as IPS Latin America, 21 January, 2008. an FBO.

News article on World Vision and the WCC and their Perry, Donna L. “Muslim Child Disciples, Global new focus on increasing HIV/AIDS awareness in Korea Civil Society, and Children’s Rights in Senegal: The and Fiji. Discourses of Strategic Structuralism.” Anthropological Quarterly 77:1, (Winter 2004): 47–86. Mahmood, Saba. The Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, NJ: Examining the issue of talibes in Senegal (“street children” Princeton University Press, 2005. who beg to support their Qur’anic studies), Perry argues that development organizations who blame the problem on Monsma, Stephen V. When Sacred and Secular Mix: the stress that global factors place on local culture obscure Religious Nonprofit Organizations and Public Money. local dynamics and the perspectives of participants. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1996. “Religion and Public Policy at the UN” (Report). Religion Counts A primarily legal view of government-FBO relations in 2009

America, in light of the separation of Church and State. http://www.catholicsforchoice.org/topics/politics/docum | ents/2000religionandpublicpolicyatheun.pdf. Ngwenya, Barbara Ntombi. “Evading Household Indebtedness through Participation in Group Solidarity This report concludes that religion plays a strong and Coping Strategies in Contemporary Botswana.” Eastern evolving role at the United Nations. African Social Science Research Review 20:2, (2004): 1–30. Renders, Marlene. “An Ambiguous Adventure: Muslim This article describes the activities of cooperative burial Organizations and the Discourse of ‘Development’ societies in Botswana, some of which are branches of in Senegal.” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 (2002): religious organizations. In a country with high fatali- 61–82. ties from HIV/AIDS and automobile accidents, burial societies – often unregistered, organic community groups This article explains that while formerly the Senegalese generally run by women – help members cope with the state dominated development work in the country,

exorbitant costs of funerals, as well as other social and Islamic NGOs use the discourses of Islam and develop- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS economic problems. ment both to distance themselves from the state and to attract its material support. Nichols, J. Bruce. The Uneasy Alliance: Religion, Refugee Work, and US Foreign Policy. New York: Oxford Salamon, Lester M. et al., Global Civil Society: University Press, 1988. Dimensions of the Nonprofit Sector. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Center for Civil Society Studies, 1999. This is a study of the development of religious institutions in the US (including FBOs), and their work in This book details the civil society sectors of multiple coun- shaping US foreign policy. Includes individual chapters tries on multiple continents. The focus is on Europe, though on American foreign policy to Honduras, Thailand, some non-European developed nations and Latin American and Sudan. countries are also included. Each country has a separate

61 chapter devoted to it. This is part of a larger series, The Johns Followers in France.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project. Studies 30:5 (2004): 913–927.

Salamon, Lester M. et al. Global Civil Society: Soares focuses on the followers of Mansour Baro, a Dimensions of the Nonprofit Sector. vol. 2. Bloomfield, Senegalese sheikh from the Tijaniyya Sufi order, to discuss Connecticut: Kumarian Press, Inc., 2004. how transnational connections have endured among a West African migrant community living in France. Another volume in the Johns Hopkins Comparative Soares argues that Baro, who visits his disciples in France Nonprofit Sector Project, this volume focuses on Africa, once a year, helps provide them with a sense of identity Asia, and the Middle East. While not all countries are and connection to “home” that is meaningful in the covered, each country that is included has a separate face of racism, hardship, and alienation this community chapter devoted to it. confronts in France.

