The First the First the First the First

HOW A TINY 12,000-YEAR- OLD TEENAGER

AMERICAN

The Firsts Issue

THE FIRST ARTISTS THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE THE FIRST CITY OF AFRICA THE FIRST GLIMPSE OF THE HIDDEN COSMOS

NO. 1

The wedding of Gbenga Adeoti and his bride, Funmi Olojede, featured traditional customs and attire of the Yoruba, Lagos’s main ethnic group.

78 Africa’s First City In Lagos, Nigeria, a boom economy widens the rift between the wealthy and the poor. By Robert Draper Photographs by Robin Hammond

32 58 108 124 The First Artists The First Year A First Glimpse of the Tracking the Credit them with a piv- In the incredible Hidden Cosmos First Americans otal innovation in human learning machine that As scientists map the Genetic data and history: the invention of is a baby’s brain, universe, what they can’t new archaeological symbolic expression. development depends see—dark energy and discoveries offer clues By Chip Walter on loving caretakers. dark matter—is key. to the mystery of early Photographs by Stephen By Yudhijit Bhattacharjee By Timothy Ferris Americans’ origin. Alvarez Photographs by Lynn Johnson Photographs by Robert Clark By Glenn Hodges

Proof On the Cover Geneticists say that Native Americans’ ancestors The bald eagle may be a majestic national were Asians who separated from other Asian populations and remained isolated for about 10,000 years. Art by Tomer Hanuka symbol—but it’s also one tough bird. By Klaus Nigge Corrections and Clariﬁcations Go to ngm.com/more.

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SO CIETY FROM THE EDITOR Firsts

Ahead

This issue of National Geographic is built around the idea of “firsts”—discoveries, innovations, and actions that changed the world. As a first, it’s hard to top the bravery of Ruby Bridges, who tells us in our 3 Questions feature what it was like HOW WE WILL LIVE to be the first child to desegregate an WITHIN 5 TO 10 YEARS American public elementary school in the Paul Saffo, Technology Forecaster South. We also use the term less formally, as in a photo essay on America’s “first” Driverless cars will share roadways with conventional cars. bird (the bald eagle) or a vibrant story on This will happen in urban areas first and will take a decade to fully diffuse. In the long run, people won’t own cars at all. Africa’s “first” city (Lagos, Nigeria’s com- When you need to go somewhere, you’ll have a subscrip- mercial center, which is driving the biggest tion to an auto service, and it will show up at your door. economy on the continent). We’re moving away from a purchase economy. We will So in an issue of firsts, how do we forecast subscribe to access rather than pay money for possessions what comes next? What will be the next such as smartphones. We won’t buy software anymore; we’ll subscribe to it. “firsts” that will change us, our families, our communities, and our planet? A new religion could emerge in the next decade or two, In an attempt to answer some of those perhaps based around the environment. Digital technology is the solvent leaching the glue out of our global structure— questions, we went to the experts and including shaking our belief systems to the core. futurists who contemplate coming changes both prosaic and profound. Take Paul Saffo, a Silicon Valley seer who, in 1994 (four years before the founding of Google), HOW WE WILL LOVE predicted that the future belonged to WITHIN 10 TO 20 YEARS “those who control the filtering, search, and sensemaking tools we will rely on to Pepper Schwartz Professor, University of Washington navigate through the banal expanses of cyberspace.” Indeed. Divorce may decrease after the baby boomers, who have a high divorce rate, age into their 50s and 60s. Whether it’s about the anticipated demise of the combustion engine or a de- We will also see more people who are in love but do not share a domicile. Though definitely couples, these people crease in divorce, we hope you’ll find these are tied to different places because of a job or family, or be- experts’ ideas thought provoking as we en- cause they love where they live. Maybe we will see people ter 2015. One cautionary note: No predictor going back and forth between assisted living facilities. is always right. In what he calls his “worst forecast,” Saffo wrote in 1993 that “cyber- punks are to the 1990s what the beatniks were to the ’60s—harbingers of a mass movement waiting in the wings.” That’s one mass movement we still await. Onward to the next firsts—and Happy New Year!

Susan Goldberg, Editor in Chief HOW WE WILL HEAL WITHIN 10 TO 20 YEARS Bertalan Meskó Medical Futurist Author of The Guide to the Future of Medicine HOW WE WILL AGE The next decades of medicine and health care will be about using WITHIN 20 YEARS technologies and keeping the human touch in practicing medicine. Byron Reese, Tech Entrepreneur Author of Inﬁnite Progress: How the Internet and Technology Will End Everyone’s genomes will be se- Ignorance, Disease, Poverty, Hunger, and War quenced to access personalized treatments. Since technology grows exponentially, not in a linear way, we will see dramatic improvements in our way of life in just a few years. Though it We’ll measure almost any health took us 4,000 years to get from the abacus to the iPad, in 20 years we will parameters at home with diagnos- have something as far ahead of the iPad as it is ahead of the abacus. This tic devices and smartphones. means that soon we will be able to solve all problems that are fundamentally technical. These problems include disease, poverty, hunger, energy, The 3-D printing revolution will and scarcity. If you can live a few years more, there is a real chance you produce affordable exoskeletons will never die, since mortality may be just a technical problem we solve. All and prosthetic devices. these advances will usher in a new golden age, freed from the scourges that have plagued humanity throughout our history.

“THERE IS A REAL CHANCE YOU WILL NEVER DIE, SINCE MORTALITY MAY BE JUST A TECHNICAL

PROBLEM WE SOLVE.” —Byron Reese

HOW WE WILL BE POWERED WITHIN 50 YEARS Michael Brune, Executive Director, the Sierra Club Author of Coming Clean: Breaking America’s Addiction to Oil and Coal

Within 50 years the world should be able to achieve a 100 percent clean energy economy. Within the next couple of decades, every time you turn on a light or power up your computer, every bit of that electricity will come from clean, renewable, carbon-free sources. Soon after that, solar and wind will displace nuclear as well, at which point we’ll be getting 100 percent of our electricity from renewables. By 2030 we should be able to cut transportation oil use in half and then cut it in half again a decade later.

Once we’re ﬁnally fossil-fuel free, we’ll not only see our climate stabilize but we’ll also rest secure knowing that we can get all our power from sources that are safe, secure, and sustainable. It’s already within our grasp.

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How I Felt to Be First

On November 14, 1960, six-year-old Ruby Bridges walked past an angry crowd to become the ﬁrst child to integrate a public elementary school in the American South. Now a mother, grandmother, and activist, the lifelong New Orleans resident heads the Ruby Bridges Foundation and travels all over the United States to tell her story.

DID YOU EVER TALK TO YOUR MOTHER ABOUT HOW SHE FELT, SENDING YOU TO SCHOOL THAT FIRST DAY? We never really spoke about it. My parents definitely displayed courage. I’m the mother of four. I’m very protective, but I just don’t think that I possess that kind of courage. I know it was a different time, but as African Americans, my parents knew that if they wanted to see change in their lifetime, they had to step up to the plate to make that happen. And as we know, lots of people did that. Lots of people who made those bold sacrifices lost their lives. I remember driving up to the school, seeing all these people screaming. But in New Orleans that’s what we do at Mardi Gras. I thought we’d stumbled upon a parade. And so I really wasn’t afraid at all.

YOUR FOUNDATION’S MISSION IS TO “EMPOWER CHILDREN TO ADVANCE SOCIAL JUSTICE AND RACIAL HARMONY.” HOW DO YOU HELP CHILDREN DO THIS? I just draw from my own experience. I guess that six-year- old is still inside of me. Once my school was integrated and I was there with white kids and a few black kids, it really didn’t matter to us what we looked like. Now I reach out to diﬀerent communities and bring their kids together.

A STATUE OF YOU WAS RECENTLY DEDICATED AT YOUR FORMER SCHOOL. HOW DOES THAT MAKE YOU FEEL? My school was hit by Hurricane Katrina, and they were going to tear it down. I worked hard to get it on the National Reg- ister of Historic Places. I’m really proud of that, and of the statue. I want to inspire kids. There are all kinds of monu- ments to adults—usually dead and usually white. But we don’t often lift up the extraordinary work of children.

PHOTO: REBECCA HALE, NG M STAFF

EXPLORE

Planet Earth

A Geothermal First?

Can the “Emerald Isle of the Caribbean” be the ﬁrst to go green? Montserrat is trying. Nearly 20 years after the Soufriere Hills volcano began erupting—rendering much of the island nation uninhabit- able and exiling two-thirds of the population—the same geological forces could provide reliable, renewable geothermal energy. Like much of the Caribbean, this British overseas territory runs on costly oil and gas imports. But as on other islands, plate tectonics and volcanic activity bring magma close enough to the surface for geothermal wells to tap into the heated reservoirs just below. A single well can cost several million U.S. dollars, though. Last year, with U.K. funding, University of Auckland researcher Gra- ham Ryan and an international team of scientists and engineers mapped two promising spots. Initial ﬁndings suggest there’s enough geothermal juice there to power the grid, warrant a third well—and maybe even sell to neighbors. —Jeremy Berlin

Generator Underground reservoirs are usually Electricity a complex system of porous rocks 3 and heated water. That makes the Condenser drilling process (shown generally here) a major challenge on Mont- serrat and other Lesser Antilles islands with geothermal potential.

Hot water Steam separator Cool water Steam

2 1 Very hot water is brought to the surface, turning to steam as pressure decreases.

Ground At a power plant, steam is 1 4 2 separated from water.

3 Steam �ows through a turbine, powering a generator that produces electricity.

Natural water reservoir 4 Cool water is pumped down into a natural reservoir. PHOTO: CARSTEN PETER. GRAPHIC: SAMANTHA WELKER Atrial Fibrillation (AFib) not caused by a heart valve problem

ELIQUIS® is a prescription medicine used to reduce the risk of stroke and blood clots in people who have atrial fi brillation, a type of irregular heartbeat, not caused by a heart valve problem. IMPORTANT SAFETY INFORMATION: Get medical help right away if you have any of these signs or symptoms of bleeding: Do not stop taking ELIQUIS for atrial fibrillation - unexpected bleeding, or bleeding that lasts a without talking to the doctor who prescribed it for long time, such as unusual bleeding from the you. Stopping ELIQUIS increases your risk of having gums; nosebleeds that happen often, or a stroke. ELIQUIS may need to be stopped, prior menstrual or vaginal bleeding that is heavier to surgery or a medical or dental procedure. Your than normal doctor will tell you when you should stop taking - bleeding that is severe or you cannot control ELIQUIS and when you may start taking it again. If - red, pink, or brown urine; red or black stools you have to stop taking ELIQUIS, your doctor may (looks like tar) prescribe another medicine to help prevent a blood - coughing up or vomiting blood or vomit that looks clot from forming. like coffee grounds ELIQUIS can cause bleeding, which can be serious, - unexpected pain, swelling, or joint pain; headaches, and rarely may lead to death. feeling dizzy or weak You may have a higher risk of bleeding if you take ELIQUIS is not for patients with artificial heart valves. ELIQUIS and take other medicines that increase your risk of bleeding, such as aspirin, NSAIDs, warfarin Spinal or epidural blood clots (hematoma). People (COUMADIN® ), heparin, SSRIs or SNRIs, and other who take ELIQUIS, and have medicine injected blood thinners. Tell your doctor about all medicines, into their spinal and epidural area, or have a vitamins and supplements you take. While taking spinal puncture have a risk of forming a blood ELIQUIS, you may bruise more easily and it may clot that can cause long-term or permanent loss of take longer than usual for any bleeding to stop. the ability to move (paralysis). But ELIQUIS was a better find. I TAKE ELIQUIS 1 reduced the risk of stroke better than warfarin. 2 ELIQUIS had less major bleeding than warfarin. Unlike warfarin, there’s no routine blood testing.

serious, and rarely may lead to death.

Ask your doctor if ELIQUIS is right for you.

This risk is higher if, an epidural catheter is placed You are encouraged to report negative side effects in your back to give you certain medicine, you take of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit www.fda.gov/ NSAIDs or blood thinners, you have a history of medwatch, or call 1-800-FDA-1088. diffi cult or repeated epidural or spinal punctures. Tell your doctor right away if you have tingling, Please see additional numbness, or muscle weakness, especially in your Important Product Information legs and feet. on the adjacent page. Before you take ELIQUIS, tell your doctor if you have: kidney or liver problems, any other medical Individual results may vary. condition, or ever had bleeding problems. Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, or plan to become pregnant or breastfeed. Do not take ELIQUIS if you currently have certain types of abnormal bleeding or have had a serious or call 1-855-ELIQUIS allergic reaction to ELIQUIS. A reaction to ELIQUIS can cause hives, rash, itching, and possibly trouble breathing. Get medical help right away if you have sudden chest pain or chest tightness, ©2014 Bristol-Myers Squibb Company have sudden swelling of your face or tongue, 432US14BR01976-03-01 01/15 have trouble breathing, wheezing, or feeling dizzy or faint. IMPORTANT FACTS about ELIQUIS® (apixaban) tablets The information below does not take the place of talking with your healthcare professional. Only your healthcare professional knows the specifics of your condition and how ELIQUIS may fit into your overall therapy. Talk to your healthcare professional if you have any questions about ELIQUIS (pronounced ELL eh kwiss).

What is the most important information I should • bleeding that is severe or you cannot control know about ELIQUIS (apixaban)? • red, pink, or brown urine For people taking ELIQUIS for atrial fibrillation: • red or black stools (looks like tar) Do not stop taking ELIQUIS without talking to • cough up blood or blood clots the doctor who prescribed it for you. Stopping • vomit blood or your vomit looks like coffee ELIQUIS may need to be stopped, prior to surgery or grounds a medical or dental procedure. Your doctor will tell • unexpected pain, swelling, or joint pain you when you should stop taking ELIQUIS and when • headaches, feeling dizzy or weak you may start taking it again. If you have to stop taking ELIQUIS, your doctor may prescribe another ELIQUIS (apixaban) is not for patients with medicine to help prevent a blood clot from forming. artificial heart valves. ELIQUIS can cause bleeding which can be serious, Spinal or epidural blood clots (hematoma). and rarely may lead to death. This is because People who take a blood thinner medicine ELIQUIS is a blood thinner medicine that reduces (anticoagulant) like ELIQUIS, and have medicine blood clotting. injected into their spinal and epidural area, or have a spinal puncture have a risk of forming a blood clot You may have a higher risk of bleeding if that can cause long-term or permanent loss of the you take ELIQUIS and take other medicines ability to move (paralysis). Your risk of developing a that increase your risk of bleeding, such as spinal or epidural blood clot is higher if: aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (called NSAIDs), warfarin (COUMADIN ®), heparin, • a thin tube called an epidural catheter is placed in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) your back to give you certain medicine or serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors • you take NSAIDs or a medicine to prevent blood (SNRIs), and other medicines to help prevent or treat from clotting blood clots. • you have a history of difficult or repeated epidural Tell your doctor if you take any of these medicines. or spinal punctures Ask your doctor or pharmacist if you are not sure if • you have a history of problems with your spine or your medicine is one listed above. have had surgery on your spine While taking ELIQUIS: If you take ELIQUIS and receive spinal anesthesia or • you may bruise more easily have a spinal puncture, your doctor should watch you closely for symptoms of spinal or epidural • it may take longer than usual for any bleeding to stop blood clots or bleeding. Tell your doctor right away if you have tingling, numbness, or muscle weakness, Call your doctor or get medical help right away especially in your legs and feet. if you have any of these signs or symptoms of bleeding when taking ELIQUIS: What is ELIQUIS? • unexpected bleeding, or bleeding that lasts a long ELIQUIS is a prescription medicine used to: time, such as: • reduce the risk of stroke and blood clots in people • unusual bleeding from the gums who have atrial fibrillation. • nosebleeds that happen often • reduce the risk of forming a blood clot in the legs • menstrual bleeding or vaginal bleeding that is and lungs of people who have just had hip or knee heavier than normal replacement surgery. (Continued on adjacent page)

This independent, non-proﬁt organization provides assistance to qualifying patients with ﬁnancial hardship who generally have no prescription insurance. Contact 1-800-736-0003 or visit www.bmspaf.org for more information. IMPORTANT FACTS about ELIQUIS® (apixaban) tablets (Continued)

• treat blood clots in the veins of your legs (deep the same time. Do not run out of ELIQUIS. Refill vein thrombosis) or lungs (pulmonary embolism), your prescription before you run out. When leaving and reduce the risk of them occurring again. the hospital following hip or knee replacement, be sure that you will have ELIQUIS (apixaban) It is not known if ELIQUIS is safe and effective in available to avoid missing any doses. If you are children. taking ELIQUIS for atrial fibrillation, stopping Who should not take ELIQUIS (apixaban)? ELIQUIS may increase your risk of having a stroke. Do not take ELIQUIS if you: What are the possible side effects of ELIQUIS? • currently have certain types of abnormal bleeding • See “What is the most important information • have had a serious allergic reaction to ELIQUIS. I should know about ELIQUIS?” Ask your doctor if you are not sure • ELIQUIS can cause a skin rash or severe allergic What should I tell my doctor before taking reaction. Call your doctor or get medical help right ELIQUIS? away if you have any of the following symptoms: • chest pain or tightness Before you take ELIQUIS, tell your doctor if you: • swelling of your face or tongue • have kidney or liver problems • trouble breathing or wheezing • have any other medical condition • feeling dizzy or faint • have ever had bleeding problems Tell your doctor if you have any side effect that • are pregnant or plan to become pregnant. It is not bothers you or that does not go away. known if ELIQUIS will harm your unborn baby • are breastfeeding or plan to breastfeed. It is These are not all of the possible side effects of not known if ELIQUIS passes into your breast milk. ELIQUIS. For more information, ask your doctor or You and your doctor should decide if you will pharmacist. take ELIQUIS or breastfeed. You should not do both Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at Tell all of your doctors and dentists that you are 1-800-FDA-1088. taking ELIQUIS. They should talk to the doctor This is a brief summary of the most important infor- any surgery, medical or dental procedure. Tell mation about ELIQUIS. For more information, talk your doctor about all the medicines you take, with your doctor or pharmacist, call 1-855-ELIQUIS including prescription and over-the-counter (1-855-354-7847), or go to www.ELIQUIS.com. medicines, vitamins, and herbal supplements. Manufactured by: Some of your other medicines may affect the way ELIQUIS works. Certain medicines may increase your Princeton, New Jersey 08543 USA risk of bleeding or stroke when taken with ELIQUIS. Marketed by: How should I take ELIQUIS? Princeton, New Jersey 08543 USA Take ELIQUIS exactly as prescribed by your and doctor. Take ELIQUIS twice every day with or without food, and do not change your dose or New York, New York 10017 USA stop taking it unless your doctor tells you to. If COUMADIN® you miss a dose of ELIQUIS, take it as soon as you remember, and do not take more than one dose at

Today just over half of U.S. teens get their driver’s license by age 18.

