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1 Etymology and Usage

1 Etymology and Usage

This article is about the concept “God” in the context of arguments for and against the ..[2] and . For the general concept of There are many for God, and different names are “a god”, see . For God in specific , see an attached to different cultural ideas about God’s identity index of pages beginning in “God in”. For discussion of and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of ,, the existence of God, see Existence of God. For otherr possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic , this uses, see God (disambiguation).. deideityty wascalleded ,,[3] premiseded onon bebeingingthetheone“tr“true” Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe. [4] In the Hebrew and , “He Who Is,” "", and the YHWH are used as , while , and are sometimes used in as vocalizations of YHWH. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names or or Adonai,, thethelalattetterr ofofwhwhicichh isis bebelilievevededbybysomee scschoholarlarss toto descend from the Egyptian Aten.[5][6][7][8][9] InIn , the , “Al-,” or “Al-Elah” (“the God”) is used, while also have a multitude of titular names ffor God. InIn ,, is often considered a monistic deity.[10] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bahá'í ,,[11] in in ,,[12] and in in ..[13] The many different , and compet- ing claims as to God’s characteristics, aims, and actions, have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism,, pandeism,,[14][15] or aa , which pos- tulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions express a partial understanding, and as to which “the devout in the various great are in fact worshipping that one God, but through differ- ent, overlapping concepts or mental images of him.” [16]

God the Father by Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 – . 1528)

InIn monotheism and henotheism,, God is conceived as 1 Etymolology and usage thethe Supreme Being and principal object of faith..[1] The concept of God as described by theologians commonly Main article: God (word) includes the attributes of (infinite knowl- edge), (unlimited power), The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (al- (present everywhere), (perfect good- [17] ness), , and eternal and necessary exis- ways, in this usage, capitalized ) comes from the 6th- tence. In , God is the creator and sustainer of the century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English wordd universe, while in , God is the creator, but not the itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The sustainer, of the universe. Monotheism is the in reconstructed Proto-Indo-Europeanfform** ǵhǵhu-tó-m-m wawass likely based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, which meant ei- the existence of one God or in the oneness of God. InIn [18] , God is the universe itself. InIn , God is ther “to call” or “to invoke”.e”. The Germanic words for purported not to exist, while God is deemed unknown or God were originally neuter—applying to both genders— unknowable within the context of . God has but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic pa- also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a [19] personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the ganism, thethewowordrdss becamamee aa masculine syntactic form.. “greatest conceivable existent”.[1] Many notable medieval In the English language, the capitalized form of God philosophers and modern philosophers have developed continues to represent a distinction between monotheis-

11 2 2 GENERAL CONCEPTIONS

definition of , the trinitarian view of , and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of vary by region, , and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly Śakra and . However, other sentient beings, including , can at best only play a supportive role in one’s per- sonal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the lat- ter developments of the tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.

