N° 48 November 2019 EuropeanEuropean GeologistGeologist Journal of the European Federation of Geologists

Geological heritage of Europe Software, Consulting & Training. For over 37 Years.

Environmental Geotechnical Hydrology Mining Petroleum

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3ANNIVERSARY 2 Europe t: +41 91 967 52 53 // f: +41 91 967 55 50 7 Software, Consulting & Training. For over 37 Years. Contents

Foreword M. Komac 4 Topical - Geological heritage of Europe Croatian geological heritage related to historical mining and quarrying M. Mileusnić, A. Maričić & M. Hruškova Hasan 5 Featuring slate: the German geoheritage initiative “Rock of the Year” in 2019 C. Ellger & M. Lapp 10

The Geological Wall in Berlin – Over 120 years of teaching geology U. Hörmann, A. Ehling & K. Reinhold 15

A field trip enhanced with ARTutor, an augmented reality educational platform M. Psychogiou, K. Georgiou, A. Antonarakou & H. Drinia 20 The significance of the Lavrion mines in Greek and European Geoheritage A. Periferakis, I. Paresoglou & N. Paresoglou 24 Pikermi: a classical European fossil mammal geotope in the spotlight S. Roussiakis, P. Filis, S. Sklavounou, I. Giaourtsakis, N. Kargopoulos & G. Theodorou 28 We would like to express a particular thanks to all The Geological Garden at Tata (Hungary): A geosite of outstanding those who participated in the peer reviewing of this scientific and geo-educational significance issue and thus contribute to the improvement of I. Szente, E. Harman-Tóth & T. G. Weiszburg 33 the standards of the European Geologist Journal. The content of this issue has been reviewed by John Geoheritage elements of millstone manufactory, Clifford, Alecos Demetriades, Renata Brezinscak, Tokaj Mountains, Hungary János Földessy, János Haas, Gareth Jones, Novák Z. Ésik, P. Rózsa & J. Szepesi 38 Tibor József, Ferenc Kristály, Mate Osvald, Joan Poch and Mónica Sousa. The Mining Heritage and History of the Silvermines area, County Tipperary, Ireland since the 13th century Advertiser: E. F. Grennan & C. J. Andrew 43 Rockware (pages 2 and 72). Cover photo: The cretaceous clays of Baiso, Emilia-Romagna, Italy: A study for their © Dario Chisari. The Legend of Giant's Causeway touristic promotion Columnar Basalts. Giant's Causeway, Antrim, G. Campana, A. Ghinoi & C. Marasmi 49 Northern Ireland

Evaporite dissolution sinkholes in the Dwejra depression, Malta P. Gatt 53

Unearthing Europe’s Bronze Age mining heritage with tin isotopes: © Copyright 2019 The European Federation of a case study from Central Europe Geologists. W. Powell, R. Mathur, J. John, M. Price, H.A. Bankoff, M. Tisucká All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or & L. Godfrey 58 transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/ News or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence, or otherwise, Environmental Geotechnical Hydrology Mining Petroleum News corner or from any use or operation of any methods, EFG Office 64 products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Although all advertising material is Book reviews 68 expected to conform to ethical (medical) standards, inclusion in this publication does not constitute a guarantee or endorsement of the quality or value of such product or of the claims made by its manufacturer. Download FREE Trial at RockWare.com ISSN: 1028 - 267X U.S. t: 800.775.6745 // f: 303.278.4099 th

3ANNIVERSARY Europe t: +41 91 967 52 53 // f: +41 91 967 55 50 7 European Geologist 48 | November 2019 3 EUROPEAN GEOLOGIST Foreword

is published by the EurGeol. Marko Komac, EFG President European Federation of Geologists C/O Service Géologique de Belgique Rue Jenner 13 B-1000 Bruxelles, Belgium Dear Reader, Tel: +32 2 7887636 [email protected] It is my great pleasure that I can for the first time write the www.eurogeologists.eu foreword for the European Geologist in which we address the topic of the geological heritage of Europe. The issue of geological heritage, “geoheritage” for short, is EFG BOARD probably the most recently addressed domain in geological sciences and has been recognised as one of the best opportu- PRESIDENT nities to promote geology to a wider public. And although the EurGeol. Marko Komac term “geoheritage” seems obvious, it often represents different [email protected] concepts to different people. Logically, a question arises: what does geological heritage mean? It could mean using the same building material (stones) in restorative architecture as that from which the buildings were VICE-PRESIDENT originally constructed. It could mean passing geological knowledge to experts through EurGeol. Michael Neumann training, students through higher-level teaching or the general public through education, [email protected] raising interest in geological topics (rocks, fossils, processes). It could mean preserving either geo-sites and materials or the technological heritage related to geology and mining, SECRETARY-GENERAL at a local level or at an internationally recognised level through the UNESCO Global EurGeol. Gabriele Ponzoni Geopark Network. [email protected] To recapitulate all of the above-mentioned areas, geoheritage addresses the conservation of the Earth’s related relics and contemporary processes, either by physical protection or TREASURER by descriptive means, with the aim of their preservation, management and understandable EurGeol. Ruth Allington interpretation to both experts and the wider public. [email protected] Putting it in simple words, geoheritage is about preserving Earth’s treasures for the future. Trying to put it into the frame of trending topics, it also involves tackling the present chal- lenges society is facing, including the climate crisis – all this is a part of our geoheritage. EXTERNAL RELATIONS OFFICER Despite the possibility that I may be understood as being controversial, it is my opinion that EurGeol. Pavlos Tyrologou not addressing the climate crisis could lead to the disappearance of numerous treasures of [email protected] the Earth belonging to the geoheritage and as such often even legally protected. The current issue of the European Geologist tries to address various aspects of geoheritage, from different thematic and different cultural perspectives, which gives it additional value EDITORIAL BOARD in understanding how to approach geological heritage in specific situations with specific Éva Hartai (Editor in chief) topics and at specific scales. Pierre Christe I sincerely hope you’ll find the issue interesting to read and I firmly believe you’ll also Vitor Correia find the information useful in your daily professional work, free-time activities or merely Isabel Fernández Fuentes as a casual reader. Hans-Jürgen Gursky I wish you many interesting moments in reading the latest issue of the journal. Michael Neumann Edmund Nickless

Translations by Antoine Bouvier Marko Komac Alberto Sánchez

COPY EDITOR Robin Lee Nagano

STAFF AND LAYOUT EDITOR Anita Stein [email protected]

4 Topical - Geological heritage

Croatian geological heritage related to historical mining and quarrying

Marta Mileusnić*, Ana Maričić, Michaela Hruškova Hasan

Exploitation of geo-resources has played an L'exploitation des ressources géologiques a La explotación de recursos geológicos ha important role in the development of man- joué un rôle important dans le développe- jugado un importante papel en el desar- kind. Hence, historical mining sites represent ment de l’espèce humaine. C’est pourquoi rollo de la humanidad. Por tanto, los emp- valuable industrial heritage. Unfortunately, les sites historiques miniers constituent un lazamientos mineros históricos representan it is not often recognised that outcrops héritage industriel de valeur. Malheureuse- un valioso patrimonio industrial. Desgraci- opened by quarrying and mining, as well ment, il n’est souvent pas fait cas des élé- adamente, los afloramientos mineros y las as ex situ collections of minerals, rocks or ments affleurants mis à jour par les travaux colecciones de minerales y fósiles encon- fossils found at such sites, represent pre- de carrière ou miniers de même que les trados en dichos afloramientos no son cious geo-heritage. Historical mining sites collections minéralogiques en musée, les normalmente reconocidos, sin embargo, in Croatia are not yet properly protected roches ou fossiles sur place, qui représentent representan un patrimonio geológico muy with the exception of two stone quarries. un précieux héritage géologique. valioso. Los sitios mineros en Croacia no In this article, we present several mines and Les sites miniers historiques en Croatie ne están adecuadamente protegidos a excep- quarries recognised by locals as tourist sites sont pas encore protégés, à l’exception de ción de dos canteras de piedra. En este which should be brought to the attention of deux carrières de pierre. Dans cet article, artículo, se presentan varias minas y can- the authorities responsible for geo-heritage nous décrivons plusieurs sites miniers et car- teras reconocidas por agentes locales como protection. Preservation of geo-heritage in rières, reconnus localement comme sites sitio turístico que debería ser tenido en con- the frame of the mining heritage context touristiques qui devraient éveiller l’attention sideración por las autoridades responsables is fundamental in promoting the proper des autorités en charge de la protection de del patrimonio geológico. La preservación protection, valorisation and utilisation of l’héritage géologique. La préservation de del patrimonio geológico en el marco del former mining sites as geo-tourism desti- cet héritage géologique dans le cadre du patrimonio minero es fundamental para nations. contexte d’un héritage minier est fonda- promover la protección, valorización y uti- mentale en faisant la promotion d’une lización de antiguos yacimientos mineros protection adaptée, de la valorisation et como destinos geo-turísticos. utilisation des anciens sites miniers en tant que destinations pour les touristes amateurs de géologie.

Introduction geological-paleontological, geomorphologi- subtype of natural monument). The first cal, geological-geographic and hydrological geological site to be protected (in 1948) is ccording to the Register of Pro- natural monuments). In addition, there is Rupnica near Voćin (Figure 1). Rupnica tected Areas of the Ministry one case of protected minerals. Almost all is an old quarry with well-exposed phe- of Environment and Energy of of these sites are described in Zwicker et al. nomenon of columnar jointing developed ACroatia (2017), 53 localities are protected (2008). In addition to mentioned 53 locali- in albite rhyolite (Figure 2 left). Rupnica exclusively due to their geological value ties, another group of geo-heritage sites in (together with Trešnjevica Quarry, where (Figure 1). Those localities have different Croatia is located within larger protected a magmatic vein several hundred metres levels of protection, which include special areas such as strict reserves, national parks, in length breaks through metamorphic reserves (paleontological and geographic- nature parks, regional parks and significant rocks that are 300 million years older) is botanical special reserves) and natural landscapes. located inside Geopark Papuk. The second monuments (geological, paleontological, Croatia is recognised for its extraor- protected geological site is Quarry Fantazija dinarily long tradition of stone exploita- (Figure 2 right) near Rovinj (Figure 1). It * Faculty of Mining, Geology and tion and application. Many abandoned was proclaimed as a geological monument Petroleum Engineering, University of quarries represent potential geological in 1987 due to numerous structures and Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, heritage sites. Only two are classified and Croatia, [email protected] textures typical of supratidal dolomitisation protected as geological monuments (in the (stromatolites, tepee-structures, fenestral

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 5 energetic resources, coal and bitumen were mined in Croatia as well in the past and there are attempts to restore mining sites for geo-tourism purposes (e.g. the bitumen mine Škrip on the island of Brač and the coal mine Raša in Istria). The goal of this article is to present sev- eral historical mining localities and/or exca- vated content in Croatia that are recognised as mine heritage sites in the framework of the EIT KIC Raw Material Wider Society Learning Project “MineHeritage: Histori- cal Mining – Tracing and Learning from Ancient Materials and Mining Technology”, funded by the European Institute of Inno- vation and Technology (EIT). This article considers existing and potential tourist sites that have value in multiple roles, as mining, industrial, cultural and geological heritage, in order to encourage their proper protec- tion as geo-heritage.

Natural building stone quarries

Since prehistory, throughout antiquity and Middle Ages, a great number of small quarries were active and used for exploita- Figure 1: Locations of protected geo-heritage sites in Croatia (after MZOE, 2019) and mine heritage tion of a high-quality sedimentary rock; sites (not legally protected) mentioned in this article. most are abandoned today. However, there are few old quarries in Croatia that are pre- fabric, load casts and microcasts, desicca- non-metallic minerals such as bauxites, pared for visitors with an emphasis on pres- tion cracks, shrinkage cracks, sand-watch gypsum, and sulfur cannot be omitted. entation of natural and cultural heritage, structures, supratidal breccia, tide channels, Unfortunately, so far none of the histori- even if they are not officially protected as erosional surfaces, etc.) (Tišljar et al., 1995). cal mining sites of these industrial minerals natural geological monuments. Although both sites are protected by law have been made accessible to wider society. A rare example of such good practice and arranged for visitors, Rupnica is very However, some progress can be observed is Vinkuran (Figure 1), the oldest quarry well maintained thanks to Geopark Papuk, and Radboa Museum in Radoboj (Figure 1) in Istria (Figure 3 left), known as “Cava while Fantazija is neglected and even cov- is a good example of how such sites could Romana”. Vinkuran stone is an upper Cre- ered with graffiti. The legal basis in Croatia be presented to the public. taceous rudist limestone used for the con- is finally favourable for conservation of our There are no potential ore deposits in struction of the Arena in Pula in the 1st geological heritage, but physical protection Croatia nowadays, but there were times in century CE (Figure 3 right). Massive bio- is questionable (Marjanac, 2012). the past when metal production was signifi- clastic limestone with a 40 m thick deposit, Mineral resources have been tradition- cant. Although not protected as geological it is comprised of three different varieties ally classified as: (1) industrial or non- heritage, two sites have been revitalised known under the commercial names unito, metallic; (2) ores or metallic; (3) energetic; for geo-tourism (the copper mine Rude statuario and fiorito and represents a typi- and (4) rocks and gems. The mining of and the silver mine Zrinski). Concerning cal coarsening and shallowing-upward

Figure 2: Quarries declared natural geological monuments: (left) Rupnica (courtesy of Geopark Papuk); (right) Fantazija.

6 Topical - Geological heritage

Figure 3: (left) Vinkuran, the oldest quarry in Istria; (right) the Arena in Pula.

sequence (Tišljar et al., 1995). Today the protected as geological and cultural heritage However, ore mining was significant in quarry is used as a venue for concerts and sites. For example, natural stones like Kir- Croatian history. The old mining settle- other performances and as an open-air menjak, Giallo d’Istria, Adria grigio, Veselje ment Rude (Figure 1), situated about. 30 monument of mining activity. Industrial unito and Benkovac stone were used for the km southwest of the capital city of Zagreb heritage from the Roman period is pre- construction of many monuments and old (Figure 1), represents an excellent exam- sented by visible chisel marks. towns of cities such as Venice, Dubrovnik, ple of local community efforts for restora- Interesting unprotected sites that com- Korčula, Split, Solin, Trogir, Šibenik, Zadar tion of mine heritage and preservation of bine natural and cultural heritage values and Pula. All of these old mining sites rep- mining tradition. In 16th century its copper are the quarries on Korčula Island (Figure resent outcrops where different geological production was twice the amount of the 1) and on neighbouring islets (Vrnik, Plan- features of rocks are visible. These features total copper production in England and jak, Majsan, Sutvara, Gubavac and Planjak) are added values from an educational point four times that of Norway, reaching one (Figure 4 left). This small region contains of view. Evidence of formation of different third of the production of the famous Swed- numerous quarries which were active types of sedimentary rocks can evoke and ish mine in Falun (Budak, 1994). The first during different periods in history. During add to knowledge about geology. miners mainly came from Saxony. Beside antiquity, according to Gjivoje (1970), stone copper, iron was mined, as well as gypsum was exploited solely by the underground Underground mines from the early 19th century till the 1950s. mining method (Figure 4 right). The top The network of mining trenches spreads surface layer of poor-quality stone was left Underground mining in Croatia has under the settlement. Nowadays 350 meters intact because it reached a thickness up to 3 ceased (except for one active underground of trenches are accessible to visitors (Figure m. A very high-quality decorative building quarry of natural stone in Istria), but there 5 left). According to Borojević Šoštarić et al. stone, a white upper Cretaceous rudist lime- are several old mines that are significant in (2010), Rude deposits in the Samoborska stone, was used for the construction and terms of mining heritage. Preservation of Gora Mts. may be declared a prototype of decoration of buildings and summer houses such monuments is difficult and requires a the Permian siderite–polysulphide–barite in the old town of Korčula and exported to significant amount of money. Fortunately, deposits (products of rifting along the Dalmatia, especially to Dubrovnik, Italy and there are two mines partly restored for visi- passive Gondwana margin) in the Inner even to the Ottoman Empire. tors and some others in such a condition Dinarides and their equivalents extending Many other quarries comprising that there is a possibility of their restoration. north-eastward and south-eastward. It is renowned different varieties of natural The local community is engaged in an effort hosted by Permian siliciclastic sediments stone excavated in the coastal areas of to preserve them from oblivion. below gypsum and anhydrite strata. Hence, Croatia deserve to be acknowledged and Croatia is very poor in metallic ores. this site – besides its mining heritage – has

Figure 4: (left) Vrnik islet with old abandoned quarries; (right) underground natural stone quarry at Sutvara islet.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 7 to fishes and whales. Flora are presented by imprints of leaves (e.g. the oldest found leaf of a vine in Europe, Figure 6 middle), seeds or flowers, revealing a mild climate. Espe- cially notable are the well-preserved insect fossils (Figure 6 right) that were described by the Swiss palaeontologist Oswald Heer in his work "Die Insektenfauna der Ter- tiärgebilde von Oeningen und von Radoboj in Croatien" in 1847. Due to all of these features, Radoboj represents an important mining site with technological, industrial and geological-paleontological heritage. Although the original site was flooded and Figure 5: (left) Copper mine Rude (photo: Romeo Ibrišević, courtesy Mine St. Barbara); (right) is not accessible, local authorities recog- underground mine of pyritised bauxites Minjera. nised its importance. Radboa museum is a highly valuable tool for ex-situ presentation geo-heritage value. Proper protection of organic matter of hanging wall sediments, and dissemination of heritage. Unfortu- outcrops inside the mine and on the sur- while the second phase retrieved sulfur nately, most of the exhibits are replicas, as face is very important. Other metallic ore mainly from the sea water. Pyritisation is in most of the valuable paleontological mate- mines not to be omitted are Zrinski (partly some places accompanied by diasporisation rial is kept in Landesmuseum Joanneum, restored and maintained by Nature Park (Šinkovec et al., 1994). Although there have Graz. There is also considerable material Medvednica), Kraševi Zviri (a zinc mine already been several attempts to protect this from Radoboj housed in the Natural His- suitable for restoration and with a local site as a natural geological-paleontologi- tory Museum in Zagreb. community interested in preservation), cal monument, so far all efforts have been and Trgovska gora (a mining area highly unsuccessful. There are many other bauxite Conclusion significant in Croatian history). mines in Croatia, including Kalun, which The most significant mine heritage site at the time of its closure in 1963 was the Geo-heritage encompasses natural geo- of a non-metallic resource is Minjera (from deepest bauxite mine in Europe and prob- logical or geomorphological features pos- the Italian miniera – mine) in Mirna valley ably in the world. sessing aesthetic, intrinsic, scientific and in Istria (Figure 1). This combined open pit educational value, that provide unique and underground mine (Figure 5 right) of Ex situ geological heritage insight into geological processes affecting pyritised bauxites was opened in the 16th the formation or evolution of the Earth. century in order to obtain vitriol and alum. There are many mining sites, especially Often only by human activity do these fea- Hence, Minjera is the first bauxite mine in underground, which are no longer available tures come to light. In that case, we can talk the world. The first scientific description for restoration. One of them is a sulfur mine at the same time of natural (geological) and (chemical-mineralogical study) of the in Radoboj (Figure 1), founded in 1811. also cultural (historical, industrial, mine) bauxite ore in the world is the 67-page book Sulfur from Radoboj was free of arsenic heritage. Although there are 53 localities “Della preparazione dell’allume nella mini- and therefore appreciated and used in already protected as geo-heritage sites era di S. Pietro nel dipartimento dell’Istria” medicine and industry without limitation. in Croatia, there are still many potential by Pietro Turini in 1808, addressing the Moreover, the process of purification was sites – especially those related to mining bauxite from Minjera (Marušić et al., 1993). invented and developed on site, leading to – that could be classified as geo-heritage Especially detailed is the technology of the the world famous Radoboj machine con- sites. They provide a fascinating geologi- ore beneficiation process with some tech- struction. Marl, which was the body carry- cal, historical, scientific and mining record, nological innovations. The raw material is ing sulfur material (Figure 6 left), contained valuable not only as natural heritage but pyritised bauxite of Lower Paleogene which abundant fossilised fauna and flora that is also as a part of our cultural heritage. If contains both pyrite and marcasite. There 12–14 million years old (middle Miocene properly preserved and presented, mines are two phases of pyritisation of bauxite: to Sarmatian). The variety of fauna cap- and quarries, as well as ex situ geo-heritage sulfur from the first phase originated from tured in marl is rich, ranging from shells (e.g. minerals, ores, rocks or fossils collec-

Figure 6: Geological samples from Radoboj: (left) sulphur in marl – finding of König Friedrich August II von Sachsen in 1845 (Min 20650 Sy, Senckenberg Naturhistorische Sammlungen, Museum für Mineralogie und Geologie, Photo: Jana Wazeck); (middle) vine leaf – Vitis teutonica (photo from archive of Radboa museum); (right) plant fly – Bibio giganteus (photo from archive of Radboa museum).