If Jack Kerouac were writing today, he might title his book Off the Road. After six decades of growth in driving, America’s love affair with the automobile has hit a ditch. More teens and young adults are waiting to get their ﬁrst driver’s license— or opting not to get one at all. In 2009 people ages 16 to 34 drove 23 percent fewer miles than in 2001. Some say they’re too busy to get a license. Others cite cars’ cost and hassle or the beneﬁts of biking, walking, and taking mass transit. Delayed A 2013 study by the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute found vehicle registration down 6 percent since 2008, when the recession hit. But the decline may be about more than economics. Online and mobile technologies—which fuel telework, e-commerce, and ride sharing—are also factors, says a study by the U.S. Public Interest Research Group. “In 21st-century America, cars aren’t freedom machines anymore,” says Cotten Seiler, author of Republic of Driv- ers. “They’re just a way to get around.” Of course, since younger drivers average more auto accidents, fewer of them could mean safer roads. —Jeremy Berlin

Portion of 100% age group 77 73 with a license 71 59% 56 55 50 35

Ages 1963 70+ 1983 2003 2012 16-19 Peak for 16- to 19-year-olds

SOURCE: FEDERAL HIG HWAY ADMINISTRATION The Holy Land Revealed Taught by Professor Jodi Magness �� 1. The Land of Canaan 2. The Arrival of the Israelites R 3. Jerusalem—An Introduction to the City 4. The Jerusalem of David and Solomon 5. Biblical Jerusalem’s Ancient Water Systems 8 6. Samaria and the Northern Kingdom of Israel off 7. Fortiﬁcations and Cult Practices 8. Babylonian Exile and the Persian Restoration 9. Alexander the Great and His Successors 10. The Hellenization of Palestine 11. The Maccabean Revolt 12. The Hasmonean Kingdom 13. Pharisees and Sadducees 14. Discovery and Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls 15. The Sectarian Settlement at Qumran 16. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Essenes 17. The Life of the Essenes 18. From Roman Annexation to Herod the Great 19. Herod as Builder—Jerusalem’s Temple Mount 20. Caesarea Maritima—Harbor and Showcase City 21. From Herod’s Last Years to Pontius Pilate 22. Galilee—Setting of Jesus’s Life and Ministry 23. Synagogues in the Time of Jesus 24. Sites of the Trial and Final Hours of Jesus 25. Early Jewish Tombs in Jerusalem 26. Monumental Tombs in the Time of Jesus 27. The Burials of Jesus and James 28. The First Jewish Revolt; Jerusalem Destroyed 29. Masada—Herod’s Desert Palace and the Siege 30. Flavius Josephus and the Mass Suicide 31. The Second Jewish Revolt against the Romans 32. Roman Jerusalem—Hadrian’s Aelia Capitolina 33. Christian Emperors and Pilgrimage Sites 34. Judaism and Synagogues under Christian Rule 35. Islam’s Transformation of Jerusalem Unearth Ancient Secrets 36. What and How Archaeology Reveals from the Holy Land With a rich history stretching back over 3,000 years, the Holy The Holy Land Revealed Land (the area in and around modern-day Israel) is a sacred Course no. 6220 | 36 lectures (30 minutes/lecture) land for three major faiths and the setting for defining events in religious history. And with the help of information uncovered at various archaeological sites, historians have shed intriguing new light on our understanding of this area—and its powerful role in SAVE $275 religious history. Comb through these remains for yourself with The Holy Land Revealed, an unforgettable experience that will add new DVD $374.95 NOW $99.95 +$15 Shipping, Processing, and Lifetime Satisfaction Guarantee dimensions to your understanding of the millennia-long story Priority Code: 105696 of this dynamic region. Delivered by archaeologist and Professor Jodi Magness, these 36 lectures give you an insider’s look at ruins, artifacts, documents, and other long-buried objects that For 24 years, The Great Courses has brought the will take you deep beneath the pages of the Bible. world’s foremost educators to millions who want to go deeper into the subjects that matter most. No er expires 01/18/15 exams. No homework. Just a world of knowledge available anytime, anywhere. Download or stream T��G��C��.��/4�� to your laptop or PC, or use our free mobile apps for iPad, iPhone, or Android. Over 500 courses 1-800-832-2412 available at www.TheGreatCourses.com. EXPLORE Science

for Fish Love them or hate them, genetically modified foods are making their way into grocery stores. Soybeans and corn have been for sale in the U.S. since the 1990s. Now, if the FDA gives the green light, , a farmed fish known as AquAdvantage salmon, could one day join their ranks. Developed by Canadian scientists, the fish (right) is an Atlantic salmon with two tweaks to its DNA: a growth hormone gene from the large king salmon and genetic material from the eel-like ocean pout, to keep that growth hormone activated. The fish, which is female and sterile, should reach maximum size quickly in the land-based tanks where it would be raised. To help feed a hungry planet, the GM technology could be used in other species, says spokes- man Dave Conley: “Many of VANGUARD 1, FIRST SOLAR-POWERED SATELLITE The size of a cantaloupe and weighing about three pounds, Vanguard 1 its benefits have been down- was the first solar-powered satellite and an important U.S. entry in the played or ignored.” space race. Playing catch-up after the Soviet Union’s 1957 launches of Still, the company was fined Sputniks 1 and 2, the U.S. sent Vanguard 1 into orbit on March 17, 1958. for environmental violations, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and critics worry the fish could derided the compact satellite as a escape into the wild and create “grapefruit.” Yet the much larger new problems. The FDA has Sputniks fell from orbit and burned up yet to approve it for human on reentry in 1958, while Vanguard 1 consumption. If allowed, says remains aloft today. It stopped trans- Ocean Conservancy chief mitting in 1964, after its last solar cells scientist George H. Leonard, gave out. But it still holds the title of “it’s imperative it be labeled, so oldest artificial satellite in space and is consumers can vote with their projected to remain in orbit about 240 wallets.” —Catherine Zuckerman more years. —Tim Wendel

PHOTOS: ALEXI HOBBS (TOP); NASA GLENN RESEARCH CENTER

©2014 NGC Network US, LLC and NGC Network International, LLC. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CHANNEL and the Yellow Border design are trademarks of National Geographic Society; used with permission. EXPLORE Wild Things

Magellanic chicks conceived by artiﬁcial insemination thrive 13 weeks after hatching.

These captive Magellanic penguin chicks are pioneers: Theirs is the first penguin species to produce young via artificial insemination. Success took more than a decade, as researchers acquired detailed knowledge of Magellanics’ reproductive biology. The near-threatened species was an ideal candidate for artificial insemination trials, says Justine O’Brien, scientific director of SeaWorld’s reproductive Penguins programs. That’s because the birds are easy to work with, and they’re closely related to endangered species such as Galápagos and African penguins. Now that the method has worked with Magellanics, researchers hope it can one day be employed with endangered penguin species. The ultimate goal, says O’Brien, is to use it to maintain genetically diverse captive penguin populations and perhaps even replenish depleted populations in the wild. —Jane J. Lee

WHO SPLIT FIRST? The announcement jolted the gelatinous world: The comb jelly lineage was likely the first to split from the common ancestor of all animals. Scientists long believed that sponges broke off first, some 600 million years ago. Resolving the question could help explain how nervous systems evolved, says the University of Florida’s Leonid L. Moroz. Comb jellies (right) have nerve cells; sponges don’t. If comb jellies split first, they may have the oldest neurons of any extant species, says Heather Marlow of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory. —JJL

PHOTOS: EMILY BERL (TOP); ALEXANDER SEMENOV 150 years of helping the world thrive

A legacy of �rsts

In 1865, the American Midwest was a blank canvas, poised for transformation. Our founder saw the potential and began his trade business there, storing and moving grain on a revolutionary scale.

It was the �rst milestone in our rich history of innovation, and 150 years later, our �rsts have given way to new markets, new ingredients and new ways of transporting food. We’ve pioneered agricultural systems that yield sustainable crops and increase farmer incomes. And as we approach a future with even higher stakes, we’re behind the innovations that are shaping a nourished world that can .

Learn more at cargill.com/150 1865 1991

The � o champion attle practices The rst grain se

Dr. Temple Grandin’s systematic ideas to life in our beef processing facilities, we helped l n into the uncertainty of post- de� l standards across the industry. Civil ar America as a single storage site in A renowned exp rt in animal science, Grandin drafted . W. Cargill followed the construction a blueprint that promotes more peaceful and insightful of the oad, expanding his network to , and in effect, safer and more rmers move their grain to market. nutritious produ ts.

1940 1998

The � oating, offshore port in India The rst hybrid sport ship

In Kutch, India, i port demand for fertilizer is high, o withstand the region’s long droughts. sport food across vast lakes and d own of Kutch’s waters are quite shallow, we winding rivers, the world needed a better boat. designed a � g structure stationed miles from land. l ed the shipbuilding industry to create With integrated ranes, the port unloads vital resources it, fusi s—later transferred to shore by ferry— r and more cost-ef�cient ship. sly loading other cargo for export.

1967 2013

The � o achieve sustainable The rst to deliver crops erti�cation newfound ef�ciency

plantation was the �rst to achieve nged the food industry when we �lled of�cial Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) certi�cation. an ent e train—all 115 cars—with Illinois corn, as the model of sustainability for the r e affordable for consumers and industry nationwide, but also, it serves as the benchmark able for farmers. On one of our earliest trips tor training. Today, Cargill is actively to Lou other major �rst: a 100% sustainable half th ecord time. alm oil across the globe. The Firsts Issue Chocolate to Europe 1519 The Aztec introduce chocolate to Hernán Cortés, who later takes cacao pods back to Europe.

Printing press Air pump 1439 1650 This technology Otto von Guericke invents manufacture of books. the air pump, which he uses to study light and sound in a vacuum.

1350 1650 ook place. sful Complete world map atient’s 1507 husband. Others occurred in an order that seems unexpected: was mapped centuries before the ocean ﬂoor. for the ﬁrst time.

Piano circa 1700 Submersible 1620 Bartolomeo Cristofori allegedly creates the Major literary work Dutch engineer Cornelis modern piano. by a woman Drebbel reportedly waterproofs the craft 1010 with greased leather. Murasaki Shikibu, a Japanese noblewoman, 500 writes The Tale of Genji. Scientiﬁc map Wheel of the moon 3500 B.C. npowder 1679 Early wheels are used 9th ce y Giovanni Cassini draws as pottery turntables e discover lunar landscapes seen gunpowder wh through a telescope. goods via sledges. t .

Fire A.D. 1400 1650 years ago Humans learn Eyeglasses to control fire. Olympic Games 13th century 776 B.C. The first use of Domesticated Competitions are wearable spectacles livestock closely linked to festivals is recorded in Italy. honoring the god Zeus. 9000 B.C. Sheep and goats are tamed in the Paper money Diving-bell patent Middle East, then 12th century 1691 pigs and cattle. Chinese merchants British astronomer Sextant begin using paper mid-1700s money to avoid having Univ rsity to carry heavy coins. receives the patent. 859 longitude by meas the angular distance i co is founded by a a nearby star. atima al Fihri. Skyscraper 1885 Chicago’s steel-frame Home Insurance Building is built, ten stories high. Man on the moon 1969 American Neil Armstrong’s words as he becomes the first person to walk on the moon: “That’s one small step for a man, Satellite in space one giant leap for mankind.” Human flight 1957 1783 Photograph 1826 The Soviet Union launches Non-tethered human the beach-ball-size Sputnik 1, flight takes place in a Taken in France, the first hot-air balloon that rises photo is titled “View From to orbit Earth. 500 feet above Paris. the Window at Le Gras.”

760 1957 1980

Sign language Phone call Aspirin Internet Map of the seafloor 1770s 1876 1897 1969 1977 Human in space Abbé Charles Michel de l’Épée On the telephone he German chemist Felix Data are sent National Geographic invents the first widely used sign invented, Alexander Hoffmann synthesizes 1961 grantees create the language for the deaf. Graham Bell’s first aspirin in the lab—and Cosmonaut Yuri universities, first complete words to his aide are two weeks later, heroin. Gagarin orbits Earth setting the stage topographic map. “Mr. Watson, come for 108 minutes. for the Internet’s here, I want to development. see you.”

Postage stamp Electric wheelchair A B C 1840 1953 The ﬁrst stamp features George Klein invents a Queen Victoria’s proﬁle motorized chair to assist and cost just a penny. quadriplegic veterans.

Smartphone Voyager 1 Lightning rod Penicillin Email 1993 2013 1752 1928 1971 Benjamin Franklin and Alexander Fleming Programmer Ray ﬁrst cellular phone to the ﬁrst human- his son invent a way to accidentally discovers Tomlinson sends have “personal digital made object to protect buildings from the antibiotic in a this message: lightning strikes. petri dish. QWERTYUIOP. such as email. interstellar space. MENT 1800 WAR & POSTWAR 54 1971 INFORMATION AGE

U.S. C-section nsplant surgery 1951 1954 Cloned mammal 1996 1794 ul Elizabeth Bennett and procedure m ves a Dolly the sheep is her baby girl are ﬁne after synthesizing hormones kidney from o e twin cloned from a Bennett’s husband, a phy- from yams. to another. mammary cell and sician, performs nation’s Adhesive bandage named for Dolly Parton. ﬁrst successful C-section. 1920 Earle Dickson, a cotton buyer, invents this for his accident-prone wife.

artiﬁcial heart o ﬁnd 1982 ring The Jarvik-7 is successfully implanted in a human, who d lives another 112 days.

KELSEY NOWAKOWSKI, NGM STAFF. GRAPHIC: ÁLVARO VALIÑO EXPLORE Ancient Worlds

RUSSIA

CANADA

CHINA

SPAIN JAPAN OCEAN U.S. EQUATOR

AFGHANISTAN BRAZIL

INDIA ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA

SOUTH AFRICA

Present-day country boundaries and shorelines are superimposed on the Pangaea of 250 million years ago. Some areas of the modern world aren’t seen; their continental crust formed later.

Hot off the presses in 1915, Alfred Wegener’s book The Origin of Continents and Oceans sent tremors through the foundations of earth science. The German meteorologist was the ﬁrst to weave together multidisciplinary evidence to support a then controversial theory of continental drift. While perusing a world atlas in 1910, Wegener pondered whether the shapes of the continents corresponded by mere coincidence. He later Pangaea pieced them into a single “primordial continent” he called Pangaea, Greek for “all Earth.” Wegener theorized that this massive landform had existed until roughly 250 million to 200 million years ago, when today’s continents began to creep apart. For biologists, this explained the related plant and animal species on lands divided by oceans. For paleontologists, the theory ﬁt with mesosaur fossils found in both South Africa and Brazil. To geologists, Wegener pointed out similar land formations on separate continents and suggested, among other things, that South Africa’s Cape Fold Belt range once joined up with Argentina’s Sierra de la Ventana. Wegener’s work was rejected by leading geologists who had a stake in long-standing, competing theories of Earth’s evolution. Critics complained that he had failed to explain the exact mechanism that would have driven the drifting motion. Wegener agreed with that point, writing in 1929 that “the Newton of drift theory has not yet appeared.” The next year Wegener died, at age 50. It would take 30 more years—and geophysicists’ conclusion that plate tectonics results in continental drift—for Wegener’s theory to be vindicated. —Karen de Seve

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The First Time

For humans, sexual initiation can be a big deal—obsessed about, ro-

manticized. The loss of virginity, it’s said, leaves one forever changed. HABITAT “Tell me about it,” says the male hump-winged grig. The first fe- Forests of northwestern U.S. male he mates with takes not just his innocence but bites of his body. and southwestern Canada Grigs are cricket-like insects whose annual mating season involves STATUS what behavioral ecologist Scott Sakaluk calls “an unusual form of Vulnerable sexual cannibalism.” To entice a female grig, a male makes a call by rubbing his forewings together, an act called stridulation. The male OTHER FACTS In the insect order that grigs then seals the deal by letting the female munch on his hind wings share with grasshoppers during sex and lap up the hemolymph, the bug version of blood. “One and katydids, there are three night he’s a virgin. The next night he’s been chewed on,” Sakaluk says. North American grig species. Why do some males get several of these grisly trysts (which are seldom, if ever, fatal) but others get none? The call is key. When Sakaluk’s colleague Geoff Ower compared the insects’ calls, he found “fundamental differences” between the sound made by grigs that had mating success and those that did not. Being a sex snack can sap the strength a male grig needs for stridulation, Sakaluk says. By the end of mating season, “there’s only a few left calling. Those are the males that have gotten superlucky — and they are chewed right down to the nub.” —Patricia Edmonds cannibalism.”

PHOTO: PIOTR NASKRECKI “The passion of all the explorers, for what they do, is awe- inspiring. Their work teaches respect for animals, different cultures, lifestyles... I wanted to support National Geographic to make sure this work continues long after I’m gone.”

—Cecilia Sestak, who included National Geographic in her estate plans.

LEAVE A WISE LEGACY. By including National Geographic in your estate plans you can pass on the values that have guided your life. A bequest lets you maintain control of your assets and makes a lasting impact on the exploration, conservation, and education programs you value at National Geographic. Naming National Geographic as a beneficiary in your will, retirement plan, life insurance policy, or other financial account also allows flexibility if your financial situation changes.

For more information about making a bequest to National Geographic: Tel: 1-800-226-4438 | Email: [email protected] | Web: www.ngs.gift-planning.org

ease send me information on how Name aphic in my will. Address

aphic has already been Phone Email

ould like to speak to someone about Mail to National Geographic Society ease call me. Ofﬁce of Planned Giving 1145 17th Street, N.W. The National Geographic Society is a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization. Washington, D.C. 20036-4688 Our federal tax ID number is 53-0193519. 15PGFC01B VISIONS

��    Costa Rica Waking up on a tree branch near Guayacán de Siquirres, a red- eyed tree frog peers through a gold-striped, semitransparent eyelid. The scarlet eyes on this toxic, three-inch- long amphibian might be an example of startle coloration—a defense strategy some animals use to ward off predators.

PHOTO: INGO ARNDT

Bulgaria Fatme Inus wears face paint, tinsel, and many- hued sequins on her wedding day in Ribnovo. The colorful tradition, which symbolizes status change, is called gelina. It’s practiced by Bulgarian-speaking Muslims—also known as Pomaks—whose wedding celebrations span two days and involve hundreds of villagers.

PHOTO: SEAN GALLUP, GETTY IMAGES Order prints of select National Geographic photos online at NationalGeographicArt.com. China Seen from a �owering hillside, the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces are a mosaic of color: green shrubs, red duckweed, and blue sky re�ected in the irrigated ﬁelds. The Hani people have farmed these 41,000 acres— now a World Heritage site—on the slopes of the Ailao Mountains for 13 centuries.