2.1 Oneness

Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may

Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of in Western art tic “God” and “gods” in .[20][21] The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term re- mains an English translation common to all. The same The is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in holds for Hebrew El , but in Judaism, God is also given three persons: God the Father , God the Son ( ), and God the a proper name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin Holy the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word is claim that the one true god is worshiped in different reli- in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the gions under different names. The view that all theists ac- tetragrammaton.[22] Allāh (: )isthe Arabic term tually the same god, whether they know it or not, with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking is especially emphasized in Hinduism[28] and Sikhism.[29] Christians and Jews meaning “The God” (with a capital In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God G), while "ʾilāh" (Arabic: ) is the term used for a de- [23][24][25] as one God in three persons. The Trinity is composed of ity or a god in general. God may also be given a God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which Spirit.[30] emphasize the personal nature of God, with early refer- ences to his name as -Vasudeva in Bhagavata or Islam's most fundamental concept is (meaning later and .[26] “oneness” or “uniqueness”). God is described in the as: “Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, ; He begetteth not, nor is He be- gotten; And there is none like unto Him.”[31][32] Muslims 2 General conceptions repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divin- ity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is Main article: Conceptions of God beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resem- ble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are [33] There is no clear consensus on the nature of God. [27] The not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God. Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic Henotheism isthebeliefandworshipofasinglegodwhile 2.3 Other concepts 3 accepting the existence or possible existence of other 2.3 Other concepts .[34] Dystheism, which is related to , is a form of the- ism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is 2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism fully malevolent as a consequence of the . One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Broth- Main articles: Theism, Deism and Pantheism ers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer. [43] Another example would be Theistic . Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, ob- jectively, and independently of thought; that God In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent developed, such as process and . and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting The contemporaneous French philosopher with the universe through, for example, religious expe- has however proposed a phenomenological approach rience and the of .[35] Theism holds that and definition of God as phenomenological of [44] God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is si- Life. multaneously infinite and in some way present in the af- God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (im- fairs of the world.[36] Not all theists subscribe to all the material), a personal being, the source of all moral obli- above propositions, but they usually subscribe to one or gation, and the “greatest conceivable existent”. [1] These more of them (see, by way of comparison, family resem- attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the blance).[35] Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philoso- simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most the- phers, including ,[45] ,[45] ists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benev- and Al-Ghazali,[2] respectively. olent, although thisbelief raises questions aboutGod’sre- sponsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some the- ists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limit- ing of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open 3 Non-theistic views of God Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God’somniscience does notmean thedeitycanpre- See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and dict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in gen- Evolutionary eral to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or [37][38] polytheism. holds that the universe can be explained with- Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God ex- out any reference to the , or to a supernat- ists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what ural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, was necessary to create it. [36] In this view, God is not whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non- anthropomorphic and does not literally answer prayers or theists understand God as a symbol of human values cause to occur. Common in Deism is a belief and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English atheist that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say “There aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respec- is no God”, because “the word 'God' is to me a sound tively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panenthe- conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[46] he said istic beliefs discussed below. [15][39][40] Pandeism is pro- more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian posed to explain as to Deism why God would create a god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach divid- universe and then abandon it,[41] and as to Pantheism, the ing the world of philosophy into what he called " non- origin and purpose of the universe.[41][42] overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the uni- of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence verse is God, whereas holds that God con- and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper tains, but is not identical to, the Universe. It is also the domain of theology. The methods of science should then view of the Liberal ; ; some be used to answer any empirical question about the nat- views of Hinduism except , which believesin ural world, and theology should be used to answer ques- panentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism tions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this and , along with many varying denominations view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events and individuals within denominations. , Jew- [47] ish , paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of makes science the sole player in the natural world. God—which has wide acceptance in , Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the particularly from their founder The Shem Tov—but existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds only as an addition to the Jewish view of a , that “a universe with a god would be a completely differ- not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits ent kind of universe from one without, and it would be a persona to God. scientific difference.”[48] Carl Sagan argued that the doc- 4 4 EXISTENCE OF GOD trine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discov- also suggested that god concepts are projections of one’s ery that could disprove the existence of a Creator would father.[53] [49] be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old. Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to sug- Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state gest that gods represent an extension of human social life in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to to includesupernaturalbeings. In linewiththisreasoning, ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans is God, then the question has merely been deflected to began living in larger groups, they may have created gods that of who created God. Both authors claim however, as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, moral- that it is possible to answer these questions purely within ity can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or rep- the realm of science, and without invoking any divine utation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality beings.[50] using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano in- dicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining 3.1 Anthropomorphism selfishness and building more cooperative groups. [54]

4 Existence of God

Main article: Existence of God Countless arguments have been proposed in attempt

Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, America

Main article: Anthropomorphism

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in gen- eral, supernaturalbeings tend to behavemuch like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from , which is, in his opinion, more St. summarized five arguments which he be- like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[51] lieved were proof for the existence of God Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer’s explanatory model to prove the existence of God.[55] Some of the most matches physics’ epistemology in positing not directly notable arguments are the of Aquinas, the observable entities as intermediaries.[52] Anthropologist proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human fea- formulated both by St. Anselm tures onto non-human aspects of the world because it and Descartes.[56] Even among theists, these proofs are 5.2 Gender 5 debated, and some, such as the Ontological Argument, are highly controversial. Aquinas spends a section of his treatise on God refuting St. Anselm’s proof.[57] St. Anselm’s approach was to define God as, “that than which nothing greater can be conceived”. Famed pan- theist philosopher would later carry this idea to its extreme: “By God I understand a being abso- lutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite at- tributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infi- nite essence.” For Spinoza, the whole of the natural uni- verse is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[58] His proof for the existence of God was a vari- ation of the Ontological argument.[59]

Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian The 99 Names of , engraved into the ceiling of the A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not Grand Mosque of Kuwait a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[60][61] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not one is , meaning “God Almighty”.[65] A third overlap.[62] notable name is El , which means “The Most High There are many philosophical issues concerning the exis- God”.[66] tence of God. Some definitions of God are nonspecific, God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith while others canbe self-contradictory. Argumentsfor the by certain names or attributes, the most common be- existence of God typically include metaphysical, empiri- ing Al-Rahman, meaning “Most Compassionate” and Al- cal, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve Rahim, meaning “Most Merciful” (See Names of God in around the order and complexity in the world and per- Islam).[67] ceived holes in evolutionary theory. Vaishnavism, atraditionin Hinduism, has listoftitlesand Arguments against the existence of God typically include names of Krishna. empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached include views that: “God does not exist” (strong atheism); “God almost certainly does not exist” [48] (de facto atheism[63]); “no one knows whether God exists” (agnosticism[64]); “God exists, but this cannot be proven 5.2 Gender or disproven” (weak theism); and that “God exists and this can be proven” (strong theism). There are numerous Main article: variations on these positions. The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an allegorical aspectofa deity who, in Classical westernphi- 5 Specific attributes losophy, transcends bodily form. [68][69] In polytheistic re- ligions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexual gen- Different religious traditions assign differing (though of- ders, allowing them to interact with each other and with ten similar) attributes and characteristics to God, includ- humans in a sexual way. In most monotheistic religions, ing expansive powers and abilities, psychological char- there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a lit- acteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomen- eral gender-based way. Thus, in Classical western philos- clature. The assignment of these attributes often dif- ophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely fers according to the conceptions of God in the culture tobean analogical statement ofhow humansand God ad- from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in dress, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen begetter of the world and which corresponds to the active (as opposed to feminine receptive) role in Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities [70] arising from their common roots. sexual intercourse. God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources, except: female in Genesis 1:26-27,[71][72] Psalm 123:2- 5.1 Names 3, and Luke 15:8-10; a mother in Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah Main article: Names of God 42:14, Psalm 131:2; a mother eagle in Deuteronomy Throughout the Hebrew and Christian there are 32:11-12; and a mother hen in Matthew 23:37 and Luke many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another 13:34. 6 6 THEOLOGICAL APPROACHES

5.3 Relationship with creation with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is . A pluralist typ- See also: , and Worship ically that his religion is the right one, but does Prayer plays a significant role among many believ- not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one’s religion is the fulfillment of previ- ous religions. A third approach is relativistic , where everybody is seen as equally right; an example be- ing : the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is , mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the movement.

6 Theological approaches

Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to God, including omniscience, omnipotence, God the Father by Cima da Conegliano , c. 1515 omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent. [1] These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, includ- ing St Augustine,[45] Al-Ghazali,[77] and Maimonides.[45] Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[2] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God’s attributes. Reconcil- ing some of those attributes generated important philo- sophical problems and debates. For example, God’s - niscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agentswill choose to act. If God does know this, their ap- A face-shaped cloud photograph that was taken on July 4th, parent free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does 2006 in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The man who took the photo firmly not imply predestination; and if God does not know it, believes and claims that it was a of God. God may not be omniscient.[78] ers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is However, if by its essential nature, free will is not pre- to worship God.[73][74] He is viewed as a personal God determined, then the effect of its will can never be per- and there are no intermediaries, such as , to contact fectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking knowledge. Although knowledge of the options pre- forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For sented to that will, combined with perfect-infinite intelli- example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless peo- gence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if ple with one who sinned but still asked repentance. [75] omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there all that is. are good reasons to suggest that a “personal god” is in- The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous ques- tegral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to under- tions regarding the arguments for God’s existence raised stand it is an analogy. “To say that God is like a person bysuch philosophersas , David Humeand is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to , although Kant held that the argument from others. This does notimplythat Godishuman, or located [76] morality was valid. The theist response has been either to at a specific point in the universe.” contend, like , that faith is "properly ba- Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to sic"; or to take, like , the evidentialist how to best worship God and what is God’s plan for position.[79] Some theists agree that none of the argu- mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches ments for God’s existence are compelling, but argue that to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God’s they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter summed up by Pascal as: “The heart has reasons which 7

