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Why Write the History of Ordinary People? Alfred F. Young

“It Was I Who Did It”: Women’s Role in the Founding of the Nation Carol Berkin

The American Revolution in Red and Black Gary B. Nash

Yankees with “Staves and Musick”: The First American Revolution Ray Raphael

The Middling Sort in the American Revolution Gordon S. Wood

The United States in Congress Assembled Jack N. Rakove

The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government Richard R. Beeman

An “Excess of Democracy” — Or a Shortage? The Crisis that Led to the Constitution Woody Holton

“Take This or Nothing” Pauline Maier

Phi Kappa Phi Forum has won three APEX awards for Publication Excellence and a Magnum Opus Silver Award for Best Series of Articles. The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi was founded in 1897 and became a national organization through the Board of Directors efforts of the presidents of three state universities. Its Paul J. Ferlazzo, PhD primary objective has been from the first the recogni- National President tion and encouragement of superior scholarship in Northern Arizona University Dept. of English, Box 6032 all fields of study. Good character is an essential sup- Flagstaff, AZ 86011 porting attribute for those elected to membership. The motto of the Society is philosophia krateit¯o ph¯o t¯o n, Robert B. 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______Regular Features ______Articles 2 President’s Page Paul J. Ferlazzo 11 Why Write the History of Ordinary People? 3 Forum on Education & Alfred F. Young Academics Jennifer M. Stolpa Flatt 15 “It Was I Who Did It”: Women’s Role in the Founding of the Nation 4 Forum on Business & Carol Berkin Economics Anthony J. Dukes 19 The American Revolution in Red and Black 6 Forum on Science & Gary B. Nash Technology 23 Yankees with “Staves and Musick”: The First Evelyn Tiffany-Castiglioni American Revolution 8 Forum on the Arts Ray Raphael Heidi Tolles Motzkus 27 The Middling Sort in the American Revolution 10 A Note from the Guest Gordon S. Wood Editor 31 The United States in Congress Assembled 53 Letters to the Editor Jack N. Rakove 35 The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government Richard R. Beeman ______Member Focus 39 An “Excess of Democracy” — Or a Shortage? The Crisis that Led to the Constitution 54 Phi Kappa Phi Launches New Web Site Woody Holton 55 Phi Kappa Phi Chapter News 45 “Take This or Nothing” Pauline Maier 58 Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf 59 Financial Front 60 Member News ______Book Reviews 63 In Memoriam 49 Lois Roma-Deeley’s northSight reviewed by Peter Huggins 64 Phi Kappa Phi Merchandise 49 Roland Sarti’s Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present reviewed by V. Louise Katainen 51 Mary Lang’s How to Choose The Perfect School reviewed by Terry Palardy

______Poetry 44 “Paintings” by Catherine McLaughlin President’s Page Paul J. Ferlazzo President of The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi

population, and the increasing costs Diane G. Smathers. I asked them to associated with new campus construc- explore the issues and challenges that tion and maintenance. However, some our chapter officers may face as dis- faculty members are wary of the qual- tance-education students and faculty ity of the teaching/learning experience become a greater part of their campus or are concerned about the loss of a environments. pproximately 2.3 million students face-to-face experience for their stu- What are the problems and are enrolled in distance-education dents. Nevertheless, growing numbers A complexities of which we should be programs across the United States. of students appear to value distance aware? How can we become an effec- Many of these programs are profes- education for the relief that it offers tive force in support of high quality sional-training or career-enhancement from the financial burdens of travel distance-education programs? What programs, and many of these students and campus residency. It allows them are the barriers to identifying can- are not seeking a college degree. to receive an education while main- didates from the distance-education However, many other distance-learn- taining necessary living and working branch of our campuses who may be ing students are enrolled in college arrangements that require them to worthy of membership into Phi Kappa courses and are seeking advanced remain away from a campus. Phi? degrees from accredited institutions Distance education is a growing of higher education. In fact, nearly I asked the committee to factor trend. Realistically speaking, it is not every Phi Kappa Phi institution offers into their considerations available likely to completely replace the tra- distance-education courses, and many research and current best practices in ditional classroom-learning environ- offer entire programs and degrees to the field of distance education. The ment, although some futurists have students who rarely attend classes on committee has been discussing these enjoyed making sweeping statements campus. and other questions in the context of to that effect. But two facts cannot our values and traditions as a pre- Distance-learning students enroll be ignored. First, our institutions are mier honor society. At the moment in classes, participate in lecture/dis- investing heavily in distance educa- committee members are preparing a cussion sessions, take exams, and tion through technology infrastructure document that I trust will improve submit reports, papers, and other class and faculty-development programs. our understanding of distance educa- assignments to their instructors and Second, increasing numbers of stu- tion and offer practical guidelines to to other students through a techno- dents consider it a viable option for our chapter leaders. The document logical environment. Very commonly them. must eventually be reviewed and students receive their instruction and These facts prompt me to ask this approved by the Board of Directors. exchange class materials over the Web, question: What role should Phi Kappa My expectation and hope are that the but also via cable, satellite, or closed- Phi play in this rapidly expanding committee’s work will prove beneficial circuit television, or through some field of higher education? This ques- to the future of Phi Kappa Phi. The combination of technologies. Students tion grows out of my concern that Phi document they produce will be made may participate in these courses from Kappa Phi must remain responsive available for wide distribution to the home or from a classroom located in to change in higher education and membership beginning with our trien- a nearby high school, community cen- relevant to the needs of our students nial Convention in Orlando scheduled ter, or even from a naval ship halfway and faculty. We must do these things for August 2007. around the world. A great variety of while maintaining our ideals and high locations may serve as a classroom as standards. long as they are appropriately connected. Campus residency may not be Therefore, early in my term as required or may be required only in a president I formed a committee Paul J. Ferlazzo, PhD, is a professor of very limited way. chaired by our immediate past- English at Northern Arizona University. He president, Dr. Wendell McKenzie, and Many faculty and administrators can be reached at [email protected]. made up of Phi Kappa Phi members embrace this new method of delivering from around the country who had courses as a positive response to the interest and expertise in distance edu- changing needs of our students, the cation — Yaw A. Asamoah, Catherine changing demographics of the student Clark-Eich, Marylin Musacchio, and

2 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Forum on

Jennifer M. Stolpa Flatt Teacher Retention the daily challenges that she faced, was walking back to my office one I probably would not have quit that I realized once again how universal IFriday in February after teaching my day anyway. I have a great support the struggles are of not just first-year final composition class for the day. I network of fellow teachers, includ- teachers, but all of us. Bethany men- could not help but feel completely dis- ing family members, who understand tioned that she found herself think- couraged. “Only half of the students what a bad day is like in education ing of particular students hours after had done the reading for today,” I and who can help pick me up — who school ended and wondering why they thought to myself, “and where were remind me of the delicate balance I were acting out in class, how to reach Sam and Alex? They’ve both missed must maintain between optimism and someone after he came off in-school seven classes already this semester. I realism. suspension, or what activities might don’t know if they can catch up at all, That balance is essential for my help settle down a difficult group. and they’re both such good writers.” sanity, and yet it is an incredible chal- “Did I do enough? What if I had “How should I have reacted when lenge and an emotional drain to main- approached that student differently? Lisa got upset over the C- she received tain it. On one side, I must continue to Would I have been able to reach her on her last essay? She knows that she believe that students who enroll in my or save him from failing?” These are didn’t work at the revision at all, so I classes want to learn, to succeed, to the questions that haunt us. don’t understand what she expected. better their skills, and to grow as peo- Oh, I don’t know if I can do this for ple. If I lose my optimism about their Indeed, for thousands of teach- another thirty years. I don’t know if I ability to change, grow, and improve, I ers, the balance between idealism can handle this job for even another give up on them in the same way that and realism has apparently been year! Why do I do this?” some of them have already given up upset. At the end of the 1999–2000 on themselves. school year, 287,370 teachers left I was cutting through the com- the profession (No Dream Denied, puter lab, head down, when I heard However, my optimism must be National Commission on Teaching a student call out, “Have a good tempered with a healthy dose of real- and America’s Future, http://docu- weekend!” Rachel and Liz both smiled ism: I cannot reach every student. ments.nctaf.achieve3000.com/summa- at me, and I wished them the same. For most teachers, I think that ry_report.pdf). This number does not “They both added so much to the dis- those are the hardest words to say. It include retirees or transfers to another cussion this afternoon. Thank good- is difficult to acknowledge that some school district and is typical of preced- ness they were there to help everyone individuals who cross our paths are ing and subsequent years. Thus, in understand the reading better. They not yet ready to hear what we have geographical areas where some may always come prepared.” I smiled. “I to say, not yet ready to learn what we cite a teacher shortage, the greatest guess there’s my answer. Students such have to share with them, not yet ready problem may not be a shortage of as Rachel and Liz are why I’ll come to grow or to accept their own ability qualified educators, but the retention back energized on Monday.” to grow. of qualified educators. Financially speaking, it was Many people who choose teaching Who is leaving? Using data from definitely to my benefit that I ran into as a career do so because they want surveys conducted by the National those two students on my way back to make a difference. They want to Center for Educational Statistics, to my office rather than going to the change the world. Yet the realities Robert M. Ingersoll and Thomas dean to hand in a resignation letter. of day-to-day life in the classroom M. Smith argue that “after just five Those two students’ very presence threaten that idealism. If we, as teach- years, between 40 and 50 percent of shifted the direction of my thoughts. ers, hope to remain dedicated and all beginning teachers have left the They reminded me that for every stu- effective, if we strive to maintain some profession.” (This information can be dent who tries my patience, at least of that idealism, we cannot allow found in several works by Ingersoll, one responds to my efforts and prepa- ourselves to believe that our students’ including an article he co-authored ration with his or her own astounding failures are our own. with Smith in Educational Leadership level of dedication and preparation for from May 2003 entitled “The Wrong our class meetings. My friend Bethany recently spent Solution to the Teacher Shortage.”) some time as a substitute teacher in a Unfortunately, not every teacher high school. It was her first teaching The numbers can be broken down happens to run into this type of stu- experience. Listening to her talk about in this way: with an average of 180 dent at such a key moment. Granted, (continued on page 5)

SUMMER 2006 3 Forum on

Anthony J. Dukes Tailor-Made Prices ooking online for a seat on a pricing is thus identifying segments of because they know a loyal, by defini- BScandinavian Airlines (SAS) flight consumers with different purchasing tion, is not shopping around. (Try the from Copenhagen to Madrid last sum- characteristics and setting segment- following. Get an online quote for car mer cost around $165 — if you lived specific prices. It is no different from insurance from a discount insurer, take in the United States. If you lived in the notion of price discrimination it to your traditional agent, and then Denmark, however, you would have taught in Economics 101. see the “reductions” to which you are paid $436! In other words, a Dane suddenly entitled.) This pricing strategy is nothing new paid almost three times as much as for airlines, and the story above also Necessary for segmented pricing is an American for the same European explains the now classic “Saturday- the ability to identify the customer’s flight. This price was not a one-time night stay over” criterion that airlines purchasing attributes. Showing a special offer for Americans. Rather, require to get a lower fare. Business student ID, for example, tells the SAS’s online booking system, until travelers are less inclined to stay away theater owner that the customer is recently, quoted different prices from home over the weekend than a perhaps more cash-strapped than a depending on the country of resi- vacationer is. fully employed adult patron. Readers dence entered when you logged on. reveal their enthusiasm for a particular When consumer-advocacy groups in Airlines have always been the best author by paying the high cost of a Denmark demanded an explanation, in the business at this marketing tac- hardcover version of a book rather SAS management claimed that a soft- tic because the time, date, and flight than waiting for the cheaper paper- ware glitch was to blame. route reveal a lot about the price that back edition. Price-sensitive grocery a traveler is willing to pay. However, Software defect or not, SAS’s shoppers hunt for and use coupons, through the growth of Internet tech- online booking system was perfectly leaving the hurried shopper with a nology and improved customer data- consistent with a basic tenet in mar- higher price. And an experienced car bases, many other types of firms can keting known as “segmented pricing.” salesman knows to ask showroom practice segmented pricing as well as To illustrate the notion behind seg- visitors their professions to gauge their the airlines do. Take a recent example mented pricing, consider the different ability to pay. of e-commerce giant Amazon.com’s circumstances between an American use of Internet browser cookies to This information all suggests that and a Dane booking this flight. For determine the shopping attitudes in some situations customers might the American, this flight is likely part of its customers. (Amazon.com has want to hide or modify their identity of a European vacation route, while since abandoned this practice.) If to get a better deal. For example, for the Dane, it may well be a routine you regularly visited and purchased clerks at some hotels are trained to flight for a business or work-related from Amazon.com, cookies dropped give room rates depending on whether meeting. Vacationers have flexibil- on your computer indicated that you you call for a rate or visit the lobby ity for travel dates and destinations, were a loyal buyer. Upon your next looking for a room. “Walk-ins” need while business travelers are subject purchase, you would be quoted a a room immediately, while callers can to fixed meeting or conference dates. higher price than a shopper whose simply hang up and call another hotel Flexibility allows the vacationer to be computer did not possess the “loyalty in hopes of paying a cheaper rate. more sensitive to the price of a flight cookie.” Knowing this, the next evening that than the business traveler. The distinc- you are away from home and looking tion in price sensitivity may be further This practice is indeed upsetting for lodging, try calling the hotel from exaggerated because business travelers for customers who feel that their loy- across the street and securing a rate often are reimbursed by their employ- alty should be rewarded, not exploit- before walking in. er, rather than paying directly out of ed. You might recall, for instance, the pocket as vacationers do. The implica- days when you received a calendar, Setting different prices for the tion is that, on average, a Dane values pen, or desk caddy at Christmas from same product or service may seem a flight out of Copenhagen more than your insurance agent thanking you unfair — especially if you are the one an American does. For SAS, identify- for being a long-term client. But the getting the higher price. Why should ing this difference in value — and agent’s cost of providing these rewards some people pay a higher price for pricing accordingly — is more profit- is easily covered by the exorbitant pre- the same room simply because they able than setting a single price for miums you pay as a long-term policy walked in, rather than phoned? When both types of customers. Segmented holder. Insurance agents love “loyals” businesses use segmented pricing, they

4 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 BUSINESS & ECONOMICS

understand that it may leave some (Teacher Retention continued from page 3) customers upset and feeling unjustly treated. If customers become suf- ficiently annoyed, the bad image school days in the 1999–2000 aca- administrators need guidance, sup- could harm a company more than demic year, the equivalent of almost port, and release time if they are to the increased revenue that it gets 1,600 teachers every day had a day truly help new teachers. Mentoring from segmented pricing. Coca- like I did, said “I can’t do this any cannot be simply handing off lesson Cola faced this issue several years more,” and left the profession. plans to a newcomer to the class- ago when it introduced a vending Given the amount of education room, but instead must be a carefully machine that detected the outside- and preparation that these individu- developed relationship that helps air temperature. A hot day meant a als undertook before beginning their new teachers to understand how to high value placed on a cold Coke, careers, it is unlikely that they made maintain their optimism while con- and the machine’s computer chip the decision to leave on a whim. Such fronting the daily realities of teaching. accordingly modified the price. a decision must result from a number Furthermore, experienced teachers Consumers immediately caught of complicated factors. Granted, some also need a qualified group to act as wind of the plan, and newspapers may leave for personal reasons, and a a support system; experience does not reported their outrage. Coca-Cola certain number simply may discover make all problems in the classroom quickly abandoned its plans out of that teaching is not the best profes- disappear. fear of damaging its trusted image. sion for them. However, those reasons One key to retaining qualified Unfair or not, segmented pricing do not account for such a high turn- teachers is to assist them in the daily is practiced because it is profitable. over rate among educators, particu- battle between optimism and realism, Consumers who understand the larly among those new to the field. to remind them not to take home principle, however, have counter- Those teachers who quit the pro- every student failure and not to forget strategies and should not be afraid fession usually cite as their reason not every student success. That way they to use them. If you are quoted a just pay issues, but also low adminis- can come back the next day with the price for a custom service, ask the trative support, problems with student energy to believe once again in the sales agent if it is the best he or discipline, low student motivation, possibilities for all students, to try she can do. (It may help to express and a lack of teacher input in school once again to make a difference. shock when given the quote.) decisions (No Dream Denied). These Indeed, the meek are less price-sen- cited reasons suggest that we need to sitive than the assertive. Admittedly, create a better support network for however, haggling over price can be our educators. uncomfortable in face-to-face situa- Jennifer M. Stolpa Flatt is an associate tions. Nevertheless, for residents of One possible source of such sup- professor of English at the University of Denmark purchasing flights on the port is professional mentoring pro- Wisconsin-Marinette, where she also Internet, there should be no shame grams, used by many school districts teaches Spanish. She can be reached at across the country already. However, in clicking on “United States” as [email protected]. the country of residence. to be the most effective, mentoring programs require training for the mentors. Experienced teachers and

Anthony J. Dukes is an associate professor at the School of Economics and Management, University of Aarhus in Appreciations Denmark. He holds a PhD in economics from the University of Pittsburgh and A big thanks and farewell to the second half of conducts research concerning the eco- our current Forum columnists: Jennifer Stolpa Flatt, nomics of advertising, marketing, and commercial media. Anthony J. Dukes, Evelyn Tiffany-Castiglioni, and Heidi Tolles Motzkus. We greatly appreciate your fine efforts these past three years. And thank you to Xiangrong Liu and Lisa Mazzone, our two professional writing practicum students this past spring semester. Their help was greatly appreciated.

SUMMER 2006 5 Forum on

Evelyn Tiffany-Castiglioni The World in a Culture Dish

[For this column, which is my last, Dr. P: I’ll grant you that Delphi was eminent neurobiologist Gordon Phi Kappa Phi correspondent Ethel not accurate; nevertheless, Hellenic Shepard. Cetera interviewed Dr. Olivia Pate, a culture was greatly influenced by ETC: You could call it a cultural revo- professor of anatomy and neurosci- oracles. My point is that some lution. ence. — ET-C] discoveries made with in vitro experimental systems have had Dr. P: That was bad, but I’ll let it pass. ETC: Dr. Pate, a lot of discussion the power of oracles. They have This work was revolutionary. It has taken place in the press about changed the course of neurosci- was a breakthrough that set neuro- in vitro biology, such as in vitro ence or significantly speeded it up. biology on the right track. fertilization and in vitro testing Also, it is worth emphasizing that to reduce or replace testing in ETC: Well, what happened next? science (unlike oracles) has a good animals. Could you please tell us record for accuracy. Dr. P: Oddly enough, Harrison never about this? To begin with, what used tissue culture again, though does “in vitro” mean? ETC: Could you give me an example? he went on to make many impor- Dr. P: In vitro is Latin for “in glass.” Dr. P: Surely. Let’s go back a hun- tant contributions to embryology, It refers to experiments or tech- dred years. Neuroscientists were the study of development. It was niques done in an artificial envi- trying to explain how neurons, many years before scientists picked ronment outside of the living the primary computational units up on the value of cell and tissue organism or cell. Experiments in the nervous system, develop culture for other experimental done in a whole organism, such long extensions called axons to uses. as a mouse, are called “in vivo” establish connections with other ETC: I guess you could say that dur- experiments. neurons. Santiago Ramón y Cajal ing that time developmental biolo- proposed in 1890 that the imma- ETC: What types of in vitro systems gists lacked culture. ture neuronal cell body extends are commonly used in your field, an axon that elongates freely. A Dr. P: How many more of those do neuroscience? It would seem dif- competing hypothesis held that the you have? ficult to study the brain outside of axon formed from the fusion of the living organism. ETC: How many of what? elements produced by other cells Dr. P: Both dispersed cells and struc- and that it later joined the neuro- Dr. P: Nerd puns. turally intact tissues can be cul- nal cell body. With the techniques ETC: Um, none…. Well, one. tured from the brain, as well as of the time, it was impossible to from other organs. They are called, answer this fundamental ques- Dr. P: I can hardly wait. To continue, respectively, cell culture and tissue tion. One could only look at dead however, on the value of tissue cul- culture. My opinion is that the tissues under the microscope, as ture, I’ll give you another example. history of neuroscience has been Cajal did, and try to piece together Some fifty years after Harrison’s punctuated by oracular disclosures their living activities. work, three investigators discov- from in vitro systems. ered a protein that came to be ETC: How did an in vitro model called nerve growth factor. This ETC: That is a rather bold claim, isn’t answer this question? work became the paradigm for the it? Dr. P: Well, in 1907, Ross G. Harrison discovery of other growth factors. Dr. P: Not at all. The ancient Greeks at Johns Hopkins University Growth factors help axons find consulted oracles to guide their published a stunning paper that their way to their targets during decisions. They consulted the ora- was the birth of tissue culture embryonic development. When we cle at Delphi, for instance, before (Anatomical Record 1:116). He finally understand how axons are undertaking wars and founding took a piece of living embryonic guided to their targets, it may be new colonies. These oracular nervous tissue from a frog tadpole possible to cure spinal cord inju- disclosures therefore decided the and observed it for several days ries, strokes, brain damage from course of subsequent events. under a microscope. He watched trauma, and the like. It is the neu- axons grow out from cell bodies, roscientist’s dream. Imagine how ETC: But didn’t the oracle at Delphi thus proving Cajal’s hypothesis. immensely the quality of human often mislead the listener? Croesus This work has been hailed as “one life would improve. But I digress. of Lydia followed its ambiguous of the most revolutionary results Where was I? advice and lost his empire. in experimental biology” by the

6 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

ETC: You were going to explain how study the functions of each differ- ETC: So cell culture systems have the in vitro systems were key to the ent cell type in the body. potential to identify chemicals that discovery of nerve growth factor. should undergo further testing, ETC: OK. So if you could isolate three and, in so doing, reduce animal Dr. P: Thank you. To continue, the clarinet players, you could study use? three investigators, Rita Levi- their playing more closely than if Montalcini, Victor Hamburger, they were in the band. That makes Dr. P: Yes. Those are two of the goals. and Stanley Cohen, used a little sense. But why are they young Effective in vitro screens also aggregate of neurons cultured boys instead of college students? would increase the numbers of from chick embryo as a bioas- chemicals that could be screened. Dr. P: To illustrate that cells in culture say to detect the unknown and What we lack is a battery of com- tend to be immature. Older cells elusive nerve-growth factor. Levi- mon core endpoints that we can are much harder to culture. Also, Montalcini and Cohen won the measure in cell cultures. These the immature cells may not be as Nobel Prize for this work in 1986. endpoints must accurately detect practiced or proficient as their Tellingly, Dr. Levi-Montalcini the neurotoxic chemicals without older counterparts. Cells in culture published her Nobel Laureate missing any of them and must are often of tumor origin and have address in In Vitro Cellular and detect subtle abnormalities in cell lost some normal properties. Developmental Biology, a journal function, not just cell death. In a dedicated to cell and tissue culture, ETC: Another difference is that the human, one can measure a host of rather than in a neuroscience jour- three boys have no drum major diagnostic endpoints in an appar- nal. conducting and no other instru- ently healthy person to determine ments to help them come in at the underlying illness. One example is ETC: You have made a strong case for right time in the music. I used to blood pressure. We need analogous the influence of in vitro systems in play glockenspiel in the band, you endpoints in cell cultures. We are neuroscience. To broaden the topic see. still working independently in labs a bit, may we return to my initial around the world, with no clear comment about in vitro testing to Dr. P: Exactly. That astute observa- consensus on the best battery of reduce or replace testing in ani- tion makes up for one of your tests to use. mals? I know that there are both bad puns. In cell culture one loses ethical and economic pressures important tissue context, such as ETC: I see. So you have no cultural to reduce the numbers of animals interactions with other cells and norms? used for biomedical experimenta- control by hormones and the ner- Dr. P: I was waiting for that. Nerd tion and testing. Can in vitro sys- vous system. Still, being able to pun number three. We have no tems be used instead of animals? study the clarinets in isolation has standardized tests that can identify significant scientific value. One Dr. P: Let me begin to answer that sublethal neurotoxic substances at can directly observe them and see with a metaphor. I have been exposure levels that are relevant to how they respond to experimen- working on this metaphor for humans. We are working toward tal changes in the environment. some time, so please attend closely. those. I am confident that very Would certain environmental stim- sensitive screening systems for cel- ETC: Ready. uli impair clarinet performance? lular neurotoxicity will be devised Dr. P: All right. I am going to show ETC: That brings us to toxicity test- soon. you two photos. What do you see? ing. Is it useful and meaningful ETC: You would indeed be a cultural to study toxic substances in cell ETC: The first seems to be a very hero if you found such a system. culture? Can culture predict which large marching band on a football Dr. Pate, thank you very much for chemicals may be harmful to field. I take it the band is from your time. human health? your university? Dr. P: You are quite welcome. Dr. P: Cell cultures are not good pre- Dr. P: Correct. And the second? dictors as yet. However, they are ETC: The second shows a grainy very useful for discovering under- black-and-white image of three lying mechanisms of toxicity at the small boys playing clarinets. cellular level. This capacity should Evelyn Tiffany-Castiglioni, PhD, is associ- allow us to refine screening meth- ate dean for Undergraduate Education Dr. P: Yes. The Aggie Marching Band ods for identifying potential toxic and head of the Department of Integrative is the whole animal, such as the substances, such as workplace whole rat or human. The three Biosciences, College of Veterinary chemicals, food contaminants, boys are cell culture. Suppose you Medicine, Texas A&M University. She and the like. Tens of thousands of were a musicologist required to conducts research on the neurotoxicity of chemicals in the environment need write down accurately all the notes environmental contaminants. She recently to be tested for possible toxicity to that each member of the band edited In Vitro Neurotoxicology: Principles the developing or aging nervous played and explain how the instru- system. Testing them under current and Challenges (Humana Press, 2004). ment produced its sound. That guidelines in animals is not feasible would be like a biologist trying to and some would argue not ethical.