8 Topical - Geological heritage

tions) are interesting not only to scientists project “MineHeritage: Historical Mining – rials and Mining Technology” funded by the but also to the wider society, local com- Tracing and Learning from Ancient Materi- European Institute of Innovation and Tech- munity and tourists. als and Mining Technology” is a good basis nology (EIT), a body of European Union, There is plenty of room for work on the for longer-term planning of geo-conserva- under the Horizon 2020, the EU Framework promotion of geological heritage related tion of such sites. Programme for Research and Innovation. to mining in Croatia. Preservation of geo- logical heritage within the mining heritage Acknowledgment context is fundamental to promote proper protection, valorisation and utilisation as This contribution is supported by the geo-tourism destinations. The currently project “MineHeritage: Historical Mining running European wider society learning – Tracing and Learning from Ancient Mate-

References

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Borojević Šoštarić, S., Palinkaš, L., Strmić Palinkaš, S., Prochaska, W., Spangenberg, J., Cuna, S., Šinkovec, B. 2010. Permian– polysulphide-siderite–barite–haematite deposit Rude in Samoborska Gora Mts., Zagorje–Transdanubian zone of the Inner Dinarides. Geologia Croatica, 63/1. 93-115.

Gjivoje, M. 1970. Antikni kamenolomi na Korčulanskim otocima (Antique quarries on Korčula Island). Zbornik otoka Korčule, 1. 68–75.

Heer, O. 1847. Die Insektenfauna der Tertiärgebilde von Oeningen und von Radoboj in Croatien. Verlag von Wilhlem Engelmann, Leipzig.

Marjanac, Lj. 2012. Croatia. In: Wimbledone, W.A.P. and Smith Meyer, S (eds.), Geoheritage in Europe and its Conservation. ProGEO, Oslo, pp.81-91.

Marušić, R., Sakač, K., Vujec, S. 1993. Four centuries of bauxite mining. Rudarsko-geološko-naftni zbornik, 5. 15-20.

MZOE (Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša i energetike). 2017. Upisnik zaštićenih područja (Register of Protected Areas). Ministry of Environmental Protection and Energy, Directorate for Nature Conservation, Croatia. Zagreb.

MZOE (Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša i energetike). 2019. Prostorna baza zaštićenih područja (Spatial base of protected areas). Ministry of Environmental Protection and Energy, Croatia. Zagreb.

Šinkovec, B, Sakač, K., Durn, G. 1994. Pyritized bauxites from Minjera, Istria, Croatia. Natura Croatica, 3. 41-65.

Tišljar, J., Vlahović, I. Matičec, D., Velić, I. 1995. Platform Facies from the Upper Tithonian to Upper Albian iin Western Istria and Transition into Tempestite, Clinoform and Rudist Biolithite Facies of the Lower Cenomaian in Southern Istria (Excursion B). First Croatian Geological Congress, Excursion Guidebook. 67-110.

Zwicker, G., Žeger Pleše, I. Zupan, I. 2008. Zaštićena geobaština Republike Hrvatske (Protected Geo-heritage of the Republic of Croatia). Državni zavod za zaštitu prirode, Croatia. Zagreb.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 9 Featuring slate: the German geoheritage initiative “Rock of the Year” in 2019

Christof Ellger1* and Manuel Lapp2

Since 2007 the geoheritage initiative “Rock Depuis 2007, l’initiative “Rock of the Year” Desde 2007, la iniciativa de patrimonio of the Year”, spearheaded by the Berufs- concernant l’Héritage géologique, portée geológico "Roca del año", encabezada por, verband Deutscher Geowissenschaftler, en avant-garde par le BDG (Berufsverband BDG (Asociación Profesional Alemana de BDG [German Professional Association of Deutscher Geowissenschaftler (Association Geocientíficos), se ha esforzado por comu- Geoscientists], has strived to communicate Allemande des Géologues), s’est fortement nicar aspectos esenciales de la geología al essential aspects of geology to the general développée pour communiquer sur les público general en Alemania. Cada año, public in Germany. Each year, a specific type aspects essentiels de la géologie, auprès se elige un tipo específico de roca, el cual of rock is chosen to be featured in publica- de l’ensemble de la population allemande. aparecerá en publicaciones, noticias en tions, media news and events, with the aim Chaque année, une roche particulière est diferentes medios y eventos, con el objetivo to inform the audience about the impor- choisie pour apparaitre dans les publica- de informar al público sobre la importancia tance of geosciences, about geology and tions, les journaux et faire partie des évène- de las geociencias, sobre la geología y la petrography in Germany, and about the ments dans le but d’informer le public sur petrografía en Alemania, y sobre la industria rock industry. In 2019, the choice of slate l’importance des géosciences, la géologie de las rocas. En 2019, la elección de pizarra as a particularly attractive ‘rock of the year’ et la pétrographie en Allemagne et sur como una particularmente atractiva “roca prompted a series of media products and l’Industrie des carrières. En 2019, le choix de del año”, desembocó en una serie de pro- events, successfully featuring the rock and l’ardoise comme “roche de l’année”, particu- ductos y eventos digitales; presentando con its origins, its qualities and its use, both in lièrement attractive, a déclenché une série éxito la roca y sus orígenes, sus cualidades history and today. de produits médiatiques et d’évènements, y su uso, tanto históricamente como en la rendant compte avec succès des caracté- actualidad. ristiques et des origines de la roche, ses qualités et son utilisation, à la fois dans le passé et aujourd’hui.

In its 13th Year: the “Rock of the Year” Year-based communication initiatives year (Deutsche Bodenkundliche Gesell­ Initiative in Germany in Germany had begun in 1971, when one schaft [German Soil Science Society] and of the larger conservationists’ associations Bundesverband Boden [Federal Soil Asso- he initiative “Rock of the Year” was in Germany (NABU – Naturschutzbund ciation], since 2005) and the fossil of the started in 2007. Following the model Deutschland [Association for Nature year (Paläontologische Gesellschaft [Palae- of other “… of the year” activities in Conservation Germany], then under the ontological Society], since 2008). The idea TGermany, a group of geoscientists with a name of Deutscher Bund für Vogelschutz has also spread beyond nature and wildlife; strong interest in geo-communication and [German Association for the Protection e.g., there is a public monument of the year outreach, led by Werner Pälchen and other of Birds]) made the peregrine falcon (Falco (since 2004) or a musical instrument of the members of the Berufsverband Deutscher peregrinus) “bird of the year”, unleashing year (since 2008). Interestingly, although Geowissenschaftler BDG [German Profes- a tremendous series of annual campaigns rather self-evident and convincing in its sional Association of Geoscientists] pro- for nature objects. A current compilation potential, this idea of the ‘year elements’ claimed “rock of the year” as an instru- (https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natur_des_ does not seem to have been taken up to ment to communicate aspects of geology, Jahres) lists 47 nature elements of the year much extent outside the German-speaking geoheritage and the stone industry into the for Germany, from mushroom of the year countries. wider public. to seabird, single-celled organism, potato or For 13 years now, BDG has led the “rock mollusc of the year. And it is not just about of the year” initiative. It set up a small com- 1 GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stiftung, c/o Institute of Geosciences, University flora, fauna and, for that matter, mycobiota; mittee with experts from BDG, from geo- of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, there are also larger nature components logical survey institutions in Germany, from 14476 Potsdam, Germany highlighted year by year: the landscape of the stone industry and from geotourism, 2 Saxon State Agency for Environment, the year, the river landscape of the year, which decides on the respective annual rock Agriculture and Geology, Halsbrücker the tree-lined allée of the year, and—also and on the measures to communicate this Straße 31a, 09599 Freiberg, Germany in the geosciences and important in the to the society. * [email protected] geoscientific community—the soil of the The background for this activity of rock

10 Topical - Geological heritage

of the year—and also the major reason why it is so important—is the fact that the general knowledge about geological issues in Germany is actually very limited. Apart from a small number of exceptions, geology is virtually not taught in schools, which leaves the existence of geoscientific knowledge to the small group of experts with geological university education and the community of interested amateurs. In this situation the “rock of the year” ini- tiative is one step in the endeavour to get more information about geosciences into people’s heads in Germany. In the almost 13 years of its existence, this has been more or less successful. In the media, the rock of the year is well-established by now as one of the elements of nature which are being presented during one year. A series of flyers and booklets have been produced for the rock years, “rock of the year” is published on the internet, by BDG and GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stiftung (the federation of Figure 1: Roofing slate at the historic slate mine at Lehesten, Thuringia (Photo: Susen Reuter). the geosciences associations and research institutes in Germany) and the Geological Surveys of those federal states which have the annual rock in their geology. A number of major events are staged. Every year, the festivities start in spring with the “baptism” of the rock, usually at a major deposit and mining location of the rock of the year, organised by BDG, the stone industry and the company owning the “baptism” quarry. The rock of the year is ceremoniously bap- tised, with either wine, champagne or beer, depending on the favourite drink—or even local product—of the region. Other events follow: Geological Surveys of the federal states present the most attractive outcrops of the rock of the year, also proclaiming a Figure 2: Roofing slate areas and major production regions in Germany (Map design: Angela Ehling, “rock of the year geosite”, in their territo- BGR). ries with public manifestations. Annually in September the Germany-wide held “geosite sedimentary, metamorphic—is of course Naturally, there are other criteria and day” [Tag des Geotops]—another initiative taken into account in the choice of the rock intentions involved. For instance, in order of geoscience outreach in Germany (since of the year, as the committee tries to cover to feature the variegated aspects of sand 2002, every year on the third Sunday in Sep- the three categories equally, ideally taking as a resource, the committee made ‘sand’ tember)—is used for public presentations turns every three years. This has essentially rock of the year in 2016, although sand, of of the rock of the year in various parts of been adhered to as the list of the past “rocks course, in the scientific sense of the work, the country. In addition, natural history of the year” shows (https://de.wikipedia. is not a (solid) rock but rather granular museums may take up the idea and pre- org/wiki/Gestein_des_Jahres): rock material of a specific grain size. On sent the annual rock in a special showcase. the other hand, sand consists of rock mate- Finally, the rock of the year is also featured 2007 Granite igneous rial and therefore the choice was accepted in Germany’s geoparks, provided of course 2008 Sandstone sedimentary as cum grano salis (to mention grain just 2009 Basalt metamorphic once again). that there is an outcrop; by autumn 2019 2010 Limestone sedimentary the number of ‘national geoparks’ reached 2011 (Volcanic) Tuff igneous There are several motives associated 16, of which six are also acknowledged as 2012 Quartzite metamorphic with the annual rock campaigns and their UNESCO Global Geoparks (http://www. 2013 Kaolin sedimentary contents: firstly, general geological knowl- nationaler-geopark.de/startseite.html). 2014 Phonolite igneous edge and a basic understanding of the key One fundamental aspect of petrology is 2015 Gneiss metamorphic concepts of geology (and petrography, for already part of the selection procedure for 2016 Sand sedimentary that matter) are to be communicated into 2017 Diabase igneous the rock of the year: the classification of 2018 Black coal sedimentary the public: the classifications of rocks, their rocks into three major groups—igneous, 2019 (Roofing) Slate metamorphic essential features and also their origins, and

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 11 has a wider connotation than its English type and building material slate is very spe- counterpart and is also used for certain cific, and in a number of areas in Germany (high-metamorphic) schists on the one slate is common and well known. hand and certain shales on the other hand, i.e. sedimentary mudrocks with slate-like Slate in Germany: spatial distribution and properties. Therefore, one of the first tasks (historical) uses of ‘teaching’ slate to the public is to clarify these terminology issues and distinguish There are several areas in the country between the different types of “Schiefer”. All where slate used to be mined extensively these slates and slate-like rocks show folia- for centuries, and there are large regions tion, the “slaty cleavage” which means that where slate has been used as the dominant the rock disintegrates in flat sheets. Really building material. Two of the major Central Figure 3: Slate used on roofs and facades; fine plane sheets, however, can only be cut German Uplands mountain ranges were house in Ludwigsstadt, Upper Franconia from the “real” low-metamorphic slate as a named after slate: Rheinisches Schieferge­ (Photo: Christof Ellger). result of its fissility, which the rock owes to birge (“Rhenish Slate Mountains”, interna- the lateral pressure effect on its mineralogi- tionally known as the Rhenish Massif), the in combination with the latter their distri- cal fabric during metamorphism (Wichert, large Western tract of the Central German bution (in Germany, in Europe and also 2017). Uplands, and Thüringer Schiefergebirge worldwide). The rock of the year is also More than many other rock types, the (“Thuringian Slate Mountains”, Thuring- used to enter into the presentation of fun- attractive slate is certainly an excellent ian Highland) as a somewhat smaller part damental elements of Earth History, geo- choice for a public outreach initiative, espe- of the Uplands in Thuringia, actually also logical eras and formations, and essential cially in Germany (this would, of course, be covering parts of Franconia and Vogtland processes in geology like volcanism, weath- similar in e.g. Wales, France, northwestern (Schubert & Schubert, 2015) (Figure 2). ering, sedimentation and metamorphosis. Spain and northern Portugal). As a rock The Central German uplands are essen- And there are questions of geomorphol- ogy and geoecology: Which landscapes are associated with given rock types? How do rocks influence the ecosystem, including the quality of the soils? Secondly, for BDG and the rock of the year committee there is a strong interest in the use and the economic importance of rocks: What can we do with specific types of rocks? How have they been used in history? How has the use of certain rocks characterised the cultural landscape in European regions, with regard to both the quarrying activities and the built-up areas? And which products of our daily routine (like glass, paint or toothpaste) depend on which rocks (like sand, gypsum and limestone)? And, after all, features in our every-day world have a greater chance to be esteemed and preserved for the future if we are aware of their value. People will support and strive for the conservation of slate as both an architectural element and landscape feature only when they know what roofing slate is, looks like and means in terms of geology, earth history, regional history, tradition and aesthetics and how it differs from, say, asbestos cement elements on roofs and walls.

Rock of the Year 2019: Roofing Slate

Slate: the very special metamorphic rock

For 2019, slate was chosen as “rock of the year”; what is essentially meant here is roof- ing slate (Figure 1). In German, there are some terminology problems due to the fact that the German word for slate, “Schiefer”, Figure 4: Roof material provinces in Germany (Map design: H.W. Wagner). Source: Wagner 2018, p. 10.

12 Topical - Geological heritage

petitive with other European and global headquarter of Rathscheck – Germany’s slate producers and—more crucially—with largest slate producer – which itself is a other construction materials. Five slate fine architectural masterpiece capable of mines have survived. Most roofing and advertising the use of slate in construction. cladding slate is now imported, predomi- Before the moment of christening, the slate nantly from Spain, Portugal, Brazil and presentation involved a number of topical China. This means that slate is still avail- speeches by representatives of BDG, the able for the refurbishment of old existing Geological Survey of Rhineland-Palatinate, slate roofs, even if not necessarily slate from the mineral resources industry and also by German mines. Helped with interesting the representatives of Rathscheck, the host product innovations by the slate produc- company, who gave an overview on slate in ers, there is something like a renaissance geology, mining economics and architec- in slate construction currently, slate being ture. In Mayen, the slate was, aptly, baptised Figure 5: Aachen Cathedral (Photo: CEphoto, used not only for roofs and the cladding of with slate Riesling, white wine from the Uwe Aranas, Wikimedia Commons). exterior walls but also for the interior, for nearby Mosel area, where the wine actu- floors, walls, stairs and baths. ally grows on slate soils (Figure 6). tially the result of the Variscan (Hercyn- The other historically relevant slate prod- An extended fanfold leaflet covering all ian) orogeny. And it is here that we find uct was writing slates and blackboards. A the essential aspects of the rock’s geology, the slate, because it originated from pre- century ago, classrooms all over the world mineralogy, deposits as well as the (historic Devonian marine-coastal clay sediments, were equipped with writing slates and and present-day) use of slate was produced compacted after sedimentation and sub- blackboards, often enough from Germany, by the Geoscientists’ Initiative in Berlin and jected to diagenesis and metamorphism essentially from the Thuringia-Franconia Brandenburg (Geowissenschaftler in Berlin in this Variscan (Hercynian) orogeny. It is slate area, where several museums high- und Brandenburg), directed by the rock these remaining areas of the Variscan belt light the history of the production of writ- expert Angela Ehling, assisted by Wolfgang which bear the slate, next to Paleozoic lime- ing slates. An excellent exhibition can be Wagner, another slate specialist in Germany. stones, sandstones (greywacke), but also found in the slate museum in Ludwigsstadt, Also as part of the “rock of the year” (and plutonites, metamorphic and volcanic rocks Upper Franconia; slate in schools is focused similarly to preceding years), a number of in the complex uplands geology. on nearby in Steinach’s local museum. Geological Surveys of the federal states pub- Major historic slate mining areas in the lished separate leaflets and internet pages on Rhenish Massif are Eifel (south of Cologne Celebrating slate in 2019: major events and “their” slate, presenting both slate in general and west of Koblenz (Friis, 2018) and, activities and the slate locations with their products slightly further south, Hunsrück; Sauerland in their territories. A poster for the Rock of (south of the Ruhr area) in the northeastern The year of slate was announced in Janu- the Year 2019 was designed by BDG, again part of the Rhenish Massif. Further east, ary with press releases which were issued in cooperation with Rathscheck. slate mining was important on the northern through various channels. A number of In addition, several individual lectures on edge of the Harz Mountains, in the border newspapers and internet publishers used slate were organised in various cities in Ger- area between Thuringia and Franconia and text and photos for an article. The main many. Given the potential to use the topic on the edge of the Erzgebirge (Ore Moun- opening event for the year of slate was the of slate to convey a larger range of general tains) in Saxony. inauguration of the rock of the year on 3rd aspects of geology and the geosciences as The major product from slate was—and May, with the ceremonial christening of a whole into the general public, GeoUnion still is—roofing tiles and, to a lesser extent, the slate: the event was held in the city of Alfred-Wegener-Stiftungorganised a lecture façade cladding tiles. In the slate mining Mayen (Rhineland-Palatinate; on the edge series for town libraries, adult education regions roofs and also walls were covered of the Eifel Mountains) at the company centres and similar institutions which was with slate, which made these regions spe- cific slate construction provinces (Wagner, 2018) (Figure 3). Given the regionally avail- able resource for making tiles, roof mate- rial provinces can be distinguished in Cen- tral Europe (Figure 4). But slate was also exported, transported by ships on rivers and later by railway to major trading centres, territorial capitals or important ecclesiastic centres. From the Middle Ages until the 19th century, roofing slate was appreciated as the optimum material, fine and durable, for roof covering for prestigious buildings all over Germany. A large proportion of the buildings with UNESCO world cul- tural heritage status, like Aachen Cathedral (Figure 5), have a slate roof (Stahr, 2018). Most of the slate mining in Germany has ended as production was no longer com- Figure 6: Christening slate as rock of the year 2019, May 3 2019, Mayen (Photo: Rathscheck Schiefer).

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 13 slate tiles on the one hand and an artistic reflection (using any other material) on the other hand, for an exceptional project exhi- bition (DIE BEGINEN e.V. 2019) (Figure 7).

Conclusion

Thirteen years after its start in 2007 the German geology and geoheritage initiative “rock of the year” has become well-estab- lished in the geoscience community and well covered by various media. 2019, the year of slate, appears as a special highlight, Figure 7: Josef A. Kutschera: Landzunge (Promontory), 2018, from the art project ‘GREYZONE – a with a fascinating multifaceted stone. The roof becomes art’ (Photo: Christof Ellger). challenge for the future will be to select rocks that are sufficiently attractive for the marketed all over the country. As a result, (along the rivers Rhine and Mosel) and the media and the public. This encompasses about 25 lectures will take place in towns use of slate in works of art. With respect to both the attractiveness for the general of very different size throughout Germany the latter aspect, there are a number of art- audience to get them closer to geological during this slate year. Using slate as the ists in Germany who work with slate. A fine issues and the potential for associations and key to open up the discussion, the basics present-day example of a slate art project is companies to communicate their interests. of petrographical classification, questions “Grauzone” (grey zone): the artist Bernard The initiative itself may improve itself sub- of geological age and stratigraphy, tecton- Misgajski, who lives and works on the Isle stantially by a range of measures, e.g. with ics and the changing configurations of of Rügen, found and rescued disused slate a specific website for the rock of the year continents and oceans are featured in the tiles (originally from Wales!) from the roof and with improved networking between the lectures. Other topics covered include slate of a railway shed in the Danish harbour of rocks associations and all the other institu- mining then and now and the economy of Gedser and distributed them to colleagues tions involved. the slate industry, and there are themes of his. As a result, 37 artists from five coun- ‘beyond geology’, like wine-growing on slate tries produced twin works, with the Gedser

References

DIE BEGINEN e.V. 2019. GRAUZONE. Ein Dach wird Kunst. (GREYZONE. A Roof Becomes Art). Rostock: Der Rostocker Frauenkul- turverein DIE BEGINEN e.V.