Salamon, Lester M. Partners in Public Service: Government- Spadacini, Beatrice and Pamela Nichols. Nonprofit Relations in the Modern Welfare State. Baltimore: “Campaigning Against Female Genital Mutilation The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. in Ethiopia Using Popular Education.” Gender and Development 6:2 (1998): 44–52. A study of American government-nonprofit relations. Examines their growth, as well as possibilities for their Spadacini and Nichols describe the partnership of the future cooperation; and believes that it is important that Italian Association for Women in Development and the the government not take a hostile stance towards the National Committee on Traditional Practices in cam- flourishing nonprofit sector. paigning against female genital mutilation in Ethiopia. The article discusses the successes and failures of various GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | Schramm, Jürgen, ed. The Role of Non-Governmental techniques designed to show sensitivity toward the con- Organizations in the New European Order. Baden-Baden, tours of local culture. Germany: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995. Walker, Bridget. “Christianity, Development, and An attempt to explain the mechanisms of NGO work in Women’s Liberation.” Gender and Development 7:1 the second half of the twentieth century, particularly in (1999): 15–22. Central and Eastern Europe. Walker describes ways in which Christian churches have Sherman, Amy L. The Soul of Development: Biblical historically provided support to poor women in the BERKLEY CENTER Christianity and Economic Transformation in Guatemala. form of community, yet have also exercised damaging New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. control over women’s freedom and sexuality. Walker then explores different contemporary responses on the Extended case study into the role of religious traditions in part of women to the ambiguous role of the church and the economic development of Latin America. religion in their lives, including efforts at reclamation, reformation, and rejection. Siegel, Daniel and Jenny Yancey. The Rebirth of Civil Society: The Development of the Nonprofit Sector in East Weiss, Holger. “Reorganizing Social Welfare Among Central Europe and the Role of Western Assistance. New Muslims: Islamic Voluntarism and Other Forms of York: The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Inc., 1992. Communal Support in Northern Ghana.” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 (2002): 83–109. A general explanation of the development of the NGO sector in the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Weiss describes how Muslim NGOs in northern Ghana, Hungary, and Poland. whose importance is growing, rely largely on foreign funding. Ghanaian Muslim activists face the challenge Soares, Benjamin. “An African Muslim Saint and his of securing funding from within their own communities,

62 largely through resolving the question of how to collect zakat (Islamic charity) while preserving respect for con- tinuing pre-Islamic traditions of community support.

Wolfensohn, James D. “Millennium Challenges for Faith and Development: New Partnerships to Reduce Poverty and Strengthen Conservation.” Interfaith Conference of Metropolitan Washington, Trinity College, Washington, DC, 30 March, 2004.

Speech delivered by the president of the World Bank concerning the role that FBOs have to play in future development projects.

Woods, Adèle. Facts about European NGOs Active in International Development. OECD, 2000.

A study of European NGOs by finances, personnel, and development strategies. 2009 | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Appendix 2: Acronyms Used in the Report

ADFD Abu Dhabi Development Fund IR Islamic Relief ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency ISESCO Islamic Educational, Scientific, and AKAM Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance Cultural Organization AKDN Aga Khan Development Network KMYA Kenya Muslim Youth Alliance AKES Aga Khan Education Services MDGs Millennium Development Goals AKF Aga Khan Foundation NGO Non-Governmental Organization AKFED Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development OFID OPEC Fund for International Development AKHS Aga Khan Health Services OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference AKP Turkish Justice and Development Party OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries AKPBS Aga Khan Planning and Building Services PCID Philippine Council for Islam and Democracy AKTC Aga Khan Trust for Culture PJD Moroccan Party of Justice and Development AVSI Association of Volunteers in International Service SFS Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University CSO Civil Society Organization UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on FBO Faith-Based Organization HIV/AIDS FIO 2009

Faith-Inspired Organization (term more | UNDP United Nations Development Programme commonly employed in report) UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific HDR Human Development Report and Cultural Organization ICCO Interchurch Organisation for Development UNFPA United Nations Population Fund Cooperation UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund ICNA Islamic Circle of North America UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross for Women IDB Islamic Development Bank WHO World Health Organization IIRO International Islamic Relief Organization BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

65 Endnotes

1. Gerrie Ter Haar and Stephen Ellis, “The Role of Religion in Development: Towards a New Relationship Between the Development: Towards a New Relationship Between the European Union and Africa,” European Journal of Development European Union and Africa,” European Journal of Development Research 18:3 (2006): 361–2. Research 18:3 (2006): 365. 16. “British Muslim Delegation to Visit Bosnia,” BBC Monitoring 2. Denmark (Evangelical Lutheranism), Finland (Evangelican Europe, 21 November 2006. Lutheranism and Orthodoxy), Greece (Greek Orthodoxy) 17. Heather Timmons, “British Investigators Probe Islamic Malta (Roman Catholicism), and the UK (Churches of Charity; Crescent Relief Queried on Terror Plot,” The England and Scotland). International Herald Tribune, 25 August 2006, 3. 3. US State Department Report on International Religious 18. Robert Barnes, “Case Against Islamic Charity Opens; Freedom, “The Czech Republic,” 2007. Now-Shuttered Organization Funneled Money to Militants, 4. Nicholas Watt, “Merkel Backs More Christian EU Prosecutors Say,” The Washington Post, 25 July 2007, A6. Constitution,” The Guardian (London), 29 August 2006, 14. 19. Jamie Wilson, “Culture of Charity,” The Guardian, 21 June 5. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Muslim population is not an 2002, 9. absolute majority, but it represents the largest single religious group, when Christians are classified by denomination. If 20. “Charity Denies Link to Terror Group,” Birmingham Post, 1 Catholicism and Orthodoxy are counted together, they June 2006, 6. account for a larger percentage than Islam. 21. “‘Christian front’ said to claim attack on Islamic relief fund 6. European Commission, “Social Values, Science and office on Milan,” BBC Monitoring Europe, 16 April 2007. Technology,” European Commission, Special Eurobarometer 22. A Rocha, BMS World Mission, CAFOD, Christian Aid, Report 225, June 2005. Justice and Peace Scotland, Methodist Relief and

