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Lithic Analysis of an Early Later Stone Age Assemblage at Malony's Kloof, a Rock Shelter in the Northern Cape Province of So

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Lithic Analysis of an Early Later Stone Age Assemblage at Malony's Kloof, a Rock Shelter in the Northern Cape Province of So LITHIC ANALYSIS OF AN EARLY LATER STONE AGE ASSEMBLAGE AT MALONY’S KLOOF, A ROCK SHELTER IN THE NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA by Marisol Espino, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with a Major in Anthropology May 2019 Committee Members: C. Britt Bousman, Chair J. David Kilby Stephen L. Black COPYRIGHT by Marisol Espino 2019 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgement. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Marisol Espino, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. DEDICATION For Xoaquín and Tesla ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to first and foremost thank the members of my committee. This small paragraph is not enough to convey the magnitude of appreciation and gratitude I have for Dr. C. Britt Bousman. I thank him for giving me a second chance, for being my introduction to archaeology, for including me in his research and for all the stories over the braai. It’s been a long process and I’m glad we stuck it out. Dr. James Brink for sharing his research space, resources and for his generosity. I thank them both for being responsible for some of the best memories out in the field. Many regards are also owed to Dr. J. David Kilby for his whiteboard bison renditions and for sparking my interest in the Americas. I am also grateful to Dr. Stephen L. Black for joining the committee and for his thoughtful contributions to the manuscript. Thanks are also due to Dr. Andy Herries for supplying the material that this thesis is based on. This thesis quite literally took a village to complete. There are many colleagues and friends that provided emotional and academic support throughout this endeavor. It would be impossible to name them all but below are some honorable mentions. I would like to thank the staff of the Florisbad Quaternary Research facility for their hospitality and to all of the researchers and students I met while there. I am grateful toward Dr. Damian Stanley for his mentorship and for showing me the caliber that I need to aim for. My friends at the California Conservation Corps and John Muir Charter School for supporting my shenanigans and all of my archaeology outreach projects. A special thanks is due to the corpsmembers for reminding me what resilience looks like. v To everyone at the Gault lab for letting me to play with fancy X-rays and for our lunch time chats, which almost always took an endearing turn for the weird. To all of the extraordinarily helpful and supportive people at TxDOT’s Environmental Division for providing BBQ, constructive advice, helpful brainstorms, and the freedom to be creative. An exceptional amount of appreciation goes toward Eric Oksana, Dr. Scott Pletka and Laura Cruzada. I am also much obliged to Rodolfo Orozco and Isis Mejia for their help with illustrations. I appreciate all of the unbelievably welcoming faculty and students at UC Berkeley’s Archaeological Research Facility. Without that space, I don’t know how I would have stayed sane and focused. I am grateful toward my Flintknapping Fridays group for hashing out research project ideas, theorizing on the meaning of life, questioning the reality of time and for always having band-aids handy. A special dose of gratitude goes to Berkeley’s D-Lab for the immense amount of help with graphics, maps and statistics. To all of the friends, roommates, lab mates, and confidants I’ve met on this long- winded graduate school journey, thank you. Notable mentions include Senna, Jojo, Possum, Emily, Toriface, Janaka and Felicia. Thank you for being awesome archaeologists and even better friends. Finally, to my family and especially my mom, Betty. Kudos to her for raising such a nut all on her own. Although she may not always understand why I do what I do, she is always on board. To my favorite scientist and partner in crime, Vincent Aguirre Jr. vi for coming with me on this wacky adventure we call our life. Being married to an archaeologist is not for the faint of heart but he navigates the craziness with grace. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiv ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 II. STONE AGE SUMMARY OF SOUTH AFRICA .............................................6 History .........................................................................................................7 Later Stone Age (LSA) ..............................................................................10 Early Later Stone Age (ELSA) .................................................................15 Robberg .....................................................................................................18 Summary ...................................................................................................18 III. ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................21 Northern Cape ............................................................................................22 Geology .....................................................................................................22 Tufa ...............................................................................................26 Paleoenvironment .....................................................................................28 Summary ....................................................................................................31 IV. EARLY LATER STONE AGE SITES ...........................................................32 Border Cave (48,220 – 33,630 cal BP) ......................................................33 Umhlatuzana (38,410 – 35,110 cal BP) .....................................................38 Kathu Pan (38,300 – 23,070 cal BP)..........................................................39 Rose Cottage Cave (35,240 – 20,960 cal BP) ............................................41 Sunnyside (33,380 – 27,700 cal BP) ..........................................................42 Ha Makotoko (33,180 – 29,230 cal BP) ....................................................43 Sehonghong (30,990 – 29,240 cal BP) ......................................................44 viii Shongweni (27,740 – 26,560 cal BP) ........................................................46 Buffelskloof (27,390 – 25,500 cal BP) ......................................................48 Nos (26,930 – 25,850 cal BP) ....................................................................49 Reception Shelter (26,380 – 25,820 cal BP) ..............................................51 Boomplaas Cave (25,900 – 24,310 cal BP) ...............................................52 Elands Bay Cave (25, 290 – 14,940 cal BP) ..............................................54 Apollo 11 (25,140 – 19,940 cal BP) ..........................................................55 Melikane (24,470 – 23,550 cal BP) ...........................................................57 Pockenbank (24,190 – 22,510 cal BP) .......................................................58 Heuningneskrans (23,320 – 22,620 cal BP)...............................................59 Putslaagte 8 (22,980 – 19,990 cal BP) .......................................................60 Summary ...................................................................................................62 V. METHODS .......................................................................................................63 Analytical Theoretical Frameworks ...........................................................63 Excavation Information ............................................................................66 Coding Procedure.......................................................................................71 Limitations ................................................................................................81 Collection Bias ...............................................................................81 Squares and Levels ........................................................................83 Issues with A Layers ......................................................................84 Issues with B Layers ......................................................................86 Issues with Layer C ........................................................................87 Unclear Proveniences ....................................................................88 Unclear Wall Profiles ....................................................................89 West ........................................................................................89
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