Friis, C. 2018. Der Moselschiefer in der Osteifel: seine Entstehung, sein Abbau und seine Fossilien (Mosel slate in the Eastern Eifel: its origin, its mining and its fossils). Kottenheim: Selbstverlag Claus Friis

Schubert, R., Schubert, J. 2015. Unser "afrikanischer" Schiefer: Die Geologie der unterkarbonischen Dachschiefer- Lagerstatten im Thuringisch-Frankisch-Vogtlandischen Schiefergebirge (Our “African” slate: The geology of the Lower Carboniferous roofing slate deposits in the Slate Mountains of Thuringia, Franconia and Vogtland). Leutenberg: Naturpark Thüringer Schiefergebirge/ Obere Saale

Stahr, M. 2018. Schiefer. Ein natürlicher Baustoff an Dach und Fassade (Slate: A natural construction material for roof and wall). Bausubstanz: Zeitschrift für nachhaltiges Bauen, Bauwerkserhaltung und Denkmalpflege, 9/3. 45-53.

Wagner, H.W. 2018. Dach- und Wandschiefer – ein traditioneller Baustoff in Mitteleuopa: mit einer Karte der traditionellen Schiefer-Dachlandschaften als Beitrag zur Orts- und Dachgestaltung (Roofing and walling slate – a traditional construc- tion material in Central Europa; with a map of traditional slate roof landscapes as a contribution to village and roof design). Veröffentlichungen des Netzwerkes „Steine in der Stadt“, 1/2018. Hanover: Netzwerk “STEINE IN DER STADT”

Wichert, J. 2017. Roofing slate – origin, deposits, properties, standards and mining. Ph.D. thesis, Technische Universität Bergaka- demie Freiberg

14 Topical - Geological heritage

The Geological Wall in Berlin – Over 120 years of teaching geology

Ulrike Hörmann1, Angela Ehling2* and Klaus Reinhold2

In 1896 Eduard Zache, a school teacher En 1896, Edouard Zache, professeur des En 1896 Eduard Zache, un profesor de and geologist in Berlin, planned and built écoles et géologue à Berlin, imagina et con- geología en Berlín, planeo construir un a “Geological Wall“ to provide a geologi- struisit un “mur géologique” pour favoriser “Muro Geológico” para proporcionar cal understanding of landscapes and their la compréhension géologique des paysages conocimiento geológico de los paisajes y stones to the people of the growing town et des roches qui les constituent, auprès de sus rocas a la gente que había crecido en of Berlin. He arranged 123 different rocks la population de Berlin, ville en développe- la ciudad de Berlín. Consiguió 123 tipos de forming idealized strata sets and tectonic ment. Il disposa 123 roches différentes pour rocas, formando conjuntos de estratos y structures in a wall with a length of about 30 former une série de couches idéales accom- estructuras tectónicas en una pared de una m and a height of average 2 m. The arrange- pagnées de structures tectoniques, sous la longitud de 30 metros y una altura media de ments simulate geological formations in forme d’un mur de 30 mètres de long sur 2 metros. Los arreglos simulan formaciones former Germany in a very detailed manner 2.5 mètres de hauteur. Cette représenta- geológicas en la antigua Alemania de una and they cover all geological periods. Thus, tion rappelle les formations géologiques manera muy detallada cubriendo todos los the strata sets of the Muschelkalk in Rüders- de l’Allemagne d’autrefois, de façon très periodos geológicos. Por tanto, se muestran dorf near Berlin are pictured as well as the détaillée et couvre l’ensemble des périodes los conjuntos de estratos del Muschelkalk in copper deposit of the Rammelsberg, along géologiques. Les niveaux du Muschelkalk Rüdersdorf, cerca de Berlín; como también with folded Devonian strata in the Harz à Rüdersdorf, près de Berlin, sont représen- los depósitos de cobre del Rammelsberg, los Mountains, the granite pluton of Lusatia, tés au même titre que le gite cuprifère de estratos devónicos plegados de las mon- reef limestones, basaltic columns breaking Rammelsberg, accompagnés des couches tañas Harz, los plutones graníticos de Lusa- through older rock strata and much more. plissées du Dévonien des Montagnes du tia, arrecifes calizos, columnas basálticas The wall does not only show and illustrate Harz, du granite plutonique de Lusatia, y mucho más. El muro no solo muestra e features and the genesis of rocks, deposits des calcaires récifaux, des filons de basalte ilustra características y la génesis de rocas, and geological structures; it reflects the use intrusifs dans des couches plus anciennes depósitos y estructuras geológicas; también of stones and raw materials at the end of the et beaucoup d’autres choses encore. Le refleja el uso de piedras y materias primas 19th century, too. Nowadays this Geological mur ne dévoile ni n’illustre seulement les a fines del siglo XIX. En la actualidad este Wall still exists and is in use for teaching. grands traits et la genèse des roches, les Muro Geológico aun existe y sigue usándose gites et les structures géologiques ; il rend para enseñar. compte également de l’utilisation des roches et des matières premières à la fin du 19ème siècle. Aujourd’hui, ce Mur Géologique existe toujours et représente un outil d’éducation.

Introduction

he hundred-year old history of the Geological Wall does not fit to geo- logical scales but is, nevertheless, Tan extraordinary geotope. Originally, the geological wall was an object for learning and teaching outdoors (Figure 1), or as the builder, Eduard Zache, wrote: “A demon- stration model to introduce the theory of

1 Senate Department for the Environment, Transport and Climate Protection - Berlin Geological Survey 2 Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Berlin * [email protected] Figure 1: Teaching in front of the Geological Wall at the end of the 19th century (Engel et al., 1990).

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 15 Figure 2: A current view of the Geological Wall in the botanical garden in Berlin-Blankenfelde.

Figure 3: Simplified model of the Geological Wall (extract from the information brochure).

the structure and the treasures of the Earth’s Pb-Zn-Cu Rammelsberg Mine (now a The oldest rocks of the Proterozoic and crust” (Zache, 1896). UNESCO World Heritage site) in the Harz Palaeozoic - the crystalline basement - are Its original location was in the Hum- Mountains or hard coal from the Ruhr mainly arranged in Sections P to U. The boldthain, a park in Berlin-Wedding Region in western Germany. With relation centre is formed by granitic pluton, the directly next to the botanical school to real geological outcrops of geological Lusatian pluton in Saxony, which intruded garden. Because of the growing city it was and historical significance in many parts during Cambrian time into Proterozoic moved to the botanical garden in Berlin- of Germany, the Geological Wall promotes rocks, dragging them along – illustrated by Blankenfelde during 1912 to 1914, today knowledge of the natural and local history sloping older magmatic and metamorphic the Botanical Park (Wutzke & Liebram, of our country and arouses interest in fur- rocks. On one side, sideritic iron-bearing 1999). ther geotopes in Germany. dikes break through these crystalline rocks. Unlike collections of rocks, e.g. in muse- A typical iron cap is found on top. These ums or schools, the geological wall has What do we see? dikes illustrate the famous iron ore deposits created a combination of rocks and their of the Siegerland in western Germany. natural distribution (Figure 2). This makes On average, the wall is about 30 m long Section N shows a typical Permo-Car- it easier to understand geological struc- and 2 m high. It consists of 123 different boniferous evolution in Central Europe. tures and earth history. Therefore, geology kinds of stones coming from several regions Lower Carboniferous folded and partly is the central topic of the geological wall. in Germany: from the nearby Muschelkalk eroded slates and greywackes are covered The wall is divided into 20 sections quarry in Rüdersdorf, the Harz Mountains, by typical Upper Carboniferous series with (A–U) illustrating geological systems, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria, Rhineland and sandstones, claystones and hard coal, as stratigraphic series, geological structures from Silesia (today Poland). developed in several places in Germany. and tectonic events in the way they really The geological systems are arranged from This exemplifies especially the Ruhr appear in sites located in the former Ger- the Proterozoic to the Cenozoic system, Region, where intensive hard coal mining many. The ground rock controls the sur- from right to left (Figure 3). The different established the basis for the German steel face shape of the wall, and in its original stones or stone layers are numbered. industry at the end of the 19th century. location this continued into the region Some sections of the wall are presented Some Carboniferous plant fossils illustrate behind the wall for a 3-D-effect (today below. the genesis of the hard coal from plants. The only to some extent). The geological wall contains even more information from the past and present. The construction of the wall at the end of the 19th century and the rocks used are closely linked to the history of Berlin. Fur- thermore, it has significance from a geo- historical point of view because it reflects the state of geological knowledge at the end of the 19th century. One example is the absence of Ordovician rocks because this system, although defined in 1879 by Charles Lapworth, was only recognised in the 20th century. As far as mining is concerned, the wall has serious historic value because the stones often came from the then active Figure 4: Section K–N with Carboniferous sedimentation (Hard coal – left and right), Devonian series mining districts and quarries, e.g. the with slates folded, Rammelsberg copper ore (centre), Devonian coral reef (34 inclusive cavern) and Mansfeld copper slate district, the closed Permian volcanism (56) including fault (right).

16 Topical - Geological heritage

series is a good example for changing envi- ronmental and depositional conditions in a coal basin. The whole series is divided by a fault filled with a rhyolite symbolising the Permian volcanic activity as it developed near the surface in Sachsen-Anhalt, north of the city of Halle (Saale). A displacement of the layers left and right of the fault shows the connection of volcanism and tectonic activities. The red rhyolite, the so-called “Löbejüner Porphyr“, was a famous build- ing stone in Berlin. Section M shows another interesting well-known economic geological situation (Figure 4). The section shows an inclined fold of Devonian slates as they occur in the Harz Mountains. This structure is accom- panied by copper bearing schists of the world-famous Rammelsberg ore deposit, where copper and other metals were mined for more than 1000 years. Devonian reef limestones with well visible corals flank this series. They also contain a stalactite cavern as known from the caves opened to tourism in the Harz Mountains. The youngest part of the Palaeozoic is represented by copper slate and evaporites of the Upper Permian – called Zechstein in Germany. The exploitation of copper and other metals from the copper slate Figure 5: Muschelkalk of the Rüdersdorf quarry with limestone polished by a glacier and with glacial along the southern margin of the Harz scratches. Mountains in the so-called Mansfelder Revier began already in the Bronze Age and lasted up to 1991. This mining still continues today in Poland near Lubin. The weathering/oxidation of the copper is clearly visible from the green colours at the surface of the copper slate and the underlying sandstone. The series of evaporites is only partly preserved. The salts are gone; only half of the gypsum and anhydrite remained. The Mesozoic section shows examples of every geological formation, but main attention is given to the Muschelkalk. It is substantiated by geology around Berlin, which is dominated by young glacial sedi- ments. The only outcrop of solid rocks here is an epirogenetic Muschelkalk formation at the eastern margin of Berlin. Since the Middle Age, the limestone has been quar- ried mainly for lime but also for building stone. The numerous fossil findings have attracted research in this field in Berlin since the 18th century. The whole sequence of the Rüdersdorf Muschelkalk is pre- sented and well preserved in the sections E to G. However, the basal fibrous gypsum layer has been preserved only partially. It shows a surface as formed by the Ice Age, Figure 6: Illustration of the geological situation in the south of Saxony with basic granitic rocks, with a glacier valley and a limestone that cretaceous sandstones and tertiary basalt volcanism. has been polished by a glacier and display- ing glacial scratches (Figure 5). This has glaciation of northern Europe, which was found in Rüdersdorf contributed to the been arranged according to the theory of very modern at that time. The glacial marks confirmation of this theory.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 17 during Cretaceous times is illustrated in Section B: the “Elbsandsteingebirge” in Saxony. It is an easily interpreted image of successive sedimentation of clastic mate- rial into the Cretaceous marine basin on the eroded Palaeozoic granitic basement (Figure 6). Section A originally contained the loose sediments (sands, clay, gravel, brown coal) of the Cenozoic – those layers that form the subsurface of the wider Berlin region. Somewhere along the line these materials were lost and temporarily substituted for by Cretaceous sandstones. Between the last two sections (Creta- ceous and former Cenozoic) stands the most attractive part of the wall, illustrat- ing Tertiary volcanism by basaltic columns (coming originally from Unkel (Rhine- land) later replaced and extended from Stolpen (Saxony) forming a rosette cupola. Some erratic boulders of different sizes, found in the countryside around Berlin, are arranged along the flanks of the wall.

Teaching today

Currently the wall is used for educa- tion only on a few days per year. On some special dates geologists meet schoolclasses or the public at the wall to explain genesis and features of rock types, structures, prob- lems of sustainability and weathering, to show minerals and fossils, with reference to raw materials and historic mining and the use of rocks in Berlin and to discuss questions connected with the geological underground. The Geological Wall is situated in an old botanic park with many beautiful and interesting places, and is open to the public every day. Therefore, first of all, the Geo- logical Wall has to be attractive for non- professionals. A modern, well-designed and self-explanatory information board Figure 7: Illustration of the genesis of basaltic columns. is necessary. One didactic approach for a family with children could be based on Another significant feature of the Mountains. The layers are inclined (show- riddles, which arouse children’s curiosity. Muschelkalk is demonstrated in the Fe- ing the situation that prevailed in the direc- For example, a riddle is posed: “Which Pb-Zn-deposit in Muschelkalk limestones tion of the uplifting of the Harz Mountains animals built the biggest stones?”, so that in Maczeikowitz (now Maciejkowice, during Cretaceous time). The base of this the children can find the reef limestones Poland).The real geological situation of part is very specifically and descriptively with corals in the wall. Parents could help this deposit has been re-created with Fe- designed. It is one of only two horizontal their children and learn something more bearing dolomite, galenite and Zn-carbon- elements within the wall. Lower Jurassic about the reef limestones, derived from the ates. The Zn-Pb-Fe deposit region north of oolithic iron ores with Ammonites of dif- Iberg in the Harz Mountains, of Devonian Krakow is among the most important min- ferent sizes are arranged in the same way as age (385 million years), inviting viewers to eral raw material occurrences of Europe they really occurred in Bad Harzburg. The visit their beautiful stalactite caverns. (Cerny, 1989). mining of the iron ore was very intensive at Meanwhile the grandparents could dis- A typical sedimentary sequence with the end of the 19th century and ammonites cover the basaltic rosette cupola, which various alternating sandstones and lime- had been found in great quantities. Thus, illustrates the geological situation of the stones is presented in Section C, simulating they were able to build real ammonite fos- Upper Lusatia region in the South of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous series sils into this surface. Saxony. An explanation board should tell of the northwestern margin of the Harz Another well-known landscape formed a story about the genesis of this geologi-

18 Topical - Geological heritage

cal setting beginning with the Proterozoic we extract them? What do we need for University of Applied Sciences Potsdam in granodiorite, which was an island sur- “clean” energy or for electric cars? These accordance with the agreement of monu- rounded by ocean during the Cretaceous issues are not taught – or only randomly ment protectors. The Federal Institute for age; the erosion of that granodiorite pro- taught – at school. The geological wall Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) duced sand, which was deposited along offers many possibilities to introduce into possesses a number of stones and fossils the coast (Figure 7a) and later compacted these subjects. Even if it were for this reason from historical outcrops in its geoscience by more overlaying sand, thus becoming only, it is necessary to make every effort for collection and provided some for replace- sandstone. Volcanic activity in Tertiary the protection, renovation and didactical ment. An interactive digital model of the times brought the basaltic magma break- modernisation of the wall. wall with explanations of the stones has ing through the fissures of the granodiorite been developed (http://geowand.gruen- and the sandstone (Figure 7b). The devel- The Geological Wall through the ages berlin.de/). The work was crowned with opment of the basaltic columns near the and now first success by the certification of the status surface and vertical to the cooling surface of a “German National Geotope” in 2018. and reasons for their form and extent could The wall has been altered, partly when This award has outstanding importance be explained. Even the basaltic hill in a flat it was moved to its current location and because it acknowledges a geotope in a terrain tells a story about the weathering also due to the varying people in charge of city of nearly four million people. Concepts and erosion of older but weaker stones it through time. Two main parts (salts and for further restoration, re-creation of the around the basaltic cupola – an example Cenozoic strata) are missing, some stones lacking parts and explanations (both on the of an inverted relief (Figure 7c). were lost to weathering or vandalism, spot and digital) have already been devel- Another story could be told about geo- some stones were substituted or improp- oped and will be realised in the next few science history and Alexander von Hum- erly replaced and numbers got lost. From years, depending on the funding provided. boldt: in 1789, when he was a student in time to time, the surface has been cleaned All involved parties and persons are very Bonn, he visited the “Unkelsteine” in the with varying degrees of professionalism. committed to a quick and appropriate real- Rhineland, one of the most prominent Associated explanation plates and labels isation of the renovation and modernisa- basalt occurrences in Germany and source have disappeared. tion concept for the Geological Wall. The of the basaltic columns originally used in Nowadays the wall is widely accepted teaching of geological knowledge forms the geological wall. After the visit he took by the authorities and the public. The geo- the base for understanding complex natu- part in the dispute between the “Neptun- logical survey of Berlin, the non-profit ral interactions and the attentive use of our ists” and the “Plutonists” about the origin association of regional geologists (GBB) natural resources. It should be involved of the genesis of these columns and took and the GrünBerlin GmbH association, into the school curriculum and could be up the position of the Neptunists explain- which is responsible for the whole park, are taught directly in situ at the real natural ing their genesis by the gradual drying of paying attention to this attraction. Several stones of this fantastic, unique, historical a marine sediment (https://de.wikipedia. measures have taken place during the last but yet modern Geological Wall. org/wiki/Unkelstein). six years: professional mapping of stones, But not only history could be taught. moss, joint mortar, defects and weathering Location: Botanischen Volkspark Blank- Geological topics like drinking water, soil, damages, renovation of the packing, pro- enfelde, Blankenfelder Chaussee 5, 13156 energy and raw materials were part of our fessional surface cleaning, partial replace- Berlin, Germany. daily lives 100 years ago and they are part ment of missing stones and revision of the http://geowand.gruen-berlin.de of it even today. Where and in which form numbering. These measures were carried https://www.berlin.de/senuvk/umwelt/ do our raw materials occur? How could out by restorers,- restoration students of the wasser/geologie/

References

Cerny, I. 1989. Die karbonatgebundenen Blei-Zink-Lagerstätten des alpinen und außeralpinen Mesozoikums – Die Bedeutung ihrer Geologie, Stratigraphie und Faziesgebundenheit für Prospektion und Bewertung (The carbonate hosted Pb-Zn deposits of Alpine and non-Alpine Mesozoic - the role of geology, stratigraphy and facies in exploration and valorisation). Archiv fur Lagerstättenforschung der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, 11: 5-125.

Engel, H., Jersch-Wenzel, S. & Treue, W. 1990. Geschichtslandschaft Berlin – Orte und Ereignisse (History of Berlin – Places and Events), Vol. 3: Wedding, p. 8; Nicolai: Berlin.

Geowissenschaftler in Berlin und Brandenburg e.V. (Ed.) 2016. Geologische Wand im Botanischen Volkspark Pankow-Blanken- felde (Geological Wall in the Botanical Park in Pankow-Blankenfelde). Brochure.

Wutzke, U. & Liebram, C. 1999. Die Geologische Wand in Berlin und ihre Geschichte (The Geological Wall in Berlin and its His- tory). Geohistorische Blätter, 2(1). p. 19-2.

Zache, E. 1896. Die Geologische Wand im Humboldthain zu Berlin (The Geological Wall in the Humboldthain in Berlin). P. Stank- iewicz‘ Buchdruckerei: Berlin.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 19 A field trip enhanced with ARTutor, an augmented reality educational platform

M. Psychogiou1*, K. Georgiou1, A. Antonarakou2 and H. Drinia2

Field trips constitute a powerful educational Les sorties de terrain constituent un puis- Las excursiones geológicas constituyen tool, providing students with the opportu- sant outil d’éducation, donnant aux étudi- una poderosa herramienta educativa, que nity to acquire authentic, hands-on expe- ants l’opportunité d’acquérir une expéri- brinda a los estudiantes la oportunidad de riences by direct contact with the natural ence authentique et pratique par un contact adquirir experiencias auténticas mediante environment. Technological advances, direct avec l’environnement naturel. Les el contacto directo con la naturaleza. Los especially augmented reality (AR) applica- avancées technologiques, et, en particulier, avances tecnológicos, especialmente las tions, can add a whole new dimension to les applications concernant la réalité aug- aplicaciones de realidad aumentada (AR), field trips. This paper discusses a field trip mentée (RA), peuvent ajouter une nouvelle pueden añadir una dimensión comple- where secondary school students were et totale dimension aux sorties de terrain. tamente nueva a estas excursiones. Este asked to locate different rock formations on Cet article traite d’une sortie où les lycéens documento expone una excursión geológica site from the pictures they had been given. ont eu pour tâche la localisation des diffé- donde se les pidió a los estudiantes de By scanning these pictures with the ARTutor rentes formations rocheuses sur le terrain, secundaria que ubicaran in situ diferentes application on their mobile devices, they à partir de cartes qu’ils ont reçues. Après le formaciones rocosas con la ayuda de las were given access to educational material scan de ces cartes en utilisant l’Application imágenes que les habían dado. Al escanear (pictures, videos and text) loaded into the ARTutor sur leurs appareils mobiles, ils ont estas imágenes con la aplicación ARTutor ARTutor platform. The instructional design bénéficié d’un accès au matériel d’éducation en sus teléfonos móviles, se les dio acceso and the application of this enriched field trip (cartes, vidéos et textes) chargé sur la plate- a material educativo (imágenes, videos y were evaluated by the students, who worked forme ARTutor. La conception pédagogique texto) cargado en la plataforma ARTutor. in groups combining information collected et l’apport additionnel de l’Application uti- El diseño instructivo y la aplicación práctica through ARTutor to complete activities. lisée, lors de cette sortie, ont été évalués par de esta excursión fueron evaluados por los les élèves, qui ont travaillé en groupes en estudiantes, quienes trabajaron en grupos rassemblant les informations recueillies combinando la información recopilada a grâce à ARtutor, pour achever leurs travaux. través de ARTutor para completar las diver- sas actividades.