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Development Fund, Operation Noah, SCIAF, and Tearfund.

| 7. Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Macedonia, 23. The Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Cyprus, and Greece Sciences and Islamic Relief. 8. Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Ireland, France, Monaco, Belgium, 24. Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, “Turkey’s Muslim Millions Luxembourg, San Marino, Italy, Vatican City, the Czech Threaten EU Values, Says Commissioner,” The Daily Telegraph Republic, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia, (London), 8 September 2004, 15. Poland, and Lithuania. 25. European Commission, “Attitudes towards European Union 9. The UK, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia. Enlargement,” European Commission, Special Eurobarometer Switzerland and Germany have Protestant and Catholic popu- 255, July 2006. lations of comparable size. Latvia has Catholic, Orthodox, and Lutheran populations of roughly equal size. Roman 26. Sophie de Ravinel, “Des associations chrétiennes dénoncent le BERKLEY CENTER Catholicism is the largest single religion in the Netherlands, projet du gouvernement,” Le Figaro, 25 April 2006, 7. but there is a sizeable Protestant community as well. 27. “British Muslim delegation demands increasing contacts with 10. Tom Kington, “International: Europe: Vatican Cardinal Calls Iran,” BBC Monitoring Middle East, 21 February 2008. on Catholics to Stop Funding Amnesty: Group ‘Betrayed 28. Ineke Bakker, Opening speech, “Religion: A Source for Mission’ over New Abortion Policy: Human Rights Human Rights and Development Cooperation,” Cordaid, Organisation Fears Dip in Donations,” The Guardian ICCO, ISS, September 2005. (London), 14 June 2007, 19. 29. US State Department Report on International Religious 11. “Zimbabwe; Head of Catholic Charity Calls for UN Arms Freedom, “The Netherlands,” 2007. Embargo,” Africa News, 26 April, 2008 30. Jos Becker and Joep de Hart, Godsdienstige veranderingen in 12. Bess Twiston, “Christian Aid Sends Ministerial Survival Kits,” Nederland, Social and Cultural Planning Office, 5 September The Times (London) , 7 July, 2007, 67. 2006, http://www.scp.nl/publicaties/boeken/9037702597. 13. “Support for Coal Power ‘Shameful,’ ” Christian Aid, 10 shtml (accessed 9 May 2008). March 2008, http://www.christianaid.org.uk/pressoffice/ 31. The EU-25 are the EU member states minus Romania and pressreleases/200803/support_for_coal_power_shameful.asp Bulgaria, which became members in 2007. (accessed 30 April, 2008). 32. European Commission, “Social Values, Science and 14. http://www.ictknowledgebase.org.uk/campaigning. Technology,” European Commission, Special Eurobarometer 15. Gerrie Ter Haar and Stephen Ellis, “The Role of Religion in Report 225, June 2005.