SUMMER 2006 7 Forum on

Heidi Tolles Motzkus The Stories We Tell: Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake

rench philosopher Michel Foucault sial, if not subversive, due in part to vicious. The Prince and The Swan F(1926–1984) had a keen inter- his decision to change the all-female dance an athletic and emotional duet, est in the principles of ordering and corps de ballet that normally dances a physical expression of the dangers categories. He examined documents the roles of the swans, to an all-male of forbidden love. The Prince’s life has of institutions from the late sixteenth corps. Bourne explains that, “By using been changed. Something new in him century through the nineteenth cen- men, you are wiping away all those has been awakened. tury. Foucault took note of the ways mental pictures in the audience’s mind In the next act, The Queen holds in which institutions gave birth to and freeing up their imagination, a royal ball. Bourne has stated of his new ways of thinking and how those ready to experience something new.” work, “I use humor for comic relief, ways of thinking worked themselves There are many “new” things in but once the audience is relieved, I incrementally into ideology. For Bourne’s ballet, including a love story lead them into deeper, darker areas.” example, the notion of what condi- that shifts to the love between a prince This act illustrates that method per- tions are “sick” and what conditions and a male swan. fectly. After events at the ball that are “healthy” has changed throughout This ballet emphasizes the strength reflect the emotions of love, jealousy, history. Among many other things, and the sometimes violent nature of and betrayal, The Prince is confined, Foucault observed that homosexual- the swans. Bourne explains, “The idea sedated, and put into the care of doc- ity did not exist as a category until of a male swan makes complete sense tors and nurses. He is considered ill. the nineteenth century. Each time new to me. The strength, the beauty, the The lovers die. After their deaths, The categories are created, our understand- enormous wingspan of these creatures Swan appears, cradling The Prince ing of the world changes. The task of suggest to me the musculature of a and taking him on a journey, leading “naturalizing” these categories, mak- male dancer. . . .” Bourne’s new ver- to the bittersweet closing. ing them seem normal or abnormal, sion of the Swan Lake story differs falls to the dominant social group. As stated before, we are the sto- from the original ballet, though the The dominant social group ensures ries that we tell. Stories shape our themes remain the same. This ver- that the school curriculum, the bed- cultural expectations and our percep- sion is set somewhere between 1950 time stories, the mass media, and so tions about ourselves. The stories that and the present and tells of a young on reflect its own ideology. Through we tell children firmly fix notions of English prince who is in conflict with repetition, these categories become the “normal” into their consciousness. himself. His mother, The Queen, is an social norms. In other words, we are These stories routinely feature male- unloving mother and is not attentive the stories that we tell. female romances, embedding in young to The Prince’s emotional needs. The minds the idea that romantic love can British choreographer and direc- Prince becomes enamored of a woman exist only in that configuration. For tor Matthew Bourne imagined a new with behavioral characteristics that the last ten years, a different story has story. Ten years after its first per- remind one of Sarah Ferguson, former been told. In this Swan Lake, a young formance, Matthew Bourne’s Swan Duchess of York (and there are many prince falls in love with a male swan. Lake is touring North America once other royal-family references). They The image of the swan gently cradling again, thrilling audiences with its all attend a ballet, a side-splittingly the prince evokes the universal nature vibrant energy, biting wit, and dra- funny send-up of traditional ballet, at of the need to be loved. Bourne states, matic power. Originating in England, which The Girlfriend behaves abomi- “The need to be held — it’s so simple Matthew Bourne’s production reimag- nably, and The Queen is mortified. and so universal — and everyone can ines Tchaikovsky’s story of the hunter The Prince follows The Girlfriend identify with it.” The men, women, who falls in love with a female swan. to a seedy disco, rife with amusing and children who made up the capac- Tchaikovsky’s inspiration for the story references to the 1960s and 1970s. ity crowd at the Ahmanson Theatre is unknown, but stories of women After a drunken brawl, the rejected certainly did. As this ballet and other transforming into swans are told in and despairing Prince staggers out new stories enter the cultural con- many cultures, dating back hundreds into the moonlit night. As he is about sciousness, we are able to easily imag- of years. to drown himself in a lake, he meets ine a world in which romantic love is a swan. That is, he meets The Swan A decade ago, Matthew Bourne’s not a category exclusively for couples and the flock of swans — all strong, Swan Lake was viewed as controver- composed of a man and a woman. bare-chested, beautiful, and sometimes

8 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 THE ARTS

The audience at the Ahmanson in 2006 included children and every type of adult imaginable. Each person was standing and cheering at the curtain call. After ten years of telling, the story seems to be working its way into the cultural consciousness of a very wide audience. Since the American premiere of Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake in Los Angeles, the city has had the privilege of seeing more of Bourne’s work than any other American city. The Ahmanson Theatre audiences have seen his Swan Lake, Cinderella, The Car Man, Nutcracker!, and Play Without Words.

A distinctive feature of all these Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake works is the narrative line. The plots of his ballets are clear and do not require Photos by Bill Cooper extensive reading of program notes to comprehend. In fact, part of the audi- tion process for Bourne’s company, New Adventures, includes character improvisation to determine acting ability. His performers are dancers who can act or actors who can dance. This dual talent brings an added dimension to the dance aspects of Bourne’s ballets, telling the story more directly to the audience, who may or may not be well versed in the language of dance. Matthew Bourne can count among his many accomplishments two Tony Awards, five Olivier Awards, The Evening Standard Award, and an OBE. His latest production, Edward Scissorhands, is currently touring the United Kingdom. Matthew Bourne seems to have achieved his goal of “creating a wider audience for dance.” Perhaps more importantly, he has told a new story that challenges the old stories which we tell. And this, as happens throughout history, may bring a new understanding of the world.

Member Benefits Heidi Tolles Motzkus is a PhD candidate Check out the discounts and privileges you get from these Phi Kappa Phi strategic partners just for being an active member: in cultural studies at Claremont Graduate University. She teaches in Los Angeles and Dell Computers Barnes&Noble.com has held the positions of dramaturge and Enterprise Rent-A-Car The Princeton Review theatre critic. SunTrust Bank Becker CPA Review Liberty Mutual Insurance WOMEN FOR HIRE Network

Just go to PhiKappaPhi.org and log on to the secure members-only site, then click on Member Benefits for the complete details.

SUMMER 2006 9 Ray Raphael

our nation’s existence, was that gov- other figures who have not received We, the People ernment should be rooted firmly in the the attention that is their due. will of the people, but when we say n Revolutionary days, when people Finally, Woody Holton and that we owe our existence to a hand- objected to decisions made in offi- Pauline Maier extend the notion of I ful of very important men, we lose cial chambers, they decided things on “founders” to include some of those this key component of our national their own “out-of-doors” or “out-of- who actually opposed the 1787 identity. chambers,” as they said at the time. Constitution. Holton contends that Taverns, churches, village greens — In this issue of the Forum, nine the framers wanted to limit popular these became the venues of revolution. leading historians of the Revolutionary participation in a new national gov- Gathering by liberty poles and liberty Era have combined to present a broad ernment because a democratic spirit trees in the open air, a generation of view of our nation’s founders, both had become widespread in the states; political activists laid the groundwork insiders and outsiders. In the first these true democrats, he feels, should for a new nation. article, Alfred Young establishes the be acknowledged. Maier contends importance of including ordinary that opponents of the Constitution, In recent years, many scholars people within our nation’s founding the so-called Antifederalists, spoke out have left chambers behind as well, fol- narrative. Carol Berkin then makes a against the new plan of government lowing these rambunctious rebels and case for treating women as founders, because it lacked adequate protections telling their stories. The most widely and Gary Nash nominates African against possible abuses of power, not selling history writers, on the other Americans and Native Americans because they opposed a federal gov- hand, have remained inside, standing for inclusion as well. Because these ernment per se. We have these people shoulder to shoulder with those they various constituencies traditionally to thank, she says, for our Bill of portray as history’s leading characters, appear as mere appendages, if at all, Rights. whom they designate as “found- we thought it appropriate to give them ers.” Joseph Ellis, in his best-selling All of these groups played sig- more prominent billing. Founding Brothers, presents their case: nificant roles in founding the United the “central players in the drama,” he From there, we start a gradual States of America and in establishing claims, were “the political leaders at progression up the social and politi- national ideals such as freedom and the center of the national story who cal ladder. In my contribution, I equality. If we take the words “we, wielded power.” show how ordinary folks from rural the people” seriously, we must include Massachusetts — not oppressed ten- each of their stories in the master nar- So where was the real action, ants, but solid citizens who owned rative of our national origins. indoors or out? Were the “found- their own land — overthrew British ers” of our nation the men in dress Revolutionary Era Americans authority and moved toward inde- suits and powdered wigs who signed believed in popular sovereignty, the pendence well before Lexington the Declaration of Independence and notion that all government is rooted and Concord or the Congressional drafted the Constitution, or were they in the will of the people. Creating a Declaration of Independence. Gordon the farmers in frocks and mud-caked new nation based on that principle Wood next discusses the critical role boots who defied British authority, was the supreme achievement of their of the “middling sorts,” an incipi- the women who kept the troubled generation. Our founders, however, ent middle class formed of artisans, economy afloat, and the soldiers with could not agree on who “the people” mechanics, shopkeepers, and the like. bare feet and torn shirts who bested actually were. Today, by consensus, the Redcoated Regulars? Moving inside chambers, Jack “the people” means everyone, and Rakove outlines the history of our the telling of our history, as evidenced The inside story is easier to tell. nation’s first governing body, the in the articles that follow, reflects the There, the drama is intimate, the cast Continental Congress, and Richard evolution of our values. of celebrities small, and their records Beeman discusses the group tradition- and accounts voluminous. If left to ally labeled as “founders” — delegates Guest Editor Ray Raphael may be reached stand on its own, however, this nar- to the Constitutional Convention of rative has a serious shortcoming. through his Web site, rayraphael.com. 1787. Even here, instead of focusing The basic message of the American exclusively on well-known personali- Revolution, and the very reason for ties, Rakove and Beeman introduce

10 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Martin remembered the army in the terrible winter of 1777, when soldiers were “not only shirtless and Joseph Plumb Martin was a Connecticut farm barefoot but destitute of all other clothing, especially boy who enlisted in the Continental Army in 1777 blankets.” And he remembered joining his fellow at the age of sixteen and served until 1783, the end soldiers, who were “exasperated beyond endur- of the Revolutionary War. In 1830, when he was ance” by such conditions and threatened mutiny seventy, Martin published his memoir, A Narrative in 1780. To Martin, his comrades in arms were “a of the Adventures, Dangers and Sufferings of a family of brothers,” and a half-century after the Revolutionary Soldier, which has to be the best war he was still bitter at their plight. When soldiers extant autobiography for a rank-and-file soldier: pun- enlisted, he wrote, “they were promised a hundred gent, humorous, and always irreverent. After describ- acres of land . . .. When the country had drained the ing a particularly hard-fought battle, Martin wrote, last drop of blood it could screw out of the poor “but there has been little notice taken of it, the reason soldiers, they were turned adrift like old worn-out for which is, there was no Washington, Putnam, or horses, and nothing said about land to pasture them Wayne there. Had there been the affair would have upon . . .. Such things ought not to be.” been extolled to the skies.” He was naming three of After the war, Martin, the landless veteran, the most famous generals of the war: Israel Putnam, “squatted” on land on the Maine frontier that had Anthony Wayne, and, of course, Commander-in- been confiscated from Loyalists and subsequently Chief George Washington, under whom he had bought by General Henry Knox, one of the “Great served from Valley Forge to Yorktown. “Great men Proprietors” who acquired legal title to hundreds of get great praise; little men, nothing,” wrote Martin. thousands of acres for a pittance. Together with other “What could officers do without such men? Nothing settlers in Maine, Martin fought for years for the at all. Alexander never could have conquered the right to the land that he farmed. The Liberty Men, world without private soldiers.” as they called themselves, asked: “Who can have bet-

SUMMER 2006 11 WHY WRITE THE HISTORY OF ORDINARY PEOPLE? ter rights to the land than we who have fought for Martin was one of more than five hundred it, subdued it & made it valuable?” In 1801, settlers Revolutionary War soldiers who kept diaries, wrote won the right to buy the land that they farmed, but memoirs, or collaborated with others in “as told to” Martin was never able to pay for his and eventually accounts. Collective activity by ordinary people was lost it. In 1818, when he applied for a pension, he the hallmark of the American Revolution: the Sons of testified: “I have no real or personal estate, nor any Liberty, Committees of Correspondence, Committees income whatever . . .. I am a laborer, and by reason of of Inspection, Committees of Safety, town meetings, my age and infirmity, I am unable to work. My wife caucuses, county conventions, militia organizations. is sickly and rheumatic. I have five children . . .. With- And for these there are bodies of scattered docu- out my pension I am unable to support myself and ments: petitions, resolutions, newspaper accounts, my family.” Martin eked out a living and died in speeches, court testimony, legal records. If, over the 1850. The epitaph on his gravestone reads: “A past half-century, a fraction of the resources that have Soldier of the Revolution.” poured into the projects publishing the papers of the “Founding Fathers” had gone into assembling the ORDINARY SOLDIERS full record of popular participation, we might have a more proportionate sense of the role of ordinary people in the creation of our nation. artin’s poignant life story opens a window to a Mside of the American Revolution almost totally lost in the master narrative of our nation’s founding, WHY WRITE THIS HISTORY? so often told as a success story led by “great men.” Martin was not unusual, save for his ability as a hy write the history of ordinary people in the writer. He was one of more than one hundred thou- WAmerican Revolution? I use ordinary people sand young men, most of them landless, who saw not as the opposite of extraordinary but in contrast military service in the Continental Army during the to elites, the people in a society with wealth and seven years of war. Another one hundred thousand status who also hold political power. I would prefer served in the militia, and several tens of thousands “common people” which, unlike “ordinary people,” served at sea. He was among the tens of thousands was much used at the time, except that when used of veterans who applied for a pension in 1818 for today it too often smacks of condescension. Actually, veterans “in reduced circumstances.” And he was like the most frequently used term at the time was simply several thousand farmers in other states who engaged “the people,” which emerged as part of the chang- in struggles to acquire or hold on to land. Many ing language of the Revolution, as did words such would have agreed with Herman Husband, a leader as “mechanic” and “democratic.” In Boston, leaders of a backcountry farmer rebellion in North Carolina called meetings of “the whole body of the people” defeated in the 1770s and in another that was put when they wanted to broaden participation at public down in western Pennsylvania in the 1790s: “In rallies beyond those eligible to vote in official town Every Revolution, the People at Large are called upon meetings. John Adams referred to “the whole peo- to assist true Liberty,” but when “the foreign oppres- ple,” others to “the people at large.” And, of course, sor is thrown off, learned and designing men” assume the Declaration of Independence spoke of “the right power to the detriment of the “laboring people.” [For of the people to alter or abolish” governments that more on Herman Husband, see Woody Holton’s “An persistently violated their rights. At the Constitutional “Excess of Democracy” — Or a Shortage? The Crisis Convention the framers referred frequently to the that Led to the Constitution” on page 39 — Ed.] “genius of the people.” As such words testify, ordinary people in the Such common usage alone should make us won- Revolutionary era were far from inarticulate. Quite der, do we even have to ask: why include “ordinary the contrary, they could be eloquent, as were Martin people” as founders of our nation? They were actors and Husband. As the participant-historian Dr. David and players; they made history happen, as individuals Ramsay of South Carolina wrote in 1789, “When and especially collectively. They were hardly marginal the war began, the Americans were a mass of hus- or peripheral — indeed, they were often indispensable bandmen [farmers], merchants, mechanics and — but they did not receive the recognition that they fishermen, but the necessities of the country gave a sought at the time or since. Much more is at stake spring to the active powers of the inhabitants and set than giving credit, as important as that is, or express- them on thinking, speaking, and acting in a line far ing compassion. The simple truth is that we cannot beyond that to which they had been accustomed . . . . understand the American Revolution and the found- It seemed as if the war not only required but created ing of our nation without taking into account the talents.” part played by “the people.”

12 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 WHY WRITE THE HISTORY OF ORDINARY PEOPLE?

THE INFLUENCE OF ORDINARY PEOPLE the great question of independence . . . by discussing it in newspapers and pamphlets, by debating it in t certain times in history, ordinary people have assemblies, conventions, committees of safety and Ahad enough influence to shape the outcome of inspection, in town and county meetings as well as events. Take a very famous moment in July 1776, in private conversations, so that the whole people in which many Americans today feel is familiar: the every colony of the thirteen, have now adopted it as day when delegates from the thirteen colonies to their own.” But Trumbull portrayed the men within the Continental Congress adopted a Declaration of the Pennsylvania State House as if they alone were Independence. Whose moment was it? responsible for the decision. In reality, “the whole people” were far ahead of Trumbull’s “eminent Today, we feel we know that moment from vis- statesmen.” iting the faithfully restored Independence Hall in Philadelphia or from looking at John Trumbull’s The Constitution, our other founding document, famous painting of the delegates, displayed in the was written under very different circumstances, but rotunda of the United States Capitol and endlessly even so, political decisions by the delegates to the reproduced. The painting, frequently misnamed “The Constitutional Convention can be explained only Signing of the Declaration of Independence,” repre- by taking into account the movements from below. sents a “top-down” version of the event. You would Delegates were intensely aware that they were living never know from the painting that the well-dressed through a time of tumult, internal rebellions, demo- gentlemen whom Trumbull portrayed — the “men cratic upheavals, and popular awakenings that chal- in suits” of that day — had been forced to aban- lenged the status quo. James Madison, James Wilson, don reconciliation and declare independence by a and the other framers make sense not as “geniuses” groundswell of opinion expressed “out of doors” by who wrought “a miracle in Philadelphia” as they are the “plough joggers” of the countryside, who wore often depicted, but as astute political leaders who homespun, and the mechanics of the cities, known knew that they had to accommodate “the genius of as “leather apron men.” For six months, people had the people,” a phrase which meant their values or been debating options for the country and for them- spirit. As George Mason, a respected Virginia del- selves as never before. In January 1776, Thomas egate, put it: “Notwithstanding the oppression & Paine’s pamphlet Common injustice experienced Sense made the case for inde- among us from democra- pendence in language that “Revisionist” has been treated cy, the genius of the peo- stirred ordinary people to a by some as a dirty word, but ple is in favor of it, and sense of their own capacity the genius of the people to effect change. “We have that is what historians do: must be consulted.” it in our power to begin the The delegates were world over again,” wrote revise interpretations of the past drawn from the elites; Paine, a former English arti- found wanting. The business of they were more well-to- san. By July, more than one do, more educated, more hundred thousand copies historians is to examine previous politically experienced had been sold, and several than the average man, times that number had read versions of history, to look at and they were far more Common Sense or had it familiar subjects from a new conservative, fearful of an read to them in army camps, “excess of democracy.” taverns, or meeting houses. vantage point or with original Yet while such democrat- In the spring of 1776, sources that have been newly ic spokesmen as Thomas while Congress dithered, at Paine, Daniel Shays, and least eighty local meetings discovered or little appreciated. Abraham Yates were not adopted resolutions instruct- present at the convention, ing their representatives to they were a distinct pres- support independence: town meetings, county con- ence. They were the ghosts of the popular movements ventions, militia companies, and in New York City of the past two decades, haunting the delegates. Paine a meeting of mechanics in “Mechanics Hall.” Nine was so popular because he was the champion not state conventions did the same. The delegates knew only of independence but also of simple democratic it; on May 20, John Adams wrote, “Every post and government based on a broad suffrage. Shays was every day rolls in upon us independence like a tor- one of several leaders of a rebellion of angry, over- rent.” On July 3, the day after Congress voted for taxed, debt-ridden farmers in western Massachusetts independence, he spelled out the process: “Time has in the 1780s that set off a tremor of alarm among been given for the whole people maturely to consider conservatives everywhere. Yates was a fiery petrel

SUMMER 2006 13 WHY WRITE THE HISTORY OF ORDINARY PEOPLE? in the New York Senate, a man who began life as Alfred F. Young is the author of The Shoemaker and a shoemaker, a foe of all “high flyers,” as he called the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution Alexander Hamilton. (Hamilton put him down as the (Beacon Press, 1999) and Masquerade: The Life and “late cobler of laws and old shoes.”) He was typical Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier of state legislators elsewhere who had “an itch for (Knopf, 2004). He elaborates on the theme of this essay paper money” (Madison’s phrase), debtor-relief laws, in Liberty Tree: Ordinary People and the American and other measures opposed by “moneyed men.” Revolution (New York University Press, 2006). He is a Senior Research Fellow at the Newberry Library, The new Constitution vested the national govern- Chicago. ment with the power to “suppress insurrections” (so much for the ghost of Daniel Shays) and erected Excerpted from the Introduction to Alfred F. specific curbs on the states to “emit” paper money Young, Liberty Tree: Ordinary People and the or pass “laws impairing the obligation of contracts” American Revolution (New York: New York (which presumably laid to rest the ghost of Abraham University Press, 2006). Used by permission. Yates). It also provided for the return to their owners of future fugitive slaves — another “ghost” that loomed large over southern slaveholders who had experienced a massive loss of runaway slaves during CALL FOR NEW COLUMNISTS the war. (George Washington, presiding officer at the Convention, lost seventeen slaves from his Mount Once again the Phi Kappa Phi Forum needs a Vernon plantation alone.) But to accomplish these few good volunteers to serve as regular columnists goals, the framers knew that they had to create a gov- for the magazine. You must be an active member ernment that could be ratified by conventions in each (have paid current annual dues or be a life mem- state, where delegates would be elected by popular ber) to be considered. We are looking for writers vote. In the big cities this meant that it had to win the for the following columns: approval of democratic-minded mechanics who had imbibed the ideas of Thomas Paine. Education and Academics Business and Economics REVISING HISTORY Science and Technology

istorians, whatever their subject, have no choice The Arts Hbut to select from among a vast array of facts Plus two new columns: to present a narrative or an analysis. This means that as new facts are discovered, the narrative or the Organizational/Personal Ethics analysis is revised. “Revisionist” has been treated by The Workplace some as a dirty word, but that is what historians do: revise interpretations of the past found wanting. The For the “Organization/Professional Ethics” business of historians is to examine previous versions column, we want to address issues of both insti- of history, to look at familiar subjects from a new tutional and personal ethics. For the “Workplace” vantage point or with original sources that have been column, we would like to have members with newly discovered or little appreciated. long-term success in the corporate world to write about issues that arise daily in the workplace. Joseph Plumb Martin, the irreverent soldier in the Continental Army, was probably correct when he Your term will be a two-year commitment wrote, “Great men get great praise; little men, noth- (three total columns). The first set of new colum- ing,” but he was unduly pessimistic when he added, nists will appear in the Winter/Spring 2007 issue. “But it was always so and always will be.” Martin would be excited to know that his memoir of 1830 Please submit a copy of your résumé and no was reprinted several times in the twentieth century more than two writing samples of reasonable and that historians use it to recover the experiences length (less than five pages) to: of rank-and-file soldiers and the meaning of the Phi Kappa Phi Forum Revolution for those who felt that its promises were 108 M. White Smith Hall unfulfilled. We can take heart in the knowledge that Mell Street one generation’s “revisionism” is often accepted as Auburn University, AL 36849-5306 the next generation’s wisdom. Apply for only one position. Deadline for sub- mitting materials is October 2, 2006. Selections will be made by November 1.

14 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 tightening trade regulations and levying new taxes. The response in the colonial legislatures was imme- n the 1770s, King George III was convinced diate: orators orated, lawyers drafted constitutional I arguments against these novel changes, and assem- that all of the problems with his colonies could be laid at the feet of “that brace of Adamses” and the blies fired off petitions demanding the repeal of legis- rebellious mobs of Massachusetts men. As it turned lation such as the Stamp Act and later the Townshend out, he was wrong — not only about the widespread Acts. The British government, which viewed the nature of American discontent and desire for inde- colonials as just that, colonials, found it easy to pendence, but also about the gender of many of his ignore the fiery rhetoric of a Patrick Henry or a John Massachusetts opponents. Abigail Adams, as much Adams. But, the Americans had another strategy that as her husband John, supported an American revolu- Parliament could not ignore: the boycott of British tion, and rebellious crowds of Massachusetts women goods. picketed the shops of merchants who broke the boycott, staged mass spinning bees to show their solidar- SUPPORTING THE BOYCOTT ity with American resistance to British taxation, and served as spies for the American army. And, after he success of this boycott depended heavily upon independence was won, women played a central role Twomen’s participation, for it was wives and in ensuring that the republic would survive. mothers who were the primary purchasers and con- Any account of the creation of the United States sumers of these goods. The determination of these must begin in the 1760s, when the great debts women to honor the boycott sent English profits amassed during the French and Indian War drove the tumbling, and this drop in profits in turn sent English British government to revamp its colonial policy by merchants rushing to their government to demand repeal.

