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The Meaning of the Habit: Religious Orders, Dress and Identity, 1215-1650

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The Meaning of the Habit: Religious Orders, Dress and Identity, 1215-1650 The Meaning of the Habit: Religious Orders, Dress and Identity, 1215-1650 Alejandra Concha Sahli PhD in History UCL Submitted for the degree of PhD in History 2017 I, Alejandra Concha Sahli, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Signed, –––––––––––––––––––––– 2 Abstract It is well known that there was an increasing concern with clothing as a means of social and cultural distinction in the late medieval and early modern periods. This has been called the birth of fashion. One way in which this importance was expressed was through the development of some well- defined sartorial codes and rules, both tacit and explicit. These gradually lead to more exhaustive and specific regulatory forms. Hitherto, most of the scholarly emphasis has been on the secular world, particularly through the study of sumptuary laws, whereas analysis of the ecclesiastical sphere (the Carmelite order apart) has not got much attention beyond anecdotal description. This dissertation aims to provide a 'thick description' to understand the meaning of ecclesiastical dress in a social and cultural context for the period 1215-1650. Thus, the focus is not on clothes as such, but on the ways by which dress can express conscious and unconscious ideas at the base of the interaction between people, groups and institutions. Studying the dynamics, ideas, worries and controversies generated by religious habits, both within and outside the religious orders, reveals the layers of meaning that exist beyond the anecdotal evidence. And what they reveal is how religious orders in Western Europe developed a complex process of identity formation in which clothing, in its different levels, played a fundamental role. What lies at the core of this analysis of the conceptions about religious clothing – used as a heuristic tool – is precisely its capacity to show not only how the identities of the religious orders of the period evolved, but also how they were perceived and conceived, and how they shaped these changes. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to gratefully acknowledge the support of UCL’s History Department during the development of this PhD, for providing me with stimulating academic opportunities and experiences during these last four years. I also especially thank my supervisor, Professor David d’Avray for his for his thorough, dedicated, and generous support and advice, as well as his constant encouragement and his unwavering commitment. I can only hope that, if I one day get to supervise my own students, I would be able to offer them even a fraction of the brilliant guidance he has provided me with during these years, though the bar certainly has been set very high. I would also like to thank Antonio Sennis, for his helpful suggestions and criticism, which have greatly contribute to make this a better thesis. I thank UCL’s Doctoral School and the Faculty of Social and Historical Sciences for their grants and funding, as well as UCL’s Study Abroad Team, which gave me the unique opportunity of spending a term as a postgraduate Erasmus student at the École nationale de chartres in Paris, were I gained invaluable training and research access. I am also grateful to the Chilean Government and to Conicyt for funding this PhD, which would have not been possible without this support. Writing has always represented a challenge for me. It is a difficult task in my native Spanish and even more so in English. When a third dead language like Latin is added, translated into English via Spanish, it certainly gets uphill. Therefore, I would like to express my utmost gratitude for the dedication and, especially, the generosity of my proofreaders: Trinidad Decombe, Alison Ray, Javiera Necochea, Emily Corran and Luis Dos Santos Sousa. I am forever indebted. I also thank Camila Gatica for her patient and sympathetic help, guidance, and, at times, even counselling, which helped me navigate through all sorts of bureaucratic duties as well as vocational and philosophical questions. I thank my family as well, especially my parents, for their continuous care and support. 4 Last but not least, I would like to express my immense gratitude to my husband, who is certainly more of a saint than many of the monks and friars of this thesis. I am grateful not only for his infinite patience and for keeping me sane (and fed) during the more taxing parts of this process, but also for his many sacrifices, and for having the bravery of following me down the rabbit hole, to a new country and a new life. His companionship has undoubtedly enriched both this process and this research. 