66 33. Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, “Turkey’s Muslim Millions 54. DFID, “List of Mini-Grant Projects Approved, 2006/7,” Threaten EU Values, Says Commissioner,” The Daily Telegraph Development Awareness Fund, 2007, http://www.dfid.gov. (London), 8 September 2004, 15. uk/funding/miniapproved0607.asp (accessed 29 April, 2008). 34. Movie available at: http://www.religionnewsblog.com/9287/ 55. DFID, “Building Support for Development,” April 1999, 8 watch-the-film-theo-van-gogh-was-murdered-for. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ pubs/files/buildingsupport development.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). 35. http://www.minbuza.nl/en/news/pressreleases,2005/09/ religion_not_to_save_souls_but_to_ save_lives.html. 56. DFID, “List of Projects Approved, 2007/8,” Development Awareness Fund, 2008, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/funding/ 36. http://www.aiv-advies.nl/ContentSuite/template/aiv/adv/ dafapprovedprojects0708.asp (accessed 29 April, 2008). collection_single.asp?id=1942&adv_id=295&language=UK. 57. DFID, “List of Mini-Grant Projects Approved, 2006/7,” 37. Social and Cultural Planning Office of the Netherlands, “The Development Awareness Fund, 2007, http://www.dfid.gov. Nonprofit Sector in the Netherlands,” 15 April 2001, SCP, uk/funding/miniapproved0607.asp (accessed 29 April, 2008). http://www.scp.nl/english/publications/books/2001041501-2. shtml 67 (accessed 9 May, 2007). 58. Charity Aid Foundation, “UK Giving 2007,” November 2007, Charity Aid Foundation, http://www.cafonline.org/ 38. More details at www.religion-and-development.nl. default.aspx?Page=12182 (accessed 29 April, 2008). 39. www.prismaweb.org. 59. For the template brochure: DFID and Christian Aid, “Target 40. US State Department Report on International Religious 2015: Halving World Poverty,” DFID, http://www.dfid.gov. Freedom, “Germany,” 2007. uk/pubs/files/target2015.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). For the Christian brochure: DFID, CAFOD, SCIAF, and 41. “Official Recognition of Islam in Germany?” Der Spiegel, 16 Trócaire, “Target 2015: Halving World Poverty,” DFID, April 2007, http://www.spiegel.de/international/ger- http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/2015-christian.pdf many/0,1518,477438,00.html (accessed 19 April 2008). (accessed 29 April, 2008). 42. US State Department Report on International Religious Freedom, “Germany,” 2007. For the Muslim brochure: DFID, the Muslim Council of Britain, Muslim Aid, and Islamic Relief, “Target 2015: 43. European Commission, “Social Values, Science and Halving World Poverty,” DFID, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ Technology,” European Commission, Special Eurobarometer pubs/files/2015-christian.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008).

Report 225, June 2005. 2009 For the Hindu brochure: DFID and Hindu Aid, “Target | 44. The EU-25 are the EU member states minus Romania and 2015: Halving World Poverty.” DFID, http://www.dfid.gov. Bulgaria, which became members in 2007. uk/pubs/files/2015-christian.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). 45. The Central Jewish Welfare Agency, was also contracted by the state to implement welfare policy. Patrick Ireland, For the Sikh brochure: DFID and the Network of Sikh Becoming Europe: Immigration, Integration, and the Welfare Organizations UK, “Target 2015: Halving World Poverty,” State (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004). DFID, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/2015-sikh.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). 46. “Subsidiarity” is a principle whereby the state aids people through local organizations (such as local churches), rather For the Jewish brochure: DFID and UK Jewish Aid and then providing direct aid to the population. International Development, “Target 2015: Halving World Poverty,” DFID, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/2015- 47. Klaus-Martin Groth and Johann Müller-Gazurek, Ausländer- christian.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). Sozialrecht (Frankfurt: Metzner, 1983). 60. Distinct from a “Christian” brochure, which was developed in 48. Dirk Meyer, “The Provisions of the German Charitable coordination with CAFOD, SCIAF, and Trócaire Welfare System and the Challenge of the Free Market,” German Studies Review 20:3 (October 1997). 61. DFID and CAFOD, “CAFOD: Partnership Programme Agreement,” DFID, 1 May 2002, 1, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 49. Patrick Ireland, Becoming Europe: Immigration, Integration, pubs/files/cafod-ppa.pdf (accessed 29 April, 2008). and the Welfare State (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), 35–6. 62. http://www.trotz-aids.de/downloads/hope_initiative_fy06_ annual_report.pdf?phpsid=ou7vukifdpd2ochko4ftjc0h25otetsp. 50. Patrick Ireland, Becoming Europe: Immigration, Integration, and the Welfare State (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), 37. 63. http://www.zenit.org/article-6848?l=english. 51. http://www.diakonie.de/740.htm. 64. http://www.dbk.de/katholische_kirche/deutschland/soziale_ verantwortung/caritas/index_en.html. 52. http://www.caritas.de/36345.html. 65. Lori Montgomery, “Pope to German Church: End Abortion 53. Race, Cohesion and Faith directorate, “‘Working Together’: Link,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, 22 September, 1999, A26. Co-operation between Government and Faith Communities,” Race, Cohesion and Faith Directorate, August 2005, 25, 66. Naomi Kresge, “Growing old in a new home; Germany tries http://www. communities.gov.uk/publications/communities/ to integrate its senior Turkish citizens,” The International workingtogethercooperation (accessed 29 April 2008). Herald Tribune, 23 February 2008, 15.