Introduction raise the awareness needed so that these are of the volcano. The instructional design and preserved. Technologies such as Augmented the application of this enriched field trip eosites are sites of utmost sig- Reality applications enrich educational were evaluated by the students, who worked nificance for the geological her- experiences and have the power to capture in groups, combined the information col- itage of our planet and attempts students’ attention, since they employ the lected through ARTutor and completed all Gto acknowledge and register Geosites are use of devices that they are familiar with. activities. The feedback we received was taking place in many countries in order for In this paper, we present a field trip that assessed and will be taken into considera- them to be recognised and preserved. Geo- took place at the volcano Sousaki, enriched tion for future similar endeavours. conservation is vital, should people wish with AR activities that were created using This field trip that took place at the Sou- to ensure that future generations come the educational platform ARTutor. ARTu- saki Volcano site near Athens was the first into the wealth of diverse sites that have tor was created at the AETMA lab in the in Greece to use and evaluate AR activi- captured and reflect unique moments of Technological Institution of Eastern Mac- ties developed with the use of the ARTutor the Earth’s history. The only way to achieve edonia and Thrace. The students that took platform. The results were very promising this is through education. Field trips are part in the field trip were asked to locate and technology-enhanced field trips look the best way to bring students into direct different rock formations on site from the as if they have a bright future. “The past is contact with geological treasures in situ and pictures they had been given. By scanning the key to the future”, as was maintained these pictures with the use of the ARTutor during the era of Enlightenment, the era 1 Hellenic Ministry of Education, Athens, application on their mobile devices they of sciences, and what better way to step Greece were given access to educational material into the future than by combining real- 2 National and Kapodistrian University that had been loaded in the ARTutor plat- life and technology-augmented learning of Athens, Department of Geology and form. The augmentations were pictures, experiences. Geoenvironment, Athens, Greece videos and text and provided a great deal of *[email protected] information regarding the rock formations

20 Topical - Geological heritage

Theoretical background is raised through gaining knowledge on tion between the learner and the learning the interdependence between people and material (Lytridis et al., 2018). A Geosite is a place of scientific interest their natural environment. Education for a ARTutor allows users to create educa- due to its geological structures: rock for- sustainable future means that educational tional books in PDF with the application mations, fossil presence, mineral outcrops, policy makers need to target teaching our of Augmented Reality in a simple and easy sedimentary or volcanic sequences, land- societies to “respect, value, and preserve the way. It has been designed in such a way that forms or any other natural structures that achievements of the past” as well as “appre- digital content can be added to traditional represent an event, process or occurrence ciate the wonders and the peoples of the books and other texts. The augmentation which reveal information regarding the Earth” (Combes, 2005, p. 215). can be pictures, videos, text, MP4 files or evolution of the Earth (Wimbledon, 1996; This constitutes the main reason why 3D models. It is available for free and no ProGEO Group, 1998). It is regarded a site field trips are of immense value when it special equipment is required. What is of geological heritage (geo-heritage) since comes to educating young people. They necessary is to download the application its disappearance would result in the loss of are given the opportunity to directly and have Internet access. The instructors information or geological documentation interact with the natural environment in do not need to be highly computer-literate about the specific area. the most effective and enjoyable means of since the design of the platform facilitates In an attempt to recognise and record the teaching and learning. Engaging students them in developing activities with the use plethora of Geosites in different European in hands-on activities, sharpening all their of Augmented Reality. countries, a project called “GEOSITES” was senses, cultivating a culture of working in Another novelty of this platform is that initiated by ProGEO (the European Asso- groups and underlining the fragility of the it allows students with disabilities to inter- ciation for the Conservation of the Geo- environment are some of the benefits for act with the learning material while using logical Heritage) and later joined by IUGS young learners. Outdoor activities within an it since they can use voice commands to (the International Union of Geological Sci- educational framework can have a positive control it. ences). This program, which started in 1995, effect not only on the cognitive but on the was supported by UNESCO and a number affective and psychomotor domains as well, Sousaki volcano of European countries were involved. thus promoting a more holistic approach to In order to cover the huge diversity learning and developing critical thinking. The volcano called Sousaki lies dormant of Geosites, the ProGEO group (1998) near the city of Korinthos in Greece. This assigned ten different categories from all Augmented Reality Applications and the is a volcano which last exploded 2.7 mil- areas of Earth Sciences, as follows: ARTutor educational platform lion years ago but is still exhibiting strong steaming activity, emitting mostly carbon • stratigraphic Augmented reality applications enrich dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. There are a lot • environmental the environment by embedding interactive of bright yellow sulfur deposits and a device • volcanic-metamorphic-sedimentary digital content. Hence, the user has access monitoring the geothermal activity of the to information that would not have been area has been installed there. It is included petrology, fabrics and structures, available otherwise (Lytridis & Tsinakos, in the “Atlas of the Aegean Geological events and provinces 2018). It provides the users with the power Monuments” (Velitzelos et al., 2002) and • mineralogical, economic to view a real-time environment with a digi- has been recognized as an educational geo- • structural tal overlay enhanced with images, videos or site. There were three main reasons for the • geomorphological structures, ero- sounds (Siegle, 2019). Augmented Reality choice of this location, namely, its proximity sion-deposition events, landscapes actually complements and does not replace to Athens, the fact that it is easily accessible, and topography reality (Tan & El-Bendary, 2013); ideally, and the clearly visible and distinct geologi- • events relating to asteroids the real and the virtual objects co-exist in cal formations. • continental and oceanic scale phe- real time (Azuma, 1997). Technology has the potential of augment- Methodology nomena, plate relations ing traditional teaching in the classroom • under-sea with exciting out-of-class activities by An educational field trip was planned • historical and cultural Geosites. employing blended learning techniques for twenty (20) sixteen-year-old students Recognising and recording Geosites or (Palalas, 2013). The learning procedure to Sousaki. The design of the field trip places of geological heritage is not enough is more student-centred and collabora- and educational game using Augmented if nothing is done to preserve them. For tive since it can take place anywhere apart Reality were based on student-centred and this reason, the concept of Geoconserva- from the actual class itself by using a mobile collaborative approaches. Guided discov- tion was introduced. It can be defined as device (Sharples et al., 2007). ery learning was applied. The instructors “action taken with the intent of conserv- ARTutor was developed at the Research worked on the platform and the augmen- ing and enhancing geological and geomor- Laboratory ΑΕΤΜΑ (Advanced Educa- tations while keeping in mind the specific phological features, processes, sites and tional Technologies and Mobile Applica- cognitive objectives, and created augmented specimens” (Burek & Prosser, 2008, p.2). tions Lab) at the Eastern Macedonia and reality activities to present the new content Geoconservation has been established in Thrace Institute of Technology and is an and allow students to interact with it. The different countries across the world and educational platform. It consists of two students worked in small groups and their plays an important role in delivering sus- parts: (a) the authoring tool, which is a initial task was to locate a specific spot that tainable development in a variety of ways, web-based application used to upload the had been previously photographed and was including the promotion of important sites learning material and the assorted learn- included in the PDF given to them. This through education. It is true that sustainable ing objects; and (b) the mobile applica- particular picture worked as the link to development, a necessity for our planet, is tion, which downloads and displays the give them access to more information by all about learning and the way awareness learning objects and also allows interac- scanning it.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 21 structureless lava depositions (Figure 1). videos that they were given access to. The These were augmented with sketches on majority of the students had never heard of how a layer is deposited at the bottom of this site before and had absolutely no idea a sedimentary basin and a video showing that a volcano – even a dormant one – was underwater lava effusions. The picture of in the vicinity of their place of residence, the pump monitoring geothermal activity so they were really intrigued by this fact. which was put at the site was augmented A lot of positive comments were made on using information about countries like Ice- the collaboration among the students and land that rely upon geothermal sources in the chance to work as a group. Some of the order to cover their energy needs and by comments made by the students were: videos of geysers (Figure 2). • “We would like more time to spend The gypsum crystals of different sizes using this application and even more that all students collected made a great information.” impression on them. Their pictures were • “This way we actually understood augmented using additional information Figure 1: Volcano Sousaki Geosite. what we were seeing at this specific on how the crystals were formed (Figure site.” There were no specific requirements 3). The pictures of caves that were in abun- on the part of the users of the application. dance at the site of the volcano were aug- • “Working as a group was really posi- Given the computer literacy that most mented with pictures of dead birds and tive!” teenagers possess, all that was required was insects due to the presence of carbon diox- The instructors were asked to comment to have the application installed in their ide and videos of how it can be detected by on the whole experience from planning this mobiles beforehand and to have internet lighting up a piece of paper that eventually field trip to watching students’ reactions and access. stops burning (Figure 4). evaluating the level of their engagement Upon completion of the activities, stu- After completing all their tasks and and satisfaction. They reported that after dents and teachers were given separate interacting with the information that was setting the learning goals, the design of the questionnaires to answer regarding their presented to them, students had to answer augmented reality activities was problem- experience, including the use of the ARTu- questions by choosing among multiple free. The platform was very helpful when tor platform. Some of the questions were answers. By scanning the correct one they uploading the augmentations chosen and open-ended and some used the Likert scale. got hold of a picture showing the geomor- they only had to check the signal reception phological development of the area. Each at the volcano site so that they could con- Objectives and description of the educa- group of students got a different picture and firm that there would be an internet con- tional outing they all had to work together to put these nection during their visit. The quality of the pictures in the correct order so as to present content and the integrity of the materials The main purposes of this educational the geomorphological evolution of the area. could not be questioned, since they were outing were to provide the students with an uploaded on the educational platform after initial experience of what field work is, to Evaluation a great deal of consideration and rigorous point out its role in highlighting the neces- screening on the part of the instructors. sity to preserve sites of geological heritage The activity that students mentioned The students were not lost in the loads of such as Sousaki, to get acquainted with repeatedly was the collection of gypsum information that self-directed navigation the location of the volcano and to make crystals as well as studying the different on the Internet might have led them to, nor the most out of the information that was kinds of rocks. They also mentioned the were they distracted (Fahy, 2004). provided by the ARTutor application. The augmented reality application and com- Following the educational outing, the cognitive objectives were recognising the mented positively on the information and instructors expressed how positive this different types of rocks that were present at the site and detecting various volcanic gases. They were also introduced to the way geothermal energy can be used and to its potential. They had to spot the rock forma- tions and various objects from the pictures that were in the PDFs. By scanning these pictures, they were given access to more information and clarifications through the ARTutor application. The students had to work together, exchange opinions and reach a consensus; we hoped this would lead them to appreciate field work as well as group work and to recognise the educational value of this particular Geosite. In order to achieve these objectives, spe- cific formations and items were chosen. The sequence of sedimentary rocks which formed at the bottom of the lake that used to be present during the two major volcanic Figure 2: Accessing information on Geothermal Figure 3: Accessing information on crystal effusions is at direct opposition with the energy formation

22 Topical - Geological heritage

experience had been for the students, who enjoyed working together in groups, had fun locating the spots from the pictures and were amazed by the information provided to them through the AR application. All in all, the true potential of such a field trip was appreciated and taken full advantage of and, as they reported, it was something that they would definitely like to do again. They also pointed out how important such endeavours are for preserving our geologi- cal heritage.

Conclusion

Preserving sites of geological significance Figure 4: Accessing information on caves and carbon dioxide emissions. means recognising, recording them, and raising awareness among people on their geological heritage and introduce them to sites as places of worth-keeping heritage invaluable contribution to understanding the concept of Geoconservation. Earth has is of utmost importance. The small-scale the way planet Earth functions. Our planet endured devastating episodes induced by survey included in this field trip shows has a lot of stories to relate and they are severe conditions, as has been recorded at in the best possible way how much more all connected to Geosites, while literacy different sites, and the past can definitely be efficient and fun at the same time teaching in earth sciences is the key to deciphering a lesson for the future through education. outdoors can be made by the use of AR them. Educational outings such as the one It is this generation’s duty to keep telling activities. presented in this article are the best way to these stories to the next generation and if get students acquainted with the planet’s this is to be achieved, then employing Geo-

References

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European Geologist 48 | November 2019 23 The significance of the Lavrion mines in Greek and European Geoheritage

Argyrios Periferakis1*, Iordanis Paresoglou2, Nikolaos Paresoglou3

The Lavrion mines have had a prominent Les mines Lavrion ont joué, depuis les Las minas de Lavrion han tenido un papel role in the social, economic and cultural temps anciens, un rôle prépondérant pour destacado en el desarrollo social, económico development of Greece since ancient times. le développement de la Grèce aux points y cultural de Grecia desde la antigüedad. Los The income from the mines was the founda- de vue social, économique et culturel. Le beneficios de las minas fue la base del poder tion of Athenian power during the 5th and 4th revenu provenant des mines fut à la base de ateniense durante los siglos V y IV a. C., pero century BC, but conversely led to significant la puissance d’Athènes pendant les 5ème et de manera contraria, condujo a problemas economic problems for the early modern 4ème siècles AC, mais, inversement, il a créé económicos significativos para el estado Greek state. Many mineral specimens from des problèmes économiques réels pour le griego moderno. Muchos especímenes min- the mines and the slags of the area are récent et moderne Etat Grec. De nombreux erales de las minas y las escorias del área unique or were discovered there for the first échantillons minéralisés provenant des sites son únicos o fueron descubiertos allí por time. In recent years, due to its significance miniers et les scories propres à cette région primera vez. En los últimos años, debido a the area has been proposed as a cultural sont uniques ou furent découverts ici, pour su importancia, el área ha sido propuesta and natural heritage site, with the mines la première fois. Ces dernières années, liée à como un lugar de patrimonio cultural y and the general area being on the Tentative l’importance de sa signification, la région a natural, con las minas y el área general en List of the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. fait l’objet d’une proposition de site à valeur la lista provisional del Centro del Patrimonio d’héritage culturel et naturel, les mines et Mundial de la UNESCO. la zone globale faisant partie de la liste préliminaire d’admission au Centre UNESCO de l’Héritage Mondial.

Introduction The Lavrion ore deposits As-Sb-Ag ± Au-Bi, and vein/breccia Pb-Zn- Cu-As-Sb-Ag-Au-Ni-Bi ores (Voudouris he Lavrion - also spelled “Laurium” The area of Lavrion comprises many et al., 2018). The carbonate-replacement or “Laurion” - mines were of pivotal different ore deposits, including, but not ores of the Kamariza district were mined importance in shaping the socioeco- limited to porphyry Mo-W, skarn Fe-Cu- in ancient and in modern times and are Tnomic framework and ultimately the history Bi-Te, carbonate-replacement Pb-Zn-Cu- associated with the formation and exhuma- of ancient Greece and of the modern Greek state. Also undisputed is the mineralogical wealth of the area; the local ore deposits are the constant focus of research. This article aims to present Lavrion as a part of Euro- pean geoheritage, both on account of its geological uniqueness and significance and of it being a major factor in the local and national economy and a catalyst for major historical events.

1 Master’s student, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Geology and Geoenvironment, Athens, Greece, 2 196 Evrou Str., Peiraeus, Greece 3 Master’s student, Université de Caen, Département d' Histoire, Archéologie et Patrimoin, Espanade de la Paix, Caen, France Figure 1: (a) Simplified geological map of the Lavrion ore district; (b) Cross-section A-A' of the Kamariza *[email protected] deposit (after Voudouris et al., 2018).

24 Topical - Geological heritage

tion of a metamorphic-core complex, in the ing but hand tools and, occasionally, fire. initially smelt the ore and extract the silver- Atticocycladic crystalline belt (Figure 1). The mines were worked by slaves, who rich lead. The remaining slag was discarded The main minerals of this system are pyrite, belonged to wealthy citizens of Athens. and subsequently cupellation was carried arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalco- Each such citizen was in essence a con- out, where the lead was ignited and burned pyrite. Galena is the principal carrier of Ag, tractor, to whom a section of the galleries within a furnace, aided by a constant influx whose maximum enrichment reaches up to was leased in exchange for a profit percent- of air. In the end, only pure silver remained 3000 gr/t (Voudouris et al., 2008). Further- age. Ancient Athens had very strict mining at the bottom of the furnace, while the use- more, Voudouris et al. (2018) mention high laws and violators were severely punished less litharge was discarded. This two-stage grades of Au (around 100 gr/t) in the nearby (Katerinopoulos, 2010). The entrances of procedure ensured that around 99 % pure vein-type Clemence deposit, which could some of these shafts and galleries still dot silver was extracted. After 146 BC and the have been known and exploited in antiquity. the countryside of Keratea. Battle of Corinth, the Romans continued The conspicuous lack of water in Lavrion mining activities at Lavrion, using more Mining activities at Lavrion from ancient necessitated the building of a complex advanced techniques involving drainage Greece to the present day drainage system, which was then utilised procedures for extending the galleries below – apart from the sustenance of the mining the water table (Periferakis & N. Paresoglou, While it is not possible to determine camps – in filling the ore washeries (Figure 2019). the date when mining activities began at 2b) used for ore separation, before the After Roman times, the mines of Lavrion Lavrion, it is commonly held that they smelting process. This drainage system also were completely abandoned, despite the fact began sometime around 3000 BC, during ensured that the water of the ore washeries that during the 18th and early 19th century the Minoan Era. The 8th century BC was was recycled, thus alleviating the need for there were reports of the area's economic when organised mining most probably constant transport of water from afar. It is potential (Periferakis & Paresoglou, 2019). developed and the exploitation of silver truly a marvel of engineering, considering Only in 1860 would the Greek geologist must have started a century later, reaching the era in which it was constructed. Kordellas notice the ore minerals in the its peak around the 4th and 5th century BC The silver extracting procedure itself was ancient slags, and his memo to the Greek (Economopoulos, 1996). a testament to the skill of ancient Greek state would incite a second fervent period The ancient galleries (Figure 2a) have metallurgists. When the ore came out of of mining activity. In 1864 Jean-Baptiste an aggregate length of many hundreds the galleries, it was crushed down to fine Serpieri founded the Italian-French com- of kilometres, and comprise six levels, particles, which were then gravimetrically pany Roux-Serpieri-Fressynet, which ini- interconnected with a multitude of shafts. separated in the ore washeries, based on the tially had permission to exploit only the The immense and intricate network of fact that argentiferous ore in any mineral ore deposit itself by expanding the ancient the ancient mining galleries is even more form (galena or cerussite) is heavier than tunnels and creating new ones (Figure 3). impressive considering that they were dug the gangue minerals, and as such does not Soon, however, the company illegally out, a few metres per month, using noth- float. The first step in this process was to bought heaps of ancient slag from the Municipality of Keratea, proceeding to extract silver which had been irretrievable using the ancient techniques, in turn leav- ing massive amounts of modern slag which remain still visible around Lavrion (Figure 4). This violated the license issued to the company by the Greek state, and Greek courts issued a condemning verdict, order- ing the company to pay significant repa- rations. This prompted the ambassadors of Italy and France to intervene on behalf of the company and demand that the state drop the legal proceedings. Figure 2: (a) The entrance to an ancient mining gallery in the area of Thorikos; (b) A reconstruction While initially it refused, eventually the of an ore washery with the ancient theatre of Thorikos in the background. Greek government relented due to the naval blockade imposed by French and Italian warships. In 1873, Andreas Syggros bought the company and renamed it the Lavrion Metallurgy Company. Syggros then tricked the public into buying worthless shares of his company and at the same time black- mailed the Greek state into lowering the annual taxes on his company, and on top of that decreased slag exploitation and silver production. Meanwhile, Serpieri founded the Compagnie Française du Laurium, which managed to obtain the sole right to Figure 3: (a) The interior of the Esperanza tunnel, with the slope increasing rapidly towards greater exploit the underground mineral wealth depths; (b) The entrance of the same tunnel, in the countryside of Lavrion. Many of the most famous of the area. The company closed in 1977, mineral samples of Lavrion have been extracted from this tunnel. while the Lavrion Metallurgy Company