PHOTO: IMAGINECHINA/CORBIS Legal Notice

If You Own Property With GAF Timberline Rooﬁng Shingles Made Between 1998 and 2009, You Could Receive Beneﬁts from Class Action Settlements

Settlements have been reached with The attorneys representing the Classes are Building Materials Corporation of America asking the Court for attorneys’ fees (up to (known as GAF Materials Corp.) (“GAF”) $6,890,000 in total) and costs and expenses involving Timberline roofing shingles (up to $1,115,000 in total). Counsel will also (“Shingles”). The lawsuits claim a defect request an incentive payment for the Class that might cause the roofing Shingles to Representatives. The payment of costs and prematurely crack, split or tear. GAF expenses, and the incentive awards, will be claims that the Shingles were not defective paid by GAF and will not reduce the benefits and that GAF’s warranty appropriately under the Settlements. covers any problems. The attorneys representing the Class The Settlements include two Classes covering Shingles made in Mobile are covering Shingles made: (1) between also asking for a portion of the additional 1999 and 2007 at GAF’s plant in Mobile, benefits going to Class Members with Alabama and (2) between 1998 and 2009 at property outside South Carolina. These fees other GAF manufacturing plants. will not be paid by GAF and would in these instances reduce the benefits to some Class Am I included? Members. You may be included if you own any property in the United States with How can I make a claim? Timberline Shingles made during the In order to get benefits, you need to file a relevant time periods. claim. You can find out how to file a claim by visiting www.RoofSettlement.com or What do the Settlements provide? calling 1-866-759-6518. You can file a The benefits you may be eligible to receive claim over the next seven years after the are based on: (1) the location of your effective date of the Settlements. property, (2) where your Shingles were made, (3) the date your Shingles were What are my rights? installed and the date on which you make If you do nothing, you will be bound by the a claim, (4) the type and extent of damage Settlements and the Court’s decisions. If to your Shingles, and (5) the size of your you want to keep your right to sue GAF, you roof. must exclude yourself from the Classes by March 16, 2015. If you stay in the Classes, You may be eligible to receive: (1) you may object to the Settlements by March replacement shingles (comparable to 16, 2015. The Court will hold a hearing the Shingles installed) and/or (2) a cash on April 22, 2015 to consider whether to payment. The Settlements will not reduce approve the Settlements. You or your own the benefits you may be entitled to under lawyer may appear at the hearing at your any existing GAF warranty. own expense, but you do not have to attend.

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EDITOR’S NOTE

“I love the visceral, youthful, and joyful feeling Ujjal captured [below]. The way he waited for a speciﬁc gesture adds emotional punch to what might have been an ordinary moment.” —Jessie Wender, National Geographic senior photo editor

Bogdan Comanescu Caransebes, Romania Comanescu was in the Danube Delta and met an 86-year-old ﬁsherman named Artiom. The man sat on his lejanca, a traditional bed that’s an extension of the oven. Comanescu framed the ﬁsherman in a mirror surrounded by family photos.

Ujjal Dey Hyderabad, India In a park in his hometown Dey liked to watch kids play in the water fountains. One summer day right before sunset, he went inside the fountain and pointed his camera toward the sun, then waited for one of the children to jump.

��    Scientists scrape samples for dating from the polychrome ceiling in Spain’s Altamira Cave, festooned with animals years ago painted 19,000 to 15,000 years ago. Abstract symbols on the ceiling can be traced back at least another 20,000 years.

ALTAMIRA MUSEUM, MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, CULTURE, AND SPORT ARTISTS

 Uncovered in 2008, the Venus ﬁgurine from Hohle 35,000 Fels Cave in Germany is the oldest undisputed image of a human being. The loop above her torso suggests

the carving was meant to be worn as a pendant. ACTUAL SIZE Delicately carved from mammoth tusk, the Lady of 25,000 Brassempouy was discovered in southwest France in 1894. Whether a “lady” or a youth, it is among the oldest representations of a human face. ACTUAL SIZE HILDE JENSEN, TÜBINGEN UNIVERSITY, GERMANY �LEFT�; SISSE BRIMBERG, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CREATIVE, AT MUSÉE DES ANTIQUITÉS NATIONALES, FRANCE Perched near Africa’s southern tip, Blombos Cave has 100,000 yielded some of the earliest evidence of symbolic expression, including shell beads, engraved ocher, and ocher-processing kits that are 100,000 years old.

By Chip Walter Photographs by Stephen Alvarez

t is as if we are walking into the throat of an enormous animal. The tongue of a metal path arcs up and then drops downward into the blackness below. The ceiling closes in, and in some places the heavy cave walls crowd close looking at now, in the deepest part o the cave. Hidden by a rock slide or 22,000 years, the cave came to light in December 1994, when three spelunkers named Eliette Brunel, Chris- And the woolly rhinos, mammoths, and bison, tian Hillaire, and Jean-Marie Chauvet scrambled a menagerie o ancient creatures, stampeding, through a narrow crevice in a cliff and dropped battling, stalking in total silence. Outside the into the dark entry. Since then, what is now cave, where the real world is, they are all gone known as the Cave o Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc has now. But this is not the real world. Here they been erociously protected by the French Min- remain alive on the shadowed and creviced walls. istry o Culture. We are among the rare ew who Around 36,000 years ago, someone living in have been allowed to make the same journey the a time incomprehensibly different rom ours ancient artists did. Te age o these drawings walked rom the original mouth o this cave to makes youngsters o Egypt’s storied pyramids, the chamber where we stand and, by �ickering yet every charcoal stroke, every splash o ocher �relight, began to draw on its bare walls: pro�les looks as resh as yesterday. Teir beauty whip- o cave lions, herds o rhinos and mammoths, saws your sense o time. One moment you are a magni�cent bison off to the right, and a chi- anchored in the present, observing coolly. Te meric creature—part bison, part woman—con- next you are seeing the paintings as i all other jured rom an enormous cone o overhanging art—all civilization—has yet to exist. rock. Other chambers harbor horses, ibex, and How did such human accomplishment come aurochs; an owl shaped out o mud by a single to be, so long ago, seemingly out o nowhere? �nger on a rock wall; an immense bison ormed Until recently it was thought that the drawings rom ocher-soaked handprints; and cave bears ound on the walls o well-known Upper Paleo- walking casually, as i in search o a spot or a lithic caves in southern Europe like Altamira, long winter’s nap. Te works are ofen drawn Lascaux, and Chauvet were the expression o a with nothing more than a single and perect superior kind o human—us—who had arrived continuous line. on the continent, driving out the brutish, artless In all, the artists depicted 442 animals over Neanderthals who had been living and evolving perhaps thousands o years, using nearly 400,000 there or hundreds o thousands o years. square eet o cave surace as their canvas. Some It turns out that the story is a good deal more animals are solitary, even hidden, but most complicated, and more interesting. It begins, as congregate in great mosaics like the one I am stories ofen do, in Arica.

 ��  National Geographic grantee Christopher Henshilwood and his team dig for clues to the origins of modern human behavior at Klipdrift Shelter, which, like Blombos Cave, has yielded early art. Modern humans roamed the region as far back as 165,000 years ago.

�� unwinds his six- his team dug out a small block o engraved red oot-�ve rame, dusts his hands, and gazes out ocher a bit smaller than a �ip phone. Ocher is over the Indian Ocean. He stands at the very tip common in this part o Arica and has been used o Arica, and except or the immense, sea-bat- or millennia or everything rom body paint to tered rocks 80 eet below, nothing lies between a ood preservative. Tis piece, though, was di- his boots and Antarctica but 1,500 miles o roll- erent: Roughly 75,000 years in the past, some ing, white-capped sea. clever person had careully etched on it a pattern “Not a bad day,” he says, in a baritone you o overlapping, parallel, triangular markings. might call godlike, i God had a South Arican No one knows the meaning o those marks, accent. which have since been ound on 13 other pieces rue, it has not been a bad day. Henshilwood, o ocher. A signature? Calculations? A primeval o the University o the Witwatersrand, South A- grocery list? Whatever their elusive purpose, they rica, and the University o Bergen, Norway, and were 35,000 years older than any other undis- his colleagues have been excavating all morning puted evidence o symbolic behavior known at here at a site known as Klipdrif Shelter, add- the time. ing some stone tools and other new �nds to the Controversy dogged the discovery at �rst. mounting evidence that modern human beings Some scientists attacked the little rock as a have inhabited these hills and shallow caves oﬀ one-o, nothing but random scratchings or and on or more than 165,000 years. Yet Hen- idiosyncratic doodling. “hey said it was shilwood has had better days. Some o his most memorable discoveries have come rom Blom- Chip Walter’s most recent book is . bos Cave, 28 miles east o Klipdrif, near an area Stephen Alvarez photographed Paris’s underground where he used to play as a kid. One day in 2000 in the February 2011 issue of .

��  meaningless,” says Henshilwood. “Tey said Diepkloo Rock Shelter north o Cape own. everything negative you could possibly think.” Meanwhile, Blombos itsel kept yielding trea- In time, however, others regarded it as a sures: �nely carved and decorated bone tools, breakthrough. and evidence that as long as 100,000 years ago Soon more examples o symbol and orna- the cave’s inhabitants had methodically ground ment were uncovered. Henshilwood’s team ocher into �ne powder and mixed it with other discovered the shells o little sea snails called ingredients to make a paste. Stored in abalone Nassarius that were some 75,000 years old and shells—the earliest known containers—it could perorated, with evidence they had been strung have been used as a decorative paint or bodies, together. Other �nds were even older. aces, tools, or clothing. In 2009 Henshilwood beads have been dated to 82,000 years ago at a reported �nding more ocher and rocks marked site called Grotte des Pigeons (Pigeon Cave) in with deliberate cross-hatchings, also dating as aoralt, Morocco. At the opposite end o the ar back as 100,000 years. Mediterranean, similar beads rom two Israeli Compared with the jaw-dropping beauty o the caves, Qazeh and Skhul, were dated to 92,000 art created in Chauvet Cave 65,000 years later, ar- and at least 100,000 years ago. Back in South tiacts like these seem rudimentary. But creating Arica, a 2010 team led by the University o a simple shape that stands or something else—a Bordeaux’s Pierre-Jean exier reported �nding symbol, made by one mind, that can be shared 60,000-year-old engraved ostrich eggshells in with others—is obvious only afer the act. Even more than the cave art, these �rst concrete expres-  Society Grant The research on early art in South sions o consciousness represent a leap rom our Africa and cave art in Spain was funded in part by animal past toward what we are today—a species your National Geographic Society membership. awash in symbols, rom the signs that guide your

 ��  AFRI C A 65,000 | 75,000

A block of red ocher (above) found in Blombos Cave in 2000 bears a pattern of cross-hatchings and parallel lines etched by a human hand 75,000 years CONGO ago. At left, Henshilwood holds a red ocher crayon found in nearby Klipdrift NAMIBIA Shelter in 2013. “This is where it all began,” says Henshilwood.

Diepkloof Klipdrift progress down the highway to the wedding ring Indonesian island of Sulawesi (Celebes), sten- on your �nger and the icons on your iPhone. ciled handprints—once thought of as an inven- here’s something else telling about these tion of the European Upper Paleolithic—were early African and Middle Eastern eruptions of recently shown to be almost 40,000 years old. symbolism: Tey come, and then they go. Te It seems unlikely, therefore, that some genetic beads, the paint, the etchings on ocher and os- “switch” �ipped in our African ancestors to pro- trich egg—in each case, the artifacts show up duce the capacity for a new, higher-order level in the archaeological record, persist in a limited of cognition that, once it evolved, produced a area for a few thousand years, and then vanish. lasting change in human behavior. Te same applies to technological innovations. So how do we explain these apparently spo- Bone harpoon points, found nowhere else be- radic �are-ups of creativity? One hypothesis is fore 45,000 years ago, have been uncovered in that the cause was not a new kind of person but the Democratic Republic of the Congo in sedi- a greater density of people, with spikes in popu- ments nearly twice that old. In South Africa two lation sparking contact between groups, which relatively complex stone and bone tool traditions accelerated the spread of innovative ideas from appear—the Still Bay 75,000 years ago and the one mind to another, creating a kind of collective Howieson’s Poort 65,000 years ago. But the lat- brain. Symbols would have helped cement this ter lasted just 6,000 years, the former 4,000. No- collective brain together. When populations again where has a tradition been found to spread across fell below critical mass, groups became isolated, space and through time, gathering richness and leaving new ideas nowhere to go. What innova- diversity, until just before 40,000 years ago, when tions had been established withered and died. art began to appear more commonly across Af- Such theories are diﬃcult to prove—the past rica, Eurasia, and Australasia. As far east as the holds its secrets close. But genetic analyses

�� 

A young Himba woman applies ocher to another’s hair on a riverbank in northwestern Namibia. Prized for its warm red hue, ocher is widely used as body ornamentation today, as it was by ancient humans. o modern populations do point to a surge in are rom a German cave called Vogelherd. Tey population in Arica 100,000 years ago. A 2009 display a grace and beauty and playulness that study conducted by Adam Powell, Stephen would make any artist today proud. Yet they are Shennan, and Mark G. Tomas o University 40,000 years old—predating the painted master- College London also provides some statisti- pieces o Chauvet by 5,000 years. cal support or the power o larger populations “Jaw-dropping,” says Conard, the university’s to generate innovation. And research by Jo- scienti�c director o prehistory. “Every piece is seph Henrich, now at the University o British different. But when you look at them, it’s obvious Columbia, suggests that as populations shrink, they orm a coherent whole.” they have an increasingly difficult time holding Te humans who made these objects were on to the innovations they invented in the �rst part o a population that lef the Arican home- place. Te inhabitants o the island o asma- land some 60,000 years ago, taking a route nia had been making bone tools, cold-weather through the Middle East and what is now clothing, and �shing equipment or 15,000 years beore these advances disappear rom the archaeological record some 3,000 years ago. Henrich HOW DID SUCH HUMAN argues that when sea levels rose 12,000 to 10,000 ACCOMPLISHMENT years ago and isolated asmania rom the rest o the world, the indigenous population o perhaps COME TO BE, SO LONG AGO, 4,000 individuals was simply not large enough to SEEMINGLY OUT keep the cultural traditions alive. OF NOWHERE? Why Arica’s archaeological record grows dim or 150 centuries is by no means clear. Perhaps pestilence, natural catastrophe, or a sharp swing in climate caused populations to collapse. Yet urkey, along the western ringe o the Black Francesco d’Errico, an archaeologist at the Uni- Sea, and up the Danube River Valley. As ar as versity o Bordeaux, points out that although we know, nowhere along that journey did they harsh conditions might spell doom or some leave signs o an artistic inclination, not even a cultures, others might be spurred on by them. piece o marked ocher. But once settled some Tere is no set ormula. 43,000 years ago in the Lone and Ach River Val- “Each region o the globe produced cultures leys o southern Germany, they suddenly began with a number o different trajectories,” says to create—not crude etchings but ully realistic d’Errico. “You could have situations where some animal �gurines carved out o mammoth tusk. short-term chaotic disaster might wipe out a cul- Te sources o most o these objects are our ture in one area, but in another, people were able caves: Hohle Fels and Geissenklösterle in the Ach to take advantage o the challenge.” He likens it Valley, and Hohlenstein-Stadel and Vogelherd in to a recipe. “Even i the ingredients are the same, the Lone. Not much more than indentations in you don’t necessarily get the same outcome.” the rock ace, the caves could easily be missed today by someone driving the backcountry “�� .” Nicholas Co- roads that wind through Germany’s southwest- nard glances over his shoulder, then careully ern mountains. Lush and green today, the Ach spins the dial on an enormous sae in his office, and Lone Valleys 40,000 years ago, at the be- housed in a 16th-century German castle at übin- ginning o a period known as the Aurignacian, gen University. From the sae he extracts our were rigid steppe landscapes, dotted with herds small pine boxes and sets them gingerly on the o horses, reindeer, and mammoths. In spite o table in ront o me. Within each sits a tiny carv- the harsh conditions, the richness o the archae - ing: a horse, a mammoth, a bison, and a lion. All ological sites indicates that population sizes in the

 ��  Moscow

Zaraysk

Berlin E U R O P E RUSSIA

OCEAN Paris and Hohle Fels Dolní Věstonice (4,023 km) and Vogelherd Bustillo Lascaux Chauvet e Black Sea Monte Castillo Madrid TURKEY A S I A

Pigeon IRAQ a n e Ram MOROCCO a n S e a Qafzeh

A F R I C A 0 mi 400

0 km 400 NGM MAPS

While Europe is home to famous examples of Paleolithic art such as the paintings at Chauvet, Lascaux, and Altamira, evidence of modern behavior is far older in Africa and the Middle East.

Aurignacian were growing. Te increases could in diameter, with a ring etched at one end—likely help explain an apparent �are-up of creativity, a phallic symbol. A few feet away from the Venus not unlike those seen earlier in Africa. Maybe �gurine, Conard’s team uncovered a �ute carved the diﬃculties these European settlers faced, says from a hollow griﬀon vulture bone, and in Geis- Conard, led them to share customs that spread senklösterle Cave found three other �utes, one from one group, and generation, to the next. In made of ivory and two fashioned from a swan’s hard times prized carvings and tools could have wing bone. Tey are the oldest known musical smoothed the way toward intertribal marriages, instruments in the world. We don’t know wheth- trade, and alliances and helped spread new er these people had drugs. But they clearly had techniques for hunting, building shelters, and the sex and rock and roll. making clothing. Of all the �ndings to emerge from this period In Hohle Fels, Conard’s team recently uncov- in Germany, none is more fascinating than the ered some objects whose messages are so sexual- Löwenmensch (Lionman) of Hohlenstein-Stadel ly explicit they might require a parental warning. Cave, a fantastical sculpture nearly 40,000 years One is a carving of a woman with exaggerated old. he original Löwenmensch fragments— breasts and genitalia, found in 2008 (page 34). At some 200 of them—were discovered in 1939, least 35,000 years old, the Venus of Hohle Fels on the eve of World War II, by Robert Wetzel, is the most ancient �gure yet discovered that is a professor of anatomy at übingen University, indisputably human. (wo much earlier �gurines and a geologist named Otto Völzing. Wetzel had from Morocco and what is now Israel may be hoped to work on the pieces of mammoth tusk natural rocks that vaguely resemble the human when the war ended, but they sat untouched form.) Earlier the team had found a polished rod in a box for 30 years. hen, in 1969, archae- of siltstone, about eight inches long and an inch ologist Joachim Hahn (Continued on page 56)

��  Discovered in 1994, the Horse Panel and the other stunning 36,000 creations in the Cave of Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc provide “an extraordinary testimony to man’s first steps in the adventure of art,” says France’s Minister of Culture Fleur Pellerin. Part human, part lion, the foot-tall figurine from Germany’s 40,000 Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave was pieced together from some 200 fragments found in 1939. Recent excavations have added new pieces to the chimeric creation. YVONNE MÜHLEIS, STATE OFFICE FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE IN RP STUTTGART Later Paleolithic artists mostly depicted herbivores, but 36,000 the Chauvet painters often featured fierce predators, like these in the famous Great Panel. In June 2014 UNESCO voted to designate Chauvet Cave as a World Heritage site.