SUMMER 2006 15 “IT WAS I WHO DID IT”

The boycott strategy politicized women’s domes- As men went off to war, women took over the tic sphere — and women with it. In New England, management of farms and shops, adding multiple hundreds of young women flocked to publicly staged new tasks to their already-existing domestic and spinning bees, taking quick lessons on what was, child-care duties. They learned on the job under the by the 1760s, almost a lost art. Wearing the home- worst of circumstances — rising inflation, growing spun that these women produced became a badge of scarcity, danger, and uncertainty. For many, the expe- honor, a sign that you were indeed a “daughter of lib- rience was oppressive; but for others, the mastery erty.” Matrons stepped out of the domestic shadows of male work roles diminished the mysteries of the and into the public arena by signing pledges to honor gendered division of labor and brought additional the boycott and publishing them in the local news- self-confidence. No better example of this growing papers. From Edenton, North Carolina, to Boston, confidence in one’s abilities exists than the exchange, Massachusetts, women vowed publicly not to drink now famous among historians of women in the tea or purchase British imports until the hated laws Revolutionary era, between a Massachusetts Loyalist were repealed. Conservative men spoke out in hor- and his wife. He had fled to safety in England; she ror at this unfeminine interest in politics, but patriot had remained behind to protect their claim to the ministers who only recently had enjoined women farm. Overwhelmed at first, she slowly found the to silence and obedience now proclaimed from the mysteries of the male-related world revealed to her. pulpit that the fate of liberty lay in the hands of “Your farm is doing well,” she wrote in the early America’s wives and mothers. months; “our farm is doing well,” she assured him later; and finally, in a shift that marked a change in SUPPORTING THE WAR EFFORT more than pronouns, she wrote, “my farm is doing well.” hen the war itself began, women Women proved resource- Wwere vital participants in every ful in devising substitutes for aspect of the struggle for independence. Valley Forge was scarce but needed supplies. Girls and young women served as spies Walnut ash replaced salt as and couriers for American generals, no stag affair; the preservative for winter risking capture as they rode through wives, mothers, and meat; recipes for homemade enemy-held territory to carry messages soaps were passed from or give warnings of enemy-troop move- sweethearts were household to household; ments. A middle-aged Quaker woman and when the traditional of Philadelphia, Lydia Darragh, saved there, gathering rum rations that were every Washington’s troops from a deadly ﬁ rewood, cooking soldier’s due could not be surprise attack in 1776; a young New found, women produced York teenager, Sybil Luddington, meals, washing the corn liquor and rye whiskey. rode through the night to muster her Standing by the side of the father’s militia troops for the defense ﬁ lthy clothing of their road, much as supporters do of neighboring Connecticut; and an husbands and sons today at marathons, bottles African American slave woman known of Gatorade or water in their as Mammy Kate planned and executed and their comrades, hands for the thirsty run- the escape of her master, Georgia’s ners, farm women ladled out future governor Stephen Heard, as he nursing the sick and liquor to the passing soldiers. languished in a British prison, awaiting the wounded. Women were present execution. in the army camps as well. Women organized massive fund- When enemy forces threat- raising operations to finance Washington’s ragtag ened rape, pillage, or even death, or when dwindling army. In Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin’s daugh- supplies of food or firewood made surviving the winter Sarah Bache and Esther DeBerdt Reed mounted ter doubtful, thousands of women gathered up their a door-to-door canvas of Philadelphia, organizing children, their pets, and their most prized possessions women volunteers into teams, dividing the city into and made their way on foot to the winter encamp- wards, and raising more than $300,000 for the con- ments of the American or British army. Valley Forge tinental soldiers. In a declaration defending the active was no stag affair; wives, mothers, and sweethearts participation of women in the war effort, Bache and were there, gathering firewood, cooking meals, wash- Reed cited biblical and ancient heroines as their mod- ing the filthy clothing of their husbands and sons and els. their comrades, nursing the sick and the wounded. Some of these “camp followers” may have been prostitutes, and some were tradeswomen, hawking

16 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 “IT WAS I WHO DID IT” alcohol and other small luxuries, but the majority she awoke to birds singing and flowers in bloom, put were ordinary women, determined to survive the war on her apron and bonnet, and married and raised a by living within the protection of the army. Generals family. The story does not end here; when Deborah begrudgingly admitted that, without these women, Sampson Gannett died, her husband sued for a wid- the army would have been dirtier, hungrier, and less ow’s pension — and got it. healthy. THE LOYAL OPPOSITION ACCIDENTAL AND DELIBERATE SOLDIERS ot all women flocked to the patriot side, of ften, especially in the forts, camp followers Ncourse, and we should remember that the ide- Obecame soldiers — for when husbands fell beside als of the Revolution — freedom, liberty, indepen- the cannons that they manned, wounded or killed by dence — meant very different things to African the enemy, wives took up their posts, loading and fir- American slave women or to Native American ing over the fortress walls. Women such as Margaret women. Indeed, the Revolution was not just one Corbin of New York were wounded in action and struggle but was many struggles: for the slaves of taken prisoner by the British. After the war, Corbin patriot leaders, the British army held out the promise applied for a veteran’s pension — and received it. of freedom. Thousands of African American women Although many other women veterans of war sought risked recapture or death to join the British as they pensions, few received them from the financially marched through the South. And, when New York struggling Continental or Confederation Congresses. and Charleston were evacuated at the end of the war, those women who had survived traveled to If some camp followers became accidental soldiers, Canada to start their lives anew. Most Indian women, other women intentionally sought combat. Historians like most Indian men, preferred a British victory to cannot tally the number of women and girls who dis- American independence, for the white colonists were guised themselves as men and enlisted in the military, notoriously land-hungry, and their desire to seize for, if they were successful, they passed unnoticed; if Indian lands seemed insatiable. they failed, many officers did not record their names or their punishments. Still, we know that women who Even among the white population, women whose were discovered in their disguises were often treated loyalties were to their husbands meant loyalty to the harshly. An imposter could be led out of camp behind King. For thousands of these women, American victo- a wagon, her hands tied, her back bleeding from the ry meant exile from their homes; separation from sis- lash, with the drum and fifers playing a tune that they ters, brothers, and parents; and the need to adjust to called “the whore’s march.” a new, more Spartan life in Nova Scotia or Halifax. “Nova Scarcity” they called their new home, and not Perhaps the most celebrated of these female a few of these women broke down and cried as the soldiers came from Massachusetts. Her name was British transport ships sailed away. Nevertheless, as Deborah Sampson, but her fellow soldiers knew her did their patriot counterparts, these women did their as Private Robert Shirtliffe. Deborah’s motives tell best to reestablish what one of our twentieth-century us much about the status of women in eighteenth- presidents called “normalcy,” transforming a strange century New England. Poor and without a dowry, land into a new home. she spent her years before the war working for small wages as a domestic servant. When she learned that recruiting agents were offering a generous bounty AFTER THE WAR to able-bodied men who agreed to wear a uniform, Deborah made up her mind. Tall and strong, she hen independence was won and a new republic donned a man’s shirt and trousers and enlisted in the Westablished, few radical changes happened in army. As Private Robert Shirtliffe, she served honor- women’s legal and political status. Married women ably for a year and a half, seeing battle and being continued to lose their legal autonomy, and gender wounded twice. Her masquerade, as historian Alfred continued to determine who was eligible for suffrage Young aptly called it, ended when a camp fever — and who was not. Yet, in the decades after the led a doctor to closely examine the young private. war, American intellectuals and reformers did debate Sampson’s military superiors were so impressed by what we call “the woman question.” Brilliant essay- her years of service that they refused to dishonorably ists such as Judith Sargent Murray of Massachusetts discharge her; she left, honorably, and was awarded established the arguments for women’s intellectual a veteran’s pension. For several years, Deborah con- and moral equality that would be put forward again tinued to present herself as a man, aware that field in the 1830s and 1840s by reformers such as the hands earned more than domestic helpers. Then, as Grimke sisters and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The pre- she tells us in her autobiography, one spring morning Revolutionary notions that women were incapable of

SUMMER 2006 17 “IT WAS I WHO DID IT” rational thought or moral judgment were abandoned by a generation whose leading intellectuals not only embraced the Enlightenment but also acknowledged the political commitments that American women patriots had made. Despite the failure of the revolutionary generation to grant women full citizenship, the early Republic did witness significant changes in gender ideology. Leaders such as John Adams and Benjamin Rush believed that the republican experiment could endure only if each succeeding generation embraced the principles of representative government and exhibited the patriotism needed to defend those principles. They called upon women to ensure the continuance of republican ideals, asking them to school their sons in patriotism and to instill public virtue in the next generation of men. Thus, women’s domestic sphere now included a critical civic component. But if women were to educate their sons properly, they must themselves be educated. Therefore, the 1780s and 1790s saw an explosion of young ladies academies, where women received rigorous and formal education in subjects including history and political philosophy. The original purpose of women’s formal education may have been to prepare them to educate their sons, but it had unexpected consequences; it marked the beginnings of a gender revolution that these eighteenth-century Americans never imagined. Protesters, propagandists, boycotters, fundrais- ers, spinners, surrogate farmers and shopkeepers, nurses and washerwomen, spies, couriers, soldiers, bold slaves and brilliant intellectuals — the canvas of the revolution and the early republic is filled with female figures, patriots and loyalists, participants in and acute observers of the political, military, and diplomatic history being made not simply around them, but by them. As the British army evacuated New York, a soldier was heard to comment that, even if the King’s soldiers defeated America’s men, they could never conquer American women. Perhaps King George should have paid closer attention to the Daughters of Liberty who helped found a new nation.

Carol Berkin is a professor of history at Baruch College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, where she teaches colonial, early national, and women’s history. She is the author of A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution (Harcourt, 2002) and Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (2005), now out as a Vintage paperback. She is currently working on a book on women of the Civil War. Copyright Matthew Henry Hall. Reprinted by permission. www.matthewhenryhall.com

18 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 AGRIPPA HULL

istorians customarily portray the grippa Hull was a free-born black New H Englander who enlisted in the Continental Army American Revolution as an epic struggle for inde- A pendence fought by several million outnumbered but at age eighteen. He served as an orderly for the stalwart white colonists against a mighty England. Massachusetts general John Paterson and then for the But the battle for “unalienable rights” also involved Polish military engineer Tadeuz Kosciuszko. For six tens of thousands of African Americans and Native years and two months he was present at many of the Americans residing in the British colonies of North major battles of the Revolution, much longer than America. Among the many remarkable freedom fight- most soldiers. One of about five thousand free black ers whose memories have been lost in the fog of our men — perhaps two-thirds of all free black men of historical amnesia were Agrippa Hull, Thomas Peters, fighting age — who fought for “the glorious cause,” Joseph Brant, and Nancy Ward. Hull and Ward strug- Hull personified these men’s desire to prove their gled on the American side, Peters and Brant on the mettle on the battlefield with hopes that their service British side. Yet all four pursued, at the most basic would help dissolve white hostility against those with level, the same things: life, liberty, and the pursuit of dark skin. And they hoped also that petitions from happiness. Collectively these four figures tell us about enslaved blacks in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the little-known American Revolution of those who other states to end slavery would fall on receptive were red and black. ears of white colonists, who were complaining that mother England was trying to enslave them. “We are

SUMMER 2006 19 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION IN RED AND BLACK the creatures of that God, who made of one blood, For the rest of the war, Peters fought with the and kindred, all the nations of the Earth,” went one British-officered Black Guides and Pioneers. For every petition. Therefore, “there is nothing that leads us to Agrippa Hull fighting on the American side, there a belief . . . that we are any more obliged to serve them were perhaps twenty such as Thomas Peters who [our masters] than they us, and . . . can never be con- fought alongside the British. Hull and Peters did not vinced that we are made to be slaves.” differ in the principles for which they risked their lives; Hull also encountered hundreds of For every Agrippa they differed only in the black men from the northern colonies road that they chose in fight- who had been released from slavery to Hull ﬁ ghting on the ing for freedom and equality. serve in Washington’s manpower-starved army. Most notable was Rhode Island’s American side, there After the war, First Regiment, which in 1778 recruited were perhaps twenty Agrippa Hull returned to about two hundred slaves and a score Stockbridge, in western of Native Americans whose masters such as Thomas Massachusetts, but Thomas freed them (with compensation from the Peters had no such option. state’s treasury) to reform the remnants Peters who fought Wounded twice and promot- of a white regiment close to disintegra- alongside the British. ed to sergeant, Peters and his tion. These were the men whom the wife Sally, along with two first African American historians in Hull and Peters did children, were scheduled for the mid-nineteenth century heralded as evacuation from New York the “Colored Patriots of the American not differ in the City by the British along Revolution.” principles for which with several thousand other African Americans who had they risked their lives; THOMAS PETERS joined the British during the course of the long war. they differed only in Others were being evacu- uch more representative of the ated from Charleston, South pursuit of unalienable rights the road that they M Carolina, and Savannah, among African Americans was Thomas chose in ﬁ ghting for Georgia. Peters, one of nearly half a million slaves in North America on the eve of the freedom and equality. But where would Revolution. Captured in about 1760 in England send the American what is now Nigeria, he was brought to black loyalists? Her other French Louisiana and sold to William overseas possessions, nota- Campbell, an immigrant Scotsman who had settled bly the West Indian sugar islands, were built on slave in Wilmington, North Carolina, located on the Cape labor and had no place for a large number of free Fear River. There he was caught up in the anticipa- blacks. England itself wished no influx of ex-slaves, tion of what the colonial resistance movement might for London and other major cities already felt them- mean for enslaved Africans. Hearing of colonial selves burdened by growing numbers of impoverished protests against British oppression, British tyranny, blacks demanding public support. The answer to the and British plans to “enslave” the Americans, Peters problem was Nova Scotia, the easternmost part of was primed to respond to the proclamation issued the frozen Canadian wilderness that England had in November 1775 by Virginia’s royal governor, acquired at the end of the Seven Years War. Here, Lord Dunmore, that offered lifelong freedom for amidst sparsely scattered old French settlers, rem- any American slave or indentured servant “able and nants of Indian tribes, and more recent British set- willing to bear arms” who escaped his master and tlers, the American blacks were relocated. made it to the British lines. White owners and legisla- In Nova Scotia the dream of life, liberty, and hap- tors threatened dire consequences to those who were piness turned into a nightmare. The refugee ex-slaves caught stealing away. Attempting to squelch bids for found themselves segregated in impoverished vil- freedom, they vowed to take bitter revenge on the lages, given scraps of untillable land, deprived of the kinfolk left behind by fleeing slaves. But Peters, like rights normally extended to British subjects, forced tens of thousands of others, escaped to the British. to work on road construction in return for promised There they redefined themselves as men instead provisions, and gradually reduced to peonage. In of pieces of property. They made the American 1790 Peters personally carried a message from his fel- Revolution the first large-scale rebellion of slaves in low refugees to authorities in London, asking to be North America and the largest ever attempted. resettled “wherever the wisdom of government may think proper to provide for [my people] as free sub-

20 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION IN RED AND BLACK jects of the British Empire.” He arrived at a momen- During the next six years, Brant seemed to be tous time, when English abolitionists were pushing everywhere — at Oriskany when the British and a bill through Parliament to charter the Sierra Leone their Indian allies defeated the Americans trying to Company and to grant it trading and settlement reach the besieged Fort Stanwix, which controlled rights on the West African coast. Peters returned to access to the western Mohawk Valley and the Great Nova Scotia to spread the word, and on January 15, Lakes; at Cherry Valley in 1778, when the Iroquois 1792, under sunny skies and a fair wind, 1,200 black drove American farmers from southern New York Canadians set sail for Sierra Leone, where they hoped and northern Pennsylvania; at skirmishes in the to be truly free and self-governing. campaign of 1779, when General John Sullivan invaded Iroquois country burning villages, destroying Legend tells that Thomas Peters, sick from a ship- crops, and pursuing his blunt motto, “civilization or board fever, led his shipmates ashore in Sierra Leone death to all American savages,” in a scorched-earth singing, “The day of jubilee is come; return ye ran- campaign exceeded in American history only by somed sinners home.’’ He died less than four months Sherman’s march to the sea during the Civil War. later. His family and friends buried him in Freetown, where his descendants live today. Though never militarily suppressed during the war, the Iroquois lost about one-third of their people During thirty-two of his fifty-four years, Peters and were then abandoned by their British allies at struggled for personal survival and a larger degree the Paris peace talks in 1783. They were left to cope of freedom. He worked as a field hand, millwright, with the aggressive, combat-hardened, and land-hun- ship hand, casual laborer, and soldier. His crusade for gry Americans. Thunderstruck that British diplomats basic political rights, for social equity, and for human deserted them and confronting insurmountable odds, dignity was individual at first, as his circumstances the Iroquois signed dictated treaties that dispos- dictated. But when the American Revolution erupted, sessed them of most of their land. Brant spent the last Peters merged his individual efforts with those of twenty years of his life trying to lead the Iroquois in thousands of other American slaves seeking their free- adjusting to harsh new realities in which the pursuit dom. Was he not a black founding father? of happiness by white Americans required proud and independent red Americans to surrender their own JOSEPH BRANT life, liberty, and property. Brant’s story encapsulates the American Revo- or some one hundred and fifty thousand Native lution experienced by most Indians. All but a few Americans living east of the Mississippi River, F Indian nations followed the Iroquois lead in siding the American Revolution was also a time to “try with the British. For example, the Shawnee of the men’s souls.” Thayendanegea (known to the English Ohio country and the Cherokee of the upper South as Joseph Brant) stands as an illuminating example. allied to attack encroaching Virginians even before Born in a Mohawk village, he served at age thir- the Declaration of Independence. In former days they teen with the Americans in the Seven Years’ War had “possessed lands almost to the seashore,” the and aided the colonists in 1763 by battling against Shawnee told the Cherokee, but “red people who Pontiac’s Indian insurgents who tried to expel the were once masters of the whole country [now] hardly British soldiers and encroaching colonists from the possessed ground enough to stand on.” It was “bet- Ohio Country. But as the revolution loomed, Brant ter to die like men than to dwindle away by inches.” suspected that the Mohawk and other Iroquois So the fight went on, during the Revolution and for nations would be drawn into the fighting. Taking ship years after it as the victorious Americans conducted a to London to see how the British would help protect war of national expansion. Iroquois sovereignty and their ancient homelands, Brant met with the King’s ministers. His decision after these meetings augured the decisions of a majority NANCY WARD of Indian tribes in the next few years — that only by fighting against the independence-seeking Americans ome Indian tribes, mostly small ones surrounded could Indian peoples remain independent. Returning Sby white colonies and greatly reduced in popula- to New York a few weeks after the Declaration tion by disease and earlier wars, fought alongside the of Independence, Brant began a long trek through Americans or struggled to maintain neutrality. Among Iroquoia to spread the message that “their own coun- them were the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot in try and liberty” were “in danger from the rebels.” Maine, the Oneida in New York, and the Tuscarora Brant’s message, borne on foot and by canoe and and Catawba in North Carolina. Pledging allegiance horse, brought most of the Iroquois into the war on to the Americans, they contributed scouts and war- the British side in the summer of 1777. riors to the revolutionary cause. The Cherokee cer- emonial chief Nancy Ward, who goes down in the

SUMMER 2006 21 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION IN RED AND BLACK annals of American history as the “good Indian,” doctrine of natural rights as surely as the minutemen epitomizes the pro-American stance. at Concord Bridge or the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Most of them chose the other side to Niece of an aging Cherokee leader, Ward had gain or preserve their rights. In their struggle against opposed militant Cherokee warriors who chose to the white revolutionaries, most of them lost heavily in fight at the side of the British, and she had even the proximate sense. What they won, however, was warned Virginians and Carolinians about imminent a piece of history, for they kept lit the lamp of lib- attacks on their frontier settlements. In her mind, the erty and passed on their own revolutionary accounts Cherokee could survive only by accommodating the to their children and their children’s children. The Americans, ceding land piece by piece while trying founding principles of the American Revolution lived to maintain trade relations and peace. Following her on in the nineteenth-century struggles of Denmark lead were many aging Cherokees who had seen their Vesey, Nat Turner, Frederick Douglass, Harriet attempts at preserving their homelands fail before Tubman, Black Hawk, Tecumseh, Sequoyah, and a the superior arms of the Americans. But Americans host of other black and red leaders. repeatedly ravaged Cherokee towns in the winter of 1780–1781, not even sparing towns that had sworn allegiance to the Americans. Such was the fate of other tribes that had supported the Americans. Although grateful state governments compensated a Gary B. Nash is professor emeritus of history at UCLA number of faithful Indian warriors after the war, this and Director of the National Center for History in the did little to protect the tribes from the land-hungry, Schools. He served as president of the Organization of well-equipped, and battle-toughened Americans who, American Historians in 1994–95. His most recent books after the war, rushed westward for more land. are African American Lives: The Struggle for Freedom (with Clayborne Carson and Emma Lapsansky-Werner) In reflecting on the American Revolution and (2005); The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly our nation’s founding, we need to recognize that Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America the conflict compelled most nonwhites to take the (2005); and The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans in British side in quest of the same goals pursued by the Age of Revolution (2006). those who answered the call to arms against their king. Red and black people were animated by the

Copyright Matthew Henry Hall. Reprinted by permission. www.matthewhenryhall.com 22 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 This decision took awhile, for there was no central command. Across from the courthouse, at the home efore dawn on September 6, 1774, of blacksmith Timothy Bigelow, the men who had B plotted the event all summer tried to coordinate the more than seven months before the showdown at Lexington and Concord, a group of patriots entered day’s activities, but they soon adjourned “to attend the county courthouse in Worcester, Massachusetts, the body of the people” outside. Each of the thirty- and barricaded the doors. As the sun rose, mili- seven militia companies had recently elected a new tiamen from across the county started marching military captain, and now each selected a political through town to the village green at the other end representative as well. These men at once appointed of Main Street, and by ten o’clock, 4,622 militiamen a smaller committee, which visited the court officials from thirty-seven different towns stood at the ready. to work out the details of their recantations — but Approximately half of the adult-male population of the plan that they worked out had to make its way rural Worcester County, from the Connecticut border back to the thirty-seven representatives, and through to New Hampshire, had mustered in force on that them to the “body of the people,” who alone had momentous morning to overturn British authority. the power of approval. This cumbersome apparatus, heavily weighted at the bottom, moved only slowly. When the Crown-appointed court officials showed People became impatient. up to work, they had nowhere to meet but Daniel Heywood’s tavern, halfway between the courthouse Finally, by midafternoon, the stage was set. In full and the green. There they huddled, waiting for the company formation, 4,622 militiamen lined both throngs to determine their fates. sides of Main Street from Heywood’s tavern to the courthouse, while the twenty-five officials, hats in

SUMMER 2006 23 YANKEES WITH “STAVES AND MUSICK” hand, walked the gauntlet between them, each one attempted to remove a Rock (the one reciting his renunciation more than thirty times so on which their fore-fathers first landed, that all of the patriots could hear. With this ritualistic when they came to this country) which act of submission, all British authority disappeared lay buried in a wharfe five feet deep, up from Worcester County, never to return. into the center of the town, near the court house. The way being up hill, they found it DISENFRANCHISED COLONY impracticable, as after they had dug it up, they found it to weigh ten tons at least. ow had it come to this? The patriots of In Cambridge, four thousand patriots forced the HWorcester were upset at more than just taxes. lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts to resign his In the wake of the Boston Tea Party, Parliament had seat on the Council. All other Crown-appointed decided to “punish” the people of Massachusetts members of the Council also were intimidated by for their defiance by passing four new bills called large crowds; most resigned under pressure, while the “Coercive Acts,” labeled by Americans as the those who did not fled their homes to Boston, where “Intolerable Acts.” In our history books today, we they sought protection from the British Army. Boston read about the one that closed the port of Boston, itself became a garrison for the Redcoats, but in other but for Revolutionary Americans, that was hardly towns and across the countryside, where 95 percent the worst of it. Of much greater concern was the of the population resided, patriots reigned supreme. Massachusetts Government Act, which unilaterally The people persisted with their town meetings in revoked key provisions of the 1691 charter for the direct violation of the new law. When Governor Gage colony of Massachusetts Bay: arrested seven men in the capital of Salem for calling • Members of the powerful Council, formerly a town meeting, three thousand farmers immediately elected, would henceforth be appointed by the marched on the jail to set the prisoners free. Two King. companies of British soldiers, on duty to protect the • Town meetings, the basis of local self-govern- Governor, retreated rather than force a bloody con- ment, were outlawed. They could convene only frontation. Throughout Massachusetts, in some three at the pleasure of the Crown-appointed gover- hundred towns, meetings continued to convene. As nor, who must approve all agenda items. one contemporary observer noted: • All local officials, such as sheriffs and judges, Notwithstanding all the parade the gov- would no longer be subject to the approval of ernor made at Salem on account of their elected representatives. meeting, they had another one directly under his nose at Danvers [the neighboring • Jurors, formerly determined by the people, town], and continued it two or three how- would be selected by Crown-appointed officials. ers longer than was necessary, to see if he Effectively disenfranchised, the people of would interrupt ’em. He was acquainted Massachusetts refused to abide by the new laws. with it, but reply’d — “Damn ’em! I won’t Outraged patriots vowed to shut down the govern- do any thing about it unless his Majesty ment as of August 1, 1774, the day that the act took sends me more troops.” effect, and they made good on that pledge. Responding to rumors that British Regulars had In every shiretown (county seat), as in Worcester, killed six patriots and set Boston ablaze, an esti- patriot militiamen terminated the quarterly ses- mated twenty thousand to sixty thousand men from sions of the courts, which at that time also served throughout the countryside headed toward Boston to as the administrative arm of local government. confront the Redcoats. In some towns, nearly every At Springfield, more than three thousand patriots male of fighting age participated in the “Powder marched “with staves and musick” to unseat the Alarm,” as it came to be called. British troops had officials. “Amidst the Crowd in a sandy, sultry place, in fact removed some powder from a magazine on exposed to the sun,” said one observer, judges were the outskirts of Cambridge, but they had killed no forced to renounce “in the most express terms any patriots and set no fires. The patriots, however, were commission which should be given out to them under clearly on edge, and the rumors fired them up even the new arrangement.” more. “The People seemed really disappointed,” one man told John Adams two months later, “when the In Plymouth, according to merchant John News was contradicted.” Andrews, some four thousand rebels were so excited after deposing the officials that they: By early October of 1774, more than half a year before the “shot heard round the world” at Lexington, patriots in Massachusetts had seized all