[80] reason knows not of.” • God the Father in Western art

Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but • List of deities a being that influences our day-to-day existences. Many believers allow for the existence of other, less power- • (gods) ful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints, jinns, demons, and devas.[81][82][83][84][85] • Science and God

7 Distribution of belief in God 9 References

[1] Swinburne, .G. “God” in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Ox- ford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995. [2] Platinga, Alvin. “God, Arguments for the Existence of”, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.

[3] Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies , Stanford University Press 2005, p.59

[4] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.2, 1980, p.96 [5] Freud, S. (1939). and Monotheism: Three Essays.

[6] Gunther Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will . American Philosophical Society, DIANE, 2002. 284 pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN 0-87169-926-5

[7] Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997. The percentage of population in European countries who re- 288 pages. ISBN 0-674-58739-1 sponded in a 2005 survey that they “believe there is a God”. [8] N. Shupak, The Monotheism ofMoses and the Monotheism of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995. Main articles: List of religious populations and by country [9] William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II. Moses out of Egypt . The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050 [10] Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity - Page 136, 8 See also Michael P. Levine - 2002 [11] A Feastforthe : ontheAttributesofGod • God (male deity) : ... - Page x, Baháʾuʾlláh, Joyce Watanabe - 2006

• God in [12] Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism - Page ix, Kartar Singh Duggal - 1988 • [13] The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Com- • God in plete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cul- tured class, David S. Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, page • God in Hinduism 364

• God in Islam [14] Raphael Lataster (2013). There was no Jesus, there is no God: A Scholarly Examination of the Scientific, Historical, • God in and Philosophical Evidence & Arguments for Monotheism. p. 165. ISBN 1492234419. This one god could be of • God in Judaism the deistic or pantheistic sort. Deism might be superior in explaining why God has seemingly left us to our own • devices and pantheism could be the more logical option as it fits well with the ontological argument’s 'maximally- • God in the Baha'i Faith great entity' and doesn't rely on unproven concepts about • God in 'nothing' (as in 'creation out of nothing'). A mixture of the two, pandeism, could be the most likely God-concept • God the Father of all. 8 9 REFERENCES

[15] Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A Theory of [25] L. Gardet. “Allah”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Everything. p. 48. ISBN 0473201143. Pandeism: This is the belief that God created the universe, is now one with [26] Hastings 2003, p. 540 it, and so, is no longer a separate conscious entity. This is [27] Froese, Paul; Christopher Bader (Fall–Winter 2004). a combination of pantheism (God is identical to the uni- “Does God Matter? A Social-Science Critique”. Harvard verse) anddeism (God created theuniverseandthen with- Divinity Bulletin. 4 32. drew Himself). [28] See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism [16] Christianity and Other Religions , by John Hick and Brian (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1 Hebblethwaite. 1980. Page 178. [29] “Sri Guru Granth ”. Sri Granth. Retrieved 2011- [17] "'God' in Merriam-Webster (online)". Merriam-Webster, 06-30. Inc. Retrieved 2012-07-19. [30] “What Is the Trinity?". [18] The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the [31] Quran 112:1–4 unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. “ghuba” implies as its preTeut-type either [32] D. Gimaret. “Allah, Tawhid”. Encyclopaedia Britannica "*ghodho-m” or "*ghodto-m”. The former does not ap- Online. pear to admit of explanation; but the latter would repre- sent the neut. pple. of a root “gheu-". There are two [33] Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...Can Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal There Be Common Ground? . p. 117. ISBN 1-4627-1262- aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. “hu”) the 2. other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr “hu”, Gr. χεηi;ν, [34] Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Originand Growth of OE “geotàn” Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267 Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London: Longmans, Green and Co. [19] Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dic- tionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English [35] Smart, Jack; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism. Words , page 323. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7 Blackwell Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 0-631-23259-1.

