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The Development of Libyan- Tunisian Bilateral Relations: a Critical Study on the Role of Ideology

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The Development of Libyan- Tunisian Bilateral Relations: a Critical Study on the Role of Ideology THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIBYAN- TUNISIAN BILATERAL RELATIONS: A CRITICAL STUDY ON THE ROLE OF IDEOLOGY Submitted by Almabruk Khalifa Kirfaa to the University of Exeter As a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics In December 2014 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: Almabruk Kirfaa………………………………………………………….. i Abstract Libyan-Tunisian bilateral relations take place in a context shaped by particular historical factors in the Maghreb over the past two centuries. Various elements and factors continue to define the limitations and opportunities present for regimes and governments to pursue hostile or negative policies concerning their immediate neighbours. The period between 1969 and 2010 provides a rich area for the exploration of inter-state relations between Libya and Tunisia during the 20th century and in the first decade of the 21st century. Ideologies such as Arabism, socialism, Third Worldism, liberalism and nationalism, dominated the Cold War era, which saw two opposing camps: the capitalist West versus the communist East. Arab states were caught in the middle, and many identified with one side over the other. generating ideological rivalries in the Middle East and North Africa. The anti-imperialist sentiments dominating Arab regimes and their citizens led many statesmen and politicians to wage ideological struggles against their former colonial masters and even neighbouring states. Post-independence Tunisia and Libya were involved in the rivalry that was clearly present during the 20th century between 'radical' and 'conservative' Arab regimes. A polarised ideological climate existed between Habib Bourguiba, Tunisia's first President, and Muammar Gaddafi, the young military officer who would later become the ruler of Libya, which created a hostile climate. The regimes of Bourguiba and Gaddafi adopted differing positions on their relations with other Arab states, Pan-Arabism and a narrowly defined Tunisian nationalism, and they clashed on many occasions. Ideology was a major factor contributing to the state of relations between Bourguiba and Gaddafi in the period between 1969 and 1987. Post-1987, Tunisia made a remarkable reversal under Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who had ousted Bourguiba from power, in the area of Libyan-Tunisian bilateral relations. The years between 1987 and 2010 witnessed joint co-operation and policies between the regimes of Tunisia and Libya, principally in the area of the economy. Gaddafi and Ben Ali appear to have focused more on shared economic interests than on implementing a radical pan-Arabism or a conservative notion of Tunisian nationalism. ii CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1 Importance of the Subject ...................................................................................................... 3 Justification and Aims of the Research .................................................................................. 4 Outline of Chapters ................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER ONE: THE RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ....................................................... 9 Object of Inquiry: Scope of the Study .................................................................................. 10 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 11 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................................ 13 Key Questions ...................................................................................................................... 15 Research Methodology ......................................................................................................... 17 Deliberations on Discourse Analysis and Political Discourse Analysis .............................. 22 Grounded Theory and Neo-functionalism............................................................................ 32 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 40 Studies on Co-operation in the Mediterranean Region ........................................................ 41 Studies on the Arab Regional Blocs and Co-operation Among Arab Countries ................. 45 Studies on Libyan-Tunisian Relations ................................................................................. 51 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 54 CHAPTER THREE: RESISTANCE IN THE COLONIAL MAGHREB AND THE ARRIVAL OF INDEPENDENCE ....................................................................................... 56 The Beginning of Colonialism ............................................................................................. 58 Formal Colonial Borders and Informal Tribal Ties ............................................................. 61 Libyan Resistance and Ottoman Support ............................................................................. 63 The Era of Independence...................................................................................................... 68 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 72 CHAPTER FOUR: TRANSITIONS TO THE POST-COLONIAL NATION ................ 74 iii Domestic Politics.................................................................................................................. 75 Economic Factors ................................................................................................................. 83 Islam and Society in the Maghreb ........................................................................................ 88 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 90 CHAPTER FIVE: IDEOLOGY: BETWEEN CONSERVATISM AND ARABISM IN LIBYAN-TUNISIAN RELATIONS .................................................................................... 92 The Early Political Context of Libyan-Tunisian Relations .................................................. 93 Conservative and Radical Regimes in Ideological Conflict................................................. 98 Bourguiba’s Political Allies and the Revoking of a Union ................................................ 105 Suspicion of Gaddafi and Nasser's Military Backgrounds ................................................. 112 Crisis in Gafsa .................................................................................................................... 115 A New Chapter of Co-operation between Ben Ali's Tunisia and Gaddafi's Libya ............ 117 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 121 CHAPTER SIX: A NEW POLITICAL ERA AND THE FORMALISATION OF LIBYAN-TUNISIAN ECONOMIC RELATIONS........................................................... 124 Differences in the Economic Structures and Policies of Tunisia and Libya ...................... 125 Unorganised Libyan-Tunisian Economic Relations .......................................................... 129 The Role of the Private Sector ........................................................................................... 142 The International Embargo and the Implications for Economic Relations ........................ 146 Unpredictability and Differences in Regulations ............................................................... 150 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 156 CHAPTER SEVEN: REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND THE BINDING OF COMMERCIAL TIES ........................................................................................................ 158 Regional integration in the Arab Maghreb Union and the African Union ......................... 160 Commercial Joint Policies .................................................................................................. 163 The Volume of Joint Commercial Transactions ................................................................ 167 Project for Joint Customs Arrangements ........................................................................... 170 Joint Investments ................................................................................................................ 172 iv Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 178 CHAPTER EIGHT: JOINT LIBYAN-TUNISIAN POLICIES IN THE THREE SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY ...................................................................................... 181 Primary Sector ...................................................................................................................
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