24 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 YANKEES WITH “STAVES AND MUSICK” political and military authority outside of Boston. fronted by 4,622 angry militiamen, had no choice but Throughout the preceding decade, patriots had writ- to submit. Had opposition been stronger, violence ten petitions, staged boycotts, and burned effigies might have occurred; that would have made for a — but this was something new. In the bloodier tale late summer and early fall of 1774, patri- but a weaker ots did not simply protest government, The Massachusetts Revolution revolution. they overthrew it. Then, after dismissing of 1774 was the most successful The story British authority, they boldly assumed lacks heroes as political control through their town meet- popular uprising in the nation’s well as gore. ings, county conventions, and a Provincial This revolution Congress. One disgruntled Tory from history and the only one to was democrat- Southampton summed it all up in his alter existing political authority ic by design; diary: “Government has now devolved the people not upon the people, and they seem to be for permanently. It was also the only preached using it.” most grounded, with half of the popular sovereignty but THE FORGOTTEN REVOLUTION adult males in the rural counties also practiced it. Although he Massachusetts Revolution of 1774 literally taking to the streets. the toppling Twas the most successful popular of author- uprising in the nation’s history and the ity enjoyed only one to alter existing political authority perma- unprecedented, widespread support, no charismatic nently. It was also the most grounded, with half of or self-promoting leaders emerged to anchor the story the adult males in the rural counties literally taking to and serve as its “heroes.” That equality made for a the streets. Despite its power — or possibly because stronger revolution, but it simultaneously helps to of its power — this momentous event has been virtu- explain why we know so little about it. ally lost to history. It is rarely mentioned even in pass- In 1774, the people led, and the leaders followed. ing, and it is never included in the core narrative of Samuel and John Adams, in Philadelphia at the time our nation’s birth. attending the First Continental Congress, wrote to Our most triumphant rebellion did not always their friends back home, pleading with them to do suffer such neglect. All of the historians who lived whatever they could to slow the country people through those times featured the 1774 uprising, and down. If Massachusetts went too far and declared one, Mercy Otis Warren, called it “one of the most “independency,” they warned, other colonists might extraordinary eras in the history of man: the exer- become frightened and abandon the cause. tions of spirit awakened by the severe hand of power The citizens of Worcester did not heed this warn- had led to that most alarming experiment of level- ing. On October 4, 1774, exactly twenty-one months ing of all ranks, and destroying all subordination.” before the Declaration of Independence, they issued But conservative historians of the early nineteenth instructions to blacksmith Timothy Bigelow, their century, who expunged the word “rebel” from their representative in the illegally convened Provincial own texts, refused to celebrate a revolution this pow- Congress: erful. For them, obstreperous rebels became Good Samaritans who virtuously came to Boston’s aid. You are to consider the people of this province absolved, on their part, from the Then came the legend of Paul Revere, promoted obligation therein contained [of the 1691 in 1861 by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s famous Massachusetts charter], and to all intents poem. According to Longfellow, Revere awakened and purposes reduced to a state of nature; the sleepy-eyed farmers; in fact, these farmers were and you are to exert yourself in devising already so awake that they had toppled British rule, ways and means to raise from the dissolu- and they had been arming and training for half a year tion of the old constitution, as from the to defend the revolution that they had made. ashes of the Phenix, a new form, wherein The full, dramatic story is taking a long time to all officers shall be dependent on the suf- reemerge, for its very strengths contribute to its ano- frages of the people, whatever unfavorable nymity. “If it bleeds, it leads” — but this revolution constructions our enemies may put upon involved no bloodshed, for resistance was unthink- such procedure. able. The force of the people was so overwhelming The farmers, artisans, and shopkeepers of that violence became unnecessary. The handful of Worcester were ready to form a new government, no Crown-appointed officials in Worcester, when con-

SUMMER 2006 25 YANKEES WITH “STAVES AND MUSICK” matter what British officials might say. This idea was, to the views of the “Founding Fathers,” who feared of course, new and revolutionary, but the technique too much power in the hands of the people. But if we that they used — issuing instructions to their rep- shift our gaze from Founders to founders, from the resentatives — had been with them for many years. gentry inside to the people “out-of-doors,” we find Their notion of “representation” was not to elect a that a very different attitude prevailed. All decisions, person who would then do as he pleased, but to elect even in the midst of their mass street actions, had to someone who would execute their demands. This was be approved by “the body of the people.” The rep- how democracy worked in New England in the late resentatives whom they selected to deal with recalci- colonial period. trant officials served for one day only — the ultimate in term limits. These rebels ran their revolution like a During the Revolutionary Era, the idea that peo- mobilized town meeting, each participant as impor- ple could command their so-called leaders through tant as any other. At no time in our nation’s history written “instructions” spread throughout the colo- have citizens been more passionate about adhering to nies. In the spring of 1776, when the Continental the notion that all political authority resides with the Congress found itself deadlocked over the issue of people themselves. independence, delegates returned home to get new instructions from the people — and the people told Even the nighttime mobs (and there were many) them, loud and clear, to take the leap. Congressional maintained a democratic aspect. In Braintree, two delegates from Maryland, for instance, had initially hundred men gathered on a Sunday around 8:00 p.m. opposed independence, but on June 28, Samuel Chase to remove some gunpowder from the powder house announced to John Adams that his state Convention and make the local sheriff burn two warrants that had just voted unanimously to support it. “See the he was attempting to deliver. Successful in their mis- glorious Effects of County Instructions,” he wrote. sions, they wanted to celebrate with a loud “huzza.” “Our people have fire if not smothered.” But should they disturb the Sabbath? “They call’d a vote,” wrote Abigail Adams, who observed the affair, Such fire could not last forever, of course, and “it being Sunday evening it passed in the nega- although it would not be entirely smothered either. tive.” As the Revolutionary War dragged on, patriots in Worcester who had once worked in unison bick- ered over taxes, the military draft, and a shortage of salt. After the war, when disgruntled farmers from Western Massachusetts tried once again to close the Ray Raphael’s full treatment of the 1774 Massachusetts courts, the people of Worcester divided over whether Revolution appears in his First American Revolution: to support or oppose “Shays’ Rebellion.” Two years Before Lexington and Concord (2002). His dozen books after that, in 1788, they divided over whether to include A People’s History of the American Revolution accept or reject the new Constitution. (2001) and Founding Myths: Stories that Hide Our Patriotic Past (2004), which details how and why our But at that special moment in 1774, when they most cherished tales about the American Revolution overthrew British rule and moved toward setting up were invented in the nineteenth century. A senior a new government of their own, these folks from research fellow at Humboldt State University, California, the heartland of New England engaged in grassroots he is currently working on a character-driven narrative of political activity with a spirit and effectiveness that our nation’s birth that features people from diverse levels has rarely been equaled since. Students of history are of the social and political hierarchy in lead roles. fond of noting that the United States was created as a republic, not a democracy, and they accurately point

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26 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 the society, even that between free and enslaved that today seems so horribly conspicuous. Gentlemen e know all too well the story of the lead- were those who did not have to work for a living, W at least not with their hands. They were the wealthy ers of the American Revolution, that galaxy of founders who spoke in the Congress, led the armies, and landowners, well-to-do college graduates and profes- wrote the great documents of the period — John sionals, and perhaps rich merchants (if they did not and Samuel Adams, George Washington, Thomas attend to their counting houses too often). Since the Jefferson, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and time of the ancient Greeks, these leisured elites tended other such leaders who were members of the gentry. to regard the great mass of the working population And recently we have learned a great deal about with contempt precisely because those ordinary folk women and the oppressed of the period — the native had to labor for a living. Working people, as Aristotle peoples, the slaves, and those on the bottom rungs of had said, could not be noble; they were preoccupied society. But what about those white men in the mid- by the need to support themselves with their manual dle of the society, those who were neither rich gentry labor and thus were incapable of virtue and of disin- nor poor servants and slaves? Although these people terested political leadership. in the middle of the society represented the heart and soul of the Revolution, their story has never been RISE OF THE ARTISAN fully told. Eighteenth-century Anglo-American society et by the first third of the eighteenth century, this tended to divide itself into two parts, with a tiny Ydichotomous social structure was changing rap- elite of gentlemen on the top dominating the bulk idly. The astonishing growth of commerce, trade, and of ordinary folk. This division between gentlemen manufacturing in the English-speaking world was cre- and commoners overwhelmed all other divisions in ating hosts of new people who did not fit easily into either of the two basic social categories. Commercial

SUMMER 2006 27 THE MIDDLING SORT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION farmers, master artisans or mechanics, traders, shop- GAINING POLITICAL POWER keepers, and petty merchants — ambitious “middling” men, as they were increasingly called — were ut the artisans were not content simply to be a acquiring not only wealth but also some genteel Bpressure group. They wanted to make govern- learning and awareness of the larger world. Although mental decisions for themselves, and they called for they were not gentlemen, for they had occupations explicit representation of their interests in govern- and continued to work for a living as tradesmen ment. By the 1770s, artisans in the various port cities and mechanics, they were eager to be regarded as were forming slates of candidates and were being something other than members of a “vulgar herd.” elected to various committees, congresses, and other Already thinkers such as Daniel Defoe were trying to prominent offices. The traditional gentry no longer explain and justify these emerging middling people, seemed capable of speaking for the interests of arti- including those whom Defoe called the “working sans or for those of any other groups of ordinary trades, who labour hard but feel no want.” These people. “If ever therefore your rights are preserved,” were people such as the young Philadelphia printer the mechanics told each other, “it must be through Benjamin Franklin who more and more prided them- the virtue and integrity of the middling sort, as farm- selves on their industriousness, their frugality, and ers, tradesmen, etc. who despise venality, and best their separation from the idleness and dissipation of know the sweets of liberty.” Artisans, they said, could the gentry above them and the poor beneath them. trust as their government representatives only spokesmen of their own kind, only those “from whose Not only were these middling sorts a major Principles,” as South Carolina craftsmen declared, social force in bringing about and sustaining the they had reason “to expect the greatest assistances.” Revolution, but also in the end they were its greatest beneficiaries, at least in the In 1770, artisans in Philadelphia won North. They eventually became four of the ten elected city offices. In the the market farmers, shopkeepers, During the wake of their success, other particular traders, clerks, and businessmen imperial crisis in interest groups — religious and ethnic — of the new middle class of the clamored for equal recognition through nineteenth century. These mid- the 1760s and representation in government. By 1774, dling men were the ones who the Philadelphia Committee of Nineteen, turned the idea of equality into 1770s, ordinary the principal organization of the resis- the most powerful ideological people in America tance movement, invited six persons weapon in American history. from each religious association in the city to take part in its deliberations. In June During the imperial crisis for the ﬁ rst time on 1774, the proposal of the Philadelphia in the 1760s and 1770s, ordi- a large scale began radicals to add seven mechanics and six nary people in America for the Germans to the committee that would first time on a large scale began claiming a share in succeed the Nineteen marked a signifi- claiming a share in government, cant moment in the history of American not just as voters but as actual government, not politics. It was the beginning of what rulers. Beginning with the Stamp just as voters but would eventually become the very stuff Act disturbances and the forma- of American politics — consciously tion of the Sons of Liberty in as actual rulers. pluralistic and interest-group based. By colonial ports in 1765, ordinary 1775, the royal governor of Georgia people — chiefly mechanics could only shake his head in astonish- or artisans from many differ- ment that the revolutionary committee in control ent crafts — came together to call for a boycott of of Savannah consisted of “a Parcel of the Lowest British goods. In 1772, the mechanics of Philadelphia, People, chiefly carpenters, shoemakers, blacksmiths who comprised half of the male residents of the city, etc. with a Jew at their head.” formed the Patriotic Society, the first organized, non- religious public-pressure group in Pennsylvania’s history. In New York, the mechanics began convening at THE GENTRY RESPONDS first in taverns; soon they bought a meeting place for themselves and named it Mechanics Hall. Everywhere emands for participation in government by arti- in the colonial ports artisans developed a new sense Dsans and other ordinary workers were sufficient- of collective identity and began speaking openly of a ly novel and threatening to provoke responses from distinct “mechanical interest” in the society. the gentry. However respectful of the people such revolutionary leaders might have been, they were not prepared to accept the participation in government

28 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 THE MIDDLING SORT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION of carpenters, butchers, and shoemakers, even when sorts of ordinary men in the 1780s and 1790s were they were wealthy “proto-businessmen” with many asserting themselves, especially by securing places in employees. the greatly expanded state legislatures. One of the most prominent was William Findley, a Scotch-Irish It was inconceivable to someone such as William ex-weaver from western Pennsylvania who became Henry Drayton of South Carolina that gentlemen the scourge of the Philadelphia gentry. Another mid- with a liberal education who had read a little should dling leader was Jedidiah Peck of upstate New York, have to consult on the difficulties of government who became the defender of the common farmers “with men who never were in a way to study, or to and other laborers against all those privileged lawyers advise upon any points, but rules how to cut up a and leisured gentry who never really worked for a liv- beast in the market to the best advantage, to cobble ing. And still another was Matthew Lyon, a former an old shoe in the neatest manner, or to build a neces- servant who through ambitious scrambling became sary house.” Drayton was willing to admit that “the one of the wealthiest businessmen in Vermont and a profanum vulgus” was “a species of mankind,” even bitter enemy to all those who claimed genteel superi- that mechanics were “a useful and necessary part of ority. society,” but, he said with more courage than discre- tion, such men were not meant to govern. “Nature These middling men were not liberally edu- never intended that such men should be profound cated college graduates, and unlike the well-known politicians or able statesmen . . . . Will a man in his founders, they made little or no effort to acquire right senses,” he asked, “be directed by an illiterate the attributes of gentility. Instead, they turned their person in the prosecution of a law-suit? Or, when a deficiencies against their critics in the gentry. They ship is in a storm, and near the rocks who, but a fool, ridiculed book learning and genteel manners and, to would put the helm into the hand of a landsman?” the amazement of the gentry, won popularity in the process. The gentry called such upstarts “democrats,” It was not, said the gentry, just their lack of abil- a pejorative label that the middling men soon turned ity that disqualified artisans from important govern- into a badge of honor. The middling men in turn mental office. It was their deep involvement in work, called all those who resisted their rise “aristocrats,” trade, and business, their occupations — their very which, in the increasingly egalitarian atmosphere of interestedness — that made them ignoble and thus the 1780s and 1790s, no one wanted to be labeled. unsuited for high office. They lacked the requisite liberal, disinterested, cosmopolitan outlook that presumably was possessed only by enlightened and liber- REDEFINING POLITICS ally educated persons — only by gentlemen. When artisans and other interested men in the 1760s and n the North, these middling sorts came to make 1770s defended their self-interestedness and claimed Iup a substantial proportion of the Jeffersonian that they and their marketplace interests had a right Republican party, in opposition to the gentry-domi- to be personally involved in government, they were nated Federalist party. In the South, Jefferson and in effect demanding to be judges in their own causes; other slaveholding gentry-planter leaders remained they were insisting that party or faction be made a relatively immune to the middling-democratic politics legitimate participant in government. This position that was eroding traditional social hierarchies in the was tantamount to saying that the object of govern- North. Consequently, they did not lose their faith, as ment was the pursuit of private interests instead of the northern Federalist gentry tended to do, in the the public good. Such ideas ran too strongly against honest heart of the common man. Ironically, it was the grain of enlightened republican thinking to be Jeffersonian rhetoric that justified the challenges of acceptable at that time. Thus, in the 1760s and 1770s the northern middling people against the Federalist it was relatively easy for Drayton and other gentry “aristocracy.” to dismiss contemptuously these early defenses by Everywhere in the early Republic, countless num- artisans of interest-group politics. But such arguments bers of these middling people relentlessly, mercilessly did not go away. besieged the northern gentry who came to dominate the Federalist party. Such middling men were sick and ARTISAN LEADERS tired of being dismissed as factious, narrow, paro- chial, and illiberal (as Madison and Hamilton had nlike the French Revolution, the American dismissed them in The Federalist papers) and were URevolution did not devour its children; its lead- unwilling to defer any longer to anyone’s political ers — Washington, Jefferson, John Adams, James leadership but their own. Madison, and other gentry — continued to dominate In 1797, George Warner, a sailmaker in New events and control the upper levels of government. York, spoke for all the “tradesmen, mechanics, and Yet beneath the surface of elite dominance, middling the industrious classes of society” who for too long

SUMMER 2006 29 THE MIDDLING SORT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

had considered “themselves of TOO LITTLE CON- SEQUENCE to the body politic.” In the early 1790s, these sorts of men organized themselves in mechanics associations and Democratic-Republican societ- ies, and eventually they came to make up the body and soul of the northern part of the Jeffersonian Republican party. Everywhere in their extraordinary speeches and writings of these years, artisans, laborers, and proto- businessmen of all sorts in the North vented their pent-up egalitarian anger at all those leisured “aristocrats” who had scorned and despised them as swine SunTrust Bank to Offer Federal and rabble — and all because they had “not snored Student Loan Consolidation through four years at Princeton.” They urged each Program to Phi Kappa Phi Members other to “keep up the cry against Judges, Lawyers, Generals, Colonels, and all other designing men, and In a new partnership agreement, SunTrust the day will be our own.” They demanded that they do their “utmost at election to prevent all men of Bank will offer Phi Kappa Phi members talents, lawyers, rich men from being elected.” For a (and their families!) special interest rate half-century following the Revolution, these common, reductions on federal student loan consoli- ordinary middling men stripped the northern gentry dation. of their pretensions, charged them at every turn with being idle drones, and relentlessly undermined their • Lower your interest rate by .50 per- capacity to speak for working people. cent just for having your monthly payments deducted from your per- In the end, not only did they transform what it meant to be a gentleman and a political leader in sonal bank account. America, but also they celebrated work to a degree • If you have a balance of $40,000 not duplicated by any other society. In doing so, they and greater, you can earn another made slavery more and more an anomaly in America and turned the slaveholding southern planters into 1 percent interest rate reduction for a besieged minority that was totally out of step with making your first twelve consecutive a society in which everyone was supposed to work. on-time payments. Eventually these parvenu democrats made being a member of “the middle class” almost the only legiti- • If you have a balance between mate status for an American. In these changes was $10,000 and $39,999, you are eli- the real American Revolution — a radical alteration gible for a .50 percent discount for in the nature of American society whose effects are automatic payment deduction and still felt today. an additional 1 percent reduction after twenty-four consecutive on-time payments. (Borrower must remain current for the remaining term of the Gordon S. Wood is Alva O. Way University Professor and professor of history at Brown University. He is the loan.) author of many works, including The Creation of the These special discounts are only available American Republic, 1776–1787 (1969), which won the by phone. Call 877.855.9842 to apply. For Bancroft Prize and the John H. Dunning Prize in 1970, and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992), more information on SunTrust and student which won the Pulitzer Prize for History and the Ralph loan consolidation, visit http://www. Waldo Emerson Prize in 1993. His most recent publi- suntrusteducation.com/pkp. There are no cation is The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, credit checks or application or origination which was awarded the Julia Ward Howe Prize by the fees. This offer is subject to change Boston Authors Club in 2005. His most recent book is without notice. Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different, published in 2006.

30 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Jack N. Rakove The United States in Congress Assembled

Congress was never more popular than it was at the start of the Revolution. In 1774 and 1775, efore there was a Congress of the it was often hailed as “the collected wisdom” of B America; its decisions were compared to the “laws of United States, formally recognized in Article I of the Constitution, there was “the United States the Medes and Persians, which altereth not” (as the in Congress assembled,” better known as the Book of Daniel noted). As members of a revolution- Continental or the Confederation Congress. The ary presidium, the original delegates had to balance delegates, many of the most renowned figures in their own skeptical assessment of British intentions their respective colonies, first met at Philadelphia in with the knowledge that many colonists would sup- September 1774 as an extra-legal body summoned to port independence only as a last alternative. Within coordinate colonial resistance. A Second Continental Congress, militant delegates such as Samuel and John Congress convened in May 1775, three weeks after Adams of Massachusetts and Richard Henry Lee civil war erupted at Lexington and Concord. That of Virginia had to find common ground with more event transformed the quasidiplomatic assembly of prudent men of business, such as Robert Morris and 1774 into a national government, and so it remained, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania and James Duane through thick and thin, for richer and poorer (mostly and John Jay of New York. The British commitment poorer), until its evident “imbecility” in the mid- to a policy of military repression made this pos- 1780s led to the Federal Convention of 1787. sible. When Congress resolved on independence in

SUMMER 2006 31 THE UNITED STATES IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED early July, it did so knowing that Thomas Jefferson’s 1776. A draft prepared largely by John Dickinson Declaration of that fact would meet with the general was actively discussed during the late summer of approval of the delegates’ constituents. 1776, but the final version was not completed until November 1777, when Congress was once again THE END OF “SUNSHINE PATRIOTISM” meeting in exile at York, Pennsylvania. Disputes over the rules for apportioning representation and the expenses of the war among the states were sources of eleasing the Declaration closed the great period delay, but the critical obstacle was the desire of a bloc of “sunshine patriotism,” as Thomas Paine soon R of landless states to give Congress possession of vast called it. Almost immediately, British battlefield vic- tracts of interior lands claimed by various states. The tories in the area around New York City ushered in a landless states lost this decision within Congress, but new phase of the revolutionary conflict. In December, New Jersey, Delaware, and finally Maryland held out the enemy’s advance across New Jersey sent Congress over this issue. As a result, the Articles did not take into a secure exile in Baltimore. There it finally real- effect until March 1, 1781. ized that its military commander, George Washington, had been right to argue that short-term enlistments and reliance on the patriotism of the officer corps POWER OF THE STATES were no substitutes for recruiting soldiers willing to serve for several years and for giving officers material uring this period, Congress continued to govern incentives to supplement their sense of duty. Das the revolutionary body that it had been since its inception. Its true sources of authority were politi- For the remainder of the war, Congress was pre- cal, not constitutional. It relied upon the state legisla- occupied with devising one expedient after another tures to implement the resolutions, recommendations, to keep the army in the field. and requisitions that it sent to them. Few at the time gave Congress Although it effectively monopolized high marks for its performance. No American the powers of war and diplomacy and By late 1777, its supply sys- authorized the individual colonies to tem was teetering on collapse. government, resume legal government under new Congressional reliance on issu- before or arguably constitutions, the states exercised all ing paper currency and naïve other essential powers of sovereignty. expectations that the states since, ever faced Only the states could adopt laws bind- would levy adequate taxes ing individual citizens, and only the created other problems, most the problems states could levy taxes. All matters of notably a spiraling inflation that that Congress “internal police” — domestic gover- forced every American family nance — fell under their jurisdiction as to weigh its private interests encountered, with well. against the claim of public good. so few resources or The new state constitutions had to establish the whole array of legisla- In its defense, it must be relevant experience tive, executive, and judicial institutions said that no American govern- to draw upon. that Americans expected to find in ment, before or arguably since, any government properly organized ever faced the problems that on republican principles. All of these Congress encountered, with so branches of government were thought few resources or relevant experience to draw upon. to be accountable, directly or indirectly, to their con- Colonial America had been an under-governed soci- stituents. At the national level, by contrast, the uni- ety. There was no real state to speak of; most of the cameral Congress remained the sole constitutionally business of governance was performed at the level of recognized institution. Its members were appointed town and county. On those occasions when war did by the state legislatures, for terms of a single year. erupt, the British Empire was there to handle the criti- Often they attended for much shorter periods. Most cal decisions of war and diplomacy. Under these con- delegates found prolonged absences from home a ditions, the entire experience of national governance real hardship. After the heady days of 1774–1776, after 1774 was essentially on-the-job training. Congress typically scraped by with a few dozen del- Most delegates believed that the success of the egates in attendance. Members came and went as Revolution depended on the willingness of the states, personal circumstances and other obligations in their and their citizens, to accede to congressional deci- states dictated. sions. To define and confirm its authority, Congress began drafting Articles of Confederation in June