[20] Webster’s New World Dictionary; “God n. ME < OE, [36] Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval Essay in Philo- akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * ĝhau-, to sophical Theology. Lexington Books. p. 34. ISBN 0- call out to, invoke > Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any 7391-0250-8. of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immor- tal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of [37] “.info – Glossary – Theism, Athe- people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: ism, and Agonisticism”. Philosophy of Religion.info. typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that Archived from the original on 2008-04-24. Retrieved is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or exces- 2008-07-16. sively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic re- [38] “Theism – definition of theism by the Free Online Dictio- ligions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as nary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia”. TheFreeDictionary. eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Retrieved 2008-07-16. Being; the Almighty” [39] Sean F. Johnston (2009). The History of Science: A Be- [21] Dictionary.com; “God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme ginner’s Guide. p. 90. ISBN 1-85168-681-9. In its most Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the abstract form, deism may notattempt to describethechar- Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular acteristics of such a non-interventionist creator, or even attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a that the universe is identical with God (a variant known male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. as pandeism). 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian [40] Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful History: A Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156. ISBN 0875868762. Pan- Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an im- deism combines the concepts of Deism and Pantheism age of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person with a god who creates the universe and then becomes it. or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the [41] Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only Reality. p. 79. upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part ISBN 1608445909. Pandeism is another belief that states of the balcony.” that God is identical to the universe, but God no longer exists in a way where He can be contacted; therefore, this [22] Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social theory can only be proven to exist by reason. Pandeism and Religious . Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4286-1575- views the entire universe as being from God and now the X. universe is the entirety of God, but the universe at some [23] “God”. Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12- point in time will fold back into one single being which is 18. God Himself that created all. Pandeism raises the ques- tion as to why would God create a universe and then aban- [24] “Islam and Christianity”, Encyclopedia of Christianity don it? As this relates to pantheism, it raises the question (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer of how did the universe come about what is its aim and to God as Allāh. purpose? 9

[42] Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. p. 121. [58] Curley, Edwin M. (1985). The Collected Works of ISBN 1438979681. As with Panentheism, Pantheism is Spinoza. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691- derived from theGreek: 'pan'= alland'theos’ = God, it lit- 07222-7. erally means “God is All” and “All is God.” Pantheist pur- ports thateverything is part of an all-inclusive, indwelling, [59] “Baruch Spinoza”. intangible God; or that the Universe, or nature, and God [60] Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins’ God: genes, memes, are the same. Further review helps to accentuate the idea and the meaning of life. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1- that natural law, existence, and the Universe which is the 4051-2539-0. sum total of all that is, was, and shall be, is represented in the theological principle of an abstract 'god' rather than an [61] Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical Christian Theol- individual, creative Divine Being or Beings of any kind. ogy: Examining the Great Doctrines of the Faith. Kregel This is the key element which distinguishes them from Academic. ISBN 978-0-8254-2380-2. Panentheists and Pandeists. As such, although many re- ligions may claim to hold Pantheistic elements, they are [62] Gould, Stephen J. (1998). Leonardo’s Mountain of Clams more commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in nature. and the Diet of Worms . Jonathan Cape. p. 274. ISBN 0-224-05043-5. [43] TheProjectGutenbergEBook ofThe Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoyevsky pp259-261 [63] The word atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος (atheos ), meaning “without god(s)". [44] Henry, Michel (2003). I am the Truth. Toward a philos- [64] Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, was the first ophy of Christianity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Stan- tocomeupwith the word agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas ford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3780-0. (2008). Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction. [45] Edwards, Paul. “God and the philosophers” in Honderich, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19- Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford 929551-7. However, earlier authors and published works University Press, 1995. ISBN=978-1-61592-446-2. have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher. “The [46] “A Plea for Atheism. By 'Iconoclast'", London, Austin & Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Protagoras (c. 490 Co., 1876, p. 2. - c. 420 BCE)". Archived from the original on 2008-10- 14. Retrieved 2008-10-06. While the pious might wish [47] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Great to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in Britain: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-618-68000-4. the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment, that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and [48] Dawkins, Richard (2006-10-23). “Why There Almost sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and im- Certainly Is No God”. The Huffington Post. Retrieved morality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods. 2007-01-10. Protagoras’ prose treatise about the gods began 'Concern- ing the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they [49] Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon Haunted World p.278 . exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things pre- New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-40946-9. vent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.' [50] StephenHawking; LeonardMlodinow (2010). The Grand Design. Bantam Books. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-553-80537- [65] Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2 6. [66] Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25 [51] Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained,. New York: Basic Books. pp. 142–243. ISBN 0-465-00696-5. [67] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book . William [52] du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M. (2008). Carey . ISBN 0-87808-299-9. Computer Theology,. Austin, Texas: Midori Press. pp. [68] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica. Part 1, 221–222. ISBN 0-9801821-1-5. Question 3, Article 1.