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 25 area to study its regional tectonic setting and the ore genesis processes. In addi- tion, the mineralogical wealth of the area is remarkable, and in fact the mines and the slags of Lavrion are host to hundreds of different minerals, samples of which are on display in the two mineralogical museums of the area, in Kamariza (Figure 5a) and in the City of Lavrion (Figure 5b). Around 15 % of the currently known minerals can be found in Lavrion (Kat- Figure 4: (a) Slag from the 19th and early 20th century by the port of Lavrion; (b) Massive heaps of slag erinopoulos, 2010). A number of miner- from the turn of the previous century still define the contours of the area. als, such as laurionite, paralaurionite and thorikosite, were discovered in the area, and had already shut down in 1917, having is more than probable that Athens would in fact some of them cannot be found else- exhausted the slag supply (Dermatis, 1994). not have achieved its status as one of the where in the world, like the recently discov- leading powers of ancient Greece. ered voudourisite (Rieck et al., 2019) and The social, cultural and economic conse- Apart from military matters, the wealth others like nealite, georgiadesite, hilarionite, quences of Lavrion exploitation through accrued from the mines provided the funds and fiedlerite. Finally, the slags contain crys- the ages for the construction of the temples at the tallised compounds as a direct result of the Acropolis. Colonnaded temples like the smelting process and slags found underwa- The wealth accrued by the mining activi- Parthenon were probably the most expen- ter contain crystallised compounds result- ties at Lavrion had a profound effect on the sive buildings of the Classical Era. The gold ing from the chemical reactions between course of the ancient Greek civilisation, and ivory statue of Athena Promachos, the slag minerals and seawater. As such, and by implication, on European cultural the murals and the marble statues of the Lavreotiki is an ideal place not only for min- heritage. The income generated – directly Acropolis where also paid for in part from eralogical research, but also for geochemical through the payment of leases and indi- the mines' revenue (Periferakis & N. Pare- and artificial crystallisation studies. rectly through taxation and general fiscal soglou, 2019; and references therein). growth – enabled the city-state of Athens When Serpieri founded his company Lavrion as a place of Geoheritage to build and maintain a vastly dispropor- in 1864, during the years of the modern tionate – disproportionate to the expected Greek state, Lavrion was an insignificant The mines of Lavrion have directly financial capabilities of any city-state of the settlement, but within a year it was trans- influenced the culture and history of the era – fleet of around 200 triremes, which formed into a thriving town of over 10,000 Hellenic Nation, both in the Classical Era were manned with trained oarsmen and residents. The company built houses for and in modern history. They are thus tan- hoplites. In the naval showdown with the its employees, and public buildings; most gibly associated with the formation of the Persian fleet in 480 BC the Athenian fleet notably churches and schools, were also sociopolitical and cultural framework of constituted more than half of the Panhel- constructed (Dermatis, 1994). Operating Greece and Europe. In addition, the mines lenic fleet of 380 triremes. This naval power under the auspices of the company, pharma- of Lavrion are associated with the creation of the Greeks, with Athens at the forefront, cies and local infirmaries took care of the of the modern town of Lavrion and as such checked the Persian advance, which, had it workers. When the company was bought they have a local as well as a national his- continued, would undoubtedly have altered by Syggros it began to use technologies torical value. Mines and quarries represent the history of Europe. innovative for their time, like electricity the way that people in the past lived and the In later years, during peacetime, Athens and telephones. Between 1882 and 1885 needs of their society, which means they maintained an expanded fleet of 300 the company paid for and constructed the have strong links to the local folklore as triremes, whose operating cost for the railway line linking Athens with Lavrion well (Prosser, 2019). campaigning season - which was about (Katerinopoulos, 2010). The mines themselves provide “windows” 8 months - amounted to around 1600 Although there were fiscal and admin- onto natural mineral and ore forming pro- talents. This great sum, which was more istrative benefits from the companies for cesses, and since there are a large number of than twice the annual tribute of the whole the local societies, the bickering over the tunnels that are still structurally safe, they Delian League, could not even cover the exploitation rights and the temporising could be made suitable for visitors with rela- maintenance of the whole fleet. At all policy of both foreign and Greek investors tively cheap structural upgrades. Being near times, around one third of the Athenian had detrimental effects on the national to Athens and easily accessible, Lavrion triremes were held in reserve. During the economic policy. In fact, the Lavrion crisis could thus be made into a large thematic Peloponnesian War, Athens fuelled its war- was a major factor leading to the financial geopark, building upon the existing Lavrion time economy using the silver of Lavrion, collapse of the Greek state, which declared Museum of Mining and Metallurgy and the and only during the final phase of the war public insolvency in 1893. Archaeological Museum of Lavrion. Some did the Lacedaemonians succeed in dis- buildings of the French mining company rupting mining activities. So the income Lavrion as a unique geological monument have also been restored, and along with from Lavrion partly contributed to Athe- the ancient washeries and the Theatre of nian power, creating a precarious balance The existence of many different ore Thorikos, constitute interesting tourist sites. between the then-dominant city-states of deposits at the same area, which are linked While the administrative area of Lavre- Athens and Sparta. The balance of power temporally and spatially, makes Lavrion otiki has been declared a National Park, could therefore be only tilted via war. Had an ideal place for research and educational the area of Lavrion is also considered as the mines of Lavrion not been exploited, it purposes. Indeed, many geologists visit the having Outstanding Universal Value and

26 Topical - Geological heritage

Conclusions

The mines of Lavrion have shaped his- tory on a regional and European level, both in ancient and in modern times. They are proof of the intertwining of history and geology, and also they bear testimony to the way that natural resources influence soci- ety, economy and culture. Consequently, Lavrion is a major cultural landscape. Fur- thermore, the mineralogical wealth, along with the multitude of ore deposits in the Figure 5: (a) The Mineralogical Museum of Kamariza, in an old building of the French Company, area, ranks Lavrion as an important natural with the Serpieri Well in the background; (b) The Mineralogical Museum of Lavrion, located in an landscape. It must be mentioned that the mines old office building near the centre of Lavrion. of Lavrion, despite being the best known fits the criteria for inscription on the World loading piers of the now closed companies site of its kind in Greece, are not unique in Heritage List (Migoń, 2018) of UNESCO. have been left unmaintained, despite the terms of sociocultural and economic signifi- Currently, the mines of Lavrion are on fact that they too could be an interesting cance. They are part of the rich geoheritage the Tentative List of the UNESCO World attraction if properly restored. Aside from of Greece, which stretches from the emery Heritage Centre. As mentioned above, the these extensive restoration works, another mines of Naxos Island to the exploitation of Greek state has made some steps towards step should be the complete mapping of the Au + Ag ± (Cu, Pb) deposits in Macedonia. maintaining and promoting the rich his- ancient tunnels utilising the most recent To summarise, the mines of Lavrion should tory and material culture of the area, but advances in exploration geophysics, most be regarded as being a cardinal part of both further action is required. Ancient galleries notably microgravity measurements. In the Greek and European geoheritage, and, are left locked but otherwise unguarded and short, despite some tentative steps taken if maintained and exploited properly, can unmaintained. Most alarmingly, trespass- over the years, there is still a need for exten- constitute a valuable resource for research, ers enter the galleries and illegally extract sive geoconservation efforts in the area of education, training and recreation. rare and valuable mineral samples for per- Lavrion. sonal gain. Apart from this, the dockside

References

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Economopoulos, J. 1996. Mining activities in ancient Greece from the 7th to the 1st centuries BC. Mining History, 3. 109-114.

Rieck, B., Lengauer, C.L., Giester, G. 2019. Voudourisite Cd(SO4) ∙ H2O, and lazaridisite Cd3 (SO4)3∙8H2O, two new minerals from the Lavrion Mining District. Mineralogical Magazine, 83(4). 551-559. DOI: 10.1180/mgm. 2018.157.

Katerinopoulos, A. 2010. The Lavrion Mines. In: Evelpidou, N., Figueiredo, T., Mauro, F., Vassilopoulos, A. (eds.). Natural Heritage from East to West. Springer Verlag: Berlin. 27-33.

Migoń, P. 2018. Geoheritage and World Heritage Sites. In: Reynard, E., Brilha, J. (eds.) Geoheritage, Assessment, Protection and Management. Elsevier: Amsterdam. 237-249.

Periferakis, A. & Paresoglou, N. 2019. Lavrion from Ancient Greece to the Present Day: A Study of How an Ore Deposit Shaped History. 15th International Congress of the Geological Society of Greece, Athens, Greece. 704–705. Available at: https://www. gsg2019.gr/wp-content/uploads/2019 /06/gsg2019-boa-proceedings.pdf

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Voudouris, P., Melfos, V., Spry, P.G., Bonsall, T.A., Tarkian, M., Solomos, C. 2008. Carbonate-replacement Pb-Zn-Ag±Au in the Kamariza area, Lavrion, Greece: Mineralogical and thermochemical conditions of formation. Mineralogy and Petrology, 94. 85–106. DOI: 10.1007/s00710/-008-0007-4.

Voudouris, P., Mavrogonatos, C., Rieck, B., Kolitsch, U., Spry, P.G., Scheffer, C., Tarantola, A., Vanderhaeghe, O., Galanos, E., Melfos, V., Zaimis, S., Soukis, K., Photiades, A. 2018. The gersdorffite-bismuthinite-native gold association and the skarn-porphyry mineralization in the Kamariza Mining District, Lavrion, Greece. Minerals, 8(11). Paper no. 531. DOI: 10.3390/min8110531.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 27 Pikermi: a classical European fossil mammal geotope in the spotlight

Socrates Roussiakis1*, Panagiotis Filis1, Stamatina Sklavounou1, Ioannis Giaourtsakis2, Nikos Kargopoulos1 and George Theodorou1

The renowned Pikermian fauna has long La célèbre faune de Pikermi a longtemps La renombrada fauna de Pikermi ha servido served as a reference for the systematic, servi de référence pour l’étude systématique, durante mucho tiempo como referencia biostratigraphic and paleoecological bio-stratigraphique et paléontologique para el estudio sistemático, bioestratigráfico study of Late Miocene Eurasian mammals. des mammifères eurasiens de la fin du y paleoecológico de los mamíferos eurasiáti- The classical locality of Pikermi has been Miocène. De façon classique, la localité de cos del Mioceno tardío. La localidad clásica extensively excavated since the mid-19th Pikermi a fait l’objet d’excavations exten- de Pikermi ha sido ampliamente excavada century, with the latest series of systematic sives depuis la moitié du 19ème siècle, les desde mediados del siglo XIX, con la última excavations organised by the National dernières séries de fouilles systématiques serie de excavaciones sistemáticas organiza- and Kapodistrian University of Athens. The étant l’œuvre de l’Université nationale et das por la Universidades Nacional y Kapo- preservation and promotion of the locality capodistrienne d’Athènes. La préservation distrian de Atenas. La preservación y pro- is of paramount importance, not only for et la promotion de cette localité est d’une moción de la localidad es de suma impor- its scientific context, but also for its histori- importance extrême, pas seulement pour tancia, no solo por su contexto científico, cal significance and educational value for son volet scientifique mais aussi pour sa sino también por su importancia histórica y the paleontological heritage of Greece and signification historique et sa valeur éduca- valor educativo para el patrimonio paleon- Eurasia. In this article we discuss the timeline tive pour l’héritage paléontologique grec tológico de Grecia y Eurasia. En este artículo, of fieldwork and research at the locality, as et eurasien. Dans cet article, nous traitons discutimos la línea de tiempo del trabajo de well as the steps currently taken in order to de la chronologie des travaux de terrain et campo y la investigación en la localidad, preserve and explore Pikermi as an interna- de recherche en ce lieu ainsi que des déci- así como los pasos a seguir actualmente tionally acclaimed geotope. sions prises actuellement pour préserver para preservar y explorar Pikermi como un et explorer le site de Pikermi, en tant que geotopo aclamado internacionalmente. géotope renommé au niveau international.

Introduction: locality of several Turolian vertebrate genera cal knowledge accumulated and the his- and species. The significant paleoecological torical significance of such a long running ikermi (Attica, Greece) is one of the context of the locality has led to the estab- excavation locality, it is apparent that the oldest known and most celebrated lishment of the term “Pikermian biome”. renowned Pikermi geotope must remain fossiliferous localities of the Eurasian From both the wealth of the paleontologi- a focus of conservation efforts, allowing PLate Miocene. Numerous excavations have been conducted since the mid-19th century, revealing a rich and diverse vertebrate fauna of Turolian age. Pikermi is considered as one of the key reference localities of the European continental Upper Miocene (e.g. Bernor et al., 1996 and references therein) due to the diversity of its faunal composi- tion and the fact that it represents the type

1 Department of Historical Geology and Palaeontology, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, 15784 Athens, Greece, 2 Section of Paleontology and Geobiology, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig- Maximilians-Universität München, Richard-Wagner-Str. 10, 80333 Munich, Germany Figure 1: The classical reconstruction of the Late Miocene cercopithecid monkey Mesopithecus *[email protected] pentelicus from Pikermi by Albert Gaudry (1862-67).

28 Topical - Geological heritage

Figure 2: On the left, a typical fossiliferous bone assemblage at the PV1 site, with in situ articulated fore- and hind limbs of three-toed hipparionin equids. On the right, excavation of proboscidean limb bones at the PV1 site (NKUA expeditions).

opportunities for the continuation of the to lacustrine clay, coal, and platy limestone. fieldwork and its promotion as a prime The Pikermi Formation can be further sub- destination of geotourism. divided into two members. The lower Red Conglomeratic Member is characterised by Geology an alternation of red silts with a weak pedo- genic overprint and debris flow deposits. The fossiliferous locality of Pikermi is It is within the lower Red Conglomeratic placed within the Mesogea Basin, one of the Member that most historical and recent three major hydrographic basins of Attica, excavations took place. The stratigraphically close to the municipality of Pikermi and younger upper fluvio-alluvial Chomateri ca. 20 km east of the city of Athens. The Member represents an alternation of red- Mesogea Basin is surrounded by Mount dish to yellowish silts with fluvial channels Pentelikon to the north and Mount Hym- and channel-fill trains and corresponds to ettus to the west, as well as by the Koropi the eponymous excavation site of Choma- Hills to the south and the Euboic Gulf to the teri (Böhme et al., 2017). Figure 3: Cranium of the Late Miocene east. The basin’s hydrographic system con- cercopithecid monkey Mesopithecus pentelicus sists of numerous streams originating from Timeline of the excavations from Pikermi in preparation (NKUA expedition Pentelikon and Hymettus Mountains that 2018). flow from the higher northern and western The fossiliferous locality of Pikermi was altitudes towards the southern lowlands and discovered by the renowned Scottish his- then to the east. These streams gradually torian and philhellene George Finley in A Bavarian soldier, who presumably merge into the main Megalo Rema stream, 1836, during a tour he had undertaken in participated in these excavations, col- which drains into the Euboic Gulf. One of the Mesogea region of Attica with the hope lected some specimens, thinking the cal- the main tributaries of the Megalo Rema of discovering remains of the temples of cite crystals formed inside the cavities of stream is the Valanaris, and it is along the the Brauronian Artemis and the Oropian the fossilised bones as being diamonds. banks of this tributary that most of the fos- Amphiaraos. While prospecting the area, Upon his return to Munich, the soldier siliferous sites have been discovered. Finley noticed the unusual accumulation presented these specimens to the distin- The Mesogea Basin developed during of bones inside a steep bank of red clay guished professor of zoology Andreas the Late Miocene by activation of a major that had been washed away by a torrent Wagner. Wagner disproved the soldier’s detachment fault, which separated car- that descended from Mount Pentelicon hopes about diamonds, but acknowledged bonates of the Internal Hellenides from and was known to the locals as the stream the scientific value of the specimens, secur- Mesozoic metamorphic rocks. The Upper of Pikermi. The peasants of the neigh- ing them for the collections of the Bavarian Miocene sediments of the Mesogea Basin bourhood, who were acquainted with the Academy of Sciences by paying a sizeable can be divided into the terrestrial to fluvial spot, called these remains Hellenic bones compensation. Among the scanty mate- Pikermi Formation and the palustrine to (κόκκαλα ελληνικά). A few weeks later, rial, he instantly recognised the maxilla of lacustrine Rafina Formation (Böhme et al., Finlay read a note concerning his discov- a primate, which he subsequently described 2017). The Pikermi Formation represents ery at the newly established Physiographic as a new genus and species, Mesopithecus an up to 30-m-thick sequence of predomi- Society of Athens, and donated his findings pentelicus (Wagner, 1839). This was one of nantly reddish silts with subordinate clastic to the collections of the society, which later the first fossilised primate specimens to be channels of conglomerates and sandstones, became part of the University of Athens. ever discovered, thus attracting immedi- which has yielded rich terrestrial vertebrate The society encouraged Finley to continue ately significant interest from the scientific fauna. The Pikermi Formation rests discor- the exploration of the site, and he carried community. In 1848, Wagner studied some dantly above a lower limestone unit with on with some additional excavations in col- additional material from Pikermi send to palustrine to lacustrine marls and coals, laboration with the distinguished German him by Anton von Lindermayer. During and is concordantly overlain by the Rafina ornithologist Anton von Lindermayer, a the winter of 1852-1853 new excavations Formation, which is composed of palustrine founding member of the society. were organised at Pikermi by the German

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 29 Figure 4: Faunal diversity at the Late Miocene locality of Pikermi. naturalist Johannes Rudolf Roth, and the parative study and systematic evaluation occasional minor excavations by amateur results were jointly published by Roth and of the Late Miocene mammalian faunas in naturalists, fossil dealers, and material Wagner (1854). the Old World. exchange between museums and institu- In 1853, Hercules Mitsopoulos, profes- Moderate fieldwork activity continued tions distributed fossil specimens from sor of natural sciences at the University of during the 1880s and 1890s, with some Pikermi throughout the world. Athens, led the first excavations carried excavations led by Wilhelm Dames for the The turn of the century signalled one out by a Greek team. In 1854, the physi- Natural History Museum of Berlin in 1882, of the major excavation campaigns in the cian Aristeides Chairetis undertook a minor by Melchior Neumayer and Leopold von area, organised by Arthur Smith Woodward excavation and sent some material to the Tausch for the Paleontological Institute of for the British Museum of Natural History, Natural History Museum of Paris, which the University of Vienna in 1885, by the and Τheodore Skouphos for the University became the subject of an announcement by Prince of Orleans in 1888, and by Michalet of Athens (Woodward, 1901). During the renowned zoologist Georges Louis Duver- from Dijon in 1895. In addition, several following years, Skouphos continued the noy at the French Academy of Sciences. Duvernoy’s announcement, in conjunc- tion with the scientific results presented by Roth & Wager (1854), stimulated the Academy of Sciences of Paris to provide the generous financial means to support a series of extensive excavations at Pikermi under the direction of the geologist and pal- aeontologist Jean Albert Gaudry during the winter of 1855-56 and the summer of 1860. The scientific results were documented by Gaudry in his monumental monograph “Animaux fossiles et géologie de l’Attique” (Gaudry, 1862-1867). Gaudry described and illustrated in great detail the diverse fossil species of the Pikermian fauna (Figure 1). In addition, Gaudry was one of the first paleontologists to apply phylogenetic trees to assess the systematic affinities between fossil forms, taking also their stratigraphical Figure 5: Cranium and associated mandible of the Late Miocene bone-cracking hyaenid Adcrocuta position into account. Even today, Gaudry’s eximia from Pikermi (NKUA collections). monograph remains influential for the com-