32 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 THE UNITED STATES IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED

HOLDING CONGRESS TOGETHER private subscriptions and incorporated by Congress. Delegates quickly deferred to Morris’s expertise and he longer that the war dragged on, the less con- endorsed his proposal without alteration for a nation- Tfident many Americans grew that Congress still al bank only three days after he had taken office as embodied “the collected wisdom” of the continent. Superintendent of Finance. Foreshadowing the poli- Many delegates felt the same way, pointedly contrast- cies that Alexander Hamilton later pursued, Morris ing their own limited talents with the superior virtues was trying to restore public credit permanently and that they ascribed to the delegates of 1774–1776. detach Congress from its debilitating dependence on But in another sense, they did their best to maintain the states, which alone possessed the authority to levy one fundamental principle that had guided Congress taxes. No matter what the powerful Superintendent since 1774. Amid all their grumbling, they gener- of Finance did, however, Congress seemed destined to ally worked hard to prevent their constituents from languish in a condition of lassitude unless it obtained knowing much about their own internal divisions the authority to procure independent funds. and disagreements. Maintaining a rough façade of unanimity was essential to preserving the authority A FLAWED CONFEDERATION of Congress. Not only did its debates have to remain secret, but also did the disagreements that periodically nce the Articles of Confederation took effect in perplexed and disrupted its politics. O1781, the delegates had to reckon with the con- This effort to shield Congress was not perfect, of stitutional constraints placed on their authority. By course. Private letters to trusted correspondents were the time that Maryland ratified the Articles, many of full of grousing, and in 1779 a bitter and prolonged them believed that the formal powers which Congress dispute over peace terms and diplomatic appoint- now possessed were inadequate to the real needs of ments prodded some delegates to vent their concerns national governance. Congress sent its first proposed in the press. By that time, personal antagonisms amendment of the Articles to the states even before had become painfully evident. John Dickinson once the Confederation was inaugurated. Designed to refused to converse with John Adams for a matter of raise revenue by giving Congress the authority to col- months. There was never any love lost between James lect import duties on foreign goods, this amendment Duane, an Anglican lawyer and land speculator who failed when Rhode Island rejected it outright. In 1783 was openly contemptuous of New Englanders, and Congress tried again, sending a compromise package the arch republican Samuel Adams, loyal son of of revenue amendments to the states. It, too, failed to Puritan Boston and an unreconstructed Calvinist. Nor secure the required unanimous approval of the states. could James Lovell, the impecunious Boston school- So did two further amendments, relating to foreign teacher, ever feel comfortable in the company of commerce, that Congress proposed in 1784. Robert Morris, the merchant prince of Philadelphia. The failure of all these amendments is rightly The cumulative grievances, real or fancied, that some regarded as an illustration of one of the worst defects delegates harbored toward each other could no longer of the Confederation: the capacity of individual be concealed, and when they coincided with differ- states to thwart reforms produced by earnest debate ences over important issues of policy, their reper- within Congress and the ability to compromise cussions were doubly disturbing. Even so, despite required of all viable governments. But more was at personal and political animosities and the near melt- stake than the formal structure and powers of the down of 1779, Congress retained the minimal level Confederation. With the coming of peace, Congress of confidence — and perhaps a few measures more was no longer a revolutionary presidium, unified — required to see the cause through to victory. by the common objectives of repelling British arms Disputes among the delegates seemed particu- and securing national independence. It was now a larly harmful because they interfered with congres- national government in a different sense: a forum in sional attempts to halt depreciation of the currency which the delegates were more free to act upon the and properly supply the army. By 1781, Congress’s provincial concerns of their constituents. Before 1783, financial woes were so severe that it turned to Robert independence defined the national interest. After Morris, perhaps the richest man in America, and 1783, it became an open question as to whether a granted him unprecedented powers to get the econo- national interest even existed, and if so, how it could my back on track. Morris evinced little interest in the be recognized. problems of political theory that agitated many of his Just how serious an issue this might be became colleagues, but he acted swiftly and boldly. Because evident in 1786, when John Jay, its secretary for Continental currency had become worthless, he foreign affairs, asked Congress to revise the instruc- issued a second currency, the so-called Morris notes, tions under which he was attempting to negotiate backed by his own private credit. He also planned to a treaty of commerce with Spain. Two years ear- establish the Bank of North America, to be funded by

SUMMER 2006 33 THE UNITED STATES IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED lier, Spain had closed the Mississippi River at New that were really only recommendations to the states. Orleans to American navigation, effectively pre- And that legislature could form only one branch of a venting the settlers who were now moving into the genuine national government that would also need its trans-Appalachian west from shipping their produce own executive and judicial departments to administer to West Indian markets. Jay asked to be allowed to and adjudicate national law. yield American demands on this point for a period Before this great transformation could take place, of twenty years. Securing a commercial treaty with however, the Federal Convention of 1787 borrowed Spain would be advantageous to northern commercial one last leaf from the Continental Congress. As did interests. But southern leaders saw western expansion the Congress, it met behind closed doors, insulated as a boon to their region and were loath to sacrifice during that period from the thoughts and concerns of their interests for northern advantage. The ensuing, the citizens “out-of-doors.” Had its doors been open, starkly sectional rift within Congress did become it never could have contemplated the major changes known to state leaders, and it also suggested that the that the Constitution which it wrote soon proposed. Confederation might break up before its founding charter, the Articles, could be reformed.

IMPETUS FOR CHANGE

his was the immediate background against Jack N. Rakove is the W. R. Coe Professor of History Twhich nationally minded leaders, such as James and American Studies, and professor of political science Madison and Alexander Hamilton — who had and (by courtesy) law at Stanford University, where he served together in Congress in 1782–1783 — began has taught since 1980. He is the author of four books, to prepare for the general convention that met at including The Beginnings of National Politics: An Philadelphia in May 1787. They knew that a national Interpretive History of the Continental Congress, and government which had to rely upon the states to Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making implement its decisions and policies would no lon- of the Constitution, which received the 1997 Pulitzer ger work. The unicameral Congress in which each Prize in History. His current project, Revolutionaries: state cast a single vote would have to give way to Inventing an American Nation, will be published by a genuine national legislature, with two houses, at Houghton Mifflin in 2008. least one of which would have to be elected by the people themselves. Such a legislature would have to pass laws binding upon individuals, not resolutions

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34 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 a bare quorum of state delegations assembled. As things turned out, however, that eleven-day hiatus merica’s “Revolution of 1787”was no acci- would provide for those few delegates who had both- A ered to turn up on time a rare opportunity to plan the dent. The men who deliberated in the Pennsylvania State House during the summer of 1787 were hardly revolution in government. wild-eyed radicals; they were, overwhelmingly, men of property and prestige, the acknowledged leaders SEIZING THE INITIATIVE of their political communities. Yet, as they prepared to conclude their business on September 17, 1787, he ringleader was the thirty-seven-year-old after nearly four months of debate, disagreement, TMadison. Historian, Forrest McDonald has said and compromise, they were being asked to add their of Madison that “he had read so much and remem- assent to a document that would effect a radical revo- bered so much that he could sound wise when actu- lution in the character of their continental govern- ally he was only quoting somebody wise,” but that ment. assessment, though containing a grain of truth, is It did not begin auspiciously. On May 14, 1787, unfair. Standing only a few inches over five feet tall, the day on which the convention that was called scrawny, suffering from a combination of poor physi- to amend the Articles of Confederation was due to cal health and hypochondria, and painfully awkward begin, James Madison found himself in a gloomy in any public forum, Madison nevertheless possessed mood. Only a handful of delegates had turned up, a combination of intellect, energy, and political savvy and indeed, eleven more days would pass before the that would mobilize the effort to create an entirely Convention finally was able to get underway with new form of continental union.

SUMMER 2006 35 THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787

Madison was gradually joined over the days • A powerful “national executive,” to be elected between May 14 and May 25 by a group of delegates by the national legislature. from Virginia and Pennsylvania who would combine • A “Council of Revision,” composed of the to concoct a plan not merely to “amend” the Articles chief executive and a “convenient number of of Confederation, but instead to set the proceedings the national judiciary,” which could veto laws of the Convention on a far more ambitious course. passed by either the national legislature or the The first gathering of these nationalist-minded del- various state legislatures. egates took place on the evening of May 16, in the home of Benjamin Franklin, where dinner was served The Virginia Plan constituted not a mere revi- in his impressive new dining room along with a “cask sion of the Articles of Confederation but a bold start of Porter,” which, Franklin reported, received “the on an entirely new kind of government. The word most cordial and universal approbation” of those “national” rather than “federal” was used repeat- assembled. The Pennsylvania and Virginia delegates edly to describe the various branches, and the pow- would meet frequently thereafter during the days ers of this national government were consistently leading up to May 25, both in the afternoons in the defined as superior to those of the states. The Virginia state house itself and in the evenings in City Tavern Plan reflected some of the deep reservations that its or the Indian Queen. authors had about democratic political processes. Of all the branches of the government, only the lower Franklin’s and Washington’s presence gave the house was to be directly elected by the people; offi- group both dignity and gravitas, but it was Madison cials in the other branches were to be either appoint- and James Wilson and Gouverneur Morris of ed or indirectly elected. Pennsylvania who provided much of the intellectual leadership. Wilson, a dour but brilliant Scotsman, The rule of secrecy in effect during the Convention brought to the business of constitution-making a operated powerfully in favor of those delegates who contradictory mix of beliefs. He was, on the one wished to see such drastic change. Had a strong hand, the only delegate in the Convention who was, advocate of the sovereign power of the individual intellectually, a true “democratic nationalist.” On states such as Patrick Henry, who was elected a the other hand, he was instinctively uneasy with the delegate to the Convention but who had declined “comman man” in his real-life, day-to-day interac- to serve, heard of this radical deviation from the tions with ordinary citizens. Gouverneur Morris was instructions of the Confederation Congress, he would nearly as intellectually brilliant as Wilson, but person- have mounted his horse and ridden to Philadelphia ally much more outgoing (particularly when it came to join the Virginia delegation. But Henry and other to his amorous relationships with women) and more politicians jealous of guarding the power of their avowedly elitist in his views about the dangers of states were not apprised of the proceedings, so on “democracy.” May 30, just three days after the Convention had begun its work, six of the eight states present agreed THE VIRGINIA PLAN that “a national government ought to be established consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary.” y seizing the initiative, this small group of nation- Balist-minded politicians was able to set the terms It was an amazing victory for that small cadre of debate during the initial stages of the Convention, of nationalist-minded delegates who had cooked up gearing the discussion toward not whether, but the Virginia Plan, and it would set the Convention how, a vastly strengthened continental government on a track that would never be reversed. But not would be constructed. The plan of government that everything else that happened in the Philadelphia these men proposed during the opening days of the Convention was a foregone conclusion. Over the Convention would form the basis for a revolution in course of the summer the delegates would debate, government. The “Virginia Plan,” as it came to be disagree, and ultimately compromise on a host of called, featured: important issues, such as the apportionment of representation in the national legislature, the powers and • A “national” legislature consisting of two mode of election of the chief executive, and the place branches, with membership to be apportioned of the institution of slavery in the new continental according either to “quotas of contribution” body politic. or the “number of free inhabitants.” This body would have the power to “legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent” APPORTIONING REPRESENTATION and to “negative all laws passed by the several States.” he delegates haggled over the issue of apportion- Ting representation in the legislature off and on

36 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787 for the entire period between May 30 and July 16. Sherman to the conclusion that the president could be Those from large, populous states such as Virginia removed from office “at pleasure,” any time a major- and Pennsylvania argued that representation in both ity in the legislature disagreed with him on an impor- houses of the legislature should be based on popula- tant issue. tion, while those from smaller states such as New Many, perhaps most, of the delegates thought that Jersey and Maryland argued for equal representation the executive should be elected by the national legis- for each state. The so-called New Jersey Plan, pre- lature; still others thought that the executive should sented by William Paterson of that state, called for a be elected by the state legislatures or even by the gov- “federal” rather than a “national” government. Its ernors of the states. James Wilson was virtually the essential feature — a single-house legislature in which only delegate who came out unequivocally for direct each state was to have only one vote — seemed a election of the President by the people. He did not reincarnation of the Articles of Confederation, but in possess an inherent faith in the wisdom of the elector- fact it stipulated that the “federal Legislature” would ate, but he accurately predicted that popular election be superior to those of the states and specifically could give the executive branch both energy and inde- gave to the central government a coercive power “to pendence. enforce and compel obedience” from the states if a conflict were to arise between federal and state law. SLAVERY The protracted debate over these alternatives was an unedifying, even unattractive, affair. The com- he most blatantly pragmatic compromises con- promise that eventually emerged from that debate, cerned the troubling issue of slavery. By 1787 championed most energetically by the delegates from T slavery in America was in a state of decline. It Connecticut, was an obvious one remained a significant part of — so obvious that it was proposed the social and economic fabric off and on by several delegates The delegates in in five of the states represented almost from the beginning of that in the Convention, but only difficult six-week period: representa- Philadelphia failed to two states — South Carolina tion in the lower house would be eradicate that great and Georgia — were inclined apportioned according to popula- to argue for an expansion of tion, with each state receiving equal contradiction to the America’s “peculiar institu- representation in the upper house. In tion.” Yet the delegates in the final vote on the “Connecticut core values of liberty Philadelphia failed to eradicate Compromise,” occurring on July 16, and equality, on which that great contradiction to five states supported the proposal the core values of liberty and with four, including Virginia and America had declared equality, on which America Pennsylvania, opposing, and one had declared its independence. state divided. The next morning, a its independence. Instead, they enshrined the disconsolate James Madison and Instead, they enshrined institution of slavery within several other large-state delegates their new Constitution. met to consider whether they should the institution of leave the Convention altogether. Although neither the slavery within their word “slave” nor “slavery” POWERS OF THE PRESIDENCY new Constitution. is mentioned anywhere in the Constitution, issues regard- ing the institution of slavery he debate among the delegates were interwoven throughout over the separation of powers and the nature T the Convention debates from the very beginning. For of the American presidency, although more high- example, the slave population of the South, whether toned, was also more protracted and confusing. At conceived of as “residents” or as valuable property, one extreme, nationalists such as James Wilson and affected the calculations on the apportionment of Gouverneur Morris favored a strong, independent representation. The ultimate resolution of that issue executive capable of giving “energy, dispatch, and — each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a responsibility” to the government, and they even person in apportioning both representation and taxa- urged their fellow delegates to give the president tion — was a purely mechanical and wholly amoral an absolute veto over congressional legislation. At calculation designed to produce harmony among con- the other end of the spectrum, Roger Sherman of flicting interests within the Convention. Connecticut declared that the “Executive Magistracy” was “nothing more than an institution for carry- The future of the international slave trade was ing the will of the Legislature into effect.” This led discussed but never resolved. Although Northern and

SUMMER 2006 37 THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787

Upper Southern delegates were willing to compromise most astonishing to him was “to find this system for the sake of harmony, and most of the delegates approaching so near to perfection as it does.” Ever agreed that slavery was fundamentally immoral, del- the pragmatist, Franklin asked those delegates who egates from South Carolina and Georgia insisted that still had reservations about parts of the draft of the the slave trade be allowed to continue for at least Constitution to “doubt a little of [their] own infal- another twenty years, and others relented to their libility,” and to affix their names to the document. demand. Thirty-nine of the forty-two delegates who were gathered that day, many still harboring doubts about Finally, the delegates consented, virtually without aspects of the new framework of government and debate, to a provision requiring that any “Person held many still confused about what it portended, fol- to Service or Labour in one State. . . [and] escaping lowed Franklin’s advice, signing the Constitution into another . . . shall be delivered up on Claim of the and sending it off to the people of the states for their Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.” approval. That tortured language, going to such great lengths to avoid mentioning the word “slave,” became known There is an oft-told story — perhaps apocryphal — as the “Fugitive Slave Clause,” a provision of the that upon leaving the Convention Franklin was con- Constitution that prompted abolitionist William fronted by a dignified lady who asked him what sort Lloyd Garrison subsequently to label the Constitution of government he and his fellow delegates had cre- as a “covenant with death.” This one act of the ated. Franklin replied, so the story goes, “A republic Convention not only signaled the delegates’ grudg- madam, if you can keep it.” If there was one thing on ing acceptance of slavery but also made those states which all of the delegates who signed the Constitution that had abolished slavery in the aftermath of the would have agreed, it was that they had created a Revolution actively complicit in the support of that “republican” form of government. But what the pre- institution. cise ingredients of that republic would be — in what ways principles of federalism, democracy, and equality The Convention sanctioned the institution of slav- would be embodied in their new republic — would ery only because delegates from South Carolina and become clear only as America’s experiment in federal Georgia threatened to refuse to sign the Constitution union unfolded. unless they got their way. While the founding fathers may be justifiably praised for their remarkable fore- sight on many issues, the moral fabric of the nation would have been stronger had delegates from the North and Upper South refused to bow to the threats of South Carolina and Georgia delegates. The federal Richard R. Beeman is professor of history at the union would have survived without South Carolina University of Pennsylvania. He has written five books and Georgia, and, indeed, that union would have and several dozen articles on aspects of America’s politi- been significantly “more perfect” than that which cal and constitutional history. His most recent book, The emerged after the compromise over slavery. Varieties of Political Experience in Eighteenth Century America (2004), is a wide-ranging, interpretive study FRANKLIN’S LAST HURRAH of the uncertain and confused origins of democracy in America. He has served as a Fulbright Professor in n the last day of the Convention, Benjamin the United Kingdom and as the Vyvian Harmsworth OFranklin “rose with a speech in his hand,” but, Professor of American History at Oxford University. weakened by age and a painful attack of kidney He is currently writing a history of the Constitutional stones, he asked his fellow Pennsylvania delegate Convention of 1787, to be published by Random House James Wilson to read it for him. It would be the last in 2007. major speech of his life. He began by admitting that “there are several parts of this constitution which I do not approve,” but he then noted that what was

38 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Madison was not alone in this opinion. Inside and outside the convention, expressions of concern about the weakness of Congress, admittedly numer- Most high school history textbooks ous, were outnumbered by complaints against the offer essentially the same explanation for how the state governments. “What led to the appointment of United States Constitution came about, contending this Convention?” Maryland delegate John Francis that the previous government, under the Articles of Mercer asked his colleagues. Was it not “the corrup- Confederation (1781–1789), had proved too weak. tion and mutability of the Legislative Councils of the Yet if you delve into the speeches and writings of the States”? men who gathered in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787 to write the Constitution, you will discover Countless Americans who were not delegates another, far more pressing motive. The Framers to the federal convention also had the thirteen said that they wrote the Constitution because the state legislatures in their sights. “The state govern- American Revolution had gone too far. ments should be deprived of the power of injur[ing] themselves or the nation,” Henry Knox, the Boston bookseller who had become Washington’s chief of TOO MUCH DEMOCRACY? artillery, declared in a July 1787 letter to a member of the convention. The only solution was to “Smite he problem was not so much Congress as the them in the name of God and the People.” Tstate legislatures. Early in the Constitutional Convention, James Madison urged his colleagues to What was wrong with the states? Given the tackle “the evils . . . which prevail within the States common perception of the Founding Fathers as individually as well as those which affect them enthusiasts for rule by the people, it is jarring to collectively.” After all, he said, the states’ internal read their specific complaints. In September 1786, a problems “had a full share in the motives which pro- Connecticut essayist who took the name “Publicus” duced the present Convention.” grumbled that state assemblymen paid “too great an attention to popular notions.” Charles Lee of Virginia hoped that the federal convention delegates

SUMMER 2006 39 AN “EXCESS OF DEMOCRACY” — OR A SHORTAGE? would not pattern the new national government on bined the territory of all thirteen states, grassroots the state constitutions but instead would create a efforts to pressure elected officials would rarely government “more powerful and independent of the acquire that essential ingredient of political power: people.” unity. As Madison pointed out in Federalist Number 10, Americans would rarely be able “to discover “I was once as strong a republican as any man in their own strength,” much less “act in concert.” America,” declared Noah Webster — he of dictionary fame — in November 1786, “Now, a republican A month earlier, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, is among the last kinds of governments I should Madison had made the same point in even starker choose. I should infinitely prefer a limited monarchy, terms. “Divide et impera, the reprobated axiom of for I would sooner be subject to the caprice of one tyranny,” he wrote, “is under certain qualifications, man, than to the ignorance and passions of a multi- the only policy, by which a republic can be adminis- tude.” tered on just principles.” Others identified the problem as “a Yet not all cat- headstrong democracy,” “a mad democ- Perhaps the Framers’ most egories of citizens racy,” a “prevailing rage of excessive would find unity democracy,” a “republican frenzy,” powerful restraint on equally elusive. “democratical tyranny,” and “democratic Some interest licentiousness.” popular power was also the groups — those that the fed- The Philadelphia convention proposed most subtle. The convention eral-convention — and thirteen state-ratifying conven- discovered that it could delegates and like- tions eventually accepted — a host of minded men con- remedies for the disease of excessive limit ordinary citizens’ sidered the most democracy. As the acclaimed historian virtuous — would Douglass Adair pointed out in 1943, the inﬂ uence over the most outdo others at Framers ensured that the one popularly crucial government functions the art of coalesc- elected branch of the new national gov- ing. Well-to-do city ernment, the House of Representatives, . . . simply by shifting them dwellers (especially would be “carefully checked and bal- merchants), vet- anced by a quasi-aristocratic (or pluto- from the states, where the eran officers, and cratic) senate, the electoral college, the median population was investors in govern- presidential veto, and by judicial review.” ment bonds were Perhaps the Framers’ most powerful 250,000 souls, to a new much likelier than restraint on popular power was also the national government that ordinary farm- most subtle. The convention discovered ers to achieve the that it could limit ordinary citizens’ influ- encompassed all three and a level of internal ence over the most crucial government cooperation that functions, especially the levying of taxes half million Americans. was needed to (until then a state responsibility) and the exert influence on regulation of debtor-creditor relations, a government that simply by shifting them from the states, where the embraced the combined territories of the thirteen median population was 250,000 souls, to a new states. Taking note of this disparity in organizing national government that encompassed all three and ability, the supporters of the Constitution affirmed a half million Americans. that it would filter out unjust efforts to influence public officials while allowing salutary influences to Because congressional districts would encompass pass through. about ten times as many voters as the constituencies from which state assemblymen were chosen, they Madison’s fellow Constitutional Convention del- would stand a much better chance of filling pub- egate Gouverneur Morris, who had literally been to lic offices with responsible men. If “the Election is the manor born (at “Morrisania,” on Long Island), made by the Peop. in large Districts there will be no understood that “the schemes of the Rich will be Danger of Demagogues” being elected, Madison told favored by the extent of the Country. The people the Philadelphia convention. in such distant parts can not communicate & act in concert” and would be at a disadvantage compared Nor was this all. After the Constitution shifted with “those who have more Knowledge & inter- certain vital government duties to a polity that com- course” with each other.

40 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 AN “EXCESS OF DEMOCRACY” — OR A SHORTAGE?