PANORAMA COMPOSED OF EIGHT IMAGES

MIDDLE P / MIDDLE STONE AGE i impressions When did art begin axes produced at least a half million years ago as expr function. But objects created p much younger, appearing ﬁ f

animal ﬁgures Objects like the volcanic rock ART (left) and a similar one from Morocco dated to between 5 000 and 3 000 years ago, may be the earliest depictions of orm— or merely natural objects with s ve curves.

VENUS OF BEREKHAT RAM ISRAEL

000 YEARS AGO

d ave art Pigments turn up at arch l ites as old as 3 000 years, but th s unknown. P ng kits discovered in South Africa in 2008, including pigments, shell ontainers, and tools, were likely used to produce colorful paints for body decoration or skin p .

ABALONE SHELL CONTAINER BLOMBOS CAVE, SOUTH AFRICA

1 , HANDPRINT LEANG TIMPUSENG C ,

The ﬁrst anatomically modern people evolved in Africa Personal expression Sea snail shell beads, with carefully some 200,000 years ago, but undisputed evidence of modern drilled holes, may have been strung othes or necklaces. A deli human behavior—body ornaments, symbols scratched on engraved eggshell (right) required ocher, more complex tools—does not begin to practiced artistry. Found from Israel such ornaments appear for another 100,000 years. Stenciled handprints, such constitute the ﬁrst clear evidence of self-exp . as the one above from El Castillo Cave in Spain, at least ENGRAVED OSTRICH SHELL BEAD KLIPDRIFT HELTER, BLOMBOS CAVE, SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICA 37,000 years old, send a timeless message: Like you, 1 IN I am human. I am alive. I was here. 75, ,

HANDPRINT �AT LEFT�: STEPHEN ALVAREZ; DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, MEIDAD SUCHOWOLSKI, ISRAEL MUSEUM. HILDE JENSEN, TÜBINGEN UNIVERSITY, GERMANY. WITWATERSRAND, SOUTH AFRICA, AND UNIVERSI TY OF BERGEN, NORWAY; GRETHE MOELL P STEPHEN ALVAREZ, AT IZIKO MUSEUMS OF S OUTH AFRICA. STEPHEN ALVAREZ. MARIAN VANH UPPER P LATE STONE AGE Creative expansion mmetrical stone hand eginning some 43, years ago, abstract and realistic art becomes more ssions of style as well as widesp frica and Eurasia, app ar east as Indonesia by 40,00 r ornamental value are years ago. Early panish cave art could be the work of Neanderthals. But by t e ast. time of the great paintings of Chauvet Cave, only modern humans remained.

I I ceramic VOGELHERD CAVE, portrait e GERMANY 1 IN HEAD �IVO Y� V US OF DOLN DOLN VĔSTONIC , VĔ , HORSE �IVORY� 5, CZECH H BISON �IVORY� VOGELHERD CAVE, GERMANY REPUBLIC REPUBLIC ZARAYSK, RUSSIA 2 IN 2 IN 4.5 IN 4 IN 5, 0 000 ,

Handprints— prehi c elﬁes?—made by bl gments re a common eature of Upper P eolithic art in caves in Europe. The earliest known example is rom a cave on the Indonesian sland of Sulawesi Celebes .

LIONS FROM GREAT PANEL ANIMAL ON PAINTED TABLET RED COW AND HORSE AVE, INDONESIA CAVE OF CHAUVET�PONT�D’ARC, FRANCE APOLLO 11 CAVE, NAMIBIA LASCAUX CAVE, FRANCE 000 1 ,

Neande tyle t o. A fox toot , drilled perhaps to hang from a necklace, is First instrument First writing ne of many ornaments from RIFFON VULTURE BONE FLUTE BEADS �IVORY� DOLNÍ FLYING BIRD PENDANT �IVORY� Early writing, as HOHLE FELS CAVE, GERMANY VĔSTONICE, CZECH REPUBLIC MALTA, RUSSIA n a cave 8.6 IN �BELOW� UP TO 0.7 IN 4.6 IN on this cuneiform that also yielded ablet recording GGS L Neanderth s. 4 , , barley distribution, does not appear UNEIFORM WRITING until well after the , IRAQ FOX TOOTH ORNAMENT IN ROTTE DU RENNE, beginning of FRANCE agriculture. 1 IN , 4 ,

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CANTABRIA, SPAIN. TOP ROW �FROM LEFT�: TOP ROW �FROM LEFT�: H. ZWIETASCH, WÜRTTEMBERG STATE MUSEUM, STUTTGART, GERMANY. MORAVIAN MUSEUM/ANTHROPOS INSTITUTE, CZECH REPUBLIC �2�. H. AMIRKHANOV, IDDLE ROW: CHRISTOPHER HENSHILWOOD, UNIVERSITY OF THE S. LEV, ZARAYSK KREMLIN MUSEUM, RUSSIA. MIDDLE ROW: STEPHEN ALVAREZ. R. F. RIFKIN, UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN, NORWAY. SISSE BRIMBERG, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CREATIVE. DERSEN. MAXIME AUBERT, GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA. BOTTOM ROW: BOTTOM ROW: HILDE JENSEN, TÜBINGEN UNIVERSITY, GERMANY �FLUTE�. MORAVIAN MUSEUM/ANTHROPOS INSTITUTE �BEADS�. KIRIL SHAPOVALOV © STATE HERMITAGE MUSEUM, EREN ST. PETERSBURG �PENDANT�. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART/ART RESOURCE, NY �TABLET� pulled them out and began to piece them brutish beings incapable o such behavior has together like a three-dimensional puzzle. been slowly chipped away. Having never reached As he did, an extraordinary work o art the population densities that may have triggered emerged. At nearly a oot high, the Löwen- the appearance o symbolism in Arica, Nean- mensch dwars all other carvings so ar discov- derthals may never have had much need or it, ered in the German valleys. But what makes or revealed it in ways we don’t yet understand. it particularly interesting, says Claus-Joachim For decades the debate over the Neanderthals’ Kind, an archaeologist at the State Oﬃce or ability to rise to the standards o their successors Cultural Heritage in Baden-Württemberg, is that centered on a site in France called Grotte du it depicts or the �rst time a creature that was Renne, where artiacts normally associated with completely imaginary, part man and part lion. Upper Paleolithic modern humans—bone tools, Its creation required not only an unusually in- ventive mind, but also impressive technical skills and an enormous amount o time—an estimated IT IS ALMOST AS IF 400 hours. “Tis is not something you do in the SOME ANIMALS WERE evening afer work,” says Kind. ALREADY IN THE ROCK, You can eel the power o the �gure when you look at it, the seamless melding o a stately hu- WAITING TO BE man and a erocious animal. Does the sculpture REVEALED BY THE re�ect a wish to bestow a lion’s power on a hu- ARTIST’S CHARCOAL man? Or could it represent a shaman’s special ability to straddle the spiritual worlds o human AND PAINT. and animal? Hohlenstein-Stadel is the only cave in the region where archaeologists have ound no everyday tools, bones, or rubbish. It is deep- distinctive stone blades, and pierced and grooved er than the other caves too. It’s not diﬃcult to animal teeth probably worn as pendants—were imagine that within its chambers early hunters ound along with Neanderthal remains. Some venerated the Lionman and that Hohlenstein- researchers reasoned that although the Nean- Stadel Cave was an early locus o prehistoric derthals may have been responsible or this tool religion. Tis was “a holy place,” says Kind. tradition (known as the Châtelperronian), they Conard thinks these people possessed were still a species capable only o emulating the minds as ully modern as ours and, like us, ancy crafsmanship o their new modern human sought in ritual and myth answers to lie’s neighbors, not inventing it on their own. mysteries, especially in the ace o an uncertain Te more we learn about Neanderthals, includ- world. Who governs the migration o the herds, ing their ability to interbreed with our direct an- grows the trees, shapes the moon, turns on the cestors, the more the “copycat” explanation or stars? Why must we die, and where do we go a- the Châtelperronian sounds like special pleading. terward? “Tey wanted answers,” he says, “but Te record or Neanderthal symbolic behavior they didn’t have any science-based explanations elsewhere may be aint, but it is discernible. Some or the world around them.” scholars argue that Neanderthal skeletons ound in France and Iraq were deliberately buried. Cut �� arrived in Europe, marks recently ound on bird-wing bones hint the continent’s long-term residents began to die that Neanderthals used eathers or ornaments out. Te Neanderthals had emerged in Eurasia up to 50,000 years ago, and a crisscross pattern some 200,000 years earlier. Very little evidence engraved at least 39,000 years ago in the rock o a remains that they engaged in symbolic behav- Neanderthal cave in Gibraltar suggests they could ior. But the traditional view o Neanderthals as think abstractly. And a single red disk painted

 ��  on a wall in El Castillo Cave in Spain was re- animators, and that the artists’ superimposed cently dated to about 41,000 years ago, tantaliz- images combined with �ickering �relight in the ingly close to a time when only Neanderthals are pitch-black caves to create the illusion that the known to have been in western Europe. Perhaps paintings were moving. “Tey wanted to make they, not us, were the �rst cave artists. these images lielike,” says Azéma. He has re- But most o the cave paintings in southern created digital versions o some cave images that France and Spain were created afer the Nean- illustrate the eﬀect. Te Lion Panel in Chauvet’s derthals disappeared. Why there? Why then? One deepest chamber is a good example. It eatures clue is the caves themselves—deeper and more the heads o ten lions, all seemingly intent on extensive than the ones in the Ach and Lone their prey. But in the light o a strategically posi- River Valleys o Germany or the rock shelters o tioned torch or stone lamp, these ten lions might Arica. ito Bustillo in northern Spain is a hal be successive characterizations o just one lion, mile rom one end to the other. El Castillo and or perhaps two or three, moving through a story, other caves on Monte Castillo dive, twist, and much like the rames o a �ip-book or animated turn into the ground like enormous corkscrews. �lm. Beyond the lions stands a cluster o rhi- France’s Lascaux, Grotte du Renne, and Chauvet noceroses. Te head and horn o the top one are run ootball �elds deep into the rock, with mul- repeated staccato-like six times, one image above tiple branches and cathedral-like chambers. the other, as i thrusting upward, its whole body Perhaps the explosion o creativity we see on shuddering with multiple outlines. the walls o these caverns was inspired in part by Azéma’s interpretation �ts with that o emi- their sheer depth and darkness—or rather, the nent prehistorian Jean Clottes—the �rst scientist interplay o light and dark. Illuminated by the to enter Chauvet, only days afer its discovery. �ickering light rom �res or stone lamps burn- Clottes believes the images in the cave were in- ing animal grease, such as the lamps ound in tended to be experienced much the way we view Lascaux, the bumps and crevices in the rock walls movies, theater, or even religious ceremonies to- might suggest natural shapes, the way passing day—a departure rom the real world that trans- clouds can to an imaginative child. In Altamira, �xed its audience and bound it in a powerul in northern Spain, the painters responsible or shared experience. “It was a show!” says Clottes. the amous bison incorporated the humps and Tousands o years later you can still eel the bulges o the rock to give their images more lie power o that show as you walk the chambers and dimension. Chauvet eatures a panel o our o the cave, the sound o your own breath heavy horse heads drawn over subtle curves and olds in in your ear, the constant drip, drip o the water a wall o receding rock, accentuating the animals’ alling rom the walls and ceilings. In its rhythm snouts and oreheads. Teir appearance changes you can almost make out the thrum o ancient according to your perspective: One view pres- music, the beat o the dance, as a storyteller casts ents perect pro�les, but rom another angle the the light o a torch upon a �oating image, and horses’ noses and necks seem to strain, as i they enthralls the audience with a tale. j are running away rom you. In a diﬀerent chamber a rendering o cave lions seems to emerge MORE ngm.com/more rom a cut in the wall, accentuating the hunch in one animal’s back and shoulders as it stalks its unseen prey. As our guide put it, it is almost as i World’s Oldest Art some animals were already in the rock, waiting to be revealed by the artist’s charcoal and paint. In his book La Préhistoire du Cinéma, �lm- maker and archaeologist Marc Azéma argues that some o these ancient artists were the world’s �rst

��  Twins Felix and Viva Torres, seven-and-a-half months old, take in the sights and sounds of Greenwich Village in New York City. They hear two languages spoken at home. is profound.

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Ginny Mooney comforts her adopted daughter, Lena, in Fayetteville, Arkansas, after physical and speech therapy. The six-year-old has behavioral and cognitive deﬁcits, partly from neglect in a Ukrainian orphanage. She is swaddled for her comfort. By Yudhijit Bhattacharjee Photographs by Lynn Johnson

n the late 1980s, when the Many years later, when the kids had entered crack cocaine epidemic their teens, the researchers took MRI images of was ravaging America’s their brains and then matched them up with the cities, Hallam Hurt, a neo- records of how warmly nurtured the children I natologist in Philadelphia, had been at both four and eight years old. Tey worried about the damage found a strong link between nurturing at age being done to children four and the size of the hippocampus—a part of the brain associated with memory—but found no correlation between nurturing at age eight and the hippocampus. Te results demonstrat- ed just how critically important an emotionally �nd any signi�cant differences. Instead, what they supportive environment is at a very young age. discovered was that in both groups the children’s Te Philadelphia study, published in 2010, IQs were much lower than average. “Tese little was one of the �rst to demonstrate that child- children were coming in cute as buttons, and yet hood experience shapes the structure of the de- their IQs were like 82 and 83,” Hurt says. “Average veloping brain. Since then, other studies have IQ is 100. It was shocking.” shown a link between a baby’s socioeconomic Te revelation prompted the researchers to status and the growth of its brain. Despite com- turn their focus from what differentiated the ing prewired with mind-boggling capacities, the two groups toward what they had in common: brain depends heavily on environmental input being raised in poverty. o understand the chil- to wire itself further. Scientists are now discover- dren’s environment, the researchers visited their ing precisely how that development is molded homes with a checklist. Tey asked if the par- by the interplay between nature and nurture. ents had at least ten books at home for the chil- Peering inside children’s brains with new im- dren, a record player with songs for them, and aging tools, scientists are untangling the mystery toys to help them learn numbers. Tey noted of how a child goes from being barely able to whether the parents spoke to the children in an see when just born to being able to talk, ride a affectionate voice, spent time answering their tricycle, draw, and invent an imaginary friend by questions, and hugged, kissed, and praised them. the age of �ve. Te more scientists �nd out about Te researchers found that children who re- how children acquire the capacity for language, ceived more attention and nurturing at home numbers, and emotional understanding during tended to have higher IQs. Children who were this period, the more they realize that the baby more cognitively stimulated performed better on brain is an incredible learning machine. Its fu- language tasks, and those nurtured more warmly ture—to a great extent—is in our hands. did better on memory tasks. If the metamorphosis of a cluster of cells into

 ��  Natasha Alvarez ﬂoats in a swimming hole in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, hoping that a stress-free pregnancy will help her child’s brain development in utero.

a suckling baby is one o lie’s great miracles, so candy tastes bad, Willy Wonka will be sad.” is the transormation o that wobbly inant into Despite millennia o child rearing, we have a walking, talking toddler capable o negotiat- only a limited understanding o how babies take ing bedtime. While researching this story, I have such gigantic strides in cognitive, linguistic, rea- watched that miracle unold beore my eyes as soning, and planning ability. Te lightning pace my daughter has gone rom a �dgety bundle o development in these early years coincides with only a piercing cry signaling hunger to a with the ormation o a vast skein o neural cir- eisty three-year-old who insists on putting on cuits. At birth the brain has nearly a hundred her sunglasses beore stepping out o the house. billion neurons, as many as in adulthood. As the Te blossoming o her mental and emotional baby grows, receiving a �ood o sensory input, abilities has been a string o marvels, deepen- neurons get wired to other neurons, resulting in ing my amazement at how defly a baby’s brain some hundred trillion connections by age three. comes to grasp the world. Diﬀerent stimuli and tasks, such as hearing a he milestones she has passed would be lullaby or reaching or a toy, help establish di- recognizable to any parent. At two she knew erent neural networks. Circuits get strength- enough to realize that she didn’t have to hold ened through repeated activation. Te sheath my hand when walking on the sidewalk; she encasing nerve �bers—made o an insulating would reach or my hand only when we were material called myelin—thickens along ot- about to cross the street. Around the same age, used pathways, helping electrical impulses she also learned to block the drain in the bathtub with the ball o her oot—turning what was to Yudhijit Bhattacharjee is writing a non�ction book, be a quick shower into a playul bath. Beore Te Spy Who Couldn’t Spell. Lynn Johnson’s she turned three, she was holding lengthy con- feature, “Vanishing Voices,” in the July 2012 issue, versations and coming up with rhymes: “I the was on the world’s disappearing languages.

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Tiffany Painter spends a tender moment with her six-month-old son, Taevon, at their home in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. After a breakfast of rice cereal, fruit, and juice, Taevon will watch music videos while his mother takes online courses to further her education. In Patricia Kuhl’s lab at the University of Washington, researchers study brain activity in babies less than a year old using a magnetoencephalography device, which measures the magnetic ﬁeld around a baby’s scalp, to reveal the pattern of neurons ﬁring.

travel more quickly. Idle circuits die through ound that brain regions responsible or speech the severing o connections, known as synaptic and audio processing responded more strongly to pruning. Between the ages o one and �ve, and the ABB sequences. In a later study they ound then again in early adolescence, the brain goes that the newborn brain was also able to distin- through cycles o growth and streamlining, with guish between audio sequences with an AAB pat- experience playing a key role in engraving the tern and those with an ABB pattern. Not only circuits that will endure. could babies discern repetition, they also were sensitive to where it occurred in the sequence. �� combine to shape Gervain is excited by these �ndings because the brain is nowhere more evident than in the the order o sounds is the bedrock upon which development o language ability. How much words and grammar are built. “Positional inor- o that comes hardwired, and how do babies mation is key to language,” she says. “I some- acquire the rest? o learn how researchers are thing is at the beginning or at the end makes answering that question, I visit Judit Gervain, a a big difference: ‘John killed the bear’ is very cognitive neuroscientist at Paris Descartes Uni- different rom ‘Te bear killed John.’ ” versity who has spent the past decade probing Tat the baby brain responds rom day one the linguistic acumen o children, ranging in age to the sequence in which sounds are arranged rom days to a ew years. We meet on the steps o suggests that the algorithms or language learn- Robert-Debré Hospital in Paris, where Gervain ing are part o the neural abric inants are born is readying an experiment on newborns. with. “For a long time we had this linear view. I ollow her into a room down the hall rom First, babies are learning sounds, then they are the maternity ward. Te morning’s �rst sub- understanding words, then many words togeth- ject is wheeled in on a cart, swaddled in a pink er,” Gervain says. “But rom recent results, we polka-dot blanket, with dad in tow. A research know that almost everything starts to develop assistant slips a skullcap studded with button- rom the get-go. Babies are starting to learn like sensors onto the inant’s head. Te plan is to grammatical rules rom the beginning.” image the baby’s brain while playing a variety o Researchers led by Angela Friederici, a neu- audio sequences, like nu-ja-ga. But beore any ropsychologist at the Max Planck Institute or observations can begin, the baby emits a series Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, o high-pitched cries, making it known he isn’t Germany, have ound evidence o such compre- going to submit. Te assistant hurriedly removes hension in an experiment with our-month-old the cap, and the dad cradles the baby. German babies exposed to an unamiliar lan- Afer they leave, Gervain, who had just be- guage. Te children �rst heard a series o Italian come a mother a ew months earlier, tells me sentences representing two types o construction: that such ailures are not uncommon. Anoth- “Te brother can sing” and “Te sister is singing.” er newborn—also accompanied by dad—is Afer three minutes they listened to another set o wheeled in. Gervain’s assistant ollows the same Italian sentences, some o which were grammati- protocol, and this time the observing goes off cally incorrect, along the lines o “Te brother is without a hitch. Te baby sleeps through it. sing” and “Te sister can singing.” During this Gervain and her colleagues have used a similar phase the researchers measured the inants’ brain setup to test how good newborns are at discrimi- activity using tiny electrodes placed on the scalp. nating between different sound patterns. Using In the �rst round o testing the babies showed a near-inrared spectroscopy, the researchers im- similar brain response to both correct and incor- aged the brains o babies while they heard audio rect sentences. A ew rounds o training later, the sequences. In some, the sounds were repeated in inants exhibited very different activation patterns an ABB structure, such as mu-ba-ba; in others, an when they heard erroneous constructions. ABC structure, such as mu-ba-ge. Te researchers In just 15 minutes the babies appeared to have

 ��  Neural Network The brain begins developing in the womb and achieves dramatic levels of growth during the ﬁrst few years of life. During this time positive experiences contribute to building a strong brain architecture.

