NOTES 1 Introduction I. This term designates first of all the act of 'confessing' or professing a par­ ticular faith; secondly, it indicates the content of that which is confessed or professed, as in the Augsburg Confession; finally then it comes to mean the group that confesses this particular content, the church or 'confession'. 2 The New Religious Orders I. The terms 'order' and 'congregation' in this period were not always clear. An order usually meant solemn vows, varying degrees of exemption from the local bishop, acceptance of one of the major rules (Benedictine, Augustinian, Franciscan), and for women cloister.A congregation indicated simple vows and usually subordination to local diocesan authority. A con­ fraternity usually designated an association of lay people, sometimes including clerics, organized under a set of rules , to foster their common religious life and usually to undertake some common apostolic work. In some cases confraternities evolved into congregations, as was the case with many of the third orders, and congregations evolved into orders. 2. There is no effort here to list all the new orders and congregations that appeared in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 3. An English translation of Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, the papal bull of 27 September 1540 establishing the Society ofJesus, is found in John Olin, The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, /495-1540 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), pp. 203-8. 3 The Council of Trent and the Papacy I. The Complete Works of Montaigne: Essays, Travel journal, Letters, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957), p. 940. 6 Education I. Ibid., p. 957. 212 Notes 213 7 Evangelization beyond Europe 1. The Latin original, along with an English translation of Sublimis Deus, is found in Francis Augustus MacNutt, Bartholomew de Las Casas: His Life, Apostolate, and Writings (Cleveland, OH : A. H. Clark, 1909), pp . 426-31. 8 The Christian in the World 1. Machiavelli : The Chief Works and Others, trans. Allan Gilbert (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1965), vol. 1, pp . 57-8. 2. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, trans . and ed . John K. Ryan (New York: Doubleday Image Books, 1989), pp . 34, 41, 43-4, 193. 3. Blaise Pascal, The Provincial Letters, Pensees, Scientific Treatises (Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952), p. 29. Translator of the Provincial Letters is Thomas M'Crie. 4 . Pensees, no. 253, ibid., p. 220. Translator is W. F. Trotter. 5. Ibid., no. 277, p. 222 . 6. Cited in Jerome J. Langford, Galileo, Science, and the Church, 3rd edn (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992), p. 89. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY The following summary is not meant to be a comprehensive bibliography, nor does it comprise all the sources consulted in the writing of this book . It does indicate the principal sources and is intended to serve as a guide for further reading. English-language works are featured. General and Chapter 1 Two valuable multi-volume surveys are Jean-Marie Mayeur, Charles and Luce Pietri , Andre Vauchez, and Marc Venard (eds), Histoire du Christianisme des orig­ inesanosjours, vol. 7: Dela riforme ala Reformation (1450-1530); vol. 8: Le temps des confessions (1530-1620); and vol. 9: L'iige de raison (1620/30-1750) (Paris, 1992-7), and Hubert Jedin and John Dolan (eds), The History of the Church, vol. 5: Reformation and Counter-Reformation, and vol. 6: The Church in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment (New York, 1980/1; German original, 1967170). The former incorporates recent scholarship, the latter is traditional in its approach . Helpful bibliographical essays are found in John W O'Malley (ed.), Catholicism in Early Modem Europe (St Louis, 1988), to be complemented for Italy by William V. Hudon, 'Religion and Society in Early Modern Italy - Old Questions, New Insights', American Historical Review, 101 (1996) : 783-804. Hubert Jedin's pathbreaking KatholischeReform oder Gegenreformation ? (Lucerne, 1946) surveys the older literature on the terminology of Counter Reformation and Catholic Reform. H. Outram Evennett, The Spirit of the Counter-Reformation , ed . John Bossy (Cambridge, 1968) has greatly influenced the approach of this book . Two contrasting, stimulating interpretative surveys are Jean Delumeau, Catholicism between Luther and Voltaire: A New View of the Counter-Reformation (London/ Philadelphia, 1977; French original, 1971), and John Bossy, Christianity in the West, 1400-1700 (New York, 1985). John O'Malley 's position is best articulated in his 'Was Ignatius Loyola a Church Reformer? How to Look at Early Modern Catholicism', Catholic Historical Review, 77 (1991) : 177-93. The most complete general treatment of confessionalism and confessionalization in English is R. Po-Chia Hsia, Social Discipline in the Reformation: Central Europe, 1550-1750 (London, 1989), but see also Wolfgang Reinh ard, 'Reformation, Counter­ Reformation, and