30 Topical - Geological heritage

excavations in Pikermi, further enrich- ing the paleontological collections of the University of Athens. The last of the major historical campaigns was conducted during 1912 by Othenio Abel under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences of Vienna (Abel, 1922). After a hiatus of over half a century, activ- ity resumed in 1971 with the discovery of a new fossiliferous site in the area named “Chomateri”. Several systematic excava- tions were carried out between 1972 and 1980, led by Nikolaos Symeonidis from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA) in collaboration with Frie- drich Bachmayer and Helmut Zapfe from Figure 6: Cranium of the Late Miocene tandem-horned rhinocerotid Diceros neumayri from Pikermi the Natural History Museum of Vienna (Symeonidis et al., 1973). (NKUA collections). In 2008, fieldwork began anew in Pik- ermi, with a series of systematic excavations ranged around the wooded grassland to and educational context, is considered of under the direction of Prof. George Theo- woodland transition (Böhme et al., 2017). paramount importance. The geopark con- dorou from the National and Kapodistrian Current fieldwork activity is focused on cept has been successfully applied both University of Athens (Theodorou et al., the PV1 site, but imminent objectives of the domestically and internationally, highlight- 2010). Several new and prolific fossiliferous project include the annual continuation of ing the geological and paleontological her- sites have been revealed, namely Pikermi the excavations, with an expansion to other itage through educational and experiential Valley 1-3 (PV 1-3). The excavations con- sites including PV3 and Chomateri, as well activities, promoting public environmental tinue to be carried out annually, with more as the thorough preparation of the material awareness, and encouraging the develop- than 2000 new specimens collected during and its scientific evaluation. The detailed ment of a sustainable form of geotourism these latest campaigns (Figures 2 and 3). study of the newly excavated material is for the local communities. Some examples essential for improving the understanding of this well-functioning geopark model, Faunal context and paleoecological of the taphonomical, biogeographical and which is also supported by the United remarks paleoecological context of the locality, as Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul- well as for the evaluation of the systematic tural Organization (UNESCO, unesco. The several hundred studies accompany- affinities and phylogenetic position of the org) include: the petrified forest on Lesvos ing the long line of fieldwork activity in the Pikermian taxa. Of particular interest is Island UGGp (UNESCO Global Geop- locality have revealed a rich and diverse the acquisition of high resolution strati- ark), Sitia UGGp, and Psiloritis UGGp in mammalian fauna with representatives graphical and taphonomical data in order Greece; Swabian Alb UGGp in Germany; of most macromammalian groups that to refine the local stratigraphy by assessing Conca de Tremp-Montsec UGGp in Spain; inhabited Greece during the Late Miocene the number of the fossiliferous levels and Stonehammer UGGp in Canada; Danxi- (Bernor et al., 1996; Theodorou et al., 2010; documenting their exact faunal content ashan UGGp and Zigong UGGp in China and references therein). Among the most (Theodorou and Nicolaides, 1988). and many more. The renowned Pikermi frequent mammalian representatives are locality meets UNESCO’s criteria and is three-toed hipparionini horses, numerous Present and future perspectives a suitable candidate for inclusion in the bovid species, as well as three rhinocerotid Global Geoparks Network (GGN). Such and four giraffid species. Carnivores exhibit Recent excavations of the National and an important step, if supported by public a remarkable diversity of eighteen differ- Kapodistrian University of Athens led to the authorities, local communities, and private ent species including representatives of the discovery of a large collection of vertebrate sponsors, can lead to the development of families Felidae, Hyaenidae, Mustelidae, fossil specimens, which is currently housed sustainable geotourism in Pikermi, taking Ursidae and Ailuridae. Proboscideans, pri- in the Rafina-Pikermi Municipality’s Urban also into account the short distance from mates, hyracoids, suids, cervids, chalicoth- Planning Building. This facility includes a Athens, a city that attracts millions of visi- eriids, hystricids, murids and insectivores small fossil preparation laboratory, a fossil tors every year for its unique monuments are also encountered in various degrees of repository, and an exhibition hall with rep- and cultural heritage. frequency. Complementing the fauna list resentative fossil specimens and selected The discussed scheme involves the trans- of mammalian taxa, there is also a small animal reconstructions (Figure 7). Since its fer of the collected material and existing number of avian and reptilian taxa (Fig- establishment this exhibition has attracted infrastructure to a larger and more suitable ures 4–6). the public and also media attention, and has permanent museum facility. The recruit- Recent paleoecological reconstruc- been heavily visited by schools, non-profit ment of specialised scientific staff is also tions, based on a variety of methodologies societies and individual visitors. compulsory to facilitate the implementation -including sediment analysis, palynology, Promoting Pikermi as a renowned geo- of the museological arrangement and pres- isotope analysis, magnetostratigraphy, and tope well outside the limits of the scientific entations, as well as the indispensable fossil evaluation of the potential dietary prefer- community remains a primary objective. preparation equipment and laboratory. Fur- ences of the fossil taxa – suggested a savan- The proposed establishment of a protected thermore, a notable proposal concerns the nah habitat for the Pikermian fauna that geopark in the area, with multidisciplinary restructuring of certain excavation sites

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 31 Figure 7: Views of the current paleontological exhibition in Pikermi. into an area accessible to the public, where guided tours and excursions, professionally of Rafina-Pikermi for their continued assis- visitors may observe the paleontological designed educational programs and expe- tance. The fieldwork campaigns from 2009 fieldwork experience and the material itself riential activities for children and adults, to 2019 were supported by the Municipality as it is discovered in situ. lectures and workshops, as well as contin- of Rafina-Pikermi, several private sponsors, The ultimate goal of this endeavour is ued collaboration with other universities and the NKUA-Special Account Research to bridge the specialised scientific inter- and research institutions. Grant project no. 70/3/12977. est of the locality with the wider appeal of geotourism, combining the ecological Acknowledgments implications emerging from the fieldwork research with current environmental issues We would like to thank all of the partici- and diversity conservation efforts. All of pants of the latest excavations in Pikermi, these aspects may be achieved through as well as the personnel of the Municipality

References

Abel, O., 1922. Lebensbilder aus der Tierwelt der Vorzeit. 644 p., Verlag von G. Fischer, Jena.

Bernor, R.L., Solounias, N., Swischer, C.C., Van Couvering, J.A. 1996. The corellation of three classical “pikermian” mammal faunas - Maragheh, Samos and Pikermi -with the European MN Unit System. In: Bernor, R.L., Fahlbusch, V., Mittman, H.-W (Eds.), The Evolution of Western Eurasian Neogene Mammal Faunas, Columbia University Press, New York. p. 137–154.

Böhme, M., Spassov, N., Ebner, M., Geraads, D., Hristova, L., Kirscher, U., Kötter, S., Linnemann, U., Prieto, J., Roussiakis, S., Theo- dorou, G., Uhlig, G., Winklhofer, M. 2017. Messinian age and savannah environment of the possible hominin Graecopithecus from Europe. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177347. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177347

Gaudry, A. 1862-1867. Animaux fossiles et géologie de l’Attique. p. 475 & Atlas, Ed. F. Savy, Paris.

Roth, J., Wagner, A. 1854. Die fossilen Knochenüberreste von Pikermi in Griechenland. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 7 (2), 371–464.

Symeonidis, N., Bachmayer, F., Zapfe H. 1973. Ausgrabungen in Pikermi bei Athen, Griechenland. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien 77, 125–132.

Theodorou, G., Nicolaides, S. 1988. Stratigraphic horizons at the classic mammal locality of Pikermi, Attica, Greece. Modern Geology 13, 177-181.

Theodorou, G., Roussiakis S., Athanassiou, A., Filippidi A. 2010. Mammalian remains from a new site near the classical locality of Pikermi (Attica, Greece). Scientific Annals of the School of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 99, 109–119.

Wagner, A. 1839. Fossile Ueberreste von einem Affenschädel und andern Saügthieren aus Griechenland. Gelehrte Anzeigen 8, 305–311.

Woodward, A. S. 1901. On the bone beds of Pikermi, Attica and on similar deposits in Northern Euboea. Geological Magazine 8, 481–486.

32 Topical - Geological heritage

The Geological Garden at Tata (Hungary): A geosite of outstanding scientific and geo-educational significance

István Szente1*, Erzsébet Harman-Tóth2, Tamás G. Weiszburg1

The Geological Garden is a nature conserva- Le Jardin Géologique est un secteur de El Jardín Geológico es un área de conser- tion area located in Tata, about 70 km to the conservation de la nature située à Tata, à vación de la naturaleza ubicada en Tata, west of Budapest. It has been established as environ 70 kilomètres à l’Ouest de Budapest. a unos 70 km al oeste de Budapest. Se ha an open-air geological museum where a Il a été créé comme un musée géologique establecido como un museo geológico succession of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks à l’air libre où une série de roches sédimen- al aire libre donde una sucesión de rocas characteristic of the Alpine-Carpathian taires du Mésozoïque, caractéristique de la sedimentarias mesozoicas características region is excellently exposed in abandoned région Alpine et des Carpathes, est exposée de la región alpino-carpática está excelente- quarries and cleaned rock surfaces. Several de façon parfaite dans des carrières aban- mente expuesta en canteras abandonadas formations widely distributed in the Trans- données et sur des affleurements rocheux y superficies de rocas limpias. Varias for- danubian Range of Hungary were studied aménagés. Plusieurs formations, largement maciones ampliamente distribuidas en la here in detail, and type-sections of three distribuées en Hongrie, au sein de la Chaîne Cordillera Trans-Danubiana fueron estu- of them have been designated on Kálvária Transdanubienne, ont été étudiées en détail diadas en detalle, además se diseñaron sec- Hill. In addition to geological values, the et des sections-types de trois d’entre elles ont ciones tipo de tres de ellas en la colina de area houses Copper Age chert mines as été reconnues sur la Colline du Calvaire. En Kálvária. Además de los valores geológicos, well as a collection of mountain-building plus des richesses géologiques, le secteur el área alberga minas de sílex de la Edad del rocks of Hungary. Due to its scientific value héberge des mines de silex datées de l’Age Cobre, así como una colección de rocas de and educational potential, the Geological du Cuivre, en même temps qu’une collec- las montañas de Hungría. Debido a su valor Garden is one of the most important Hun- tion de roches hongroises, typiques des científico y potencial educativo, el Jardín garian geosites. zones de montagne. Lié à sa valeur scien- Geológico es uno de los geo-sitios húngaros tifique et à son potentiel éducatif, le Jardin más importantes Géologique est l’un des géosites hongrois les plus importants.

Introduction

uarries and other man-made expo- sures are of paramount importance to geological research and geoedu- Qcation. This statement applies especially to inland areas of moderate topographic relief, where quarries often provide the only access to geology (Prosser, in press). The territory of Hungary, dominated by lowland areas, is characterised by geologically young, i.e. Neogene and Quaternary, soft surface sedi- ments. Largely due to quarrying, however, the country is relatively rich in scientifi-

1 ELTE Geological Garden, Pázmány P. s. 1/c, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary 2 Eötvös Museum of Natural History, Pázmány P. s. 1/c, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary * [email protected] Figure 1: Location of the Tata Geological Garden.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 33 cally significant geosites representing earlier periods of the history of Earth. The Mesozoic succession of the Trans- danubian Range is particularly noteworthy in this respect. It has been built of rocks representing typical sedimentary facies of the Alpine-Carpathian region and as a rule was not affected by considerable post- depositional deformations. Thus, original layering and the stratigraphic succession- shave been well preserved. A large number of geosites have become known as a result of quarrying. Exploitation has come to an end at most places and the abandoned quar- ries, if not refilled, now form spectacular landscapes at some places. Abandoned quarries usually receive less attention than underground mines in terms of their protection (Storemyr, 2006). In Hungary, on the contrary, they are highly valued and well represented among protected geosites. Most of them are, however, scattered and far from roads and settlements. An exception to this rule is the town of Tata around 70 km to the west of Budapest, where a well exposed succession of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks can be studied in easily accessible and safe abandoned quarries and cleaned rock surfaces of Kálvária Hill (Calvary Hill, if translated), a fault-bounded horst, the area of which is now largely occupied by an open-air museum called Geological Garden and managed by Eötvös Loránd University (Figure 1).

Figure 2: Stratigraphic column of the Mesozoic cropping out at Kálvária Hill. (Abbreviations: Oxford.– A brief history of the Tata Geological Garden Kimm. = Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian; Se. = Series; L. = Lower; M. = Middle; U. = Upper; Sy. = Systems; Cret. = Cretaceous) (after Haas & Hámor, 2001). The history of the geological and archae- ological research of Kálvária Hill as well as Fülöp (1928–1994) started working on it. Geological Garden now functions as an its geology is reviewed in detail in Szente et Fülöp, who played a major role in geology appealing place for research, teaching,public al. (in press). Dominated by soft Cainozoic in Hungary for about three decades, had outreach and recreation. surface sediments, Tata and its environs are the opportunity to clean large rock surfaces relatively poor in natural building stones. in order to study Middle and Upper Juras- Geological values of Kálvária Hill Thus, beds of variegated Triassic, Jurassic sic rocks that had never been quarried, as and Cretaceous limestones cropping out they were unsuitable for building. Due to The favourable exposure conditions at Kálvária Hill aroused interest long ago the scientific value of these exposures, a made possible a very detailed study of the and were extensively quarried for centuries. section of Kálvária Hill was declared to be Robert Townson, an English traveller who a nature conservation area in 1958. Quar- visited Tata in 1793, was the first to docu- rying came to an end in the seventies and ment the abundant occurrence of red lime- since 1976 the area has been developing as stone (Townson, 1797). Scientific study of an open-air geological museum, founded the Mesozoic formations began in the 1850s by the Hungarian Geological Institute.It with the work of Austrian and Hungarian has been managed since 1994 by Eötvös geologists and led to the identification of Loránd University (ELTE). The extent of the Upper Triassic Dachstein Limestone, the protected area, now called at full length Lower Jurassic red ammonitic limestone “ELTE Tata Geological Garden - Nature and Lower Cretaceous crinoidal limestone. Conservation Area and Open-Air Geo- Observations were made mostly in three logical Museum”, has increased to 3.5 ha. quarries, called “Whitestone”, “Redstone” Due to a grant of EUR 175,300 received by Figure 3: “Whitestone Quarry” exposing and “Bluestone”, operating at those times. the Eötvös University from the European predominantly lagoonal Dachstein Limestone A new chapter in the study of Kálvária Union, a large-scale cleaning project was overlain by deeper-water pink Lower Jurassic Hill began in the mid-1950s when József carried out in 2015. As a result of it, the Pisznice Limestone Formation.

34 Topical - Geological heritage

Dachstein Limestone is overlain conform- ably by pink then red Jurassic limestone beds assigned to the Pisznice and Török- bükk Formations, corresponding to the “red marble” of the older literature. This pure carbonate succession, Hettangian to Pliensbachian in age, is magnificently exposed in the large quarry wall (former “Redstone Quarry”) of the Geological Garden (Figure 5). The sharp boundary between the Upper Figure 4: Lower Jurassic fissure infilling in Upper Triassic carbonate platform deposits and Figure 6: Bioturbated beds of the Pisznice Triassic Dachstein Limestone. the overlying deeper-water Lower Jurassic Limestone Formation. red limestone is a spectacular example of drowning unconformities and it is a char- The older part of the Middle Jurassic acteristic feature of the Gerecse Jurassic. series, assigned to the Tölgyhát Limestone Fossils extracted from the lowermost beds Formation, is strikingly diverse in facies: red of the Pisznice Limestone indicate a depo- marly limestone containing Fe-Mn oxide sitional depth exceeding 200 m (Pálfy et nodules, crinoidal layers and beds formed al., 2007). The red limestone succession is by small-sized bivalve (Bositra) shells occur. more than 30 m thick, while the cumula- The carbonate-dominated succession is fol- tive thickness of younger Jurassic strata is lowed by brown radiolarian chert beds of less than 15 m. The fine-grained Pisznice the Lókút Radiolarite Formation. This chert Limestone is followed by the Törökbükk was exploited at Kálvária Hill by Copper Limestone Formation, an intensively bio- Age peoples. In addition to the two ancient Figure 5:“Redstone Quarry” exposing an turbated crinoidal limestone (encrinite) mining pits discovered in the 1960s and undisturbed Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic of Pliensbachian age (Figure 6). Although now visible in the exhibition building of the (Pliensbachian) limestone succession. A named after a quarry located in the Gerecse Geological Garden, a third one was discov- segment of the wall appearing as an oblique Mountains, this lithostratigraphic unit was ered in 2015 (Biró-T. et al., 2018) darker band in the photograph was not introduced by Fülöp (1976) on the basis of The basal member of the Upper Juras- cleaned in 2015 in order to display the original the Kálvária Hill quarries. sic is a peculiar sedimentary breccia bed, state of the wall as well as to study the effects of Due to a normal fault running almost known as “Oxfordian Breccia”, of 30-80 cm weathering and growth of vegetation. parallel to the “Redstone Quarry” wall, in thickness. Younger beds of the Upper Middle and Upper Jurassic as well as Lower Jurassic as well as the lowermost Cretaceous Mesozoic succession of Kálvária Hill, result- Cretaceous beds are hardly visible in the are developed in a thin succession of pelagic ing in the comprehensive monograph by lower yard of the Geological Garden. Fine limestones. Ammonite pavements visible on Fülöp (1976). An approximately 50 m thick exposures can be found, however, on the some bedding planes of the Kimmeridgian suite of beds divided into nine formations upper terrace (Figure 7). Pálihálás Limestone are highlights of the is exposed at Kálvária Hill (Figure 2), dis- playing intermediate facies characteristics between the successions of the Bakony and Gerecse Mountains. The oldest rock cropping out is Upper Triassic Dachstein Limestone; it is well exposed in the “Whitestone Quarry” located outside the Geological Garden (Figure 3). The cyclic succession of the Dachstein Limestone, formed in peritidal to shallow- internal platform lagoon environments, is visible in the “Whitestone Quarry” section. Limestone beds of lagoonal origin are prev- alent and contain abundant megalodontid bivalves, usually preserved in life position. Other spectacular phenomena include sub- marine fissure infillings, often called -nep tunian dykes. The fissures penetrate both Dachstein Limestone and the lowermost Jurassic beds and reach 30 cm in width at some places. They are filled by pink or red mudstone commonly containing clasts of the host rock (Figure 4). Figure 7: Cleaned rock surface on the upper terrace of the Geological Garden exposing Jurassic–Lower The boundary between Triassic and Cretaceous beds dissected by normal faults. The “Oxfordian Breccia” appears in the photo as a near- Jurassic beds is a flat surface truncating horizontal light grey band at the foot of the mound covered with grass. megalodontid bivalves at some places. The

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 35 Geological Garden (Figure 8). Cretaceous. This resulted in the interrup- Tata Limestone is the youngest known The Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary can tion of the more or less continuous marine example of the vanished facies called be drawn within the Szentivánhegy Lime- sedimentation that began in the Early Tri- “regional encrinite”. The term is used to stone representing Tithonian, Berriasian assic and lasted for more than 110 million denote crinoidal limestone successions of and partly Valanginian Stages. This latter years. On Kálvária Hill, approximately 20 considerable thickness and lateral extent. lithostratigraphic unit was named after a million years are not recorded in rocks. This unit is widespread along the Trans- medieval settlement (Szentivánhegy) once Sedimentation resumed around 115 million danubian Range, from the town of Sümeg located on Kálvária Hill, at the time called years ago and led to the deposition of the (located near the western margin of the Szentiván Hill. Late Aptian Tata Limestone –another for- range) to Tata, but is completely lacking The present-day area of the Transdanu- mation whose type locality is Kálvária Hill from the Gerecse Mountains. Cretaceous bian Range was deformed during an early - that overlies the eroded surface of tilted rocks younger than Tata Limestone are not phase of the Alpine orogeny in the late Early Upper Jurassic limestone beds (Figure 9). exposed on Kálvária Hill.

The Geological Garden as a place for geoeducation

As in most European countries, geol- ogy does not appear as an independent discipline in secondary school curricula in Hungary and is taught within the subject of geography. The proportion of time allotted to geography has been drastically reduced in the last decades if the total number of lessons is considered. It is therefore of vital importance to utilise the educational oppor- tunity provided by features of geological heritage. Abandoned quarries often serve as valuable resources for education (e.g. Macadam & Shail, 2002).The Geological Garden provides an inspiring environment for teaching. In the last ten years more than 5,000 students have learned geology there. Primary and secondary school students living in Tata or enrolled in schools located in the area, as well as ELTE students and employees, may visit the Geological Garden Figure 8: Ammonite in the Upper Jurassic Pálihálás Limestone. free of charge.In addition to outdoor geol- ogy lessons held on a more or less regular basis, the Geological Garden often serves

Figure 10: Boulders of the Oligocene Csatka Figure 9: Uneven surface of Upper Jurassic limestone overlain by well bedded Lower Cretaceous Conglomerate in the “Mountain-forming rocks Tata Limestone in the former “Bluestone Quarry”. Earlier researchers interpreted this exposure as a of Hungary” collection exhibited in the lower “fossilised rocky coast”. yard of the Geological Garden.

36 Topical - Geological heritage

as a locale for outreach events attended by most important mountain-forming rocks of high scientific value, including type sec- a wider audience. The “Day of Geotopes”, of Hungary. The collection, unequalled tions of three lithostratigraphic units. Due organized jointly each October with the elsewhere in Hungary, is exhibited in the to the favourable conditions, the area also Kuny Domokos Museum of Tata, has lower yard and is profited during field trips has a high educational value and provides proved to be especially popular. (Figure 10). visitors with an opportunity – unique in Because it is located in the vicinity of Hungary – to study a spectacular succession Budapest, the Geological Garden is usu- Conclusion of Mesozoic marine sedimentary rocks, as ally the site of the first full-day field trip of well as visit prehistoric chert mines and a freshman undergraduate geology students According to Brilha (2018), geological collection of mountain-building rocks of of ELTE. Exposures of Kálvária Hill offer a heritage is materialised by exceptional ele- Hungary, in easily accessible abandoned good opportunity to study different rocks ments of geological diversity, and typically quarries and other exposures concentrated and a wide range of geological phenomena. elements of high value are considered as in a well-groomed garden environment. In addition to local rocks, the area houses exceptional. The Geological Garden at Tata more than 40 boulders representing the houses a number of geodiversity elements

References

Biró-T., K., Harman-Tóth, E., Dúzs, K. (2018) New research at Tata-Kálváriadomb, Hungary. In: Werra, H.D., Woźny, M. (eds.) Between History and Archaeology - Papers in honour of Jacek Lech. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd, Oxford, pp 49–57.