INTO ADULTHOOD THE FIRST YEAR The infant brain has many more synapses than the adult brain. These connections rapidly increase after birth, then begin a Number of natural decline as the brain specializes. connections Active connections reinforced by experi- (synapses) ence stabilize, while weak ones disappear. in the brain

Peak

E N

Adult level of synapses

0 -4 Birth 1year 5 10 15 20

MONTHS YEARS

Over time a child Vision Symbols, ideas Critical thinking acquires increasingly Hearing Social relationships Reﬂective thinking complex skills. Touch Verbal ability Considered response

GRAPHIC: LAWSON PARKER. SOURCES: CHARLES NELSON, HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL; PAT LEVITT, CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL LOS ANGELES. SYNAPSE DRAWINGS BASED ON GOLGI STAIN PREPARATIONS �� BY J. L . CONEL Julien Inzodda conducts a tutorial on spices in her kitchen in Pittsburgh to stimulate her 20-month-old daughter, Allie. It’s a playful opportunity for the toddler to learn about color, texture, and taste. Allie’s favorite is the pepper sauce, which she describes as “hot, hot, hot.”

In the neonatal intensive care unit at Texas Children’s Hospital in Houston, ﬁve-month-old Lucas Guidry watches as mom Sydney (center) holds up a mirror. Children born prematurely or with an illness are at risk for cognitive delays.

absorbed what was correct. “Somehow they rom the terminal to the aircraf. “I see a lot o must have learned it, despite not comprehend- planes!” the kid exults, bouncing. Seated in a ing the meaning o the sentences,” Friederici tells row ahead o me on the �ight, the two keep up me. “At this point it’s not syntax. It’s phonologi- an un�aggingly spirited exchange. Te woman cally encoded regularity.” stops to answer the boy’s every question as she Researchers have shown that children around reads him one picture book afer another, draw- two and a hal years old are savvy enough to cor- ing on what seems like a limitless reservoir o rect grammatical mistakes made by puppets. By enthusiasm. When we land, I learn that the mom, the age o three most children seem to master Merle Fairhurst, is a cognitive neuroscientist who a considerable number o grammatical rules. studies child development and social cognition. Teir vocabulary burgeons. Tis �owering o It isn’t surprising that she is determined to apply language ability comes about as new connec- the emerging research on how stimulation can tions are made among neurons, so that speech help the developing brain. can be processed on multiple levels: sound, More than two decades ago odd Risley and meaning, and syntax. Scientists have yet to un- Betty Hart, both child psychologists then at the veil the precise map ollowed by the inant brain University o Kansas in Lawrence, recorded hun- on the path to linguistic �uency. But what’s clear, dreds o hours o interactions between children in the words o Friederici, is this: “Te equip- and adults in 42 amilies rom across the socio- ment alone is not enough. You also need input.” economic spectrum, ollowing the kids rom the On my way to Leipzig to interview Friederici, age o nine months to three years. my attention is drawn to a mother and her young Studying the transcripts o these record- son, engaging in conversation on a shuttle bus ings, Risley and Hart made a surprising dis- at the Munich airport. “What do you see in the covery. Children in well-o amilies—where distance?” the mother asks as the bus takes us the parents were typically college-educated

 ��  proessionals—heard an average o 2,153 words in a oreign language, while getting better at dis- an hour spoken to them, whereas children in criminating between native language sounds. amilies on welare heard an average o 616 Japanese children, or example, are no longer words. By the age o our this diﬀerence translat- able to distinguish between “l” and “r” sounds. ed to a cumulative gap o some 30 million words. In their study the researchers exposed nine- Parents in poorer homes tended to make shorter, month-olds rom English-speaking amilies to more perunctory comments, like “Stop that,” Mandarin. Some o the children interacted with and “Get down,” whereas parents in wealthier native Chinese-speaking tutors, who played with homes had extended conversations with their them and read to them. “Te babies were en- kids about a variety o topics, encouraging them tranced by these tutors,” Kuhl says. “In the wait- to use their memory and imagination. Te kids ing room they would watch the door or their in low socioeconomic amilies were being raised tutors to come in.” Another group o children on a poor linguistic diet. saw and heard the same Mandarin-speaking Te amount o talking parents did with their tutors through a video presentation. And a children made a big diﬀerence, the researchers third group heard only the audio track. Afer ound. Te kids who were spoken to more got all the children had been through 12 sessions, higher scores on IQ tests at age three. Tey also they were tested on their ability to discriminate

Critical Years Institutionalized children Never institutionalized The amount of brain activity in the earliest years affects how much there is later in life. These EEG scans of eight-year-olds show that institutionalized children who were not moved to a nurturing foster care environment before they were two years old have less activity than those who were.

Brain electrical activity Moved to foster care Moved to foster care ower Higher After age 2 Before age 2 perormed better in school at ages nine and ten. between similar phonetic sounds in Mandarin. Exposing children to more words would seem Te researchers expected the children who’d simple enough. But language delivered by televi- watched the videos to show the same kind o sion, audio book, Internet, or smartphone—no learning as the kids tutored ace-to-ace. Instead matter how educational—doesn’t appear to do they ound a huge diﬀerence. Te children ex- the job. Tat’s what researchers led by Patricia posed to the language through human interac- Kuhl, a neuroscientist at the University o Wash- tions were able to discriminate between similar ington in Seattle, learned rom a study o nine- Mandarin sounds as well as native listeners. But month-old children. the other inants—regardless o whether they Kuhl and her colleagues were exploring a key had watched the video or listened to the audio— puzzle o language acquisition: how babies home showed no learning whatsoever. in on the phonetic sounds o their native language “We were blown away,” Kuhl says. “It changed by the age o one. In the �rst ew months o their our undamental thinking about the brain.” lives, babies show a knack or discriminating be- Te result o this and other studies led Kuhl to tween sounds in any language, native or oreign. propose what she calls the social gating hypoth- Between six and 12 months o age, however, they esis: the idea that social experience is a portal to start losing the ability to make such distinctions linguistic, cognitive, and emotional development.

SOURCE: CHARLES NELSON, HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL �� 

Tyler Quebodeaux, a single parent, struggles to raise his three children, aged 20 months to four years, in - gram at the University of Oregon to learn how to provide better nurturing and stimulation for his kids.

At a Waldorf School on Whidbey Island northwest of Seattle, children play on bales of straw while teachers supervise. The school’s philosophy is that free play is essential for physical, cognitive, linguistic, and social development in young children. �� in Romania in the mid- When the researchers conducted an EEG test 1960s, the communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu o the children’s brains, they ound that these implemented drastic measures to transorm the signals were weaker than the signals recorded country rom an agricultural society into an rom similarly aged children in the general pop- industrial one. o increase the population, the ulation. “It was as i a dimmer switch had been regime limited contraception and abortion, and used to turn their brain activity down,” Fox says. imposed a tax on couples older than 25 who He and his colleagues then placed hal o the were childless. Tousands o amilies moved kids with oster amilies that they picked with rom villages to cities to take jobs at govern- the help o social workers. Te remaining kids

The baby brain is an incredible learning machine. Its future—to a great extent—is in our hands. ment actories. Tese policies led many parents stayed at the institutions. Te oster amilies re- to abandon their newborn children, who were ceived a monthly stipend, books, toys, diapers then placed in a state-run institution called a and other supplies, as well as periodic visits by leagan—the Romanian word or “cradle.” the social workers. It was only afer Ceausescu was deposed in Fox and his colleagues ollowed the children 1989 that the outside world saw the horriic over the next several years and saw dramatic conditions in which these children were liv- diﬀerences emerge between the groups. At age ing. As babies, they were lef in cribs or hours. eight the children placed with oster amilies at ypically their only human contact was when age two or earlier showed EEG brain patterns a caregiver—each responsible or 15 to 20 chil- that were indistinguishable rom those o typical dren—came to eed or bathe them. As toddlers, eight-year-olds. Te kids who had remained at they hardly received any attention. Te system the institutions continued to have weaker EEGs. o institutionalized care was slow to change, and Although all the children in the study had small- in 2001, U.S. researchers began a study o 136 er brain volumes than similarly aged kids in the children rom six institutions to investigate the general population, the ones who received oster impact o neglect on their development. care had more white matter—axons connect- he researchers—led by Charles Zeanah, a ing neurons—than the institutionalized kids. “It child psychiatrist at ulane University; Nathan suggests that there were more neuronal connec- Fox, a developmental psychologist and neurosci- tions made in the children who experienced the entist at the University o Maryland; and Charles intervention,” Fox explains. Nelson, a neuroscientist at Harvard—were struck Te most striking diﬀerence between the two by the children’s aberrant behaviors. Many o the sets o children—evident by the age o our—was kids, less than two years old when the study be- in their social abilities. “We �nd that many o gan, showed no attachment to their caregivers. the children who were put into our interven- When upset, they wouldn’t go to the caregivers. tion, particularly the children who were taken “Instead, they showed these almost eral behav- out o institutions early, could now relate to their iors that we had never seen beore—aimlessly caregiver in the way that a typical child would,” wandering around, hitting their heads against the Fox says. “Tere’s enough plasticity in the brain �oor, twirling and reezing in one place,” Fox says. early in lie that allows children to overcome

 ��  negative experiences.” And that, Fox says, is the classes the kids learn to practice calming tech- best news: Some o the debilitating eﬀects o niques, like taking a deep breath when they early deprivation can be addressed with appro- are upset. priate nurturing, as long as it is provided within At the end o the eight weeks the research- a critical period o development. ers evaluate the kids on language, nonverbal IQ, and attention. Trough a questionnaire given � �� led by neuro- to the parents, they also assess how the kids are scientist Helen Neville at the University o Or- doing behaviorally. In a paper published in July egon in Eugene aims to do just that. Te research- 2013, Neville and her colleagues reported that ers sign up participants rom among amilies kids in Head Start who received the interven- enrolled in Head Start, a U.S. government pro- tion showed signi�cantly higher increases on gram that gives a leg up to preschoolers rom these measures than those who did not. Par- low-income amilies. Parents or care providers ents reported experiencing much lower stress come in or a class every week over a two-month in managing their children. “When you change period. In the �rst ew classes they get tips on parenting and stress level goes down, that leads lowering the stress involved in the day-to-day to increased emotional regulation and better care o children. As any parent can testiy, these cognition or the kids,” Neville says. stresses can at times be overwhelming to even the ana Argo, a young mother o our, decided most Zen-like among us, and they can eel even to go through the program to make sure she more burdensome to parents dealing with �nan- wouldn’t subject her children to the kind o ne- cial worries. “You �nd yoursel on edge because glect that she had suﬀered as a child. “I grew you don’t have certain things,” says Patricia Kycek, up with a lot o stress and drama,” she says. “I a Eugene mom who’s taken the classes. told mysel, I’m going to remember this with my Parents learn to emphasize positive reinorce- kids. Tis won’t happen to my kids.” ment, expressing praise or speci�c accomplish- What she learned—she says—has altered the ments. “We encourage them to shif the ocus amily’s dynamic, creating more time or play rom scolding your child every time they are and learning. When I visit her at home one afer- doing something wrong to noticing every time noon, she describes how happy she elt a ew days they are doing something right,” explains Sarah earlier when she saw her our-year-old daugh- Burlingame, a ormer parent instructor. In later ter—the youngest—plop down on the carpet to weeks parents learn how to stimulate the child. thumb through a children’s encyclopedia. As I’m In one activity that they are encouraged to try leaving, I notice the encyclopedia resting on top at home, the parent asks the child to pick out o a stack o books, most o them or children. various objects—a spoon, a bottle, a pen—and In the best o circumstances, that stack would guess which will �oat and which will sink. Ten perhaps serve as a wall against the generational the child gets to test each prediction in a bucket dominoes o poverty and neglect, helping Argo’s o water or in the bathtub. kids build a uture that she never had a shot at. j he children receive training in attention and sel-control in a 40-minute session ev- MORE ONLINE ngm.com/more ery week. Tey work on ocusing on a task in the midst o distractions—or instance, color- TELEVISION VIDEO ing inside the lines o �gures while other kids Test Your Brain bounce balloons all around. Instructors also Now you know how a baby’s brain works, but what about teach them to better identiy their emotions your own? Learn why you through a game called Emotional Bingo, in forget your keys, what your V iew dreams mean, and more on which children match states like “happy” and the National Geographic “sad” with acial expressions. In some later Channel series, Brain Games.

��  CITY Almaz relishes the growing cultural scene in Lagos. Here she poses at the African Artists’ Foundation. “Lagos is a very bubbly society,” she says. “If you want to make something happen really, really bad, come to Lagos. It will happen, trust me.”

At the end of the workday, vans crowd into Idumota Market on Lagos Island to pick up workers returning home to the mainland, where most Lagosians live.

Young businessmen of the Cigar Club of Lagos, who are part of the city’s rapidly growing upper class, savor a moment of relaxation at a hotel on Victoria Island. Vendors hawk goods at one of many markets on Lagos Island, demonstrating the entrepreneurial fervor that has made Nigeria’s economy Africa’s most vibrant.

Lakowe Lakes Golf and Country Estate, a gated residential community, offers a posh retreat for the wealthy not far from the frenzied commercial center.

By Robert Draper Photographs by Robin Hammond

WHEN HE WAS 15 YEARS OLD,

collar Satellite own, where it was almost possible exchanged cell phone numbers. A few months to see the gleaming towers of Lagos Island less later Adeoti inquired about a job and was invited than ten miles to the east. to Njoku’s apartment. Adeoti walked inside to Satellite own was a step up for Adeoti. His �nd six young men wedged behind desks with birthplace was off to the north in Orile, a computer cables snaked around their feet as they wretched village of �ooded streets and collaps- typed. Tis, Njoku informed Adeoti, was his new ing buildings. echnology had provided his way business: an indigenous version of Net�ix that out. Te Internet café in Satellite own was run would stream movies to Nigerian computers as a side business by a banker, who saw that the and bring Nigerian movies to the world. Njoku boy had a natural facility for computers—even needed someone like Adeoti to convert “Nol- the shop’s ancient desktops, which operated at lywood” DVDs into a Youube format. As was lurching speeds. Te banker paid Adeoti a little evident by the cramped environs, the project more than $200 a month to run the place. Adeoti was perilously low on money. Adeoti signed on spent his money on courses at a technical insti- anyway, thinking, It’s going to sell itself. tute, determined that the Internet café would When I met David Adeoti in spring 2014, not be the end of the line for him. he was 24 and wearing an elegant knit shirt One day in 2010 the shop’s customers looked and designer jeans while sitting behind a Mac up from the computers to see who had just laptop in the sleek three-story oﬃce that now walked in the door with the mannered British houses iROKOtv in Lagos. Njoku’s company accent. His name was Jason Njoku, a bespec- has about 80 employees, with additional of- tacled 30-year-old Londoner who had relocated �ces in Johannesburg, London, and New York to his ancestral homeland of Nigeria. Njoku City. Adeoti makes twice the salary he made as asked Adeoti if he could scan some documents. the manager at the Internet café. But all this While Adeoti operated the scanner, the genteel exposure to money and movies had whetted visitor mentioned that he was trying to �nd in- his appetite for more of both. “I plan on start- vestors for a new business venture and asked the ing my own business—something in the �lm industry,” he told me. He was saving money Robert Draper’s last story for the magazine was on to travel to Hollywood. He wants to be a cinema- rethinking Rome’s Emperor Nero. Robin Hammond’s tographer—and perhaps one day, a Nollywood book Condemned: Mental Health in African studio executive. Countries in Crisis has won numerous awards. “It’s a very far distance from middle class to