67 67. Moira Shaw, “Christians’ tsunami aid criticized,” South China 92. http://www.jsi.com/JSIInternet/FeatureStories/Stories/ Morning Post, 10 April 2005, 8. Zambia_-_Building_Trust_Between_Traditional_Healers_ and_Health_Workers.cfm. 68. Framework taken from 2006 Annual Report: http://www. solidaridad.nl/PDF/2007/Annual%20report%202006%20 93. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender. English.pdf. fcgi?artid=1540435. 69. See Jonathan Reynolds, “Good and Bad Muslims: Islam and 94. http://zambia.jhuccp.org/about/response.php. Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria,” The International Journal 95. http://repository.berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/Berkley_ of African Historical Studies 34:3 (2001): 601–618. FBO_backgrounder_final.pdf. 70. http://www.oikoumene.org/de/mitgliedskirchen/regions/ 96. Julie Hearn, “The ‘Invisible’ NGO: US Evangelical Missions europe/cccaae.html. in Kenya,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 (2002): 32–60. 71. http://www.uoif-online.com/webspip/spip.php. 97. http://www.pepfar.gov/documents/organization/80352.pdf. 72. http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/node/2739. 98. http://direct-aid.org/website/index.php. 73. Benjamin Soares, “An African Muslim Saint and his Followers 99. Holger Weiss, “Reorganizing Social Welfare Among Muslims: in France,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 30:5 Islamic Voluntarism and Other Forms of Communal Support (2004): 913–927. in Northern Ghana,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 74. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90128.htm. (February 2002): 83–109. See also: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5134244.stm. 100. Mohammed Koressin and Abdulfatah Mohamed, “Saudi 75. http://people.law.emory.edu/~aannaim/. Arabian NGOs in Somalia: ‘Wahhabi’ Da’wah or Humanitarian Aid?” Development, Civil Society and Faith- 76. http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/mozambique/calling- Based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and the Secular, for-peace.php. Gerard Clarke and Michael Jennings, eds., (New York: 77. Ian Gary, “Africa’s Churches Wake Up to Oil’s Problems and Palgrave MacMillan, 2008). Possibilities,” Review of African Political Economy 29:91 101. See http://www.abaana.org/; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaana. (2002): 177–183. 102. http://www.fast4africa.org/index.cfm. 78. Tracy Kuperus, “Building Democracy: An Examination of

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Religious Associations in South Africa and Zimbabwe,” 103. http://www.arhap.uct.ac.za/. | Journal of Modern African Studies 37:4, (1999): 643–668. 104. See Cooper, “Anatomy of a Riot,” 490. 79. http://www.lesoleil.sn/imprimer.php3?id_article=27165. 105. http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0228/p07s01-woaf.html. 80. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=57496. 106. http://www.who.int/inf-new/aids3.htm. 81. http://www.usaid.gov/press/frontlines/fl_apr06/spotlight.htm. 107. http://senegal.usaid.gov/news/articles/06_HEALTH_religion. 82. See http://www.caritas.org/jumpCh.asp?idChannel=; see also html. http://www.danchurchaid.org/sider_paa_hjemmesiden/ 108. http://www.who.int/inf-new/aids3.htm. where_we_work/africa. 109. http://www.jhuccp.org/africa/faith_based/senegal_reaching- 83. See http://wfdd.org.uk/programmes/case_studies/tokombere_ men.shtml. BERKLEY CENTER fr.pdf; also http://www.tokombere-partenaires.org/. 110. http://africastories.usaid.gov/search_details.cfm?storyID=479 84. Susan Dicklitch and Heather Rice, “The Mennonite Central &countryID=14§orID=0&yearID=6. Committee (MCC) and Faith-Based NGO Aid to Africa,” Development in Practice 14:5 (2004): 660–672. 111. http://africastories.usaid.gov/search_details.cfm?storyID=86& countryID=14§orID=0&yearID=3. 85. Erica Bornstein, “Developing Faith: Theologies of Economic Development in Zimbabwe,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32:1 112. http://africastories.usaid.gov/search_details.cfm?storyID=405 (2002): 4–31. &countryID=10§orID=0&yearID=5. 86. http://info.bahai.org/article-1-8-1-1.html. 113. http://africastories.usaid.gov/search_details.cfm?storyID=483 &countryID=29§orID=0&yearID=6 87. http://news.bahai.org/story/591. 114. http://africastories.usaid.gov/search_details.cfm?storyID=183 88. http://news.bahai.org/story/590. &countryID=29§orID=0&yearID=3 89. http://statements.bahai.org/89-1106.htm. 115. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/56966.pdf 90. http://statements.bahai.org/96-0430.htm. 116. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7323673.stm. 91. http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/index.fcgi?sid=q10rvtjd 117. Fatima L. Adamu, “A Double-Edged Sword: Challenging 9ee80ca7000000004742e93f&a=d&c=medicinedocs&d= Women’s Oppression within Muslim Society in Northern Jh2943e.4.43. Nigeria,” Gender and Development 7:1 (1999): 56–61.