TOO LITTLE DEMOCRACY? HERMAN HUSBAND

ost modern historians endorse the Framers’ little-known advocate for shrinking legislative Mclaim that the states had become too democrat- Adistricts was Herman Husband, a farmer and ic. For instance, Bernard Bailyn of Harvard affirms religious seeker who lived in Bedford County on the that by the mid-1780s, Madison “had observed the Pennsylvania frontier. evil effects of legislative majorities within some of the The sheer size of the Pennsylvania legislative con- states over the previous five years. Again and again stituencies, which spanned entire counties and were minority property rights had been overwhelmed by thus among the most populous in the nation, kept populist majorities.” farmers and artisans out of the assembly, Husband Maybe historians such as Bailyn are correct in declared in a 1782 pamphlet. A “County is too large describing the state governments created during the a Bound,” he wrote, and there are only “a few Men American Revolution as being too responsive to pop- in a County who are generally known throughout ular whims. What they sometimes forget, however, the whole of it.” These prominent men who had is that on the eve of the Constitutional Convention, the best chance of getting elected were “generally thousands of pamphlets, newspaper essays, and peti- the most unsuitable, they being chiefly Tavern-keep- tions to the state legislatures put forward exactly the ers, Merchants, &c. in the County Towns, with the opposite claim: The problem the United States faced Officers, Lawyers, &c.” in the wake of the Revolutionary War was not too Husband thought that state representatives should much democracy, but too little. be chosen by new county legislatures comprising According to this alternative viewpoint, the clear- one member from each town. Farmers and artisans est indication that the state legislatures were not would easily win election to the county legislatures, really in the hands of the people was the massive tax and once there they could send one of their own to burden that they imposed. Voters complained of hav- the state assembly. ing rebelled against British tax collectors only to face County legislatures not only would increase the even more voracious ones at home. percentage of less-wealthy candidates who won In most states, taxes were two or three times their races but also would help farmers and artisans higher after the revolution than before. And everyone acquire the confidence that they needed to seek knew why: the state assemblies were determined to higher office in the first place. As long as their repre- pay interest on the government securities that had sentatives were chosen countywide, Husband argued, financed the war effort. What made these taxes so ordinary men would be “apt to conceive of ourselves galling for returning soldiers was that financial neces- [as] too insignificant to represent the County.” The sity had compelled most of them to sell their bonds county legislature would “prove as a School to train to speculators at a fraction of their face value. Tax up and learn Men of the best Sense and Principles collectors seized livestock and sometimes even land the Nature of all publick Business, and give them from former soldiers to produce windfall profits for Utterance to speak to the same.” the speculators who had scooped up their bonds. Husband’s proposal was based on the concept of A group of petitioners in Brunswick County, gradation. The dimensions of the parts of the human Virginia, spoke for thousands of other Americans body build gradually from the smallest measurement when they declared in 1786 that “The honest — the distance between two knuckles — all the way labourour who tills the ground by the sweat of his up to the largest, the person’s height. In the same brow Seams hithertoo to be the only sufferors by a way, society should not consist simply of the rulers revolution which ought to be glorious but which the and the ruled but of several intermediate layers as undeserving only reap the benifit off.” well. Recall that Madison’s remedy for what he per- “Our Want [lack] of the proper Use of those less- ceived as an excess of democracy was to shift certain er Joints in the Body-politick,” Husband wrote, “is key governmental powers from the state to the feder- as though we wanted our Finger-joints in our Bodies al level, which had the effect of enlarging representa- natural; without which we could not carry on the tives’ legislative districts. Americans whose diagnosis finer Parts of mechanick Work.” (See Figures 1 and 2 of the country’s plight was the reverse of Madison’s on page 42.) — in their view, the country was not democratic Like James Madison and the men with whom enough — proposed a remedy that was also the he would collaborate in securing the adoption of opposite of his. They wanted to make assemblymen’s the Constitution, Herman Husband recognized that districts smaller. enlarging legislative districts tended to thwart some

SUMMER 2006 41 AN “EXCESS OF DEMOCRACY” — OR A SHORTAGE?

Figure 1. Herman Husband believed truly represen- Figure 2. Husband used a map of North tative government requires several layers of repre- America and a diagram of a human body sentation between the individual and the national to demonstrate his belief that the various government. He insisted that there be no variation layers of representative government in in the increment by which the size of each ele- the United States should exhibit the same ment of the government surpassed the size of the proportionality as the human body. (For next-smallest element. He found inspiration for this Ezekiel 43, verse 10, see caption to Figure proportionality in Ezekiel 43, verse 10 (which reads, 1.) Used by permission of The Historical in the King James version, “Thou son of man, Society of Pennsylvania. shew the house to the house of Israel, that they may be ashamed of their iniquities: and let them measure the pattern”) and in the proportions in the human body. Here Husband compares a state to a human hand. A Dialogue between an Assembly-Man and a Convention-Man on the Subject of the State Constitution of Pennsylvania ([Philadelphia], [1790]), between pages 8 and 9, attributed to Husband in Mark H. Jones, “Herman Husband: Millenarian, Carolina Regulator, and Whiskey Rebel” (PhD diss., Northern Illinois University, 1982), 331–337. Used by permission of The Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

42 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 AN “EXCESS OF DEMOCRACY” — OR A SHORTAGE? pressure groups more successfully than others. In his Although one of Husband’s tax-reduction propos- 1782 pamphlet, he contended that the framers of the als is mentioned in a letter that Madison received state constitutions had deliberately established large early in 1790, there is no evidence that the two ever legislative districts with no intermediaries between met. Husband showed up in President Washington’s legislators and their constituents because they knew correspondence, too, four years later, when he was that in this system, “the Body of the Governors” arrested and taken to Philadelphia for playing a lead- would be able to “combine,” whereas “the Body of ing, albeit nonviolent, role in the so-called Whiskey the Governed” was “cut off from the Benefit of the Rebellion of 1794. He was released, but as he made Circulation of Life and Knowledge, and so become his way home, Husband took sick and died. He was dead and ignorant.” fifty years old. During the debate over whether to ratify the For a new generation of historians to endorse the Constitution, New Yorker Melancton Smith, like analysis of the outcome of the American Revolution Husband an Antifederalist, echoed his claim that offered by obscure thinkers such as Herman enlarging legislative districts tended to increase the Husband would be as rash as it was for scholars relative strength of the well-to-do. “The great easily such as Bailyn to sanction the diagnoses and rem- form associations,” Smith told the New York ratify- edies of men such as James Madison. Yet I am one ing convention on June 21, 1788, but “the poor and historian who is excited to learn that I had underesti- middling class form them with difficulty.” mated the range of political ideas that were available to Americans during the immediate aftermath of the After the Constitution was ratified and Americans Revolutionary War. began electing congressmen in districts that were ten times larger than state legislative districts — and Indeed, in many ways, the range of possibilities in some cases even larger than that — Husband was greater then than it is today. declared that the government “might as well have empowered the officers and wealthy men to have held those elections without mocking the public and the body of freemen.” Woody Holton teaches at the University of Richmond. Men such as Husband and Smith agreed with He is the author of Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Madison and his fellow Federalists that shifting cer- Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution tain core governmental duties to national legislators in Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1999), which received the had thwarted some grassroots organizing efforts Merle Curti Social History Award, and of the forth- more effectively than others. All they denied was that coming Reining in the Revolution: Angry Farmers and the pernicious influences were the ones that had been the Origins of the Constitution. His essay, “Divide et filtered out. Impera: Federalist 10 in a Wider Sphere,” appears in the Organization of American Historians’ Best American History Essays 2006 (New York, 2006).

SUMMER 2006 43 PAINTINGS

Her paintings are confluent with bleak streets sharp cornered, cluttered with tenements, dingy sheets dangling from back lines, lines strung out from all three floors to a telephone pole in a far corner of the yard. In winter the lines squeal in short bursts as the women snap inside the frozen sheets, the stiffened tee shirts. One night her brothers return from ice fishing with a rigid, injured, oil-slicked gull — throughout the night they bathe it over and over heating water from the cold tap, warming towels over the single heater, but by morning it is dead. Six or eight children see to its funeral with Latin hymns and stick crosses, they lay it in a shallow grave hacked from the frozen ground. At Christmas she paints orange candles in a grandmother’s third floor windows. In the second floor, a hint of tree lights. In the first, all the windows are blank and staring. In April she covers a canvas with gesso but it stays stark and empty as the first floor, untouched till June, when the morning sun bounces off the bone-bright canvas, beckoning. Soon the fire escapes crisscross the houses and women hang out there, chatting on the iron steps. Some folks put out plants, so she paints a red azalea, bright and alive against the backdrop of black iron and dark brick. Gulls skirl above amid the steeples the green patina of the Portuguese, the granite of the Irish, the dark slate of the French — they chime the hour and the black stacks of the factories fill the corner of the canvas: between the mills and the churches the tenements multiply the fire escapes the children. CATHERINE MCLAUGHLIN

Catherine McLaughlin is a professor of English at Framingham State College in Massachusetts. She lives in the unlikely sounding town of Plainville with her two children and ninety-two-year-old mother. Her poetry has appeared in Southern Review, Connecticut River Review, Cream City Review, Wisconsin Review, Commonweal, and many other literary magazines. She has a memoir forthcoming in Confrontation, the Long Island University literary journal.

44 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 the Constitution’s critics would say, to represent the people adequately. The delegates also refused to add mericans remember the men who designed a bill of rights. Such a document, Virginia’s George A Mason argued, “would give great quiet to the people; the Constitution and fought for its ratification, the “Federalists,” as founders of the nation. Those who and with the aid of the State declarations, a bill might were labeled as “Antifederalists” do not qualify be prepared in a few hours.” But not one state del- because they “opposed the Constitution.” They also egation voted in favor. apparently lost, and Americans love winners. In My title, however, comes from an exchange fact, the divisions over the Constitution were more on September 15, two days before the conven- complicated than those descriptions suggest, and the tion adjourned. Governor Edmund Randolph of Antifederalists have a strong claim to be included Virginia moved “that amendments to the plan among the founders. [the Constitution] might be offered by the State The ratification controversy began, in retrospect, Conventions, which should be submitted to and during the five days before the convention adjourned finally decided on by another general Convention.” on September 17, 1787, as the delegates went over Randolph said that he was anxious to find a way to a polished version of the Constitution for one last avoid differing with the “body of the Convention” time. Because they had been in session with only one after their “great and awful” labors together, but short break since May and were eager to go home, without this provision he could not “put his name to they hastily threw out one proposal after another the instrument.” Mason supported the motion. The that might have made ratification a lot easier. Twice, convention had written the Constitution “without the for example, they rejected proposals to increase the knowledge or idea of the people,” and only after a size of the first House of Representatives, which was broad public debate could the “sense of the people” to consist of only sixty-five members, far too few, be known and the Constitution adjusted so that it fit

SUMMER 2006 45 “TAKE THIS OR NOTHING” the people’s preferences. “It was improper,” Mason “submitted to a Convention of Delegates, cho- said, “to say to the people, take this or nothing.” sen in each State by the People thereof, under the Again, not one state delegation voted in favor of Recommendation of its Legislature, for their Assent Randolph’s motion for a second convention. and Ratification.” But could the people only assent and ratify the Constitution or, by inference, reject Randolph and Mason, along with Massachusetts’s it altogether? Were they precluded from proposing Elbridge Gerry, did not sign the Constitution, and so changes? By what right could the convention tell the apparently lost their place among the founders. Yet sovereign people to “take this or nothing”? few delegates had done more to bring the convention together than Randolph or contributed more con- structively to its discussions than Mason. Their pro- FINDING FAULT WITH THE CONSTITUTION posal for a second convention, moreover, was firmly grounded on constitutional theory and precedent. eorge Mason scribbled a list of “objections” to Gthe Constitution on the back of a committee THE MASSACHUSETTS EXAMPLE report before the convention ended. Elbridge Gerry copied the list and showed it to like-minded people in New York on his way home to Massachusetts. he Constitution begins “We the people . . . do Mason also showed his list to the Pennsylvania ordain and establish this Constitution for the T Antifederalist Robert Whitehill, who made a United States of America.” Those words were taken copy. And the day after the convention adjourned, from the 1780 Massachusetts constitution, the first Mason sent another copy to Richard Henry Lee, a to be drafted by a specially elected constitutional Virginia delegate in the Continental Congress who convention and then submitted to the people for in late September proposed ratification. In that way — which had that Congress amend the been proposed by ordinary citizens in Constitution before sending it to places such as Concord or Pittsfield, To insist that the the states. Massachusetts — the constitution Constitution go to became a direct act of legislation by These men were not alone in the sovereign people, distinct and the people as it was, finding fault with the proposed superior to the ordinary laws passed Constitution. In the early fall by legislatures. By 1787, constitutional without amendments, of 1787, virtually every lead- scholars such as James Madison saw Lee told the ing Federalist considered it ratification by the people as essential imperfect. George Washington, to any constitution. Continental Congress, Henry Knox, James Wilson, James Madison, Alexander The people of Massachusetts, was “like presenting Hamilton — all thought some however, had not been told in 1780 parts of the Constitution were to “take this or nothing.” The state a hungry man 50 mistakes. If certain provisions constitutional convention asked town of the Constitution caused meetings to review the draft constitu- dishes and insisting problems when put into effect, tion part by part, recording votes as he should eat all or the Federalists said, they could they went along. Later the convention be amended through the pro- would reconvene, modify any unpopu- none.” Amendments, cess described in Article V of lar provisions so that they satisfied the Constitution. But first the two-thirds of the people, and then moreover, would Constitution had to be ratified. declare the constitution ratified. The make ratiﬁ cation Their position was like that of a process did not work out as planned: shopkeeper who lets customers returns from the towns were so con- likely “as alter a suit of clothes only after fusing that the reconvened convention they pay for it. But was a proce- simply declared the entire constitution capital objections dure that makes some sense in ratified. If used again, the procedure will probably be selling a suit of clothes appro- would need a better way of determin- priate for ratifying a document ing how many people opposed certain removed.” that would affect the freedom provisions and why. and welfare of the American Instead, the Philadelphia conven- people far into the future? tion prescribed an entirely different procedure for To insist that the Constitution go to the people as ratifying the federal Constitution. A set of special it was, without amendments, Lee told the Continental resolutions stipulated that the Constitution should Congress, was “like presenting a hungry man 50 be sent to the Continental Congress and afterwards

46 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 “TAKE THIS OR NOTHING” dishes and insisting he should eat all or none.” coerce newspaper editors who printed Antifederalist Amendments, moreover, would make ratification writings. The published debates of the Pennsylvania more likely “as capital objections will probably be convention include only Federalist speeches, as if removed.” The idea that the Constitution had to be nobody else were there. Nonetheless, within months agreed to “or nothing else” supposed that “all wis- an explosion of newspaper essays criticizing parts dom centers in the Convention” and that nobody of the Constitution, some in series such as those of outside of the convention had anything to contrib- “Centinel,” others one-shot letters of local origin, ute but a nod of approval. He got nowhere in the swept “the people” into a boisterous debate played Continental Congress, which refused even to debate out not just in the press but also in public meet- his amendments — and then excised them from its ings and taverns, in the streets, and across dinner journal. tables. On one side stood those who wanted the Constitution ratified as proposed by the convention. In the fall of 1787, then, both sides in the ratifica- On the other side were people unwilling to “take this tion controversy agreed on the need for strengthening or nothing.” the federal government. Moreover, many who found serious fault with parts of the Constitution nonethe- In Massachusetts, for example, town meetings less saw it as a step in the right direction. Mason, for often read and discussed the Constitution before example, wrote Washington that his “objections” electing delegates to the state ratifying convention, were “not numerous” and easily could have been then debated whether they should instruct those del- removed by “a little Moderation & Temper, in the egates on how to vote. Most decided not to adopt latter End of the Convention.” Lee also acknowl- instructions, perhaps because they already had chosen edged that the Constitution was better than the delegates who shared their views. Of those towns Confederation, or it would be once its worst flaws that instructed their delegates, the majority told them were repaired. To that extent, the Antifederalists were to vote against ratification. If “we the people” were not antifederalists, a term that the Federalists had to decide, why shouldn’t they register the results invented for persons who opposed strengthening the of their deliberations in that fashion? Other towns Confederation long before the Philadelphia conven- found ways to express themselves without compro- tion met. The Antifederalists never liked the name mising the deliberative character of the convention. but gradually fell into accepting it because they could Take the statesman-like position of Southborough not come up with a better one — in part because the in Worcester County, which decided “that the Federalists had co-opted the one that best fit their Federal Constitution, as it now Stands ought not views. to be Ratifyed, but that under Certain Limitations and Amendments it may be a Salutary form of To be sure, not all Antifederalists were the Government.” It left the subject of amendments “to same. Some suggested that amendments to the the wise Deliberations of the Convention,” confident Confederation could have solved the nation’s prob- that it would both “Guard the Liberties of the peo- lems. At the other extreme, the Antifederalist writer ple” and grant Congress “all those powers which are “Centinel” favored a second convention, not to necessary to Secure and maintain the federal Union.” amend the Constitution, which he described as a “first try,” but to start over, building on public discussion to improve the previous design. Most LIMITATIONS AND AMENDMENTS Antifederalists, however, were prepared to support an amended Constitution. Only when the Federalists hat limitations and amendments did the continued to insist that the people “take this or noth- WAntifederalists favor? The Massachusetts rati- ing” did the Antifederalists oppose ratification — in fying convention recommended several, as did the the hope of getting something better. conventions of South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York. None insisted on a major THE POPULAR DEBATE rewriting of the Constitution, as had Richard Henry Lee in September 1787. Lee wanted to take the task of giving the president “advice and consent” away ederalists at first tried with considerable success from the Senate and entrust it to a council in the to prevent criticisms of the Constitution from cir- F executive branch to make the separation of powers culating. They had some doubt, it seems, that “the more exact, to eliminate the “useless” job of vice people” would judge wisely in an open contest and so president, and to make representation in both houses preferred to pretend that nobody was doing anything of Congress proportional to population. Although but shouting “huzzah!” Federalists cut the amend- some states made proposals comparable to Lee’s, they ments that Antifederalists proposed from the offi- agreed on certain core amendments that were decid- cial records of both Congress and the Pennsylvania edly more modest. ratifying convention and cancelled subscriptions to

SUMMER 2006 47 “TAKE THIS OR NOTHING”

The states asked for an explicit provision that In short, the Antifederalists did not “oppose the all powers not granted to Congress be reserved Constitution.” They wanted to improve it, above all to the states. They also demanded — as had Lee by adding those protections of rights that remain for — Constitutional protection for trial by jury, particu- Americans the most beloved parts of the (amended) larly in civil cases, and a series of other rights, many Constitution. They also proposed to increase repre- of which are now protected by the first ten amend- sentation of the people, avoid oppressive taxes, ensure ments to the Constitution (“the bill of rights”), which ready access to justice for everyone, and put further the First Federal Congress proposed in an effort to limits on power while reducing the likelihood of its avoid more severe restrictions on its powers. Even the corrupt misuse. Those constructive proposals emerged phrase “due process of law” in the Fifth (and later not from the “demigods” at Philadelphia (except also the Fourteenth) Amendment, which has been for a few dissenters among them), but instead from of immense importance in the history of American a debate on American government that stretched freedom, came from the amendments proposed by back to 1776 and in which “the people” took their Antifederalist New York. authority seriously. The Antifederalists never got their second convention, but they did not “lose.” In time For Antifederalists, however, the most important they got almost everything else that they wanted in “rights issue” involved the old revolutionary principle one way or another and so left an enduring mark on of “no taxation without (adequate) representation.” the American national government and its exercise of One state after another proposed that Congress power. They, too, were founders. impose direct taxes (essentially poll taxes and real- estate taxes) only when funds from import duties, excise taxes, and other sources were insufficient, and then let the states raise their proportions of the general levy. If a state failed to act, the federal govern- Pauline Maier is the William Rand Kenan, Jr., Professor ment could then collect the taxes — plus six percent of American History at MIT. She is the author of several interest per annum for the time since the state requisi- books and articles on the American Revolution, includ- tion fell due. Because representation in Congress was ing From Resistance to Revolution (1972) and American insufficient, the Antifederalists argued, direct taxes Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence — which were potentially ruinous because unavoid- (1997), and she contributed chapters on American histo- able — should be raised only by the state legislatures, ry through early 1800 for Inventing America: A History nd which represented the people more fully and knew of the United States (2 edition, 2006), which gives par- better what burdens their people could bear. The pro- ticular attention to innovation as a theme in American posal horrified Federalists, but how much difference history. She is currently writing a book on the ratifica- would it have made? Until passage of the Sixteenth tion of the federal Constitution. Amendment in 1913, the federal government imposed direct taxes only rarely and in grave circumstances, such as during the Civil War, and Antifederalists might well have accepted a wartime exception to Magnum Opus Awards their rule. Once the new government began, Congress alle- The Phi Kappa Phi Forum received a viated anxiety over inadequate representation by SILVER AWARD increasing the size of the House of Representatives. By giving state courts original jurisdiction in most for Best Series of Articles civil cases under federal law, the Judiciary Act of for the Winter/Spring 2005 issue, 1789 answered Antifederalist fears for the survival of state courts, which, they said, kept access to jus- “The Human Brain” tice from becoming a prerogative of the rich. Other Antifederalist proposals eventually were enacted as The Publications Management Magnum the Eleventh Amendment (precluding suits against a Opus Awards are designed to honor publi- state by citizens of other states or foreigners, 1798), cations that deliver—strategically, editorial- the Twenty-Second (presidents can be elected to only ly, and visually—with a quality consistency two terms, 1951), and the Twenty-Seventh (preclud- of the highest order. ing Congress from raising its members’ pay before an election intervenes, 1992). Go to www.mcmurry.com and click on “Awards” for more information.

48 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 LOIS ROMA-DEELEY. north- window./Morning light fi lling a water glass./A note taped to Sight. Scottsdale, AZ: the front door./Two oboes crackling on the broken radio.” Singularity Press, 2006. $24.95. Such moments are worth singing about (“Standing on the rranged in four sec- Transcendental Sidewalk”) or perhaps folding into the quo- Ations, northSight, Lois tidian as in “Melting into the Wind at the Transcendental Roma-Deeley’s second book Five and Dime.” Most important of all is this poet’s ability of poems, presents a cast of to mend the broken things, herself included, even as she is characters worthy of Dante: “Exit-ing.” In such manner, the girl and the woman whom dealers, bikers, prostitutes, the girl becomes can, in fact, fi nd “How the Future Feels.” rapists, and tattoo girls on the They can fi nd how it feels, yes, and they can, knowing its one hand, and war heroes, dangers, nevertheless revel in it, as Lois Roma-Deeley does waitresses, monks, laborers, in her fi ne second book, northSight. fi remen, and immigrants on the other. Doors and door- ways fi gure prominently in these poems, but the poems Peter Huggins teaches in the English Department at Auburn with “transcendental” in the title link all of these characters University. He is author of three collections of poetry, Hard and the sections of the book. Facts (1998), Blue Angels (2001), and Necessary Acts (2004) as well as a novel for middle grade readers, In the Company of While Part I does not include a transcendental poem as Owls (2007), and a picture book, Trosclair and the Alligator such, that omission strikes me as an oddly appropriate way (2006). to begin, like the teapot in “This” that the young girl drops on the stone fl oor, cutting herself. No matter — the monk Roland Sarti. Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance making boxes, the monk for whom the tea is intended, sees to the Present. Facts On File, Inc., 2004. 712 pages. $85.00. in this tiny disaster “a star burst he can copy,/something he oland Sarti’s Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renais- can use.” So, too, are the speaker in “Women and Contem- Rsance to the Present is one of a number of projected porary Society” who owns the lecture hall and the grocery volumes on European nations, including Spain, Portugal, clerk ogling her breasts. Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, and “Getting on the Transcendental Train” in Part II seems Russia. Geared toward the top-level high school and college absolutely crucial for understanding northSight. The speaker student, each guide includes a short history of the country and her son watch “nonstop reruns of East of Eden.” They from the Renaissance to the present; a concise encyclopedia are marked with the smells of “fresh pine and stale pop- of important events, places, and personages; a very useful corn.” They hope, “somewhere in the middle of each show,” chronology of signifi cant historical events in the country’s that “this time there has to be/a better ending.” This hope evolution in the past fi ve hundred years; and, fi nally, a set for a “better ending” provides a theme around which the of maps, appendices, an index, and a solid bibliography for poems in this volume turn, even in the face of physical decay further reading. as in “Explicit,” whose speaker asks “should-I-be-allowed- Sarti traces the etymology of “Italia” to the Latin word to-live?” for “calf,” “vitilus.” This same question resonates and echoes in Part III’s “To The etymological Be the Transcendental Infi nitive” and “Underneath the Tran- transformation of scendental Green Sweater.” The speaker in “Transcendental this word from viti- Infi nitive” puns on to be or not and alternatively imagines lus to Vitelia, which herself as “the glint/in chrome around the window of a later became the cur- car/burning down the highway. Or the bead of sweat/falling rent Italia, refl ects from ear to jaw.” She wants “To be this/nothing more.” And the perennial vision then there are those “charms on a string made of cat gut/and of the Italian pen- conch shells,” underneath the green sweater, of course, that insula as a land of whisper of answered prayers and hope even in “the dead of plenty. However, as winter.” Sarti notes, the idea that Italy continues Hope resides in moments and poems such as “Tuning the to be a cornucopia Transcendental Radio” in which the “I” of the poem sees of natural riches her old age in “weeping/for words which do not exist.” Yet is more myth than she memorizes one moment so perfectly as to obliterate that reality, because this weeping: “two small faces pressed against the [Ford’s] back beautiful peninsula