 ��  Tobi Ajike, 6, and brother Tomi, 7, attend private school close to their home in Mende Villa Estate in an upscale area of mainland Lagos. Their father is an architect, their mother a businesswoman. Asked to describe his city, Tobi says, “My Lagos is wonderful, beautiful, lovely, very busy.” being rich,” Adeoti said. With a widening grin, he Arican nation teeming with industrious strivers added, “But the middle class, we strive. Everyone like Adeoti but also with poverty, despair, and is very desperate to be very rich these days.” violence. I anything, the miracle o Lagos is that Almost anywhere else in the developing its economy gallops onward even when ettered world, such a sentiment would seem pitiably de- by the same ederal incompetence that allows lusional. In Lagos, Nigeria’s commercial center, terrorism to go unchecked. A lesser city would “Be Very Rich” has all but become the city’s mot- be crippled. Ten again, in a sense so is Lagos. to. Te country recently recalculated its gross “Nigeria’s problem and Lagos’s problem is its

an elite class only marginally inconvenienced by the squalor enveloping the city as a whole. domestic product to take into account sectors image. Tat’s the chie problem. You’d think you o the economy that barely existed two decades were in a war zone in Aghanistan when you ago. As a result, Nigeria determined that its GDP read what you read about here! But tell me: Have surpassed South Arica’s in 2012 to become the you elt any threat?” continent’s largest economy. About 15,700 mil- No, I conessed to Kola Karim, the dash- lionaires and a handul o billionaires live in ing 45-year-old multimillionaire and CEO o Nigeria, more than 60 percent o them in Lagos. Shoreline Energy International, a ood/energy/ As with other Arican metropolises, oil- telecommunications/construction conglomerate enriched Lagos has long nurtured an elite class with more than 3,000 employees. I elt quite sae only marginally inconvenienced by the squalor in Lagos—a pleasant surprise, given that I had enveloping the city as a whole. Now the upper boarded my �ight to the city on the same day class is expanding, and despite persistent income that dozens were killed in a bomb blast at a bus inequality, so is the middle class. Te growth o depot in the capital city o Abuja. It was the latest the latter in Nigeria, according to a 2013 survey in a string o terrorist episodes or which Boko by Ciuci Consulting, a strategy and marketing Haram had taken credit. But Lagos had been �rm in Lagos, is driven by the expanding bank- spared rom such incidents, so ar. Te violence ing, telecommunications, and services sectors, elt a country away—like a bad dream washed particularly in Lagos. Nigeria’s middle class grew rom memory afer a morning’s shower. rom 480,000 in 1990 to 4.1 million in 2014, or “Look, I was invited to the White House a ew 11 percent o households. Seemingly overnight, weeks ago,” Karim went on, his British-educated Lagos has transormed itsel into a city o Davids diction edged with exasperation. “Tere were clamoring to become Goliaths. 21 o us—young global leaders o the World Tis is a great Arican success story. And how Economic Forum. I told them, ‘You’re always lovely it would be to tell this bright, uplifing tale viewing things rom a national security angle while ignoring altogether the dark and demoral- rather than commercial viability. You invite izing saga o Nigeria’s grotesque terrorists, which Arican businessmen over, and all you want to has blocked the boomtown narrative rom the know about is al Qaeda. Why are you wasting world’s consciousness like a lunar eclipse. But La- my time to come all the way here to listen to the gos does not exist in a parallel universe, any more same old gibberish?’ ” than the Islamic extremist group Boko Haram Karim makes it his business to evangelize about does. Both are indigenous to Nigeria, a vast West the Lagos miracle in which he has played a notable

 ��  Lagos, Nigeria’s A F R I C A largest city and its Urban area commercial center, NIGERIA lies on the Atlantic Ocean and hugs ENLARGED Lagos Lagoon. The main business districts are on Lagos and Victoria Islands. ORILE

IKEJA

OJOTA

INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

L a g o s BRIDGE

MAKOKO Lagoo n

Island BANANA ISLAND

IKOYI i

TOWN Victoria Island 0 km

EKO ATLANTIC Gulf of Guinea role. Later in the day a French V station would amily cocoa business, there were very ew o his be �lming Karim playing polo as a way o show- kind, “because,” he told me, “it wasn’t an open casing the city’s prosperity. Te ollowing week he economy, and �nancial services were ew. Back would be at the Milken Institute in Santa Monica, then the total capital o a bank was maybe two giving a speech about Arica’s power sector. Karim million dollars. Imagine you want to do business has delivered similar talks at Harvard and Yale, in Lagos. How much can a bank like that possibly part o what he reers to as his “moral duty to lend you? Fast-orward to today—they’ll lend you promote Nigeria and Lagos.” When I joked that up to $500 million!” he could be making big money on the speaking What happened to Lagos stemmed rom circuit, the Lagos entrepreneur solemnly replied, a convergence o two phenomena. First, afer “I will start charging money when the world has knowing only political incompetence, the newly heard our story.” democratized Lagosians elected a pair o re- Here is the story, in brie. Following centuries markably consequential state governors: ormer o tribal rule by territorial kings and emperors accountant Bola inubu in 1999, and in 2007 his and 99 years o British colonial rule, Nigeria handpicked successor, Babatunde Fashola, who achieved independence in 1960 and was intermit- has been credited with helping quash an Ebola tently ruled by military heads o state until 1999, outbreak in Lagos. Te two executives restored when it at last achieved a rickety state o democ- some �scal sanity to Lagos while investing in racy. Among its 36 states, Lagos—which includes bridges and expressways. Meanwhile a reverse the sprawling port city o the same name—was diaspora transpired as native Nigerians began ever the country’s center o power, even when the to return home. When the worldwide recession ederal capital was relocated in 1991 to Abuja, oreclosed opportunity in Europe and America, a 450-mile drive away. Still, Lagos deteriorated Lagos oﬀered itsel as a new rontier or ambi- under decades o military rule. Its schools, roads, tious entrepreneurs. One o them, Lanre Akinla- and hospitals went to seed. Western investors gun, told me, “Back in the U.K., all o my riends kept their distance. When Karim returned rom started moving back to Lagos. When they’d re- England to his birthplace in 1996 to build on the turn to visit, we’d meet in a bar, and they’d buy a

RYAN MORRIS, NGM STAFF. SOURCE: OPENSTREETMAP ��’� ��  round o shots. But then later they’d come back and order up bottles o the most expensive stuff. I told mysel, OK, something’s going on here.” On the Atlantic coast and consisting o a slab o mainland around a lagoon and several islands, Lagos today is an ad hoc ecosystem thrashing with wealth seekers. ourism is largely absent here—one comes to Lagos strictly to do business—and yet at the same time it is a strangely inviting place, a city o optimists. Tat is not to suggest that lie in Lagos is a smooth ride. As with all boomtowns, the city is at pains to keep up with itsel. Lagos’s population is growing so ast and is so transient that it’s impossible to estimate the number o inhabitants more precisely than between 13 million and 18 million. Te hubs o commerce are the two small islands o Lagos and Victoria, and only the very wealthy can afford to live there. While developers swoop down on every last sliver o marshland, orest, and land�ll (and in the case o the ultra-elite planned city o Eko Atlantic, 3.5 square miles o land recovered rom the ocean), ambitious Lagosians struggle to reconcile their status consciousness with the absurd price o central housing and the 20 percent interest that banks commonly charge or mortgage loans. Invariably, Lagosians settle on a �at somewhere on the mainland, which means enduring commutes through grinding traffic that can exceed two hours each way. Or it means waiting out the gridlock over beers and cigars with ellow young urks at a bar somewhere on the islands—a raternal spectacle as endemic to Lagos as the traffic snarls themselves. I sat one late afernoon in one o those bars with a hal dozen well-dressed bankers in their 30s, a daily congregation o gentlemen who have perected the art o boozy time-wasting. One o them, an especially talkative ellow, told me that a �at on the island would cost our times the amount he had paid or his house on the mainland. “I I had the right kind o income, o course I’d live on the island,” he said. “I I lived on the island, I’d go home, check my boys’ homework assignments, play some computer games with them, maybe take my wie out or dinner. Dur- ing the week I can’t do that.”

 ��  Thousands live and work in the sawmill district on mainland Lagos, a patchwork of workshops and shanties that twice in recent years has been devastated by ﬁres. The towers where Nigeria’s wealth is made loom across Lagos Lagoon behind the Third Mainland Bridge. Girls wash dishes and boil peanuts (top) to sell at a decaying housing complex, one of many cheaply built, low-cost neighborhoods constructed by the Lagos state government more than three decades ago. In a tiny classroom tucked into a row of shops, Innocent Lewis teaches adults how to type on keyboards, to improve their job prospects. Te young banker then laughed oﬀ his pre- a young man who, at 18, became an unpaid dicament and called out or another round. apprentice to an electrician and worked odd jobs to survive. For a time he slept in a bus stop. � �� o middle-class Nigerians He owned what he was wearing and nothing conducted by Renaissance Capital, an invest- else. Afer about our years Chiagozie scraped ment bank, ound that 76 percent o them are together enough money to rent a tiny house optimistic about the country’s uture. Sunniness in the mixed-income neighborhood o Ojota, o outlook has deep roots in Nigeria, particularly where he had apprenticed. “Save, save, save: I’ve

thrashing with wealth seekers, Lagos is a strangely inviting place, a city of optimists. so in Lagos, a land o traders and settlers, and made the sacri�ce, and it’s started to pay oﬀ,” he thus o industrious disposition. Lagosians be- recalled. “I registered my company. People in lieve themselves to be pluckier than the aver- the area knew me. I’d �x this socket or see why age West Arican. Tis is, i anything, a modest that light wasn’t turning on. Te customers grew sel-assessment. Te man I hired to drive me to trust me. Ten they started getting me good around during my three weeks in Lagos, Daniel jobs. Wiring whole houses. Fixing AMs and Sunday, took me one day to the neighborhood air conditioners. And because in Lagos it’s very where he was born and raised: Makoko, a etid expensive to have an oﬃce, I decided to have the shantytown on stilts in Lagos Lagoon that is �rst mobile workshop in the country.” mordantly reerred to as the “Venice o Arica.” Te owner o the whimsically named Var- Sunday told me that he lef the shabby amily ied Pace Enterprises, Chiagozie beamed as he home when he was a teenager and ound work told me that he was now married, with a three- as a bus conductor. He slept on his boss’s �oor bedroom house in Ojota and a tract o land and afer a ew years had accumulated enough outside the city that he deemed a prudent in- money to buy his �rst car. Now he was married, vestment. He shepherded me through the neigh- with a residence on the mainland, and or two borhood, pointing out the houses that he and his hours each morning he uncomplainingly chau- two apprentices were currently wiring. Te slum eured customers like me around the commer- child had broken through. Another Lagos suc- cial districts. Te motto on Sunday’s business cess story—but an un�nished one, or this was card was “In God I rust.” not nearly enough. “I’ve been making money,” “I you give a Nigerian an opportunity, he the electrician told me, “but the money is bet- will do his best,” a 36-year-old man named ter across the bridge, on the island. And I don’t Onyekachi Chiagozie proclaimed one hot afer- know the right people there yet.” noon as he proudly showed me his mobile elec- Banke Meshida Lawal knows the right peo- trician’s workshop. In truth, the hollowed-out ple. When I visited her at her beauty salon, BM van with the cracked windshield wasn’t much Pro, on Lagos Island, the young makeup artist to look at. Chiagozie had bought the used van was applying a ull makeover to a wealthy cli- or about $4,300, and with it he could drive his ent who would soon be attending a wedding in tools all over the city, an enabler and bene�ciary Chicago. Because Lawal hersel could not break o Lagos’s construction boom. away rom her business to �y over or the event, All o this was an improbable outcome or a colleague was videotaping the procedure, and a

��’� ��  Cairo

EGYPT S A

SUDAN

Khartoum

Kano

NIGERIA

(IVORY COAST) Lagos Abidjan

KENYA

Nairobi Population density, 2013 Population People per square mile In millions CONGO Year Kinshasa More than 500 2030 TANZANIA 150-500 25 (projected) Dar es Salaam 25-149 1990 Luanda 1 to 24 5 Less than 1 ANGOLA

Nigeria’s Rapid Rise The population of Lagos, Nigeria’s business center, is growing so fast censuses can’t keep up. Estimates put it at between Johannesburg 13 million and 18 million. The country’s billion economy has shifted: Banking, telecommunications, and services are thriving; AFRICA mining is declining.

Cape Town

Africa’s largest billion* Nigeria’s Nigerian economies: GDP Nigeria middle class consumer Current U.S. dollars spending Current U.S. million dollars 350.6 South middle-class Nigerian Africa Egypt 272.0 % 210.2 11 Algeria billion 100 million

middle-class 0 households 2010 expected by 2030 2000 2013

*GDP REVISED FROM 2010 ONWARD TO REFLECT RYAN MORRIS, NGM STAFF. SOURCES: STANDARD BANK GROUP; IMPROVED DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY WORLD BANK; LANDSCAN; UNITED NATIONS POPULATION DIVISION copy would be sent to one o Lawal’s beauty reps 200 dancing, cognac-swilling young Lagosians. in the United States, who would replicate the Everyone was dressed entirely in white, as in- makeover on the wedding day. Lawal’s onetime structed by the party invitation—at least until a ee was more than what it had cost Chiagozie to hard rain pummeled the patio, at which point buy his mobile electrician’s workshop. many stripped down to their swimsuits and Te makeup artist shares with the electrician jumped in the pool. Tey all seemed to know a �erce entrepreneurial motor, though she began one another rom the same nightclubs, or the with a leg up on the ladder. Lawal’s ather was same business deals, or the same university back a university lecturer, her mother a radiologist. in London, or Lawal’s beauty salon. Few i any While studying English at the University o La- o them likely raternized with aspiring laborers gos, she began doing other students’ makeup or like Chiagozie or knew the hard path he had a small ee. “Tere was nothing like makeup art- taken to the middle class. istry back then—it was unheard o,” she told me. I stood beside the hip-hop deejay or several “But when I was traveling to the U.K. on holiday, hours, observing this landscape o impervious I’d buy all sorts o makeup, and I was addicted beauty and aﬄuence—a tableau that could just to the girlie teenage magazines like as easily be taking place halway around the and Cosmo. My background was in �ne arts, and globe, in the Hollywood Hills or the Hamptons. that helped me to put together colors and draw Where it could not be taking place, I ound my- lines.” During her postcollegiate year o youth sel thinking, was more than 700 miles north- service mandated by the Nigerian government, east, in the orests o northern Nigeria, where Lawal decided to open a little cubicle in the a- roughly the same number o individuals—young �uent neighborhood o Ikoyi. In 2000 she did schoolgirls—were being held hostage afer Boko the makeup or the women in the wedding o Haram had kidnapped them six days earlier. the new president’s son. Press coverage ollowed. Te moneyed and the maraudered. Within a She moved to a larger studio. More celebrities ew days the New York Times T Magazine would requested her services, which now included hair publish a lavish spread in celebration o the or- and nails. oday BM Pro has our branches and mer (“In Lagos, the 1% akes Stock”) even as 32 employees. Banke Meshida Lawal has what #bringbackourgirls hashtag activism sounded Onyekachi Chiagozie wants. She occupies the alarms on behal o the latter. How do the two dead center o island prosperity. worlds coexist? How does Lagos prosper when “I know that what I do is ostentatious. It’s upper Nigeria roils with chaos? luxury,” Lawal told me. “Anyone can get by do- It takes eﬀort to discern any connection. But ing their own makeup themselves. But i they afer a couple o weeks moving through the city, want that something special—make it go pow, I began to orm questions: I Nigeria is the largest give it that extra thing—they come to me. Tis exporter o petroleum in Arica, how can there is a cash economy, and there are people here be continual uel scarcity, such that Lagosians willing to pay the cash.” periodically sit in gas lines or up to our hours? Smiling somewhat rueully, the makeup Why does every building in the city—not just the artist added, “Te gap is so great between rich low-income hovels on the mainland but also the and poor. I’m just glad to be on the receiving sleekest hotels on Lagos Island—rely on genera- end o the cash.” tors to supply round-the-clock power? Why do residents continue to pay or electricity that never �� I climbed aboard arrives? Why do the city’s police set up evening a motorboat docked at Victoria Island and rode checkpoints on the bridges and shake down com- an hour along the coast outside o Lagos un- muters or cash? Why do the top academics at til the driver deposited me at the edge o a dirt the University o Lagos carry on with strikes last- trail that led to a beach house crammed with ing entire semesters? (Continued on page 104)

��’� ��  Wasiu “Hello Sir” Ishola, 38, calls himself a hustler. For money and goodwill, he has names tattooed all over his body. Some of his customers are vacationing professional soccer players from Europe. “Lagos is the place where I see money and where people are merciful,” he says. Kilani “Big Ben” Ebenezer started his high-end menswear line in 2012. Two years later his bold, patterned designs won him recognition as best male designer at the 2014 Lagos Fashion Awards. “Lagos is a land ﬂowing with milk and honey,” he says. “Only shine your eyes and see clearly.” In Nigeria it’s common to ask guests to wear color-coordinated outﬁts, called aso ebi, at social events, such as this wedding at the Yoruba Tennis Club.

Fisherman Monday Enikanoselu, 16, was born and lives in Makoko, a slum in Lagos Lagoon that began as a fishing village of shacks on stilts. He wears eczema cream on his face and a knockoff Louis Vuitton belt. “Lagos will be good to me,” he says. “Lagos shall profit us all.” Stephanie Igben, 15, resplendent in a bridesmaid dress, is finishing senior secondary school but has no plans yet to continue her education. Her father is a driver and her mother a businesswoman. She hopes to be an actress. “To me, Lagos is a land of opportunities,” she says. What’s wrong with this picture? a job with contractors,” he said. “But some o Corruption is what’s wrong—and because them aren’t engineers. Tey’re teachers, or some- much o it exists on the ederal level, Lagos is thing else, and they just happen to have a broth- largely powerless to overcome it. Te striking er who works in the government. So when a proessors and the underpaid police are ed- contract comes their way, they hire a subcon- eral employees. Tat petro-titan Nigeria must tractor. And the subcontractor is able to pocket import uel to attempt to meet consumer de- a lot o money by using inerior materials. And mand is the result o the petroleum ministry they won’t hire me, because I insist on using the

but it can be slowed. It is not immune to the forces paralyzing less fortunate regions of Nigeria. sitting helplessly by while the country’s re�n- best material. I I were to use inerior material, eries deteriorate and gas marketers hold back the building might collapse, and then the gov- production to jack up prices. And the chronic ernment would arrest me and take my license power outages throughout the city are also the away and make me pay or the damage. Tis ault o the bureaucrats in Abuja, according to happens all the time.” Abike Dabiri-Erewa, who serves in the Nige- When I asked Kola Karim i the ederal gov- rian House o Representatives. “And they’re not ernment’s sorry reputation made Western in- tapping the gas that’s there. So the problem is vestors wary o doing business in Lagos, the that the plants aren’t being powered,” the Lagos worldly CEO elaborately dismissed it as a non- representative told me. issue. Companies partnered with companies, not Dabiri-Erewa was once a V reporter. As a with bureaucrats, he maintained. “What does ederal lawmaker, she witnesses �rsthand the kind government do or you anyway, apart rom o wanton corruption that the government- charging you more taxes?” he said. “Look, it’s owned Nigerian elevision Authority would not about who rules anymore. Lagos is a train never have allowed her to cover. “It is a real phe- that has lef the station. And you can only slow nomenon,” she said somberly. “And it’s done with it down—you can’t stop it. So it doesn’t matter impunity. Someone working in the government who comes next. Tis is the un o democracy! owns a private jet. A civil servant steals a billion It’s not about [President] Goodluck Jonathan! naira [six million dollars] in pension unds, and It’s about progress! Forget politics!” he’s walking about reely. Not one ederal official I lef the offices o Shoreline pondering these has been punished or corruption—not one! Here words o Karim, a genuine patriot who gen- in Lagos there’s lots o everyday ingenuity. You erously donates time and money to Nigerian see people surviving by selling oranges or phone causes. It’s difficult to begrudge him his yellow cards. Still, all o this corruption has to be demor- Ferrari and his vacation homes in Miami and alizing or the average Nigerian.” Marbella, on Spain’s Mediterranean coast, and It does more than demoralize: Te unscrupu- the act that his children, who live in London, lousness comes at the expense o hardworking stand little chance o being kidnapped by Boko Lagosians—unless, o course, they’re willing and Haram. Still, Karim said it himsel: Lagos may able to play the game. Chiagozie told me that never be stopped, but it can be slowed. It is not bureaucratic corruption routinely affected his immune to the orces paralyzing less ortunate livelihood. “Most electricians like me are seeking regions o Nigeria. And when I observed to

 ��  Students at the elite St. Saviour’s primary school romp with family and friends at the annual “Fun Day” celebration. The school in the afﬂuent Ikoyi neighborhood teaches England’s national curriculum. A shopper (above) peruses the grocery aisles at the South Africa–based Shoprite in the three-year-old Ikeja City Mall. Dabiri-Erewa that Boko Haram’s attacks had spared Lagos, she waved her hand rantically and shook her head. Tis was not, afer all, a ar-�ung terrorist out�t targeted by American drone missiles. Boko Haram was born in Ni- geria and is devastatingly eﬀective. “As we’re speaking now, we don’t know where they’re going to strike next,” she said. “And while they’re planning, the ederal government seems to have no clue.”