the Early Modern State : A Reassessment', Catholic Historical Review, 75 (1989) : 383- 404, and the more recent publication by Wolfgang Reinhard and Heinz Schilling (eds), Die katholische Konfessionalisierung, 214 Select Bibliography 215 Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte, 135 (Munster, 1995), which contains a number of fine contributions. A solid recent sUn'ey is R. Po-Chia Hsia, The World ofCatholic Renewal, 1540-1770 (Cambridge, 1998); significantly, it starts and ends later than th is book, and it adopts a different interpretative framework. Theodore K. Rabb's The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe (New York, 1975) remains an outstanding intrepretative essay that elaborates the changes of the first decades of the sixteent h century and shows how the y were assimilated into a new European synthesis by the late sevent eenth century. Eugene F. Rice, Jr, with Anthony Grafton, The Foundations of Early Modem Europe, 1460-1559, 2nd edn (New York, 1994), is a conci se, well-written sUn'ey. An up-to-date general reference work is Thomas Brady, Jr, Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy (eds), Handbook ofEuropean History, 1400-1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation , 2 vols (Leiden, 1994; reprinted Grand Rapids, 1996), which , despite the title, does occasionally reach into the seven­ teenth century. R. N. Swanson, Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215-(. 1515 (Cambridge, 1995) provides a judicious, sympathetic sUn'ey of its topi c up to the eve of the Reformation. Larissa Taylor, Soldiers of Christ: Preaching in Late Medieval and Reformation France (New York, 1992), compares preaching before and after the Reformation. For the Spanish Inquisition , see Chapter 3. Chapter 2 A fine series of essays with bibliography on the new religious orde rs of the sixteent h century is Richard L. DeMolen (ed. ), Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation (New York, 1994). Raymond V. Hostie, Vie et mort des ordres religieux: Approches psychosociologiques (Paris, 1972) locate s the new male ord ers and con­ gregations in the broader context of the history of religiou s life and provides valuable statistics. (A translation is available in a limited editi on : The Lift and Death of Religious Orders [Washington , 1983]). Dom Robert Lemoine, L'epoque moderne (/563-1789): Le monde des religieux (Paris, 1976), looks at the orders more from a canonical perspective; John W. O'Malley, 'Priesthood, Ministry, and Religiou s Life: Some Histori cal and Historiographical Conside rations', Theological Studies, 49 (1988) : 223-57 (reprinted in idem, Tradition and Transition: H istorical Perspectives on I-fltican II (Wilmington, 1989), and Emm anuele Boag a, 'Aspetti e problemi degli ordini e congregazioni religiose nei secoli XVII e XVII', in Problemi di storia della Chiesa nei secoli xvii-xviii (Naples, 1982) emphasize the significance of the apostolic orientation of the new orders. A magnificent treat­ ment of the early Jesuits that locates them firmly in their historical context is John W. O'Malley, The First J esuits (Cambridge, MA, 1993). George E. Ganss (ed.) , The Constitutions ofthe Society ofJ esus (St Louis, 1970) is a richly annotated ver sion of Ignatius's Constitutions. A new Penguin edition of his writings is Joseph A. Munitz and Philip End ean (eds), St. Ignatius of Loyola: Personal Writings (New York, 1996). For the Capuchins, Cuthbert of Brighton, The Capuchins: A Contribution to the History of the Counter-Reformation , 2 vols (London, 1929; reprinted Port Washington, 1971) remains the best sUn'ey. 216 The Refashioning of Catholicism On the new women's congregations two insightful books are Elizabeth Rapl ey, The Devotes: Women and Church in Seventeenth-Century France (Montreal, 1990 ), and Ann e Conrad, Zwischen Kloster und Welt: Ursulinen und [esuitinnen in der katholischen Refonnbewegung des 16./17. [ah rhunderts (Mainz, 1991). Raimondo Creytens, 'La riforma dei monasteri femminili dop o i decreti tridentini', in Jl Conciliodi Trento e La riforma tridentina (Rome, 1965), vol. 1, pp. 45-84, outlines th e varying cano nical status of female orde rs an d congregations. Usefu l also is u s religieuses enseignantes XV1'-XX' siecles (Angers, 1981), a ser ies ofsolid art icles on various women's congregations. For Ange la Merici, see Therese Led ochowska, Angele Merici et La Compagnie de Ste-Ursule a La lumieres des documents, 2 vols (Milan/Rome , 1967). A highly significant article is Craig Harline, 'Actives and Conte mplatives: T he Female Religious of th e Low Countries before and af ter th e Council of Trent', Catholic Historical Review, 81 (1995): 54 1-67, who, by showing the number of active fem ale religious groups in the Low Count ries in the late Middl e Ages and the per sisten ce of the contemplative tradition until the end of the Old Regim e, cautions us about exaggerating either the novelty of active women religious or a decline in the attraction of the contemplative ideal in th e early modern period. See also Cha pter 6.