[53] Barrett, Justin (1996). “Conceptualizinga NonnaturalEn- [69] Augustine of Hippo (397). Confessions . Book 7. tity: Anthropomorphism in God Concepts” (PDF). [70] Lang, David; Kreeft, Peter (2002). Why Matter Matters: [54] Rossano, Matt (2007). “Supernaturalizing Social Life: Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on the Sacraments . Religion and the Evolution of Human Cooperation” Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?: Our Sunday Visitor. (PDF). Retrieved 2009-06-25. ISBN 978-1931709347.

[55] Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter, ed. Summa of [71] Elaine H. Pagels “What Became of God the Mother? the Summa. Ignatius Press. p. 63. Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity” Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293-303 [56] Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter, ed. Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 65–69. [72] Coogan, Michael (October 2010). “6. Fire in Divine Loins: God’s Wives in Myth and Metaphor”. God and [57] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica. Part 1, Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Question 2, Article 3. Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175. ISBN 10 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

978-0-446-54525-9. Retrieved 2011-05-05. humans are • Hastings, James Rodney (1925–2003) [1908–26]. modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differ- Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics . John A Sel- ences. bie (Volume 4 of 24 ( Behistun (continued) to Bun- [73] “Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence”. yan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29. p. 476. ISBN 0-7661-3673-6. The encyclopedia will contain articles on all the religions of the world [74] Quran 51:56 and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing articles on every religious belief or cus- [75] “Allah would replace you with a people who ”. islam- tom, and on every , every philo- today.net. Retrieved 13 October 2013. sophical idea, every moral practice. [76] McGrath, Alister (2006). : An Intro- duction. Blackwell Publishing. p. 205. ISBN 1-4051- 5360-1. 11 External links [77] Plantinga, Alvin. “God, Arguments for the Existence of”, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000. • Concept of God in Christianity

[78] Wierenga, Edward R. “Divine foreknowledge” in Audi, • Concept of God in Islam Robert. The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001. • God Christian

[79] Beaty, Michael (1991). “God Among the Philosophers”. • Hindu Concept of God The Christian Century. Retrieved 2007-02-20. • Jewish Literacy [80] Pascal, Blaise. Pensées , 1669. • Mystical view of God [81] Tuesday, December 8, 2009 (December 8, 2009). “More Americans Believe in Angels than Global Warming”. • Relation of God to the Universe Outsidethebeltway.com. Retrieved 2012-12-04. [82] Van, David (2008-09-18). “Guardian Angels Are Here, Say Most Americans”. TIME. Retrieved 2012-12-04. [83] December 23, 2011, 8:25 AM (December 23, 2011). “Poll: Nearly 8 in 10 Americans believe in angels”. CBS News. Retrieved 2012-12-04. [84] Salmon, Jacqueline L.“MostAmericans Believein Higher Power, Poll Finds”. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2012-12-04. [85] Qur’ān 15:27

10 Further reading

• Pickover,Cliff, The Paradox ofGod and the Science of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martin’s Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4039-6457-2

• Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A Scien- tist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7432-8639-1

• Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Vintage, 1996. ISBN 0-679-74368-5

• Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000- Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Bal- lantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-02456-2

• , Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951). ISBN 0-226- 80337-6 11

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