�� , or now, sae and a home or the bold, where even those who could be orgiven or despairing are instead eyeing the next rung on Lagos’s golden ladder. I was told about a hustling ellow named . J. who apparently had a knack or acquiring—how, it wasn’t entirely clear—a reliable inventory o ashionable used clothes, which he sold in a grubby stall on Market Street, within walking distance o the Nigerian Stock Exchange. Te lanky entrepreneur greeted me, sized me up, and then proceeded to pull out several plastic gar- bage bags �lled with men’s shirts. “Even when I was small, I believed there was something behind me, driving me,” . J. said as he riﬄed through the shirts to �nd something appropriate or me. “I’m an incurable optimist. I don’t believe in negativity. My customers, they love this about me. I cannot call mysel a pastor, but I speak the truth. And the truth is, I love this country. People here are suﬀering. I’m su- ering. And the government, they won’t do the right thing. But it’s all about attitude. I can eed mysel. And one day I’ll do something else.” Still digging in his bag o used clothes, the salesman said, “Right now I’m just trying to �nd the leverage.” j

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My Lagos

 ��  A spacious bedroom in the Okafor family’s home on Banana Island. The artiﬁcial island in Lagos Lagoon, named for its shape, is one of the city’s most expensive neighborhoods and is popular with foreigners working for major corporations. The Okafors, who grew up in Lagos, trained as lawyers but are now in business. What we can see is only a tiny fraction of

of the shadow universe around us, scientists are learning to detect the other stuﬀ: dark matter and dark energy. Death of an Early Star One of the ﬁrst stars in the universe explodes, bursting through its halo of invisible dark matter and seeding space with carbon, oxygen, and other elements. This computer simulation shows that stars might never have formed, and certainly not so soon— 100 million years after the big bang—without the gravitational force generated by abundant dark matter. Its nature is uncertain.

TOM ABEL AND RALF KAE HLER, STANFORD KAVLI INSTITUTE FOR PARTICLE ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY Detecting the (Almost) Undetectable In a Stanford University clean room, research assistant John Mark Kreikebaum inspects silicon disks that might one day register the subtle energy signal of dark matter particles—which are believed to be ubiquitous but have yet to be observed. To shield the disks from the noise of cosmic rays, they’ll be placed deep in a mine. “When you make a very sensitive detector, it tends to see quite a bit,” explains Stanford’s Matt Cherry.

By Timothy Ferris Photographs by Robert Clark

never in doubt.”

Nowadays they’re less ofen in error, but their doubts have grown as big as all outdoors.

Afer decades o research involving new and Norma better telescopes, light detectors, and computers, cosmologists can now state with some assurance that the universe was born 13 billion, 820 million years ago, most likely as a bubble o space smaller than an atom. For the �rst time they’ve mapped the cosmic background radiation—light released when the universe was only 378,000 years old—to an accuracy o better than a tenth o one percent. But they have also concluded that all the stars and galaxies they see in the sky make up only 5 percent o the observable universe. Te invisible majority consists o 27 percent dark matter Centaurus and 68 percent dark energy. Both o them are mysteries. Dark matter is thought to be responsible or sculpting the glowing sheets and tendrils o galaxies that make up the large-scale structure o the universe—yet nobody knows what it is. Dark energy is even more mysterious; the term, coined to denote whatever is accelerating the rate at which the cosmos expands, has been called a “general label or what we do not know about the large-scale properties o our universe.” As a result, cosmologists today �nd themselves in something like the ignorance that

 ��  Coma

V o Milky Way

The Invisible Scaffolding of Space We can’t see dark matter, but its gravity sculpts what we do see from our vantage point inside the Milky Way galaxy. This supercomputer simulation, which looks at our cosmic neighborhood from the outside, is a realistic, data-driven reconstruction of the web of dark matter that guided galaxies to their present positions. Where huge dark tendrils cross, bright galaxies cluster; the Virgo cluster alone includes thousands.

SIMULATION AND RECONSTRUCTION: STEFFEN HESS AND FRANCISCO�SHU KITAURA, LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE FOR ASTROPHYSICS POTSDAM. VISUALIZATION: TOM ABEL AND RALF KAEHLER A History Shaped by Dark Forces

Dark matter

The big bang Dark matter forms Stars light up 13.8 billion years ago First seconds of the u niverse 100 million years after the big bang Our universe blossoms Dark matter also emerges in the Clouds of hydrogen assembled by from a hot, dense state first second. Interacting with the gravity of dark matter collapse smaller than an atom. particles of normal matter only to form the first scattered stars. Within milliseconds it through gravity, it begins to pull Nuclear fusion inside them creates inflates enormously. them together. heavier elements—and lights space.

Dark Darkm atter<1 % 86% Composition of the universe energy <1% <1% <1% Matter <1% Radiation 99%* 13%

afflicted homas Jefferson in ��, when he the Coma cluster had survived for billions of enjoined Lewis and Clark to keep an eye out years could only mean, he surmised, “that dark for woolly mammoths. Jefferson and his con- matter is present in the universe in far greater temporaries knew that North America from the density than visible matter.” Subsequent investi- Mississippi River to the Paci�c Ocean was big gations have indicated that galaxies never would and important, but they had only vague notions have formed in the �rst place had not the gravity of what might live there. generated by dark matter gathered primordial Te �rst inkling of dark matter’s pervasive materials together when the universe was young. presence came in the 1930s from the Swiss as- Dark matter can’t just be inconspicuous nor- tronomer Fritz Zwicky. While working at the mal matter, because there isn’t enough of that. Mount Wilson Observatory in southern Cali- rillions of dim, normal matter objects surely fornia, Zwicky measured the speeds at which are out there—among them black holes, dwarf galaxies in the Coma cluster, 321 million light- stars, cold gas clouds, and rogue planets ejected years from Earth, orbit the center of the cluster. from their birthplaces—but in no plausible sce- He calculated that unless the cluster contained nario do they add up to �ve times the mass of much more mass than was visible, the galaxies the bright stuff. Hence scientists think that dark would long since have �own off into space. Tat matter must be made of more exotic materials. Teorists working in what’s called supersym- Timothy Ferris wrote about solar storms for the metric quantum physics have conjured up lots magazine in June 2012. Robert Clark photographed of unobserved varieties of matter, one or more an ancient Peruvian tomb for the June 2014 issue. of which might turn out to be dark matter. But

 ��  Dark energy

The expansion slows Dark energy rises Ever outward 1 billion years after the big bang 4-8 billion years after the big bang Today Stars clump into galaxies, galaxies After slowing for billions of years, The universe hurtles into clusters along a scaffolding of the expansion accelerates again. outward toward an dark matter. The mass of all matter, Why? A mysterious repulsive force, uncertain future. most of it dark, is so great that its dubbed dark energy, has begun to gravity slows cosmic expansion. counteract the pull of dark matter.

84% 75% Darkma tter27 % Radiation 1% <1% 13% <1% 68% <1% 15% 12% Matter 4%

*Percentages do not add up to �� due to rounding.

recent experimental results obtained with CERN’s of the collision. Tey concluded that although Large Hadron Collider, near Geneva, Switzer- the normal matter frames of the two clusters land, ruled out some versions of supersymmetry. were colliding and merging as spectacularly as Te mood among the theorists, says one of them, two munitions trains, their heavier cargoes of is “fairly somber.” Rather than speculate about the dark matter were sailing through the carnage precise identity of dark matter, most scientists on uninvolved and unscathed. the hunt just say they’re looking for WIMPs, or Dark matter’s aloofness makes it challenging “weakly interacting massive particles.” for experimenters to catch—even if, as some Evidence of just how weakly dark matter scientists estimate, dark matter particles are so interacts not just with normal matter but also commonplace that billions of them pass through with itself has turned up three billion light-years every human being every second. Te dark mat- from Earth, in the Bullet cluster—which is actu- ter detectors currently operating are so techno- ally two galaxy clusters in the act of colliding. logically sophisticated as to resemble Fabergé Astronomers mapping the Bullet with the aid eggs constructed for the delectation of future of NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory found archaeologists. massive clumps of hot gas at its center, which One of them, the two-billion-dollar Alpha they attributed to collisions of clouds of normal Magnetic Spectrometer, is perched on the Inter- matter. But when the astronomers charted the national Space Station and hunts for evidence of Bullet’s gravitational �eld, they discovered two dark matter particles colliding near the center of more huge concentrations of mass, one for each our galaxy. Most of the detectors, however, look of the original clusters, farther from the center for interactions between particles of dark matter

JASON TREAT, NGM STAFF. SOURCE: TOM ABEL ��  annihilation for the ﬁrst time.”

Tracy Slatyer, physicist, MIT Message From the Milky Way A NASA telescope orbiting Earth has detected unusually intense gamma rays coming from the center of our galaxy. The gamma rays are represented by the patch of bright colors superimposed on this picture of the Milky Way. What made them? Physicist Tracy Slatyer of MIT and her colleagues have a suspect: dark matter particles, smashing into and annihilating one another near the galaxy’s core.

NASA GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER/A. MELLINGER, CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY, AND T. LINDEN, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Distant galaxy

Dark matter

Light from distant galaxy

It Bends Light The gravity of a massive object can bend light the way a lens does, as Einstein ﬁrst realized. Dark matter, though invisible, can reveal its presence when its gravitational force greatly Distorted image of distorts the image of a distant galaxy. single distant galaxy

and normal matter here on Earth. Tey’re buried matter. Te Large Hadron Collider, scheduled deep underground, to minimize intrusions by to resume operations in 2015 afer a shutdown high-velocity normal matter particles �ying in or maintenance and upgrades, may attain high rom space. Some consist o a supercooled set enough energy levels to produce a ew dark o crystals or a tank o liquid xenon or argon matter particles. But the odds are diﬃcult to es- surrounded by detectors and onionskin layers o timate, because the masses o the sought-afer shielding materials, ranging rom polyethylene particles are not well understood. WIMP hunting to copper to lead. (Recently mined lead tends to is not or wimps. be mildly radioactive, so two experiments—one in Soudan, Minnesota, and the other in L’Aquila, �� may be, it Italy—use the melted-down ballast o ancient looks almost pedestrian in comparison with the Roman shipwrecks. Mined thousands o years mysterious phenomenon o dark energy, which ago, the old lead emits less radioactivity.) physicist Steven Weinberg calls the “central America’s Large Underground Xenon detec- problem or physics” and astrophysicist Michael tor, the most sensitive o its kind, is situated in urner nominates as the “most proound mys- Lead, South Dakota, right oﬀ Main Street and tery in all o science.” 4,850 eet down by elevator. It started operat- urner coined the term “dark energy” afer ing in 2013 but came up empty-handed; it’s two teams o astronomers announced in 1998 currently resuming the search at a higher sen- that the rate at which the universe was expand- sitivity. Other searches produced ghostly clues, ing appeared to be accelerating. Te astronomers but none has ound de�nitive evidence o dark reached this conclusion by studying a particular

 ��  A Dark Matter Len s The blue shapes outlined Visible lensing here are really distorted images of galaxies that lie far behind the bright cluster at the center. Dark matter in the cluster (not shown) warped the distant galaxies’ light as it traveled toward Earth.

class of exploding stars that are bright enough more accurate cosmological history requires to be seen far away and consistent enough in building better gear. brightness to make them useful in charting the Tat call is being answered by projects such distances of remote galaxies. Te mutual tug of as the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey, gravity among all galaxies serves as a brake on which employs a 2.5-meter telescope at Apache the expansion of the universe, and so astrono- Point in New Mexico to map cosmic distances at mers expected it to be slowing down. Instead an unprecedented one percent accuracy. Mean- they found just the opposite: he universe is while the Dark Energy Survey, using the Blanco expanding ever faster as time goes by and has four-meter telescope in the Chilean Andes, is been doing so for the past �ve to six billion years. collecting data on 300 million galaxies. Te Eu- Observers today are busily mapping the uni- ropean Space Agency’s Euclid space telescope, verse with unprecedented precision, looking scheduled for launch in 2020, is designed to for evidence of just when dark energy emerged make precise measurements of cosmic dynam- and whether it has since remained constant ics over the past ten billion years. Expectations in strength or is growing even stronger. Tey run high as well for the Large Synoptic Survey have the advantage of being able to peer into elescope (LSS), currently under construc- the past: When researchers study a galaxy bil- tion in north-central Chile, a few miles from lions of light-years from Earth, they see it as it the Blanco telescope. A squat, photographically looked billions of years ago. Tey are limited, “fast” 8.4-meter instrument equipped with the though, by the capacity of their telescopes and largest digital camera ever made, the LSS is digital detectors. Now, as in the past, writing designed to repeatedly image the depths of the

JASON TREAT, NGM STAFF. SOURCES: TOM ABEL �LEFT�; NASA/EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY/M. J. LEE AND H. FORD, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 

First to Capture Dark Matter on Earth? DEAP-3600, maybe the most sensitive dark matter detector yet, was installed last year more than a mile underground in a nickel mine in Ontario. Its spherical array of light sensors points inward, toward a core full of liquid argon. The hope is that dark matter particles striking argon atoms will trigger tiny ﬂashes of light. A Survey of Cosmic Repulsion Dark matter pulls stuff together; dark energy drives it apart. The Dark - scope in Chile, is designed to image 300 million galaxies in ﬁve years, including NGC 1365 (right). Peering out eight billion light-years, it could see how fast the cosmos was expanding billions of years ago— when its acceleration by dark energy is thought to have begun.

observable universe, covering the southern night i the space between them was utterly vacuous. sky up to ten times each month. In the 20th century, quantum �eld theory came With such tools, cosmologists hope to recon- to the rescue by demonstrating that space is struct the history o dark energy’s emergence never really empty but instead is suﬀused with and in�uence by directly measuring the cosmic quantum �elds, which are literally everywhere. expansion rate throughout the past. At issue may Te protons, electrons, and other particles ofen be nothing less than the uture o the universe— described as the building blocks o matter are and o its study. I we live in a “runaway uni- themselves excitations o quantum �elds. Space verse” increasingly dominated by dark energy, looks empty when the �elds languish near their most galaxies eventually will be driven beyond minimum energy levels. But when the �elds are one another’s sight, leaving ar-uture cosmolo- excited, space comes alive with visible matter gists with little to observe but their immediate and energy. he mathematician Luciano Boi neighborhood and the blackness o space. compares space to the water in a quiet Alpine In the nearer uture, making sense o dark pond: invisible when calm but evident when a energy may require radical improvements in breeze ripples its surace. “Empty space is not the way we conceive o space itsel. Te voids empty,” the American physicist John Archibald between the planets and stars were long thought Wheeler once said. “It is the seat o the most rich to be sheer nothingness, although Isaac Newton and surprising physics.” admitted that he couldn’t imagine how gravity Dark energy may prove him to have been could keep the Earth spinning around the sun prophetic on the largest possible scale. o

 ��  understand how cosmic space balloons—and an amount far exceeding the number of stars why it now seems to be ballooning ever faster— in the observable universe or grains of sand on physicists rely mainly on Einstein’s general the- the planet. Tat’s the largest disparity between ory of relativity, composed a century ago. Tat theory and observation in the entire history theory works well on the large scale but bows out of science. Clearly something fundamentally at the microscopic level, where quantum theory important about space—and therefore about reigns and the underlying cause of accelerating everything, since galaxies, stars, planets, and cosmic expansion is thought to reside. Explain- people are made mostly of space—remains to ing dark energy may require something new: a be learned. quantum theory of space and gravitation. Yet just such conundrums have opened the Scientists are confronted by the embarrassing doors of discovery before. Einstein’s general fact that they don’t know just how much energy, relativity theory was invented in part to solve dark or otherwise, space contains. When quan- tiny discrepancies between the predicted and the tum theorists try to calculate how much energy observed orbits of the planet Mercury. Quantum resides in, say, a quart of seemingly empty space, physics sprang in part from little puzzlements they get a big number. But astronomers calculat- about how heat is radiated. How much may be ing the same quantity from their dark energy learned, then, by resolving today’s much deeper observations get a small number. Te diﬀerence confusions about dark matter and dark energy? between the two numbers is staggering: It’s ten As the physicist Niels Bohr used to say, “No par- to the 121st power, a one followed by 121 zeroes, adox, no progress.” j

REIDAR HAHN, FERMILAB �LEFT�; DARK ENERGY SURVEY �� 

Set upside down to keep its teeth in place, the skull of a young woman found in an underwater cave in Mexico has put a face on the New World’s ﬁrst inhabitants.

understanding of the

AMERICANS

PAUL NICKLEN  Divers who discovered her bones named her Naia. A facial reconstruction reveals that the ﬁrst Americans didn’t look much like later Native Americans, though genetic evidence conﬁrms their common ancestry.