Brilha, J. (2018) Geoheritage: inventories and evaluation. In: Reynard, E., Brilha, J. (eds.) Geoheritage: assessment, protection and management, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 69–85.

Fülöp, J. (1976) The Mesozoic basement horst blocks of Tata. Geologica Hungarica Series Geologica 16: 2–229.

Haas, J, Hámor, G. (2001) Geological garden in the neighborhood of Budapest, Hungary. Episodes 24: 257-261.

Macadam, J. and Shail, R. (2002) Chapter Six: Abandoned pits and quarries: a resource for research, education, leisure and tour- ism. In: Spalding, A., Hartgroves, S., Macadam, J. and Owens, D. (eds.) The conservation value of abandoned pits and quarries in Cornwall. Cornwall County Council, Redruth, pp 71–80.

Pálfy, J., Dulai, A. and Szente, I. (2007) 2.1/a. Kálvária-dombi kőfejtő nyugati udvara. Felső-triász (rhaeti) és alsó-jura (hettangi), Dachsteini Mészkő és Pisznicei Mészkő Formációk (2.1/a. Kálvária Hill Quarry, western yard. Upper Triassic (Rhaetian) and Lower Jurassic (Hettangian), Dachstein Limestone and Pisznice Limestone formations). In: Pálfy J., Pazonyi, P. (eds.) Őslénytani kirándulások Magyarországon és Erdélyben. Hantken Press, Budapest, pp. 41–44.

Prosser, C.D. (in press) Communities, Quarries and Geoheritage - Making the Connections. Geoheritage. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12371-019-00355-4

Storemyr, P. (2006) Reflections on Conservation and Promotion of Ancient Quarries and Quarry Landscapes. In: Degryse, P. (ed.) Proceedings to the First QuarryScapes Symposium, 15-17 October 2006, Antalya. Extended abstract collection, pp 31–35.

Szente, I., Takács, B., Harman-Tóth, E. and Weiszburg, T.G. (in press) Managing and surveying the Geological Garden at Tata (northern Transdanubia, Hungary). Geoheritage

Townson, R. (1797) Travels in Hungary with a short account of Vienna in the year 1793. G. G. and J. Robinson, London

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 37 Geoheritage elements of millstone manufactory, Tokaj Mountains, Hungary

Zsuzsanna Ésik1*, Péter Rózsa1, János Szepesi2,3

The changes in the exploitation of natural Les changements dans l’exploitation des El cambio en la explotación de rocas stones emphasise the continuous changes roches naturelles mettent l’accent sur la naturales enfatiza el continuo cambio de of cultural landscapes. The widespread continuité des changements des paysages paisajes culturales. Las tobas de riolita Miocene rhyolite tuffs of the Tokaj Moun- culturels. Les tufs rhyolitiques miocène, altamente esparcidas en el Mioceno en las tains usually became intensively silicified, largement représentés dans les montagnes montañas Tokaj habitualmente se silicifican increasing the hardness of the material. du Tokay ont subi une silicification intense intensamente, incrementando la dureza The grinding of cereals and ores required et classique, augmentant la dureté de del material. La molienda de cereales y high quality, long lasting millstones from cette formation. Les activités de mouture minerales requería piedras de molino de the mining industry. The hardest, silicified des céréales et de broyage des minerais ont alta calidad y duraderas en el tiempo. Los varieties were carved from the 15th century nécessité des meules de haute qualité et especímenes silicificados más duros fueron until the 1970s. The quarries are scattered de longue durée, de la part de l’industrie tallados desde el siglo XV hasta la década throughout the mountains; amongst them minière. de 1970. Las canteras están dispersas por three sites were selected for detailed assess- Les variétés silicifiées les plus résistantes las montañas; entre ellas, se seleccionaron ment. The geoconservation value of the furent sculptées à partir du 15ème siècle tres sitios para una evaluación detallada. historical quarries is well illustrated by the jusque dans les années 1970. Les carrières El valor de la conservación geológica de las exposed special geological features and sont éparpillées dans les montagnes ; parmi canteras históricas está bien ilustrado por remnants of historical stones. The silicified elles, trois sites furent choisis pour une las características geológicas especiales y tuffs demonstrate that anthropogenic land- évaluation détaillée. La valeur historique los restos de piedras históricas. Las tobas forms could have significant geoconserva- et géologique de ces carrières anciennes silicificadas demuestran que los accidentes tion roles, and these geodiversity elements est bien illustrée par la description des geográficos antropogénicos podrían haber might enhance geotourism activities. caractéristiques géologiques particulières tenido importantes funciones de geocon- et les restes de ces roches historiques. Les servación, y estos elementos de diversidad tufs silicifiés sont la preuve que les reliefs geológica podrían mejorar las actividades anthropiques pourraient jouer un rôle de geo-turismo. important dans la préservation du patri- moine géologique et que ces éléments de géo-diversité pourraient également dével- opper les activités du tourisme géologique.

Introduction fundamental importance in geoheritage were suitable for high quality millstones. studies (e.g Kubaliková, 2017; Prosser 2019) After the first mention from the 15th cen- eoheritage is a generic but descrip- providing valuable resources for recreation tury, the silicified materials were the most tive term applied to sites or areas of and geotourism. The Tokaj Mountains are popular and important products of this area geological features with significant made of Miocene intermediate (andesite) for more than six centuries (Hála, 2003). Gscientific, educational, cultural, or aesthetic and silicic (dacite, rhyolite) volcaniclastics Technological and market changes indi- value (Brilha, 2016). The anthropogenic and volcanic rocks, providing exceptional cated development and evolution in quality landforms of mining (including quarries, geodiversity which has attracted earth sci- and quarrying techniques, from handmills underground adits, open pits, etc.) have entists from the 18th century. The volcanism to the grindstones used for precious metal is associated with continuous circulation of bearing ore grinding at Telkibánya. The 1 Department of Mineralogy and Geology, hydrothermal fluids, causing physicochemi- silicified deposits are usually associated University of Debrecen, 4032 Egyetem tér cal changes in volcanic rocks and resulting with clay minerals supporting a famous 1. Hungary in different types of alteration (silicification, ceramic industry, which had its golden age 2 MTA-ELTE Volcanology Research Group, potassic or argillic alteration, etc.) (Pécskay in the 1800s. Data on ancient quarries were 1117 Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, Budapest, & Molnár, 2002). The exploitation of pri- registered in the early national geological Hungary mary and altered rocks covers thousands of mining inventory of Hungary (1904) and 3 Isotope Climatology and Environmental years of human history. At different levels also in recent databases (Atlas of European Research Centre (ICER), Institute for of social and technical development more Millstone Quarries, Historic Quarries) Nuclear Research, Hungarian Academy of and more raw materials became of interest, highlighting the continuous national and Sciences, 4026 Bem tér 18/c, Debrecen, Hungary starting from the early Neolithic obsidians. international interest in this special industry * [email protected] The silicified zones of volcaniclastics of the cultural landscape. These emphasise and subordinate sedimentary deposits that abandoned quarries are important ele-

38 Topical - Geological heritage

ments of geodiversity, but there has been no comprehensive research on their cur- rent condition. The present paper describes three quarry sites, in terms of their geologi- cal conditions and geography of the cul- tural landscapes, involving their additional natural and anthropogenic values, which are important from geoconservation and geoeducation points of view.

Site selection, data collection and fieldwork

The inventory and assessment of geo- diversity is essential for the preservation of geoheritage. The study of these specific mining landforms follows the steps dis- cussed in various papers (e.g. Kubaliková, 2017; Szepesi et al., 2017). First, the review of the literature includes an overview of geology, mineralogy, historical geography and industrial history papers. After com- piling a preliminary inventory (Figure 1), three quarry sites were chosen for detailed study with collection of available data and field descriptions. The selected sites are situated in the northern and the eastern parts of the moun- tains and represent current use in geotour- ism. Megyer Hill, with a lake in the quarry, is the most spectacular anthropogenic object in the mountains. Füzérradvány was the most important site for illite mining. Telkibánya was famous for gold mining for centuries. Due to the mineral stock, there is a history of scientific research at all three locations. Beside the detailed geological and mineralogical studies (e.g. Széky-Fux, 1970; Pécskay & Molnár, 2002; Szepesi & Ésik, 2015) mining and industrial history Figure 1: Miocene rhyolitic tuffs in the Tokaj Mountains and inventory of the millstone manufactories. were also published (Hála, 2003; Benke, The selected sites are underlined. 2009). Detailed description of the sites Table 1: Inventory and detailed description of the millstone quarry sites: general information, geodiversity and biodiversity features.

1. Megyer Hill, Sárospatak 2. Korom Hill, Füzérradvány 3. Kánya Hill, Telkibánya

General infor- 280-300 m a.s.l., three-level quarry with 398 m a.s.l., single yard quarry (Fig. 2c) 500 m a.s.l., periglacial block processing mation picturesque lake (Fig. 2a, 2b) only, without surface excavation (Fig. 2d) Geological set- silicified lapilli tuff with variable alteration silicified lapilli tuff with illite dominated silicified lapilli tuff sandstone and con- tings zones (alunite/kaolinite, illite/montmoril- alteration lenses, covering lacustrine clay glomerate on hydrothermally altered lonite, potassic (adularia) and silica deposits andesite Geo-morphol- semicircular range with basin opening to uplifted morphological unit (200 m erosional surface of tuff and conglomer- ogy south, the quarries opened in the silicified above the valleys) surrounded by ate covered andesite, periglacial block cap Hegyköz Basin meer on the steep slopes Additional Király Hill quarry, underground illite excavation in the surface mining objects, Veresvíz open pit geodiversity Zsolnay clay quarry, Botkő quartzite quarry yard, further mines nearby (Borai, field, Lipót shaft, millstone at Telkibánya features quarry, András, Hármas) museum (ex-situ geoheritage) Scientific value internationally important site, with regionally important site with detailed regionally important site with detailed detailed research on hydrothermal activ- research on hydrothermal activity and research on mining (Au,Ag) ity mining (clay, Au) Biodiversity Maple-oak woods (Acer tatarico-Querce- beech forest (Fagus sylvatica), sessile oak hornbeam oak forest (Querco petreae- tum), aquatic plants in the lake (Lemna (Quercus petraea), pioneer species in the Carpinetum), rocky slopes, turkey oak minor) quarries: birch (Betula pendula), poplar (Quercetum petra-cerris) and linden (Populus tremula), protected bat colony (Mercuriali-Tilietum).

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 39 other two locations, too. Telkibánya was the predecessor of the famous Hollóháza porcelain factory. The millstone manufactories were founded in the Middle Ages and the last one was worked until the 1970s. Based on the geological characteristics and quarrying techniques, different styles of stones can be identified. The manufactory started with monolithic stones. The size depended on the type of utilisation (hand or water mills). These one-piece stones could be found recently in the quarry yard of Megyer Hill (Figure 3a) and Füzérradvány (Figure 3b). Unfinished or broken ones are observable at all three sites (e.g. Figure 3c, Telkibánya). Ore processing required different, mortar- like stones from the harder quartzite exhib- ited in the courtyard of Telkibánya Museum as ex-situ geoheritage (Figure 3d). During Figure 2: The three millstone quarry sites: a) Megyer Hill; the first level is under water; b) the canyon-like the 19th century the milling technique was road cut carved for lake drainage and transportation; c) an unfinished millstone with central hole as changed to one with faster rotation (power first phase of shaping; Telkibánya, Kánya Hill; d) vertical walls of Korom Hill Quarry; the underground mills), and long-lasting stones from harder hole from where illite was excavated (at the right side of the photo) today is a protected bat habitat. rock were required. The “French-style” mill- stones were made from cemented pieces includes general information with maps of the three quarries are compiled in Tables (12-16 tiles). Production has become easier and photographs, a brief summary of geo- 1–3. and more productive and replaced the logical settings, and additional natural and The three quarry sites (Figures 2a-d) are monolithic types. The famous Sárospatak anthropogenic values. The final assessment important geoheritage elements that have millstone won the First-Order Medal of the presents suggestions for site management achieved a very high scientific, histori- 1862 World Expo in London, and due to regarding geoconservation and geotourism cal and cultural value in the region. They production of this millstone prices were development. represent very similar geological settings: reduced by half compared to the original the silicified zones are easily recognised French market (e.g. La Ferté sous Jouarre Geological setting and mining history as resistant outcrops at higher elevation, Quarry, Atlas of Millstone Quarries). The which are surrounded by argillic rocks. expansion of steel rolling mills heavily influ- The areal distribution of rhyolitic tuff The quarries excavated silicified rhyolitic enced manufacturing in the 20th century. and hydrothermal materials in the Tokaj lapilli tuffs. The additional sandstone, con- After a continuous decrease in productiv- Mountains demonstrates the role of explo- glomerates and rhyolites were also altered ity Megyer Hill ceased to operate in 1906. sive volcanism and post-volcanic alterations in Telkibánya. Depending on hydrother- Stones from Király Hill were ordered and (Figure 1). Variable silicified deposits have mal zonation, the clays were also mined as delivered even during World War II (Hála, been utilised as quality millstone resources raw material (Table 1). The largest stocks 2003). The last millstone was taken in 1979, for several centuries, as demonstrated by developed in the Füzérradvány area and when excavation in the Király Hill quarry the large number of abandoned quarries were extracted almost to the present day, terminated. (Figure 1). The inventory and description but important excavation occurred at the Table 2: Inventory and detailed description of the millstone quarry sites: historical, cultural and aesthetical characteristics.

1. Megyer Hill, Sárospatak 2. Korom Hill, Füzérradvány 3. Kánya Hill, Telkibánya

millstones Full circle or broken stones in quarry yard Full circle or broken stones in unfinished stones at manufactory quarry yard sites, millstone collection with large mortars at the museum geohistorical old quarry: 15th century-1907 millstone quarry: 15th-20th millstone: n.d. importance Király Hill: 1835-1994 century, illite quarries: Borai, open pits: 12-15th century Veresvíz Zsolnay: clay quarry, 1900-1955 Hármas: 1950-1990 András: adit, Lipót shaft: 15th-19th century 1972-2000 other specific miners’ house in quarry yard small lakes at surface, water Veresvíz (red water) indicates features French style millstone won “1st order medal” in 1862 accumulates in mining dissolved iron in the drain water; World Expo, London induced surface subsidence according to legend, this is the blood of miners who died in a col- lapse in 1443 aesthetic aspects, picturesque lake in the quarry yard, high vertical walls millstones at the entrance, block meer with large boulders view points (10-30 m) in three levels: Óbánya with lake; 2nd level 5-6 m high (10 m) vertical walls with of conglomerate and sandstone, above lake; 3rd level with mining houses. subvertical fractures scattered millstones between the Circular hiking path with several different viewpoints, boulders canyon-like road (Fig. 2.b view at the lake surface)

40 Topical - Geological heritage

self-guided path (Figure 4a) was created in Füzérradvány (Kiss et al., 1999) but trail facilities are currently degraded and need renewal. The “Millstone” Nature Trail was established in 2001 by a civil initiative to demonstrate the most important natural and cultural-historical features. The trail was partially renewed in the quarry (2015). The improved information panels (Figure 4b) focused on quarrying and mining his- tory. The city of Sárospatak received addi- tional funds for further development of the lake environment in the Megyer Hill area. The via ferrata route around the wall was completed (2019, Figure 4c). The devel- opment will be supplemented in the near future with a museum, a lookout tower and a suspension bridge. The development of the Telkibánya area was a complex PHARE cross border activity including Hungarian Figure 3: Millstones from: a) Megyer Hill; b) Korom Hill; c) Kánya Hill; and d) millstones (rhyolite tuff, and Slovakian partners (University of Mis- conglomerate, rhyolite) and quartzite mortars for Au-Ag ore processing in Telkibánya museum, kolc, Local Authority of Telkibánya, and ex-situ geoheritage . Technical University of Košice). A new educational trail (“Gold miners’ walk”, established in 2011, Figure 4b) connects Geoconservation and geotourism issues sites are unprotected, but they were sur- the mining heritage objects (underground veyed for further geoconservation action in adits, open pit field, buildings, etc.). The Anthropogenic landforms are attractive 2018-2019 to establish new natural monu- establishment of an educational centre was landscape features and usually included in ments. The degradation risk of the sites another important area of development sup- natural and cultural heritage (Kubalíková depends on the extent of tourism. Megyer porting field trips for university and high 2017, Prosser 2019). Geoconservation Hill is one of the most visited sites in the school education. aspects are summarised in Table 2. Megyer Tokaj Mountains, which has caused trail Hill is a well-known nature conservation degradation and serious problems with Conclusions area in Hungary, where the geological, communal waste. The Telkibánya area is landscape, cultural, and ecological values famous for mineral collecting activities. The The manufacturing of natural stones is defined a complex geosite. The amazing area surrounding the mining site is listed one good representation of the impact of 1.1 ha quarry yard with the area of Megyer in a national collectors’ database as a loca- geology on society and illustrates clearly Hill was listed as a natural reserve in 1977 tion of quartz variants and sulfide minerals. how culture may influence geoheritage and became a nature conservation area of The preliminary assessment of the perception and use through the centuries. national interest in 1997. The quarry is an regional geodiversity summarises the cur- All quarry sites represent significant scien- important cultural landscape element and rent state of geotourism in the Tokaj Moun- tific, educational, cultural and/or aesthetic also part of a UNESCO World Heritage tains (Szepesi et al., 2017). The importance values. These criteria determine the per- Site (Tokaj Wine Region Historic Cultural of geoheritage is recognized by the estab- ception and exact value of geoheritage and Landscape) (Szepesi et al. 2017). The other lishment of geo-educational trails. The first define geosites. Megyer Hill has the widest Table 3: Inventory and detailed description of the millstone quarry sites: Geotourism and geoconservational aspects.

1. Megyer Hill, Sárospatak 2. Korom Hill, Füzérradvány 3. Kánya Hill, Telkibánya

Geoconservation protection Natural Reserve (1977) unprotected, unprotected, aspects conservation survey under Act conservation survey under Act 55 of 2015 ct 55 of 2015 degree of distur- large number of visitors, via ferrata no human activity induced mineral collecting in pit holes bance track construction in 2019 degradation after abandon- ment degradation risks vegetation growth, rock falls, hiking vegetation growth, rock falls, vegetation growth, hiking trail trail degradation hiking trail degradation degradation Geotourism current use hiking trails, educational trail hiking trails, additional educational trail focused on aspects focused on millstone manufactory, self- guided educational trail mining heritage via ferrata trail (2019), focused on geodiversity and suspension bridge over the lake mining heritage (planned) tourist facilities marked pathway, information marked pathway, self- guided marked pathway, information panels trail with published booklet panels number of visitors high (over 1,000/year) moderate (under 1,000/year) moderate (under 1,000/year)

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 41 reputation and is a nationally well-known geosite. The picturesque lake in the aban- doned quarry was selected as Hungary’s most beautiful natural attraction in 2011. The other sites have regional tourism rel- evance with moderate tourism flow. Further improvement in site management includes geoconservation and geotourism activities. After the geoconservation survey of Füzér- radvány and Telkibánya sites, a declaration of protection would ensure the preservation of the geoheritage. It would be important for organised control over mineral collect- ing activities. The quarry walls need contin- uous vegetation removal for better visibility. The new tourism development (Sárospatak) and further involvement of universities can provide seasonal geo-guided walks of public interest. These activities can contribute to maintaining a better image of the sites and more efficient use of their geotouristic and geoeducational potential in a sustainable way.

Acknowledgements

Janos Szepesi’s work was supported by Figure 4: Regional geotourism: a) self-guided nature trail booklet, Korom Hill, Füzérradvány; b) the European Union and the State of Hun- information panel, Megyer Hill; c) Ropes of the new via ferrata trail above the lake (Megyer Hill); d) gary, co-financed by the European Regional signpost on the Gold Miners’ educational trail, Kánya Hill, Telkibánya. Development Fund in the project GINOP- 2.3.2-15-2016-00009 ‘ICER’.

References

Atlas of European Millstone Quarries. http://meuliere.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/en/Heritage.htm

Benke, I. 2009. The History of the Mining of Telkibánya. Publ. Univ. Miskolc, Ser. A, Mining, 78. 7–26.

Brilha, J. 2016. Inventory and quantitative assessment of geosites and geodiversity sites: A review. Geoheritage, 8. 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3

Hála, J. 1993. A sárospataki “francia malomkő” (French Millstones of Sárospatak). Yearbook of Hermann Otto Museum, 30-31(1). 485-511.