SUMMER 2006 49 BOOK REVIEWS has, for more than two millennia, been successively pillaged tion,” which, against the strong opposition of the Catholic of its natural resources by invaders and settlers from the Church in Italy, was legalized in 1978 and which has con- north, the south, and the east. In more-distant epochs, invit- tributed to Italy’s precipitously declining birthrate. The last ed and uninvited guests included Phoenicians, Carthaginians, entry is “Zoli, Adone,” a Christian Democrat Prime Min- Greeks, Arabs, Normans, Franks, Longobards, Visigoths, ister in the 1950s who, among other things, kept secret for Ostrogoths, Muslims, Vikings, and Magyars; in the modern decades the site of Il Duce’s remains, now conserved in the era, which this book covers, the invaders were the French, Mussolini family vault in Predappio and still the destination the Spanish, and the Austrians. Even today Italy continues to of admirers and the merely curious alike. These “book-end” be the destination of both legal and illegal immigrants who entries vividly demonstrate the controversy and the drama arrive on its fabled shores from Africa and the nations across that continue to swirl around Italian social phenomena even the Adriatic Sea. today. According to Sarti, modern Italy suffers from a national All aspects of Italy’s cultural and intellectual contribu- identity crisis, precisely because Italians have been “unac- tions are covered in the central portion of the volume. In customed to working together” (vi) since the decline of the the visual arts, for example, we fi nd not only the predictable Roman Empire. If this assertion is true, then Italy still faces Rafaello Sanzio and Giovanni Tiepolo, but also the recently a monumental challenge, one that would appear not to have celebrated Artemisia Gentileschi. In music, we fi nd classi- been met during the Risorgimento, the period in the nine- cal composers such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Boccherini and teenth century when political unifi cation occurred. As the Giuseppe Verdi, but also modern contributors to the art name of the period of national unifi cation suggests, the Ri- such as Nino Rota and Luciano Berio. Architectural entries sorgimento, which means “resurgence,” was inspired by the include not only enshrined fi gures such as Gian Lorenzo nation’s past glories, beginning with those of ancient Rome Bernini and Andrea Palladio, but also important innova- and proceeding through those associated with the Roman tors such as Pier Luigi Nervi, whose design of the George Catholic Church, the medieval city states, and the powerful Washington Bridge Bus Terminal in New York embodies Renaissance families. both the practical and the aesthetic aspects of construction, and Renzo Piano, whose thoughtful additions to the High For citizens to support the idea of a nation, the majority Museum in Atlanta, Georgia, complement Richard Meier’s of them must subscribe to an identity based on a common distinctive original design. value system that goes beyond region, political, class, or family allegiances. According to this view, the inherent “in- In literature, pride of place is devoted to Dante Alighieri, ternal diversity” (vii) that characterizes the Italian people has the “father of the Italian language” and author of the “Di- frustrated the development of the essential sense of national vine” Comedy, but coverage is also given to current authors identity that fuels the engine of national development. The such as semiologist and political commentator Umberto Eco, notion of italianità is thus a top-down abstraction formulat- whose novels address signifi cant intellectual concerns, and ed by intellectuals seeking “a principle of unity” for a group Matilde Serao, whose works explore feminine psychology, of divided peoples: “What was missing for most [Italian] political corruption, and the deplorable living conditions people was the intermediate link of italianità that connected of her native Naples. Italian cinema gained international the particular to the universal” (vii-viii). fame at the end of the Second World War when a group of innovative directors and screenwriters, including Roberto Sarti’s ninety-one-page history of Italy succinctly de- Rossellini, Cesare Zavattini, and Vittorio De Sica invented scribes earlier periods, such as the Renaissance, the Age of the Neorealist style of fi lmmaking, which employed a gritty, Enlightenment, the Napoleonic era, the Restoration, and documentary style to tell heartrending stories about ordinary the movements that culminated in political unity in the Italians in post-war Italy. Neorealism gave way to other second half of the nineteenth century. But the author devotes infl uential cinematic styles, including Federico Fellini’s sur- a greater number of pages to the tumultuous twentieth realistic depiction of Italian life in the 1950s, the commedia century, the fi rst half of which witnessed such momentous all ’italiana, Michelangelo Antonioni’s cynical portrayal of events as Giovanni Giolitti’s liberalism, the devastating First upper middle-class ennui, Sergio Leone’s spaghetti Western World War, and the equally crippling Fascist decades of mili- fi lms, and Lina Wertmuller’s parodies of gender politics. tarism abroad and dictatorship at home. At the conclusion of the Second World War, a battered Italy rebuilt itself with Italy’s contributions to the sciences are, of course, leg- massive aid from the United States and rejected a monarchi- endary — for example, the “natural philosopher” Galileo cal form of government. During the subsequent republican Galilei, whose confi rmation of the Copernican view that the period, Italians witnessed the evolution of a plethora of earth revolved around the sun, and not vice versa, led to political parties on the political right and left. In more recent the scientist’s trial in 1633 by the Roman Inquisition. Only decades, they have confronted the diffi cult challenges of en- in 2001 did Pope John Paul II offi cially rescind the church’s vironmental depletion, political scandals, feminist and other condemnation of Galileo’s research. The Nobel Prize-win- social movements, and internal and external terrorist threats. ner Enrico Fermi conducted experiments with uranium that led to what later was identifi ed as the new element barium. The largest section of this volume (538 pages) is devoted Another expatriate, Rita Levi-Montalcino, who shared to a Historical Dictionary A to Z. The fi rst entry is “abor-

50 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 BOOK REVIEWS the Nobel Prize in medicine for her research in neurology, Mary Lang, Ed. D. How to Choose The Perfect School. specifi cally in growth factors, was appointed senator for life Trafford Publishing. 2005. 105 pages. $15.50. in 2001. Perfect 1. Expert, profi cient; 2. Being entirely Important movements and ideas also are detailed, includ- without fault; fl awless; satisfying all requirements; ing entries for futurism, fascism, and feminism. Futurism, a accurate; corresponding to an ideal standard; cultural-political movement of the early twentieth century faithfully reproducing the original; legally valid related to cubism, rejected bourgeois and traditional values 3. Pure, total; lacking in no essential detail; 4. and advocated bold, industrial innovations, but ultimately Implies the soundness and the excellence of every succumbed to its own glorifi cation of violence. Futurism’s part, element, or quality of a thing frequently as an love of anarchic individualism persisted, however, in the unattainable or theoretical state. subsequent movement of Fascism, which called for the —From Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary suppression of individual fulfi llment in favor of the advance- ment of the collective good. Taking as their inspiration the arents seeking a imperialistic model of the ancient Romans, the Fascists Pquality education sought to make Italy a global military power and, on the for their twenty-fi rst- domestic front, won support with their programs of health century children will care and welfare, land reclamation, and mass entertainment. fi nd valuable material Feminism in Italy encountered vigorous opposition from the in Mary Lang’s ambi- Catholic Church and its political arm. But after the student tiously titled publica- revolts of 1968 and the rise of the New Left, Italian femi- tion, How to Choose nism made impressive gains on the specifi c issues of birth The Perfect School. Dr. control, divorce, and other family concerns and on broader Lang is the founder cultural trends such as sexual identity, gender equality, and of the K–6 Moscow “the special needs of women as women” (275). Charter School in Idaho. She writes as Not surprisingly in a reference book aimed at an Ameri- an educator and a can readership, major coverage is given to Italy’s relations parent, expressing her with the United States. A photograph of then Prime Minister wish to assist parents Silvio Berlusconi, looking highly pleased to be shaking hands who fi nd themselves with George W. Bush, underscores not only Italy’s support with options that only of the Iraq war but also indicates her strong and sustained recently have become cultural and political engagement with America. Perhaps available, options they not enough coverage is allotted to recent social develop- may not be prepared ments such as gay rights and youth culture, although both of to assess, options that can and will affect their children’s these topics are discussed. This reviewer is surprised by the formal education and eventual life paths. School choice is a omission of entries on certain famous contemporary Ital- serious undertaking requiring careful refl ection, thought, and ians. Where is Ennio Morricone, whose haunting fi lm scores assessment, and purposeful, long-range decision-making. enrich numerous fi lms, both Italian and foreign? Where is Dr. Lang’s book offers a comprehensive consideration of the Elena Ferrante, the mysterious Neapolitan, whose intriguing facets and the process of choice. novels (for example, Days of Abandonment) have brought international attention to the question of the female condi- Dr. Lang addresses the history of educational theory and tion in Italy? And how can a reference book omit an entry the complexities of school choice, providing a brief, acces- for the delightful comedian Totó? sible summary of brain-based learning, learning styles, and defi nitions of intelligence and success. She describes a quality But it hardly bears mentioning that in a reference text of curriculum as one including early intervention, basic skills, this nature, it is impossible to include everything, so we must technology, the arts, service learning, and school-to-work admit that what Sarti has included is impressive, indeed. programs. She points out alternatives that include distance The author’s clear and succinct prose style renders the book learning and multiple- and partial-day enrollments. She eminently readable. This volume, the latest in a series of provides an overview of the physical variables of education, recently published excellent reference texts on Italy, provides commenting on school size, calendars, fl exible placement accurate, detailed information to readers seeking to learn options, and individualization for talents and special needs. more about this fascinating nation. The appendix of her book summarizes each discussion with a list of suggested questions that parents might ask of administrators. The questions are designed to open an honest, comprehensive dialogue. V. Louise Katainen is an associate professor emerita at Auburn University. Parents and public school teachers will appreciate Dr. Lang’s acknowledgment of the challenges, both fi nancial and

SUMMER 2006 51 BOOK REVIEWS

temporal, that federally mandated testing places on public each child. The questions in How to Choose The Perfect school classrooms. But those teachers will want the parents School certainly invite a comprehensive look at existing to know that, like their private school counterparts, they, models of education; more importantly, they can invite a too, create and use thematic units, understand and consider careful assessment of the new, emerging models of nontra- learning styles, study and follow models of cognitive theory, ditional education. Parents can approach this discussion and reach out to students as individuals. Many public optimistically with both public and private school adminis- school teachers are members of such organizations as the trators. Such interviews will consume time and energy, but National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the National investment of that time and energy can lead to developing Council of Teachers of English, and the Association for the budget and resources necessary for the restoration and Supervision and Curriculum Development, organizations extension of that most accessible of options: the public that long ago moved the public school curriculum beyond school curriculum. the early-twentieth-century “factory model” cited by Dr. Referring back to Webster’s defi nition and looking Lang. Contrary to her belief, teachers are not the reason at education in the twenty-fi rst century, readers will fi nd that children’s school days are limited. Many teachers hold elements of perfection in dedicated, supported classrooms second jobs and would far rather spend those hours in class- of both public and private schools: experts, profi cient in rooms with their students. It is now estimated that to ad- education, satisfying in all requirements, lacking no es- dress the full complement of learning standards prescribed sential detail . . . . Perfection is also defi ned as unattainable by many states, schools would need fi fteen years or more or theoretical. While not perfect, education today is more of public education; yet communities and state and federal comprehensive and meets more individual needs than ever governments continue to provide for only twelve years of in its past. Dr. Lang’s book facilitates this introspective view 180 days each. Public schools have experienced serious cuts of education, a view that parents, teachers, and administra- in the arts, physical education, and enrichment programs; tors can use to continue working toward providing quality public school teachers and their unions continue to be the education and maximum growth for all students. strongest voices advocating the restoration of budgets for these areas and for the technology that students will need in their new century.

While Dr. Lang offers a wide array of educational theo- Terry Palardy is celebrating her twenty-fifth year as a public ries and new choices to consider, the suggestion that ﬁ nding school teacher in Massachusetts, having taught in elemen- the perfect school for each child will become the new tary school, special education, middle school, and graduate century’s parental expectation seems unsettling. Dr. Lang school classrooms. Mrs. Palardy is also a former “Forum on stresses that parents need to approach such decisions with Education and Academics” columnist for the Phi Kappa Phi a clear, deﬁ ned view of the long-range plan of education for Forum.

Make Your Plans Now to Attend 2007 Phi Kappa Phi Convention Keynote Speaker the 2007 Phi Kappa Phi Triennial Convention Dr. Cathy Small, Phi Kappa Phi member and author in Orlando, Florida, August 9-11. of My Freshman Year: What a Professor Learned by Becoming a Student [Reviewed in the Winter/Spring issue of Forum, p. 39], will be the keynote speaker at the Featuring: Society’s 2007 Triennial Convention. Dr. Small will discuss • Keynote speaker Cathy Small, her experiences as an “undercover college freshman” with con- author of My Freshman Year: vention delegates on August 9, 2007. What a Professor Learned by After more than fifteen years of teaching, Dr. Small, a profes- Becoming a Student sor of anthropology at Northern Arizona University, realized that • Presentations by past and present she no longer understood the behavior and attitudes of her stu- Phi Kappa Phi award recipients dents. Dr. Small decided to put her wealth of experience in overseas ethnographic fieldwork to use closer to home and applied • Roundtable breakfast discussions for admission to her own university. Accepted on the strength of • Chapter officer workshops her high school transcript, she took a sabbatical and enrolled as a freshman for the academic year. She chronicled her observa- Watch for additional informa- tions (under the pseudonym Rebekah Nathan) in My Freshman tion about the 2007 Convention as it Year, a first-person account of student culture today. What she becomes available at learned about the contemporary university — as an anthropolo- PhiKappaPhi.org. gist, a freshman, and a teacher — will be the subject of her keynote address.

52 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Letters to the Editor

COLLEGE ATHLETICS and so on. Neither did anyone mention that college coaches, through s a Phi Kappa their academic counselors, receive FORUM ON SCIENCE & APhi member, constant feedback and updated Academic All- grade reports on their student-ath- TECHNOLOGY American, and letes to keep up with their academic was pleased to happen upon NCAA Goalkeeper progress. Last, most college coaches IDevlin Gualtieri’s article “The Free of the year as a stu- do receive academic bonuses as well Software Alternative” in Phi Kappa dent-athlete, as well as competitive bonuses. Just a few Phi Forum’s Winter/Spring 2006 as a current Division thoughts from a different point of issue [“Is the Sky Falling?”], primar- I college coach, I view after reading the Forum. ily because I didn’t expect to find have extensive expe- a defense of free and open-source Karen Hoppa rience in both academics and athletics software development (a rather niche Auburn, Alabama as well as a unique knowledge of how topic) in a general-interest academic the two coexist. publication. As Gualtieri suggests, The narrow-minded perspec- IS THE SKY open source is a critical paradigm for tive of a couple of the articles [in the future of computing, for a host of “College Athletics,” Fall 2005] was FALLING? reasons that go beyond simple mat- painfully frustrating to read. These ongratula- ters of economics (which is, I grant, academic individuals seemed to miss Ctions on what important enough in its own right). the big picture and failed to convey I believe is one Open source also can create that the majority of student-athletes of your premier opportunities for access to technol- in most sports are as focused on issues of the past ogy for those social groups who their academics as they are on ath- several years. This have been previously barred from letic endeavors. The 40/60/80 rule will be a “keeper” for many readers entry. It is often a great alternative has hurt more of my top students — and scholars. I can imagine it will to implement in computer labs from than it has helped the lower-level become assigned reading throughout an administrative standpoint, and ones, as they risk losing their eligibil- the country. from a political perspective, it sends ity if they change their majors after I have to admit is not very often the message to software corporations their sophomore year. High achiev- that regular civilians have a legiti- ing student-athletes also have great that I read a scholarly journal cover- to-cover. The Winter/Spring 2006 mate claim to the inner workings of difficulty pursuing double majors software applications that are often or minors because of this rule. The issue [Is The Sky Falling?] is an exception, however. hidden behind the opaque curtain APR rule will result in lower num- of its interface. Monopolies do not bers on my roster, thereby reducing I commend you, your editorial just hoard capital, they often create participation, because I will not give staff, and the others involved for exclusive knowledge regimes as well, a small scholarship to a player who publishing such a fine journal. The and open source helps overturn one would normally earn this scholar- content is exceptionally well-writ- such regime. ship, for fear that she might quit the ten, the illustrations appropriate team after a few years and lower my and clear, and most important, the Finally, I would like to refer curi- APR. overall theme — natural disasters ous readers to a couple of sources in — most timely. addition to Gualtieri’s capable intro- Most of the new academic restric- duction to the topic. Those inter- tions are made because of the minute Further, the overall appearance ested in the free and open source percentage of student-athletes who of the journal is appealing and visu- software movement should read Eric are just competing in the NCAA to ally attractive — a good example of Raymond’s seminal rationale “The prepare for a chance at the pros. functional magazine design. Thanks Cathedral and the Bazaar” (Google However, a large majority (my esti- for representing the Society so posi- it), and those interested in the cultur- mate is at least 95 percent) of stu- tively. al aspects of this community would dent-athletes are in college to earn a be well served by watching the enter- degree. Further, no one in the Forum Ray Newton taining documentary Revolution OS. discussed the educational benefits Prescott, Arizona of participating in college athletics, Ben McCorkle benefits such as learning to work as Marion, Ohio a team, discipline, time management,

SUMMER 2006 53 Member Focus

Phi Kappa Phi Launches New Web Site

he Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi has gone live with its Trevamped Web site with major revisions to the site’s appearance, navigation, and functionality. Created by Baton Rouge-based marketing, public relations, and creative services firm Object 9, the new site features a streamlined navigation structure and incorporates new online member benefits. The modular design allows Phi Kappa Phi staff to easily update the site and Page 54 deliver fresh content. Enhanced graphics highlight key messages and feature Phi Kappa Phi Launches outstanding members and volunteers. New Web Site “More and more members, potential members, chapter officers, and par- Page 55 ents are looking to our Web site as their primary source of information about Phi Kappa Phi Chapter News Phi Kappa Phi, so it is essential that it be a robust and highly functional site,” Page 58 says Perry Snyder, Phi Kappa Phi executive director. “It has become a ‘virtual’ Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf Society Headquarters.” Page 59 The new site is divided into three main categories to better target specific Financial Front audiences. The main or public site contains general information about the Page 60 Society, including its awards programs, membership standards, and chapter- Member News petitioning process. It also includes an area for employers and recruiters to view Phi Kappa Phi members’ résumés. Page 63 In Memoriam The members-only site is a password-protected area where members can access numerous online benefits, network on the message board, submit mem- Page 64 ber news, pay dues, and order merchandise. The members-only site also houses Phi Kappa Phi Merchandise archived issues of the Society’s printed and electronic publications, as well as recordings of Web-based seminars and teleseminars. An internal site for chapter officers and Society volunteers is also password- protected and serves as an online hub for information on administering a chapter. Accessed via a unique URL, this portion of the site allows chapter officers to register for events and download forms, templates, and publicity materials. “By segmenting information for our various audiences, we hope to deliver relevant content quickly and effectively,” remarks Snyder. “Fast, fluid, interac- tive, and informative, the new site reflects the values and integrity of Phi Kappa Phi.” The Web site address is PhiKappaPhi.org.

54 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Chapter News

VCU CHAPTER AWARDS RECORD AMOUNT the Provost’s office totals $7,000 and is awarded IN SCHOLARSHIPS as three chapter scholarships. One goes to a rising senior, one to the chapter’s candidate for he Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) the Society Fellowship program, and one to an Tchapter of Phi Kappa Phi awarded a chapter- individual who has promoted women in higher record $64,000 in scholarships this spring. A total education. The Graduate School contributes up of thirty-three students received the money, which to twenty $2,500 scholarships in the name of Phi Member Focus is awarded in cooperation with the office of the Kappa Phi, and most of the academic units give Provost, the Graduate School, and the various at least one $1,000 scholarship. The academic academic units on campus. unit scholarships originally began as a matching VCU’s remarkable cooperation with and sup- fund arrangement, with the scholarship (originally port of the chapter result from a true institutional $500 total) from each unit being funded half by commitment to the ideals of Phi Kappa Phi. the chapter. Eventually, the chapter’s contribution As Robert G. Davis, Executive Director of the was reduced until each unit was fully funding the chapter and also in charge of the Academic Unit scholarships. contribution process, puts it, “The University’s In addition, the VCU chapter has a separate President is a member; the Provost is a past chap- scholarship fund of nearly $30,000, an amount ter president, and most of the deans are now raised through a yearly campaign. The chapter or have been past presidents or members of the hopes to grow that amount by $5,000 per year. Executive Committee; currently, three deans serve To read more about the program, visit the on the seven-member Committee.” chapter Web site at www.vcu.edu/phikappaphi. Of the contributions to the scholarships for the current round of awards, the money from

NATIONAL SCHOLAR LECTURES AT NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY

hi Kappa Phi National Scholar Dr. Randolph Chitwood Pdelivered the Spring 2006 Phi Kappa Phi Lecture at North Carolina State University (NCSU), hosted by the local chapter, on February 9, 2006. While at NCSU, Dr. Chitwood shared lunch with several Park Scholars (NCSU’s most prestigious undergraduate scholarship program) and visited with key cardiac faculty at the College of Veterinary Medicine. The event was held at the newly completed Friday Institute on Centennial Campus, which is named for William Friday, President Emeritus of the sixteen-campus University of North Carolina System. Dr. Chitwood, Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery at East Carolina University, is the founder of robotic cardiac surgery in the United States. Internationally recognized for his pioneering work in mini- mally invasive heart surgery, his investigations and innovations allow surgery to be done inside the heart through small incisions rather than through large traditional cuts that split the breastbone or the ribs.

Dr. Randolph Chitwood

SUMMER 2006 55 Chapter News continued

Dr. Camille P. Stern (Nursing, president of the AASU chapter) and Dr. Sandra Holt.

Phi Kappa Phi Southeast Region Vice President Dr. Sandra Holt and Dr. C. Leary Bell, Vice President of External Affairs.

ARMSTRONG ATLANTIC STATE HOLDS FIRST CHAPTER INITIATION

he Armstrong Atlantic State University chapter of Phi Kappa TPhi held its first initiation ceremony on April 9, 2006. The chapter, which initiated 118 new members, was approved at the October 2005 Board of Directors meeting. Dr. Sandra Holt, Ms. Phillipa Kandel Paddison, alumni member, class of 1948 Southeast Region vice president for Phi Kappa Phi, represented and Dr. Stern. the Society at the ceremony. As Dr. Mark Finlay, Assistant Dean of Arts and Sciences reflected when the chapter was established, “Our ability to offer national recognition to our students with outstanding academic credentials reinforces our commitment to develop leaders for this new century.”

Dr. Janet Stone (History), Dr. Dennis Murphy (associate VP of Academic Affairs), Prof. Donna Mullenax (Physics), Dr. Kam Fui Lau (Information Technology), and Dr. Bob DiBella (Director, Professional and Continuing Education).

Dr. Jim Brawner (Mathematics; chapter treasurer), Prof. Mary Ann Brock (Academic Advisement Office, chapter public relations officer), Dr. Camille P. Stern (Nursing, chapter president), and Dr. Sandra Holt.

56 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Chapter News continued

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND COLLEGE PARK CHAPTER ACTIVITIES

arch 2, 2006 was recently desig- and Microsoft Research to cre- Member Focus Mnated as “Read Across America” ate a digital library of outstanding Day (http://www.nea.org/readacross/ children’s books from all over the index.html). Given the literacy focus of world.” Parkdale students learned The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, about it and how they might use it Jacqueline (Jackie) Congedo, student with younger students or siblings, chapter president of the College Park or how they might assist Dr. Druin division of Chapter 22, led the effort to in her research. expand its after-school tutoring efforts with Parkdale High School students by In addition, on Friday, February inviting them to campus for a presenta- 24, 2006, the chapter cosponsored tion on reading. the University of Maryland’s Honors Inaugural Formal, again The University of Maryland is proud under the leadership of student to host the International Children’s president Jackie Congedo and with Digital Library (ICDL—http://www. cooperation and assistance from icdlbooks.org/). Developed by Dr. other campus honors organizations. Allison Druin, an associate professor The proceeds from this dance, total- Partnering in the College of Information Studies, ing close to $1,000, will go toward for Success ICDL “is a research project funded the Division of Student Affairs primarily by the National Science Crisis Fund. The success of this Workshop Foundation (NSF), the Institute for inaugural event bodes well for its Museum and Library Services (IMLS), future. For Phi Kappa Phi Chapter Officers

Don’t miss your chance to help your chapter be more successful by attending the Partnering for Success Workshop in October 2006.

Baton Rouge, Lousianna October 7–8, 2006 Cook Conference Center

For more information, go to PhiKappaPhi.org

Parksdale High students attend a presentation on the International Children’s Digital library.

SUMMER 2006 57 Beautiful Trouble Amy Fleury Phi Kappa Phi Kansas native Amy Fleury’s debut collection of poetry delves into landscape, family, girlhood, womanhood, and every- Bookshelf day existence on the prairie. Capturing images of dragging clotheslines, baked lawns, and sweet potato babies, Beautiful Trouble invokes an earnest and dignified portrait of Midwestern life.

Amy Fleury was inducted into the Washburn University chapter of Phi Kappa Phi in 2003.

From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany Richard Weikart Richard Weikart explains the revolutionary impact that Darwinism had on ethics and morality in Germany. He demonstrates that many leading Darwinian biologists and social thinkers in Germany believed that Darwin overturned traditional Judeo-Christian and Enlightenment ethics, especially the view that human life is sacred, exalting evolutionary “fitness” to the highest arbiter of morality. He makes the disturbing argument that Hitler built his view of ethics on Darwinian principles rather than on nihilistic ones.

Richard Weikart was inducted into the California State University-Stanislaus chapter of Phi Kappa Phi in 2000.

Serve and Learn: Implementing and Evaluating Service-Learning in Middle and High Schools Florence Fay Pritchard and George I. Whitehead, III Serve and Learn provides a framework that middle and high school teachers, their students, and community partners can use to design, implement, and evaluate service- learning projects that address authentic community needs. It also demonstrates ways that collaborative service learning can enhance students’ intellectual development, promote their academic achievement, strengthen their citizenship skills, and accelerate educational accountability.

George I. Whitehead was inducted into the Salisbury State University chapter of Phi Kappa Phi in 1977.