5 Table of Contents ABBREVIATIONS __________________________________________________ 8 INTRODUCTION ___________________________________________________ 9 CHAPTER 1 MORE THAN SHOCKING CLOTHES: THE CONCEPT OF SCANDAL IN THE GOVERNMENT OF RELIGIOUS HABITS _______________________________ 68 NOT SO HOLY MEN: MONKS, CLERICS, AND SCANDALOUS GARBS ______________ 71 SCANDALISED KNIGHTS: WHITE CLOAKS AND THE DISPUTE BETWEEN THE TEMPLAR AND TEUTONIC ORDERS ____________________________________________ 80 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 1 ___________________________________________ 95 CHAPTER 2 FORGING IDENTITIES: RELIGIOUS DRESS AND THE STRUGGLE OF THE AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS AND THE CARMELITES FRIARS TO FIT IN THE EUROPEAN RELIGIOUS SCENE ____________________________________ 106 STEALING THE LOOK: THE AUGUSTINIAN FRIARS AND THEIR TROUBLESOME HABITS 109 FROM SCORNED CLOAKS TO MIRACULOUS CLOTHES: THE BUMPY ROUTE OF THE CARMELITES THROUGH EUROPE _____________________________________ 135 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2 __________________________________________ 177 CHAPTER 3 HABIT ENVY: EXTRA-RELIGIOUS GROUPS, ATTIRE AND THE SEARCH FOR LEGITIMATION OUTSIDE THE INSTITUTIONALISED ORDERS ___________ 179 MULIERES RELIGIOSAE, HABITUS BEGHINARUM: RELIGIOUS DRESS, LAY PIETY, AND THE FORMATION OF COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES ________________________________ 182 THE CLOTHES OF POPULAR PIETY: RELIGIOUS HABITS AND THE LEGITIMATION OF PENITENTIAL MOVEMENTS __________________________________________ 200 CHAPTER 4 THE VARIOUS HABITS OF ST FRANCIS: OBSERVANT ZEAL AND THE ROLE OF CLOTHES IN THE FRANCISCAN ORDER __________________________ 227 CHAPTER 5 THE TRUE HABIT OF ST FRANCIS: THE CAPUCHINS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF A NEW FRANCISCAN IDENTITY __________________ 276 CONCLUSION ___________________________________________________ 329 BIBLIOGRAPHY _________________________________________________ 334 List of Images Fig. 1: St Francis’s habit conserved in Florence ____________________ 303 Fig. 2: St Francis’s habit conserved at the Conventual’s church in Assisi______________________________________________303 Fig. 3: St Francis’s habit conserved at the church of St Clara in Assisi___ 304 Fig. 4: St Francis’s habit conserved in Pisa________________________ 304 Fig. 5: Habit of Peter Catani____________________________________305 Fig. 6: Habit of brother Morico__________________________________ 305 Fig. 7: Habit of brother Eleuterio_________________________________305 Fig. 8: Hood of St Francis______________________________________306 Fig. 9: Hood of brother Rufino__________________________________ 306 Fig. 10: Hood of Peter Catani___________________________________308 Fig. 11: Hood of Francesco of Fabriano___________________________309 Fig. 12: Hood of St Francis conserved in Guardiagrele_______________ 309 Fig. 13: Hood of St Francis conserved in L’Aquila___________________ 310 Fig. 14: Hood of St Francis conserved at the Conventual convent in Assisi_____________________________________________310 7 ABBREVIATIONS AFH Archivum Franciscanum Historicum AM Lucas Wadding, Annales Minorum Corpus Iuris Canonici A. Friedberg (ed.), Corpus Iuris Canonici. Editio Lipsiensis secunda (1959) BF Bullarium Franciscanum DIP Dizionario degli istituti di perfezione Mansi Giovanni Domenico Mansi (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica PL J. P. Migne (ed.), Patrologia Latina Cursus Completus Potthast A. Potthast (ed.), Regesta Pontificum Romanorum LSDE Giancarlo Rocca (ed.), La Sostanza dell'Effimero. Gli abiti degli Ordini religiosi in Occidente Unless otherwise stated, all translations in this thesis are my own. 8 INTRODUCTION Towards the mid-twelfth century, the Premonstratensian canon Anselm of Havelberg, when talking about the unity of the faith, pointed out how many people were ‘amazed and sceptical’ at the varied forms of Christian religious life: They ask – said Anselm – like cunning inquisitors, ‘Why does God’s Church present so many new things? Why do so many orders arise in her? Who could count the orders of clerics? Who is not astonished at the many kinds of monks? Who is not even scandalised by the number of them, disgusted by the great variety and disagreement among the many forms of religious life? Who can, still further, fail to scorn the Christian religious life when it is subjected to so much variety, changed by so many new practices, disrupted by so many new laws and customs, tossed about year after year by novel rules and customs?’…In our times, these same people say, we see in the Church of God that folk appear who clothe themselves in strange habits on their own whim, choose for themselves a new form of life and – whether under the label of monastic profession or under the vow of canonical discipline – claim for themselves whatever they wish.1 Anselm’s account shows how the multiplication and proliferation of new and
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