68 118. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr113.html. 145. http://www.cabsa.co.za/newsite/index.asp. 119. See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- 146. http://wfdd.org.uk/programmes/case_studies/care.doc. factbook/geos/et.html#People and http://www.state.gov/g/drl/ 147. http://wfdd.org.uk/programmes/case_studies/care.doc. rls/irf/2007/90097.htm. 148. http://www.rehoboth.org.za/. 120. http://www.ethiomedia.com/newpress/census_portrait.pdf. The author misquotes the CIA’s figures, or was perhaps using 149. http://www.josephproject.org.za/english/homepage_english. an earlier version, but his figures align with the CIA’s current html; see also http://www.ywam.org/Default.asp?bhcp=1. figures as listed in the World Fact Book 150. http://www.youthkzn.co.za/. 121. http://countrystudies.us/somalia/54.htm; see also http://www. 151. http://www.solidaritypeacetrust.org/. irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=73418 and http://www. unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4416888d0.pdf. 152. http://www.sacc.org.za/index.html. 122. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90097.htm. 153. http://www.ujw.co.za/index.php. 123. http://www.ethotc.org/EOC/index.cfm?fuseaction=basic_ 154. http://www.ucmb.co.ug/. pages.basic_page_DICAC&page_name=50. 155. http://www.upmb.co.ug/. 124. http://www.arcworld.org/news.asp?pageID=99. 156. http://www.reachoutmbuya.org/. 125. http://www.crdaethiopia.org/index.php. 157. http://www.christianaidsnetwork.org/; 126. http://www.jeccdoethiopia.org/. http://www.restorationofhope.org/. 127. See http://wfdd.org.uk/programmes/case_studies/aamwc.doc. 158. http://www.thetaug.org/. 128. Beatrice Spadacini and Pamela Nichols, “Campaigning 159. http://www.peacebuildingportal.org/index. Against Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia Using Popular asp?pgid=9&org=2931. Education,” Gender and Development 6:2 (1998): 44–52. 160. http://www.anotherhope.org/. 129. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 161. http://www.ugandachurches.org/comeandshare/. geos/gh.html#People. 162. http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/northern-uganda/ 130. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90100.htm. religious-leaders.php; see also http://www.istr.org/conferences/ 2009 | 131. http://allafrica.com/stories/200803190627.html. bangkok/WPVolume/Kasaija.ApuuliPhillip.pdf and http:// www.pacedifesa.org/documenti/paper.pdf. 132. http://cran.org/. 133. http://muragghana.com/. 134. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ geos/ni.html#People; see also http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/ irf/2007/90114.htm. 135. http://www.baobabwomen.org. See also http://www.wluml.org. 136. See Ayesha M Imam, “Fighting the Political (Ab)Use of Religion in Nigeria: BAOBAB for Women’s Human Rights, Allies, and Others,” Report from Women Living Under Muslim Laws, 5, http://www.wluml.org/english/pubs/pdf/ wsf/15.pdf. 137. http://www.counterpunch.org/iman05152003.html

138. http://fomwan.org/index.php. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 139. http://www.pathfind.org/site/ PageServer?pagename=Programs_Nigeria_Projects_ ENHANSE. 140. http://www.psi.org/where_we_work/nigeria.html. 141. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-08/2007-08- 28-voa46.cfm?CFID=250394179&CFTOKEN=40259776 142. http://www.rurcononline.org/. 143. http://216.177.136.28/content/view/7591/208/. 144. http://www.globalreliefonline.org/Home.htm.

69 About The Berkley Center Religious Literacy Series

This paper is part of a series of reports that maps the activity of faith-based organizations around key development topics and regions. These reports explore the role of religious groups in addressing global challenges as a way to bridge the coordination gap between secular and religious organizations in the common effort of international development work.

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