To Err Is Human: A Collection of Forgiveness Readings Inez Tuck In To Err Is Human, Dr. Inez Tuck offers a collection of readings that introduces forgiveness as it is related to everyday experiences. The author connects forgiveness with a multitude of topics, discussing how it relates to fear, despair, racism, violence, and war, and emphasizing its importance for love, reconciliation, humility, honesty, trust, and seren- ity. The ideas of forgiveness are offered in lessons that allow the reader to practice the ideas and to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to becoming a forgiving person.

Inez Tuck was inducted into the University of Tennessee-Knoxville chapter of Phi Kappa Phi in 1995.

The Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf is published as a service to its members. The views expressed in the publications featured are not necessarily those of staff or Board members of The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi.

58 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Financial Front

Summary of the Society’s Finances as of March 31, 2006

he Society’s finances improved sig- Total revenues as of March 31, Tnificantly in the third quarter of 2006, were $4,519,577. This amount Fiscal Year 2006. Two of the three main compares to $3,422,354 received as of membership categories showed increases March 31, 2005. Approximately 75 Member Focus over figures reported for last year; new percent of this money is related to mar- members increased by 12 percent while ket gains. Year-to-date revenues have the number of life members was up by already exceeded projections by approx- 27 percent. The number of renewals, on imately $1.1 million. the other hand, had a slight 1.6 percent On the expense side, two areas drop. Total membership fees increased showed significant increases during by approximately $48,000 or 2.7 per- the third quarter. The Information cent. Technology section reflected the pro- Improved marketing techniques gramming expenses associated with the helped boost third quarter sales. In new Phi Kappa Phi Web site. Similarly, addition, a discount on recognition Communications expenses were affected items (stoles, honor cords, and medal- by the printing of the new invitation- lions) was once again offered to chap- to-membership mailers offered to chapters. Not only did the discount help ters at no charge. Total expenses as of increase Society sales revenue, it also March 31, 2006, totaled $2,341,114. gave chapters the opportunity to raise This amount represents 65 percent of needed funds. Newly designed t-shirts, projected expenses. sweatshirts, and caps carrying the new Net income earned as of March 31, Phi Kappa Phi logo will have a positive 2006, amounted to $2,178,463. This effect on this revenue line for the current amount is approximately $1.1 million fiscal year. higher than the $1,101,474 reported March 31, 2006, marked the end for March 31, 2005. Net Assets as of of one of the most successful quar- March 31, 2006, totaled $29,841,330. ters in years for the financial markets. Quarterly returns for the Society’s portfolios were as follows: 4.30 percent for the Foundation, 4.32 percent for Third Quarter Net Assets the Life Membership, and 1.05 percent for the Operating Investment Fund. All portfolio returns exceeded their respec- 30 tive benchmarks. Net realized and unre- alized gains for the period ending March 25 31 totaled $1.6 million. This compares to approximately $500,000 for the prior 20 year. Investment income also exceeded last year’s total by almost $30,000. 15

Unlike the revenue lines described 10 above, membership contributions Millions of Dollars showed a decline over the amount 5 21,783,289 25,762,262 27,096,101 29,841,330 received through March 31, 2005. This decrease can be attributed mostly to the 0 fact that, unlike last year, no Fellowship 2003 2004 2005 2006 endowments have been received in 2005–2006. In addition, billing and fundraising contributions were down by 10 percent.

SUMMER 2006 59 Member News

USA Today Academic All-Stars Graduate Fellows: CCresselressel DD.. AAndersonnderson (University of North Carolina at Charlotte), MMichelleichelle LL.. BBashash (Ohio Northern Phi Kappa Phi members who were named to the 2006 USA University), TTondraondra DDee (University of Nevada, Las Vegas), Today Academic All-Stars include: First Team — PPaulaul AAngelongelo, AAmitmit YY.. DDesaiesai (North Carolina State University), HHodaoda MM.. U.S. Naval Academy; XXuan-Tranguan-Trang HHoo, Nebraska Wesleyan EEydgahiydgahi (Virginia Commonwealth University), KKyleyle AA.. FFrazierrazier University; JJessamynessamyn LLiuiu, U.S. Military Academy. (Mississippi State University), JJasmineasmine RR.. GGaljouraljour (University Third Team — RRobertobert BBuscagliauscaglia, Northern Arizona University; of Louisiana at Lafayette), JJustinustin LL.. RR.. LLangloisanglois (United States CCatherineatherine CCarterarter, University of Mississippi; SSohangohang GGandhiandhi, Naval Academy), LLisaisa JJ.. LLindquistindquist (Ohio Northern University), University of Central Florida; FFahranahran RRobbobb, Southern Illinois EEvanvan RR.. NNealeal (University of Utah), GGeoffreyeoffrey MM.. OOxberryxberry University; KKellyelly SSmithmith, West Virginia University. (University of Delaware), MMichaelichael DD.. SSadowitzadowitz (University of Nevada, Las Vegas). Phi Kappa Phi Members Recognized by Tau Beta Pi National Teacher of the Year Louisiana State University journalism professor LLouisouis AA.. The following members have been awarded undergraduate DDayay (University of Georgia) has been named as the National scholarships or graduate fellowships by the national engineer- Teacher of the Year by the Scripps Howard Foundation. The ing honor society Tau Beta Pi. Undergraduate scholarships foundation stated, “Day has a passion for teaching, selfless are for $2,000 each, while graduate fellows receive awards of mentoring, and helping students think and analyze ethical $10,000 if they have financial need. dilemmas. A dedicated faculty member at LSU for 25 years, Undergraduate Scholars: LLaurenauren CC.. CCulverulver (University of he is the author of a ‘gold standard’ ethics textbook. He Florida), JJonathanonathan CC.. HHillill (Auburn University), AAlexanderlexander receives high marks from students and from the junior faculty RR.. BBoeglinoeglin (University of Rhode Island), SSamuelamuel MM.. GGortonorton who look to him as a mentor.” Day receives $10,000 and the (Clarkson University), HHartleyartley RR.. GGrimesrimes (North Carolina Charles E. Scripps award. State University), JJamesames CC.. GGwilliamwilliam (University of Utah), DDavidavid JJ.. HHermanerman (Cornell University), AAlexandroslexandros DD.. Phi Kappa Phi Author Wins National Award KKanelakosanelakos (Wichita State University), RRomanoman LLennerenner (The CCharlesharles WW.. HHendersonenderson’s (Cameron University) book, Citadel), JJustinustin M.M. MercerMercer (Youngstown State University), Goodnight Saigon, has won the American Society of VVivekivek SaxenaSaxena (University of North Carolina at Charlotte), Journalists and Authors Outstanding Book Award, General DDusanusan D.D. StefanovicStefanovic (Youngstown State University), LLauraaura LL.. Nonfiction, for the year 2006. The award was presented WWallaceallace (University of Minnesota, Duluth). to Mr. Henderson in New York on April 28, 2006, at the American Society of Journalists and Authors National Awards Luncheon.

WWilliamilliam AAndersenndersen (The Citadel) has been recently served a one-year sabbatical at the major with an emphasis in public law and awarded a Citadel Scholars Summer University of Puerto Rico. philosophy. Scholarship to study health-care facilities RRobertobert BBuscagliauscaglia (Northern Arizona JJaniceanice RR.. EEllisllis, PhD (University of Texas and issues in Spain, France, and Germany. University) was awarded a 2007 Arnold at Austin), professor emeritus at Shoreline WWilliamilliam JJ.. BBonneronner IIIIII, PPatrickatrick WW.. KKickericker, Beckman Scholarship. The Beckman Community College, is currently work- and MMichaelichael AA.. NNobleoble (University of West Foundation Scholarship is given to approx- ing as a Nursing Education consultant on Alabama) each received the Ralph M. imately seventy students around the United matters of curriculum and accreditation. Lyon Award for the highest GPA among States. It pays undergraduate research stu- She has just completed the seventh edi- all graduates at the recent University of dents for working in research laboratories tion of her text Modules for Basic Nursing West Alabama commencement ceremonies. throughout the country. Skills, written in collaboration with Patricia Bonner is an English major, Kicker a major M. Bentz and published by Lippincott, SSusanusan PP.. CConneronner, PhD (Florida State in biology, and Noble a double major in Williams, and Wilkins. University), was recently interviewed for a English and psychology. National Geographic film on Napoleon’s AAlbertlbert LL.. EEtheridgetheridge, PhD (Nicholls State JJimim BBraurau, PhD, CFA (Brigham Young last days that will air in 2007. Professor University), is retiring as president of University), was recently awarded Conner is the Vice President for Academic University of Pittsburgh-Johnstown (UPJ). the Brigham Young University (BYU) Affairs at Florida Southern College. While at UPJ, Dr. Etheridge established University Young Scholar Award, one of the school’s $10 million capital campaign, RRebeccaebecca EEdwardsdwards (Northern Illinois only four professors university-wide to directed more than $20 million in improve- University) was named as one of twenty- receive it. The award recognizes excel- ments, created the UPJ Excellence in three summer interns for U.S. Senator lence in research, teaching, and citizen- Teaching and Service Awards, and helped Barack Obama’s Washington, D.C., office. ship, acknowledging outstanding promise establish the university’s Phi Kappa Phi Ms. Edwards, a rising senior at Northern and contributions by junior faculty. Dr. chapter. Illinois University, is a political science Brau is in his eighth year at BYU and

60 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 Member News continued

DDavidavid GG.. FFisherisher, PhD (Pennsylvania State HHaigaig KKhachatoorianhachatoorian (North University), was promoted to full profes- Carolina State University) sor of physics and astronomy at Lycoming received an Outstanding College in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Extension Service Award USA In Space, 3rd Ed., a three-volume at the Fourth Annual set of articles on the history of American Extension, Engagement, space programs for which he was co-edi- and Economic Development “Celebrating tor, is now in print from Salem Press. In an Engaged University” Awards Dinner Member Focus Fall 2006, Dr. Fisher will begin his second held Tuesday, April 18, 2006, at the term as president of the Lycoming College McKimmon Center for Extension and Award for 2006 by the chapter of Phi Kappa Phi. Continuing Education, North Carolina University of Georgia State University. These awards recognize MMariaaria EE.. HHendersonenderson Graduate School. Majfud- outstanding faculty and EPA employees of (American University), an Abernaz has written essays, NC State University who are engaged in insurance consultant for books, articles, short sto- meaningful and beneficial collaboration Akerman Senterfitt, has been ries, and poetry focused between the University and external part- reappointed by the Joint on globalization, human ners and communities. Bar/Foundation Nominating rights, Latin American Committee to the board of directors of CClaudialaudia LL.. KKickeryickery democracy, and women’s The Florida Bar Foundation. Her two- (Millersville University) issues. His works have year term began on July 1, 2006. was promoted to Assistant been published in French, Educational Outreach Spanish, and English. PPatriciaatricia HHrebikrebik GGouldingoulding Director of Recording (Duquesne University), was JJamieamie LL.. MMalonealone (University for the Blind & Dyslexic presented the Preservation of of Southern California) has (RFB&D) in Florida. She works to bring Our Heritage in American joined private wealth-man- the printed word in audio format to Dance Award on March agement firm Michael Joyce students who have print disabilities. Ms. 11, 2006, by the Ann & Associates, P.C., as a Kickery travels and trains Educational Lacy School of American Dance and Financial Planning Analyst. Coordinators working for RFB&D in Arts Management at Oklahoma City Before joining the firm, Mr. Malone other parts of Florida, as well as meeting University. Goulding, executive director worked for KPMG LLP in the Private with administrators, teachers, parents, of National Dance Week, is an active-for- Client Advisory Service group. and students. life member of Phi Kappa Phi and earned BBenen MMcCorklecCorkle, PhD (Augusta State both her bachelor’s and master’s degrees SSidneyidney LLarkenarken WWareare (University of University), was awarded a PhD in at Duquesne University. She owned and Mississippi) received the University of Rhetoric and Composition from The directed her own dance studio for thirty- Mississippi’s (UM) highest academic Ohio State University in the fall of 2005. five years before taking on her present honor, the Taylor Medal. The Marcus Additionally, he has accepted an appoint- career. Elvis Taylor Memorial was established ment as assistant professor of English in 1904 and is awarded to no more than BBrianrian CC.. JJohnsonohnson (Brigham Young at The Ohio State University, Marion 1 percent of the student body each year. University) was named commercial litiga- Campus. Ware is a chemistry major at UM. tion practice group leader for the law firm PProfessorrofessor JJamesames LL.. MMooreoore IIIIII (Virginia of Strong and Hanni in Salt Lake City, DDr.r. RRobertobert LLimaima, OIC (Duquesne Polytechnic Institute and State University) Utah. Johnson’s areas of practice include University), President of the Central was selected as one of the Ohana Award commercial litigation, antitrust, and labor Pennsylvania Chapter of the Fulbright recipients for 2006 by the Counselors for employment. Association, was invited by Ambassador Social Justice Awards Committee. The Daniel Ayalon of Israel to attend the fifti- RRobertobert BB.. JJohnstonohnston (Cameron University), Ohana Awards are given annually at the eth Anniversary Celebration of the U.S.- city manager of Frederick, Oklahoma, American Counseling Association confer- Israel Fulbright Exchange Program. The was elected by members of the Inter- ence to honor individuals in counseling event, hosted by the United States-Israel national City/County Management who affirm diversity and advocate for Educational Foundation, was held at the Association (ICMA) as Mountain Plains social justice. In addition, Moore has Embassy of Israel in Washington, D.C., on Regional Vice President on February 24, been selected to participate in the twenty- February 14, 2006. A program of speak- 2006. Mr. Johnston will serve a three- year anniversary celebration of Johns ers, featuring Thomas A. Farrell, Deputy year term beginning in September 2006 Hopkins University’s Summer Seminar Assistant Secretary of State for Academic at the ninety-second ICMA Annual Series. He will teach “Urban School Programs, and former Fulbrighters to and Conference in San Antonio/Bexar County, Students and Their Parents: The Role of from Israel, included music and a film on Texas. ICMA’s mission is to create excel- School Counselors,” at the Johns Hopkins the Fulbright experience in Israel. A recep- lence in local government by promoting Washington, D.C., campus. tion in Jerusalem Hall of the Embassy fol- professional management and increasing lowed the presentations. RRobinobin RReneeenee MMooreoore (East Carolina the proficiency of its more than 8,200 University) was awarded a David W. members, who include appointed chief JJorgeorge MMajfud-Abernazajfud-Abernaz (University of Hardee scholarship by the Pitt County administrative officers and assistant Georgia), a doctoral student in Latin chapter of the Mental Health Association administrators serving local governments American literature, was awarded a of North Carolina for her work and and regional entities around the world. Graduate Student Excellence in Research

SUMMER 2006 61 Member News continued

biology major, Ms. Pham graduated with MMelissaelissa SSiebkeiebke (Minnesota State Univer- a 4.0 GPA in the Honors Program. sity-Mankato) has been awarded a Fulbright scholarship to teach in Spain SUBMISSIONS SSridharridhar PP.. RReddyeddy (University of Kansas) in 2006–2007. She will be teaching in a has won the Philip W. Whitcomb bilingual elementary school in Madrid Member News Memorial Essay Prize for an essay on as an English teaching assistant. Ms. genocide in Sudan, presented by the To submit a recent honor/achievement or Siebke has a master’s degree in English University of Kansas. The prize includes a career news, e-mail ([email protected]) or as a Second Language and a master’s in $500 cash award. mail a brief write-up and picture (if available) Spanish. to: KKennethenneth RRobertsonobertson (Austin Peay State JJohnohn JJ.. SSmithmith, PhD (Texas A&M University) was awarded the William Member News University), Academy Professor of English McClure Drane award at the spring com- Phi Kappa Phi Forum at the United States Military Academy mencement ceremony at Austin Peay. 108 M. White Smith Hall, Mell Street at West Point, New York, has been pro- Criteria for the award include character, Auburn University, AL 36849-5306 moted to the rank of Colonel. Colonel scholarship, leadership, and service to the Smith, with more than twenty-four years Please include your name, member number, community. of service in the Army, teaches advanced chapter in which you were initiated, and your DDianeiane RRudebockudebock, EdD, composition, American literature, and the e-mail address and/or telephone number. Any RN (Oklahoma State Arts of War. items submitted cannot be returned, and all University), was selected as submissions may not be included. KKevinevin SSmithmith (Lamar University) was the University of Central awarded one of six Plummer awards in Oklahoma (UCO) Herbert the May 2006 graduating class at Lamar Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf S. Dordic 2005 Outstanding University. Smith, a three-year letterman Faculty Mentor; she was honored with If you are an author and would like your on the basketball team, maintained a 4.0 the award and $500 from the UCO work to be considered for inclusion in the grade point average while majoring in Foundation. Dr. Rudebock is an assistant “Bookshelf” segment of Member Focus, chemical engineering. He plans to work as professor in the Kinesiology and Health please send a copy of the book along with a a gas-market analyst for ExxonMobile in Studies Department and is the coordinator one-page synopsis to: Houston. for the Community Health Program. Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf BBartart SSmootmoot (University of Maryland Phi Kappa Phi Forum LLorenoren JJ.. RRullmanullman, PhD Eastern Shore) of Delmar School District 108 M. White Smith Hall, Mell Street (University of Missouri-St. earned his profession’s top honor by Auburn University, AL 36849-5306 Louis), was awarded a PhD achieving National Board Certification in in Educational Leadership 2004, according to the National Board All submitted books will be added to the and Policy Studies, with for Professional Teaching Standards Phi Kappa Phi Library, housed at the Society an emphasis in Higher (NBPTS). Mr. Smoot teaches Technology Headquarters, and will be included on the Education, from the University of Education at Delmar Middle and High Online Phi Kappa Phi Bookshelf at www.phi- Missouri-St. Louis in August 2005. His Schools. He has been a teacher for twelve kappaphi.org/bookshelf.php. dissertation was titled “Sources of College years and holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Student Political Cynicism.” He serves Technology Education from the University Indiana University as Executive Director of Maryland Eastern Shore and a Master’s studies in the field of mental health. of the Indiana Memorial Union and the Degree in Public School Administration Moore, who plans to complete a master’s Indiana University Auditorium. from Salisbury University. in social work, was also awarded the OOtistis SScottcott, PhD (Sacramento Robert H. Wright Alumni Leadership WWenmouthenmouth WWilliamsilliams, Jr., PhD (Ithaca State University), was named award and the Miriam B. Moore College), was presented with the dean of the College of Social Scholarship this spring. Excellence in Service Award by Ithaca Science and Interdisciplinary College. Williams chairs the Department JJodieodie ParkerParker (University of Nevada-Reno) Studies at Sacramento State. of Television-Radio and is the past received the University of Nevada-Reno’s Before being named dean, president of the Phi Kappa Phi chapter Herz Gold Medal during spring com- Scott served as acting dean for one year at Ithaca. The award recognizes contin- mencement ceremonies. The medal, the and as associate dean for three years. ued and exceptional contributions to the University’s oldest and most prestigious Before that, he chaired the Ethnic Studies College, the larger community, and the student award, has been presented to department for twenty-one years and was discipline. the graduating senior with the highest the coordinator of the social science pro- grade-point average since 1910. Parker, gram. MMajorajor EErnestrnest YY.. WWongong a nutrition major and member of the (United States Military ZZacharyachary SSchladerchlader (Austin Peay State campus’ Honors Program, also won the Academy) has been named University) was awarded the 2006 Steve University’s Phi Kappa Phi Award in 2005 a NASA Faculty Fellow Hamilton Sportsmanship Trophy by the as the leading junior scholar on campus. for the 2006 Exploration Ohio Valley Conference. Schlader also Systems Summer Research LLanminhanminh PhamPham (University of Louisiana was named to the ESPN The Magazine Opportunities at the Marshall Space at Lafayette) has been named the Spring Academic All-American third team. Flight Center. 2006 Outstanding Graduate by the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. A

62 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3 sue, inthefall,a degreeinlawatTemple University, JamesE.BeasleySchoolofLaw. graduated from OldDominionUniversity, hasbeen named theWolfe Fellow. Shewillpur- Mary Catherine Gordon,anEnglishmajorwith aminorinpoliticalsciencewho recently Mary CatherineMary Gordon Old DominionUniversity (Westfield College)arenowAwards ofExcellencerecipients. Daniel LeighHuff(SoutheastMissouriStateUniversity).CourtneyLouiseEverson(Western Washington University) andKristineA Two Fellowshiprecipientswereunabletoaccepttheiraward.TheyhavebeenreplacedbyAngelaM.Kwallek(Youngstown State Uni Wolfe Fellowship phy inWestern history. raphies wontheEvansprizeforbestbiogra- Last SonoftheMormonProphet Newell), and Elect Lady, Polygamy’s Foe Enigma: EmmaSmithHale,Prophet’s Wife, was theauthoroftwobooks: sor ofhistoryatNorthernArizonaUniversity, 2006, atagesixty-nine.Avery, aretiredprofes- Arizona University),passedawayonApril7, his PhDinmathematicsattheUniversityof 25, 2005,atninetyyearsofage.Hereceived New Mexico),passedawayonNovember After the“2006Awards Issue”hadgonetopress,changesoccurredwiththerecipientsofawards.Thecorrectionsfollow. and essayistLeighHunt. published manyarticlesontheRomanticpoet University andLewisClarkCollege.He before thatatSouthwestMissouriState from 1965tohisretirementin1990,and and linguisticsattheUniversityofToledo four. Dr. Cheneywasprofessorofliterature passed awayonJune18,2006,atageeighty- marker.” her membershipisimmortalizedongrave Phi Kappameantsomuchtoher[that] mother reportsthat“Kelli’s affiliationwith attend medicalschoolbeginningthisyear. Her cardiac criticalcarenursewhohadplannedto coronary arterydisease.Ms.Chapmanwasa 24, 2004,atagethirty-five,ofundiagnosed at SanBernardino)passedawayonJune JJames Vernon Lewis DDavid R.Cheney KKelli Chapman VValeen Tippetts Avery In Memoriam

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S S t e UMMER Kristine AllisonMiele w a r Westfield College t , ScD(University 20 63 2006 llison Miele versity) and

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A. BASEBALL CAP ACCESSORIES Made of durable, khaki or olive canvas and embroidered with the Phi Kappa Phi logo, this baseball cap makes an ideal present for any Phi Kappa Phi member. (.5 lb.) *I. HONOR CORD (olive) Item #ACC08 . . . $15 Braided navy and gold cords, ending in J (khaki) Item #ACC09 . . . $15 fringed tassels. (1 lb.) Item #REC10 . . . $10 B. WOMEN’S CUT T-SHIRT Pre-shrunk 100% cotton women’s cut t-shirt features *J. STOLE the embroidered Phi Kappa Phi logo in the upper Gold satin stole with the Greek letters K left corner. Offered in pale blue or gray and avail- and Society key embroidered in a striking able in women’s sizes S-XL. (1 lb.) navy blue. (1 lb.) (gray) Item #APP07 . . . $17 Item #REC20 . . . $24 I (lt. blue) Item #APP08 . . . $17 B K. MEDALLION Two inch cloisonné medallion hanging from a royal blue ribbon, features a detailed C. LONG-SLEEVE T- rendering of the Society seal. SHIRT (1 lb.) 99% lightweight cotton t-shirt in ash gray Item #S-5 . . . $9 or navy features the embroidery of the Society’s Item #S-5a (orders of 50 or more) . . . $8 logo in medium gray and the Greek letters in blue C and gold. Available in unisex sizes S-XL. (1 lb.) (navy) Item #APP12 . . . $22 (lt gray) Item #APP13 . . . $22 M. PEN Show your pride of affi liation in business meetings or in the class- D. ANORAK room with this elegant pen and case. Perfect for those cool days when a light Brushed with a pearl satin fi nish, the jacket is just what you need! Pullover Phi Kappa Phi logo is handsomely zips from chest to chin and features engraved on the base of the pen. (.5 lb.) the Greek letters in white embroidery Item #ACC72 . . . $10 against a navy background. Shell is D 100% nylon and lining is 100% cotton. Offered in unisex sizes S-XL. Item #APP74 . . . . . $49 P. LICENSE PLATE FRAME Die-cast metal license-plate holder features a chrome frame and the Greek letter monogram on a blue background. G. PHI KAPPA PHI TIE 12”x 6”. (2 lbs.) Men’s dress tie adorned with the gold Item #ACC21 . . . $15 Phi Kappa Phi key. Offered in navy blue and burgundy. (navy) Item #ACC27 . . .$29.50 (bugundy) Item #ACC26 . . .$29.50 Q. BRONZE-PLATED PAPERWEIGHT Handsome and functional, the Phi Kappa G Phi handcrafted paperweight features an H. COFFEE MUG antique gold fi nish and is embossed with Navy blue and white 12 oz. ceramic the Society seal. Backed with velvet. 3” coffee mug is perfect for everyday use. diameter. (1 lb.) (1 lb.) Item #ACC22 . . . $10 Item #ACC20 . . . $7 GREEK LETTER CHARMS Vertical Greek letter charms are crafted in S sterling silver and 10K gold. (1 lb.) S. Sterling Silver Charm — Item #JE24 . . . $16 T. 10K Gold Charm — Item #JE25 . . . $32 T

*Call for quantity discount pricing. 64 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/VOL. 86, NO. 3