RE�CREATION: JAMES CHATTERS, APPLIED PALEOSCIENCE; TOM MCCLELLAND PHOTO: TIMOTHY ARCHIBALD By Glenn Hodges

teenage girl who fell to her death in a Yucatán cave some 12,000 to the Americas: I Native Americans are descen- 13,000 years ago. Her bad luck is science’s good dants o Asian trailblazers who migrated into ortune. he story o her discovery begins in the Americas toward the end o the last ice age, 2007, when a team o Mexican divers led by Al- why don’t they look like their ancient ancestors? berto Nava made a startling �nd: an immense By all appearances, the earliest Americans submerged cavern they named Hoyo Negro, the were a rough bunch. I you look at the skeletal “black hole.” At the bottom o the abyss their remains o Paleo-Americans, more than hal lights revealed a bed o prehistoric bones, includ- the men have injuries caused by violence, and ing at least one nearly complete human skeleton. our out o ten have skull ractures. Te wounds Nava reported the discovery to Mexico’s Na- don’t appear to have been the result o hunt- tional Institute o Anthropology and History, ing mishaps, and they don’t bear telltale signs which brought together an international team o warare, like blows suffered while �eeing an o archaeologists and other researchers to inves- attacker. Instead it appears that these men ought tigate the cave and its contents. Te skeleton— among themselves—ofen and violently. aectionately dubbed Naia, ater the water Te women don’t have these kinds o injuries, nymphs o Greek mythology—turned out to be but they’re much smaller than the men, with one o the oldest ever ound in the Americas, signs o malnourishment and domestic abuse. and the earliest one intact enough to provide a o archaeologist Jim Chatters, co-leader o the oundation or a acial reconstruction. Geneti- Hoyo Negro research team, these are all indica- cists were even able to extract a sample o DNA. tions that the earliest Americans were what he ogether these remnants may help explain calls “Northern Hemisphere wild-type” popula- an enduring mystery about the peopling o tions: bold and aggressive, with hypermasculine males and diminutive, subordinate emales. And Former Geographic staff writer Glenn Hodges this, he thinks, is why the earliest Americans’ explores life’s big questions at acial eatures look so different rom those o

��  The bones of at least 26 Ice Age animals—including those of an elephant-like gomphothere (above)—litter the ﬂoor of Hoyo Negro, the ﬂooded cave where divers found Naia’s remains. The cavern was mostly dry during Naia’s short life. She may have fallen to her death while exploring the cave’s dark passages (right).

later Native Americans. Tese were risk-taking exploding in resh directions over the past two pioneers, and the toughest men were taking the decades. New archaeological �nds, novel hy- spoils and winning �ghts over women. As a re- potheses, and a trove o genetic data have shed sult, their robust traits and eatures were being resh light on who the �rst Americans were and selected over the sofer and more domestic ones on how they might have come to the Western evident in later, more settled populations. Hemisphere. But or all the orward motion, Chatters’s wild-type hypothesis is speculative, what’s clearest is that the story o the �rst Ameri- but his team’s �ndings at Hoyo Negro are not. cans is still very much a mystery. Naia has the acial eatures typical o the earliest Americans as well as the genetic signatures �� it was assumed common to modern Native Americans. his that the mystery had been more or less solved. In signals that the two groups don’t look diﬀerent 1908 a cowboy in Folsom, New Mexico, ound because the earliest populations were replaced the remains o an extinct subspecies o giant bi- by later groups migrating rom Asia, as some son that had roamed the area more than 10,000 anthropologists have asserted. Instead they look years ago. Later, museum researchers discovered diﬀerent because the �rst Americans changed spearpoints among the bones—clear evidence afer they got here. that people had been present in North America Chatters’s research is just one interesting much earlier than previously believed. Not long development in a �eld o study that has been afer, spearpoints dating to 13,000 years ago were ound near Clovis, New Mexico, and what be-  Society Grants This research was generously came known as Clovis points were subsequently supported with funds made possible in part by your ound at dozens o sites across North America National Geographic Society membership. where ancient hunters had killed game.

 ��  PAUL NICKLEN �ABOVE�. ART: JON FOSTER

Humans from Eurasia and East Asia ﬁrst populate western Beringia by A S I A 32,000 years ago.

1 1

1 1 1

a a c 000

i OCEAN Sea North Pole YEARS AGO 2 2 Present-day shoreline A population with two- thirds East Asian and E one-third Eurasian DNA becomes isolated in Beringia. Genetic muta- tions result in new, unique Maximu DNA markers that are ce exte found in modern Native Sheet 21,000 year Americans but not Asians.

Ice Sheet N O R T H

A M E R I C A

0 mi 1,000

0 km 1,000

Paths to a new world

Fresh discoveries are redefining our understanding of when and how humans first migrated into the Americas. Archaeological evidence now firmly suggests human occupation began some 15,500 years ago, not 13,000 years ago, as previously thought. In 2014 advances in DNA analysis enabled the first sequencing of a full Paleo-American genome, at the Anzick site in western Montana—confirmation that the ancestors of modern Native Americans did indeed originate from a population in Asia.

MARTIN GAMACHE, NGM STAFF; AMANDA HOBBS SOURCES: DAVID G. ANDERSON, UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE; JAMES CHATTERS, APPLIED PALEOSCIENCE; E. JAMES DIXON, UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO; ARTHUR S. DYKE, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA; MICHAEL H. GRAHAM, MOSS LANDING MARINE LABORATORIES; JOHN W. IVES AND KISHA SUPERNANT, UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA; WILLIAM F. MANLEY, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO; MICHAEL WATERS, TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY; PALEOINDIAN DATABASE OF THE AMERICAS; WESTERN CANADIAN FLUTED POINT DATABASE 3 5 YEARS AGO Deglaciation along the An interior ice-free cor- northwest Paciﬁc coast ridor opens some 2,000 opens a migration route years after the coastal into the Americas. Genetic route, enabling further evidence suggests that migration across the fewer than 5,000 individu- continent. als disperse south.

n Kelp forest ecosystem, . modern distribution 6

A S I A Archaeological ﬁnds suggest that a northward ﬂow through the corridor i a OCEAN a OCEAN predominated, possibly Sea g n i because people were r Sea level: Sea level: e following big game. By B -210 ft (-64 m) . 12,000 years ago boreal shoreline shoreline forest began to colonize 12,400-12,000 years ago the corridor, making it 5 less attractive to large herbivores. N O R T

Ice-free corridor ce

C ca 12,350

y K 6 Ice Sheet , ca 12,650 aves 4 ca 14,350 ca 14,500 and ca 14,800

Islands ea owcroft Folsom 7 15,000-14,000 Clovis Quantity of ﬂuted spear- n age-Ladson points dating from 13,000 15,500-13,200 to 12,000 years ago

Absent Abundant ca 12,800

4 7 Hunters develop a distinctive type of fluted spearpoint and expand across most of North S O U T H America. For archaeologists, these Clovis points EARS AGO ca 14,100 A M E R I C A later became the first 4 definitive evidence of early 4 human occupation in the Remains at sites like Americas. More recently, Monte Verde, Chile, discoveries at Paisley suggest that humans Caves, Monte Verde, the migrated along the coast Friedkin site, and others and reached the southern have pushed back initial ca 14,000 tip of South America in migration estimates by just a few hundred years. as much as 2,500 years. 14,500-14,250 Given that Asia and North America were con- �� Michael Waters o nected by a broad landmass called Beringia dur- exas A&M University announced that he and ing the last ice age and that the �rst Americans his team had unearthed evidence o extensive appeared to be mobile big-game hunters, it was human occupation dating to as early as 15,500 easy to conclude that they’d ollowed mammoths years ago—some 2,500 years beore the irst and other prey out o Asia, across Beringia, and Clovis hunters arrived. Te Friedkin site lies in then south through an open corridor between a small valley in the hill country about an hour two massive Canadian ice sheets. And given that north o Austin, where a tiny perennial stream there was no convincing evidence or human now called Buttermilk Creek, along with some occupation predating the Clovis hunters, a new shade trees and a seam o chert, a type o rock orthodoxy developed: Tey had been the �rst useul or toolmaking, made the area an attrac- Americans. Case closed. tive place or people to live or thousands o years. Tat all changed in 1997 when a team o high- “here was something unique about this pro�le archaeologists visited a site in southern Chile called Monte Verde. Tere om Dillehay o Vanderbilt University claimed to have discov- A SITE IN CENTRAL ered evidence o human occupation dating to TEXAS MIGHT BE THE more than 14,000 years ago—a thousand years beore the Clovis hunters appeared in North EARLIEST PLACE OF HUMAN America. Like all pre-Clovis claims, this one was HABITATION IN THE controversial, and Dillehay was even accused o WESTERN HEMISPHERE. planting artiacts and abricating data. But afer reviewing the evidence, the expert team concluded it was solid, and the story o the peopling o the Americas was thrown wide open. valley,” Waters says. It was long thought that How did people get all the way to Chile beore the earliest Americans were primarily big-game the ice sheets in Canada retreated enough to al- hunters, ollowing mammoths and mastodons low an overland passage? Did they come during across the continent, but this valley was an ideal an earlier period o the Ice Age, when this inland place or hunter-gatherers. People here would corridor was ice ree? Or did they come down have eaten nuts and roots, crawdads and turtles, the Paci�c coast by boat, the same way humans and they would have hunted animals such as got to Australia some 50,000 years ago? Sud- deer and turkeys and squirrels. In other words, denly the �eld was awash in new questions and people probably weren’t here on their way to invigorated by a resh quest or answers. somewhere else; they were here to live. In the 18 years since the Monte Verde bomb- But i Waters is right that people were settled shell dropped, none o these questions have been here, in the middle o the continent, as early as resolved. But the original question—Was Clovis 15,500 years ago, when did the �rst arrivals cross �rst?—has been answered repeatedly, with sev- into the New World rom Asia? Tat’s unclear, eral sites in North America making their own but it appears that people may have been settled claims to pre-Clovis occupation. Some o these in other parts o the continent at the same time. places have been known and studied or years Waters says the pre-Clovis artiacts he’s ound at and have gained resh credibility in the wake o Buttermilk Creek—more than 16,000 o them, Monte Verde’s acceptance, but there have been including stone blades, spearpoints, and chips— new �nds as well. One location in particular, the resemble artiacts ound at sites in Virginia, Debra L. Friedkin site in central exas, might Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. even be the earliest place o demonstrable hu- “Tere’s a pattern here,” he says. “I think the man habitation in the Western Hemisphere. data clearly show that people were in North

 ��  America 16,000 years ago. ime will tell i that In 1959, while exploring Santa Rosa Island, represents the initial occupation o the Americas museum curator Phil Orr discovered a ew or i there was something earlier.” bones o a human he named Arlington Springs Either way, the newest archaeological evidence man. At the time, the bones were judged to be comports with an increasingly important line o 10,000 years old, but 40 years later researchers evidence in our understanding o the peopling using improved dating techniques �xed the age o the Americas. In recent years geneticists have at 13,000 years—among the oldest human re- compared the DNA o modern Native Ameri- mains ever discovered in the Americas. cans with that o other populations around the hirteen thousand years ago the northern world and concluded that the ancestors o Na- Channel Islands—then used into a single tive Americans were Asians who separated rom island—were separated rom the mainland other Asian populations and remained isolated by �ve miles o open water. Clearly Arlington or about 10,000 years, based on mutation rates Springs man and his ellow islanders had boats in human DNA. During that time they devel- capable o oﬀshore travel. oped unique genetic signatures that only Native Jon Erlandson o the University o Oregon Americans currently possess. has been excavating sites on these islands or Tese genetic markers have been ound not three decades. He hasn’t ound anything as old as only in the DNA recovered rom Naia’s skeleton Arlington Springs man, but he has ound strong but also in the remains o a child buried some evidence that people who lived here slightly lat- 12,600 years ago in western Montana, on a piece er, some 12,000 years ago, had a well- developed o land now called the Anzick site. Last year maritime culture, with points and blades that Danish geneticist Eske Willerslev reported that resemble older tools ound on the Japanese is- an analysis o the child’s remains had yielded, lands and elsewhere on the Asian Paci�c coast. or the �rst time, a ull Paleo-American genome. Erlandson says that the Channel Island “Now we’ve got two specimens, Anzick and inhabitants might have descended rom people Hoyo Negro, both rom a common ancestor who traveled what he calls a kelp highway—a who came rom Asia,” Waters says. “And like relatively continuous kelp-bed ecosystem �ush Hoyo Negro, the Anzick genome unquestion- with �sh and marine mammals—rom Asia to ably shows that Paleo-Americans are genetically the Americas, perhaps with a long stopover in related to native peoples.” Beringia. “We know there were maritime peo- Tough some critics point out that two indi- ples using boats in Japan 25,000 to 30,000 years viduals are too small a sample to draw de�ni- ago. So I think you can make a logical argument tive conclusions, there’s strong consensus on the that they may have continued northward, ol- Asian ancestry o the �rst Americans. lowing the Paci�c Rim to the Americas.” So how and when did the earliest inhabi- Beaches along the Paciic coast still teem tants o the New World get here? Tat remains with elephant seals and sea lions, and it’s easy an open question, but given that people made it to imagine hunters in small boats moving swifly all the way to southern Chile more than 14,000 down the coastline, easting on the abundant years ago, it would be surprising i they hadn’t meat. But imagination is no substitute or hard journeyed by boat. evidence, and as yet there is none. Sea levels are 300 to 400 eet higher than at the end o the �� oﬀ the southern Calior- last glacial maximum, which means that ancient nia coast are rugged and wild, home to a national coastal sites could lie under hundreds o eet o park, a national marine sanctuary, and a training water and miles rom the current shoreline. post or U.S. Navy SEALs. Te archipelago also Perhaps ironically, the best evidence or a harbors thousands o archaeological sites, most coastal migration might be ound inland, as o them still undisturbed. people traveling along the coast would likely have

��  Clues to an ancient mystery Judging from their skulls, Paleo-Americans looked markedly different from modern Native Americans. Why? Archaeologist Jim Chatters theorizes that the ﬁrst Americans were bold pioneers whose behaviors and physical traits changed as they became more settled.

Male, about 12,000 years old; Horn Shelter, Texas Male, less than 1,000 years old; central Texas

6 3

1 Larger, rugged skull 5 Longer, narrower skull 2 Wider-set eyes 6 Inward-angled cheekbones 3 Shorter, broad upper face 7 Outward-projecting face

4 Broader nose 8 Less rounded occipital

Paleo-American

American

Skeletal remains suggest that Paleo- American men ate better, grew larger, and lived much longer than women, most of whom died before age 26. Modern Native American men have tended to be smaller than their ancestors, women larger.

 NGM ART. PHOTOS: JAMES CHATTERS �ABOVE�; DAVID COVENTRY �RIGHT�. SOURCE: JAMES CHATTERS Stone tools discovered at a 15,500-year-old campsite in what is now central Texas provided clinching evidence that the first Americans arrived at least 2,500 years earlier than previously thought. Chert was an essential rock for toolmaking because of the way it flakes. Tribal leaders gather in Montana to rebury the 12,600-year-old bones of a boy known as the Anzick child. His DNA confirmed that today’s Native Americans are direct descendants of the first Americans.

 ��  ERIKA LARSEN explored rivers and inlets along the way. Tere is already suggestive evidence o this in central Or- egon, where projectiles resembling points ound in Japan and on the Korean Peninsula and Rus- sia’s Sakhalin Island have been discovered in a series o caves, along with what is surely the most indelicate evidence o pre-Clovis occupation in North America: ossilized human eces. In 2008 Dennis Jenkins o the University o Oregon reported that he’d ound human coprolites, the precise term or ancient excre- ment, dating to 14,000 to 15,000 years old in a series o shallow caves overlooking an ancient lake bed near the town o Paisley. DNA tests have identi�ed the Paisley Caves coprolites as human, and Jenkins speculates that the people who lef them might have made their way inland rom the Paci�c by way o the Columbia or Klamath Rivers. What’s more, Jenkins points to a clue in the coprolites: seeds o desert parsley, a tiny plant with an edible root hidden a oot underground. “You have to know that root is down there, and you have to have a digging stick to get it,” Jenkins says. “Tat implies to me that these people didn’t just arrive here.” In other words, whoever lived here wasn’t just passing through; they knew this land and its resources intimately. Tat seems to be an emerging theme. It appears to be the story not just at Paisley Caves but at Monte Verde and the Friedkin site in exas as well. In each o these cases people seemed to have been settled in, comortable with their environment and adept at exploiting it. And this suggests that long beore the Clovis culture began spreading across North America, the Americas hosted diverse communities o people—people who may have arrived in any number o migrations by any number o routes. Some may have come by sea, others by land. Some may have come in such small numbers that traces o their existence will never be ound. “Tere’s a whole lot o stuﬀ that we don’t know and may never know,” says David Meltzer, an archaeologist at Southern Methodist University. “But we’re �nding new ways to �nd things and new ways to �nd things out.” j

��  PROOF proof.nationalgeographic.com

 ��  First Bird

Story and Photographs by KLAUS NIGGE

he eagle is a national symbol, not just or Americans, but or Germans like me and many other people too. Pho- tographers tend to portray the birds as these majestic animals, always soaring in a blue sky with their plumage perectly in place. In the Aleutian Islands in Alaska I ound bald eagles that were wilder and tougher than that. Tey were dirty, they were wet, and they ought with each other, which is not what we expect rom our national symbols. But maybe a bird that can deal with strong weather and diﬃcult comrades makes a better source o inspiration. Around the village o Unalaska and nearby Dutch Harbor, the largest �shing port in the United States, the eagles are very much used to people. Fish are everywhere, and the eagles hang around, looking or lefovers. Tey go to �shing boats, where they search on the decks afer the boats come in. Tey go to where the �shermen clean their nets. Tey sit on the roos o processing plants. o make these photographs, I would go to the wild places outside o town where these habituated eagles congregated. Tere I could ace the eagles eye to eye. I could get close to them without using a blind. Tey were always ully aware o me. I had to be careul, I had to study them, and I had to know what they liked and what they didn’t like. You might have ound me lying on my belly, surrounded by 40 eagles. I have been to the Aleutians seven times, and I will go again. I am an eagle man—I like eagles so much. You see, they can �y, and I cannot. j

Days of heavy rain, a common phenomenon in the Aleutian Islands, have drenched this bald eagle. The raptors are not as active when it rains.

 Two bald eagles aim for the same post. According to Nigge, the one that lands ﬁrst in such squabbles usually vacates the perch in order to avoid being raked by the incoming bird’s open talons.

PROOF proof.nationalgeographic.com

“The bald eagle is an opportunist,” says Nigge. “He’s a scavenger. Even if food is stinky and old, he’ll take it.” At right, eagles still await a free meal near the home of a woman who used to feed them roadkill and ﬁsh scraps. Below, an eagle inspects the ground for food left by other birds. Once in danger of extinction in most of the lower 48 states, bald eagles were removed from the endangered species list in 2007. Their range now extends across most of North America.

(U.S.)

CANADA

PACIF IC OCEAN

UNITED STATES

range ATL ANT IC OCEAN 0 mi 800

0 km 800

AUDUBON SOCIETY MEXICO

 ��  �� 

Near Unalaska there’s a small stream where eagles often gather. Here one aims for something ﬂoating in shallow water. “You can see how much he wants to get it,” says Nigge. “His eyes, so sharp, point to one place.” In the Loupe With Bill Bonner, National Geographic Archivist

A Failed First

Though they planted the Union Jack (at far left) upon arrival at the South Pole in January 1912, members of Robert Falcon Scott’s British Antarctic expedition had found Norwegian �ags already �ying there. Roald Amundsen’s rival expedition had reached the Pole ﬁrst—and then departed—a little more than a month before. But Edward Wilson, Scott, Edgar Evans, Lawrence Oates, and Henry Bowers (left to right) still marked their accomplishment with this photo. A look through the loupe reveals how they all made it into the frame: A string to trigger the camera is visible, grasped in Wilson’s mitten. The portrait was one of their last. None of them survived the journey home. Within a month Evans had died. A month later Oates, frostbitten, left the group and never was seen again. The frozen bodies of the rest were found in their tent, along with the negative for this photograph, in November 1912. —Margaret G. Zackowitz

PHOTO: HERBERT G. P ONTING, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CREATIVE

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