Kiss, G., Szepesi, J., Oláh, T., Barkó, O., Szépvölgyi, Á., Kalenyák, E., Proksa, K., Tomor, T. 1999. “Kormos Bába” Tanösvény Kirándulásvezető-füzet. (Self guide to the “Kormos bába” Nature Trail). Holocén Természetvédelmi Egyesület 2002, Miskolc.

Kubalíková, L. 2017. Mining landforms: An integrated approach for assessing the geotourism and geoeducational potential. Czech Journal of Tourism 2. pp. 131-154.

Pécskay, Z., Molnár, F. 2002. Relationships between volcanism and hydrothermal activity in the Tokaj Mountains, Northeast Hungary. Geologica Carpathica, 53. 303–314.

Prosser, C.D. (in press). Communities, quarries and geoheritage—Making the connections. Geoheritage . https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12371-019-00355-4

Szepesi, J., Ésik, Z. 2015. Megyer Hill: Old Millstone Quarry In: Lóczy, D. (ed.) Landscapes and Landforms of Hungary. Springer Science: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 227-235.

Szepesi, J., Harangi, S., Ésik, Z., Novák, T., Lukács, E., Soós, I. 2017. Volcanic geoheritage and geotourism perspectives in Hungary: A case of an UNESCO World Heritage Site, Tokaj Wine Region Historic Cultural Landscape, Hungary. Geoheritage, 9. 329-349

Széky-Fux, V. 1970. Telkibánya ércesedése és kárpáti kapcsolatai (Ore Mineralization of Telkibánya and its Inner Carpathian Connec- tions).- Akadámiai Kiadó: Budapest.

42 Topical - Geological heritage

The mining heritage and history of the Silvermines area, County Tipperary, Ireland since the 13th century

Eamonn F. Grennan* and Colin J. Andrew

Recorded mining commenced in the Silver- L’archivage des activités minières a débuté, Los registros mineros comenzaron en las mines area of County Tipperary, Ireland in au 13ème siècle, dans la région de Silvermines minas de plata en el área de County Tip- the 13th century and continued, intermit- du Comté irlandais de Tipperary et a con- perary, Irlanda, en el siglo XIII y continuaron tently, until 1993. Silvermines is different tinué de façon discontinue jusqu’en 1993. intermitentemente hasta 1993. Esta área es from all of the other mining areas in Ireland Le secteur de Silvermines est différent de diferente de todas las otras áreas mineras de in its longevity and in the variety of metals tous les autres sites miniers en Irlande par irlanda por su longevidad y por la variedad and minerals which have been produced, sa longévité d’exploitation associée à la de metales y minerales que fueron produ- including, copper, lead, zinc, silver, sulphur, variété des produits métalliques et miné- cidos; incluyendo cobre, plomo, zinc, plata, iron, barytes and pyrites. On a number of raux créés, incluant le cuivre, le plomb, le azufre, hierro, barita y pirita. En varias oca- occasions, it was the focal point for rebel- zinc, l’argent, le soufre, le fer, la baryte et la siones, fue el foco de actividades rebeldes, lious activities, some of which still resonate pyrite. En maintes occasions, cet environne- algunas de las cuales aún resuenan en el in the area. The paper links the variety of ment fut le lieu de démarrage d’activités área. El documento vincula la variedad de lithological and tectonic settings and rock rebelles, quelques-unes occupant encore entornos litológicos y tectónicos y la mete- weathering with the various mining enter- la mémoire locale. L’article fait le lien entre orización de rocas con las diversas empresas prises. The use of the terms heritage and la diversité des formations lithologiques, la mineras. Se discute el uso de los términos legacy is discussed. It concludes by listing tectonique et l’altération des roches, avec les patrimonio y legado. Concluye enumerando the many activities of the post-closure era, diverses activités minières. L’utilisation des las muchas actividades de la era posterior including the legacy issues, some of which termes héritage et patrimoine est analysée. al cierre, incluidos los temas de herencias, are negative and many of which are very En conclusion, l’article liste les nombreuses algunos de los cuales son negativos y positive. activités de l’ère post fermeture, incluant muchos de los cuales son muy positivos. les questions d’héritage, certaines d’elles apparaissant comme négatives et beau- coup d’autres comme très positives.

1. Introduction of the metals and minerals which have been graphic dating have confirmed the exha- exploited. lative–syndiagenetic models proposed in he name Silvermines is unusual in an the 1970’s and debunk replacive models Irish context, in that it is an English 2. Geology of the 1990’s.” term. The original Irish name for the So, what is an “Irish-type” Zn-Pb deposit? Tvillage/area is Béal Átha an Gabhann, which The geology of the Silvermines area and In simple terms, it is a Zn-Pb rich min- translates as “the mouth (of the river) of the regional setting is very well described by eral deposit that formed during or soon ford of the blacksmith”, which implies iron Taylor and Andrew (1978), Philcox (1984), after lithification (diagenesis) of the host mining or workings of some sort (Figure 1). Boland et al. (1992) and Andrew (2019) sediment (normally carbonate) and exhibits Silvermines is not the oldest base-metal (Figure 2). most or all of the following characteristics: mining area in Ireland, but what is unique Andrew (2019, p. 13) noted that “…as is the length of time, over 1,000 years, ideas on “Irish-type” Zn-Pb deposits have • Orebodies have single or multiple during which the deposits were worked, swung from exhalative to epigenetic to syn- stacked, typically stratabound, lenses; albeit intermittently, and the wide variety diagenetic, Silvermines has been used to • Structurally controlled - adjacent to support all of these models. More recently normal (generally listric) fault com- * [email protected] detailed isotopic results and tectono-strati- plexes;

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 43 • Mineralization: Sphalerite, galena, Fe sulphides and barite; • Gangue: Calcite, dolomite & silica (and haematite); • Host rocks: Platformal limestones with or without dolomitization. At Silvermines the Lower Zone Orebod- ies (Lower G-, K-, C-, P- and C-Devonian as well as Shallee and Gorteenadiha) show classic epigenetic features and are closely structurally controlled. Equally, the Upper Zone Orebodies (B- and Upper G-Zones) show abundant sedimentary features such as syn-sedimentary slump breccias, graded- bedding, interbedding of pyrite and shale layers, and geopetal structures confirming the sedimentary origin of the stratiform pyrite bodies (Figure 3) (Andrew, 2019). Deep Tertiary-aged weathering resulted in the oxidation of sub-cropping sulphides in the P-Zone. This led to the development of significant deposits consisting of smith- sonite and hemimorphite. An evaluation in 1933 determined a resource of 0.5Mt @ 21% Zn, modified to 0.85Mt @ 14.3% Zn, 1.7% Pb by Ennex International in the early 1990s. These deposits were exploited inter- mittently from the 17th century until 1953. Tertiary karstic weathering is endemic throughout the area, especially in the valley north of the mine and west of the Magcobar Pit and has created a large volume of cavi- tated ground. This held a substantial volume of acidified water which almost caused the inundation of the mine in the early 1970s, although fortunately no injuries or fatalities were sustained. Figure 1: Location map.

Figure 2: Stratigraphy of Silvermines.

44 Topical - Geological heritage

3. Mining History

3.1. 13th Century

Although no written records exist, apoc- ryphal stories in later accounts suggest that silver was exploited in the area by the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries. In 1289 Italian miners from Genoa and Florence sponsored by the English Crown came to County Tipperary in search of silver [Gleeson (1937) cited in Cowman (1988)] and opened (re-opened?) a silver Figure 3: Structure and main orebodies. mine which they operated until 1303.

3.2. 17th Century

In 1631, all the mines in Munster “were let to Messrs Whitmore and Webb”, who concentrated their activities on Silvermines, but “it seems that they found no silver – only lead and copper”. Ownership changed hands regularly. An interesting finding of this compilation is that one of those owners was the first Duke of Abercorn, whose direct descendant – the present Duke of Abercorn – was very active in Irish explora- tion during the fourth quarter of the 20th century. The mines were finally destroyed in the rebellion of 1641 (Cowman, 1988). At the end of the Cromwellian era in Ire- land in 1653, his soldiers were owed a lot of money and, as was the norm at that time, they were paid by “settlement”, that is, lands were confiscated from the vanquished and divided amongst the military. Most of the Figure 4: Map of mineral ownership. soldiers then sold the land on to established English landlords in the general area. the Act of Union in 1801. In 1800 Henry 3.3. 18th Century Sadlier Prittie was created Lord Dunally, whose lineage and estate persists to the Following a series of court cases in Eng- present day. land during the late 17th century, the own- ership of the mines passed to the Prittie 3.4. 1802-1875 family and this sequence of ownership is well-reflected in today’s mineral ownership In 1840, a number of tests were carried- map (Figure 4). out “at Gorteenadiha and Ballygowan for The near surface lead and silver appears sulphur as well as checking the lead poten- to have been worked out, but in 1724 copper tial”. In 1845 the General Mining Company was discovered and had some success, at of Ireland amalgamated all of the workings least for a while, because in 1758 the mine in the district, and “over the next three dec- was in the hands of Martin O’Connor, who ades the mines at Shallee, Gorteenadiha, had moved to Silvermines after his copper- Garryard and Ballynoe were worked”. mining enterprise at Avoca, Co. Wicklow Despite the Great Famine (1845–1849) failed, but Silvermines eventually also failed. in Ireland, the workings, producing both Figure 5: Shallee area. Circa 1770, the lead veins at Shallee were lead and copper, maintained profitability. discovered and both lead and copper was However, in July 1853, a combination of produced for a couple of years. Sometime low metal prices, near-surface ore being silver-lead was reported from Shallee” and in the 1780s, “a wedge of rich ore” was worked out, the failure to maintain invest- was worked (Figure 5) (Cowman, 1988). exploited and a smelter was built “which ment, poor management and a number of produced sheet lead and shot” (Cowman, financial irregularities caused major prob- 3.5. Calamine (Ballygowan) 1988). Pure silver was also produced. This lems leading to a series of strikes because was a very turbulent time in Irish history, the miners had not been paid their wages. In 1949, the Silvermines Lead & Zinc with the insurrection in 1798 followed by Notwithstanding this, a “new rich vein of Company commenced a project based

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 45 on the “calamine zone” (P-Zone), with the first stage being the development of a ‘pilot’ Waelz Rotating Kiln to treat 40 tonnes per day to produce zinc oxide. The project was unsuccessful and ended in July 1952 (Figure 6).

3.6. Shallee Lead

Around this time, the Korean War broke out, during which lead prices rose sharply and mining recommenced at Shallee. Over the next six years to January 1958 there was a series of stop-start efforts at production, which is estimated at 4,677 t of lead and 37,000 ounces of silver from 355,000 tonnes of ore (Andrew, 2019).

3.7. Magcobar

In 1958 the Silvermines Lead & Zinc Figure 6: Knockanroe and Ballygowan area. Company carried out some exploration drilling and identified what became the Magcobar barite deposit in the Ballynoe area. In 1959 they agreed to assign operat- ing rights to Dresser Minerals from Hou- ston, Texas. Whilst production peaked at 329,000 tpa, it generally produced between 200,000 and 300,000 tpa. During its final two years, the company mined 190,000 t by underground methods (Figure 7).

4.61 Mt of 85% BaSO4 lump grade barite were sold over the life of the mine to the end of September 1993. To access this ore about 8.5–9 Mt of overburden and waste rock were stripped.

3.8. Mogul

In October 1962 the Canadian Interna- tional Mogul Mines, who had been active at Avoca, concluded a farm-in agreement with the Silvermines Lead & Zinc Company 2 Figure 7: Magcobar (Ballynoe) area flooded pit. to explore an 80 km area at Silvermines. Drilling commenced in June 1963, and the company was very close to terminat- ing the exploration programme when the first significant stratiform mineralization was intersected in hole G33. By December 1964 10 Mt of ore were defined. They then ceased exploration to concentrate on devel- oping the mine. Operations commenced in 1968 at a throughput of 1M tpa, which it consistently achieved over its lifetime until closure in July 1982, having milled 10.8 Mt @ 7.36% Zn, 2.70% Pb from the Lower G-, Upper G-, B- and K-Zones (Figure 8). The mine was quite profitable in the early years and this led to a decision in 1970 to re-start exploration. Day-to-day control was handed over to the company’s wholly owned exploration arm, of which one of the Figure 8: Gorteenadiha & G-Zone (Mogul of Ireland). authors (Eamonn F. Grennan) had just been

46 Topical - Geological heritage

promoted to Chief Exploration Geologist. trical sub-station and attempted to place an inheritance, whilst ‘legacy’ was taken Over the next three years the Resource and explosives close to a transformer but died to mean money bequeathed to someone Reserves were increased to >14 Mt. in the attempt. The occupation was quickly in a will. In Ireland archaeological studies quelled by the authorities. include buildings, monuments, settlements 3.9. Post Mogul Mine Closure and also artefacts, a category which includes 4.2. Miners and Other Workers gold, bronze and iron-based implements. Heritage All of these are part of our heritage. More 19th Century recently the onus has shifted towards post- The Mogul tailings pond and, to a lesser 1700 buildings, especially their preserva- extent, the now-flooded Magcobar caused In the early 1800s the Dunally Mining tion. They include large country houses and much environmental controversy during Company had the motto, “Employ the historic streetscapes and of course include the 1980s and 1990s. In 2005, the Govern- people, enrich yourselves”, and despite old mine buildings. ment announced the allocation of €10.6M expressing benevolent intentions towards It should be noted that when such a for rehabilitation and as part of the pres- their employees left them unpaid for over building passes from one generation to ervation of industrial heritage in the area a year!! (De Staffort, 2017). the next, it is usually by means of a will or (Morris, 2011). legacy. More recently, however, in regard Mid-20th Century to the mining industry, the term ‘heritage’ Exploration has been used to hinder minerals develop- Moving on 100 years, little seemed to ment in phrases such as ‘this is a heritage After the closure of the Mogul mine in have changed, because Griffith (1951), building and cannot be removed’ or ‘this 1982, the company was acquired by Ennex quoted in de Staffort (2017) in relation to area is part of our heritage and cannot be International plc in 1983. Ennex decided to the operation of the Waeltz Plant, com- interfered with’. Thus, one can see that the evaluate the potential of the area for new mented that, “The lack of trained person- term ‘heritage’ is always used in a positive ore at depth and shallow primary oxide/ nel to operate the plant led to many expen- sense, that is, heritage equals good. On the sulphide mineralization and, as described sive mistakes in the early days and added other hand, when one also hears of legacy above, had some success. still further to the general cost. To obtain issues in a mining area, it is invariably used raw labour from the surrounding farms in a negative sense, that is, legacy equals 4. Social Matters and outlying villages and to train them bad. As an example, we will review the Sil- as shift bosses and plant operators and to vermines area. In the public mind, what are 4.1. Revolution and Armed Conflict instil into their minds the need for careful the post-1965 legacy issues? temperature control, the accurate sampling • The Mogul tailings pond, also known Italian miners of calamine feed, zinc oxide and slag was as the Tailings Management Facility heart-breaking”. (TMF), which has been partially re- The first of many known conflicts at the However, by 1968, things had changed vegetated and is no longer a problem. mine took place in 1303. Fourteen years radically, because de Staffort (2017) com- • The waste-rock slopes at Magcobar, after the arrival of the Italian miners, they ments on the fact that, “The social impact were attacked following the killing of a local of the Mogul of Ireland mine at Silvermines which now are also partially re-veg- man and the works were abandoned. had a tremendous effect on the area, extend- etated. ing to neighbouring towns and counties. • The collapsed areas of old stopes are Middle 17th century It was a high-paying mine and created a now surrounded by two metre-high variety of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled safety fencing and therefore are no A major Irish Rebellion started in 1641, jobs. There had never been an industry with longer a danger. coincident with the Civil War in Britain, such an immediate effect on the hinterland. • The Magcobar open pit, which is that led to the destruction of the mining Workers were drawn from near and far”. filled with water, is being examined operations by the Irish under the leadership for other purposes (VAMOS, 2019). of Hugh O’Kennedy, brother of John Mac 4.3. Heritage and Legacy Dermot O’Kennedy, on whose lands the Are there other legacy issues? Yes there mine was situated (Boate, 1652). Whilst researching and completing this are, BUT they are all positive and thus Oliver Cromwell came to Ireland in late paper, it became apparent that in regard receive very little public acknowledgement. 1649 to put down the rebellion and laid to mining, the difference – at least in the As examples: siege to the city of Limerick, 30 km south- English language – between heritage and west of Silvermines. At that time the main legacy has become very profound. In the • The training of the miners, elec- route from Dublin to Limerick passed by past both words were invariably intrinsi- tricians and fitters at Silvermines Silvermines. Indeed, the road leading to the cally linked with each other, especially in enabled them to take their skills to 1970s Explosives Magazine is still known regard to wills, legacies and inheritance. By newer mines such as Tara, Lisheen as “Cromwell’s Road”. using Silvermines as an example, it is hoped to illustrate the ambivalent and negative and Galmoy and to overseas. 1971 comments which should be addressed as a • Finally, it should be recorded that matter of urgency by the European Com- most of the geologists and geo-tech- A group from the Irish Republican Army mission and the European Federation of nicians who worked at Silvermines (IRA) took over the mine offices on the Geologists. continued to live in Ireland and went evening of July 7 1971. During the incur- In the past heritage was taken to mean on to become senior managers else- sion, one of its members entered the elec- a property that had been inherited, that is, where in the industry in Ireland, and/

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 47 or became well-known and respected that the term “Irish-type” Zn-Pb deposit raw materials have at some time in the consultants around the world. This was used for the first time in the literature. past 150 years been produced in Europe was not matched by any of the other This paper, published in the Transactions and, given the right environment, could in 1978, was deemed to be of such quality be produced again. professions who worked in the mine. and significance that it was awarded the

Silver Medal for that year. This in itself is a 6. Acknowledgements 4.4. A last word on geological legacy combination of history, heritage and legacy. We wish to acknowledge the role of The Mogul of Ireland Group, which 5. Concluding Comments former Mogul employee Dom O’Halloran, was an excellent employer, did not how- who supplied a lot of personal and unpub- ever fund many geological or educational As more and more emphasis is placed lished data; Des Cowman, mining histo- projects. This was the background to the at universities upon so-called productive rian, for his detailed research and many very propitious paper by Stuart Taylor and activities, it is important to maintain other articles; and John Clifford for all of his Colin Andrew, both mine geologists with disciplines which may not today be seen suggestions. Finally, Eamonn F. Grennan Mogul at that time, who in 1977, against as productive, but which in the future will wishes to acknowledge the many publica- a backdrop of less-than-whole-hearted provide valuable data – data that if not tions of his co-author (Colin J. Andrew), encouragement, submitted a paper to the recorded now could be lost forever. It will which made the compilation of this paper Institute of Mining and Metallurgy under serve to highlight the fact that most of the so much easier. the title “Silvermines Orebodies, Co. Tip- metals identified in the EC list of critical perary, Ireland”. Indeed, it was in this paper

References

Andrew, C.J. (2019). Silvermines County Tipperary, Ireland, field-trip guide. Irish Association for Economic Geology: Dublin.

Boate, G. (1652). The Natural History of Ireland (Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition) celt.ucc.ie//published/E650002-001/ (accessed 17 July 2019).

Boland, M.B., Clifford, J.A., Meldrum, A.H. and Poustie, A. (1992). Residual base metal and barite mineralization at Silvermines, Co. Tipperary, Ireland. In: Bowden, A., Earls, G.E., O’Connor, P. and Pyne, J.F. (Eds), The Irish Minerals Industry 1980-1990. Irish Association for Economic Geology: Dublin.

Cowman, D. (1988). The Silvermines – Sporadic Mining 1289-1874. Tipperary Historical Journal, 9, 96-115.

De Staffort, E. (2017). 20th Century Mining in Silvermines: An Overview. Silvermines Historical Society, Silvermines, Ireland.

Morris, J. (2011) Conservation of the 19th century mine heritage buildings at Silvermines, Co. Tipperary. Journal of the Mining Heritage Trust of Ireland, 11, pp. 81-112.

Philcox, M.E. (1984). Lower Carboniferous Lithostratigraphy of the Irish Midlands. Irish Association for Economic Geology: Dublin.

Taylor, S. and Andrew, C.J. (1978). Silvermines Orebodies, County Tipperary, Ireland. Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 87, B111–124.

VAMOS (2019). http://vamos-project.eu/ (accessed 24 August 2019)

48 Topical - Geological heritage

The cretaceous clays of Baiso, Emilia- Romagna, Italy: A study for their touristic promotion

Giorgia Campana, Alessandro Ghinoi, Christian Marasmi*

The Baiso area of Italy is characterised by La région de Baiso en Italie est caracté- El área de Baiso en Italia se caracteriza extensive badland formations featuring risée par des formations profondément por extensas formaciones de bad lands polychrome clays, thus giving rise to out- altérées ou ravinées comportant des arg- con arcillas policromadas, lo que da lugar standing unique landscapes identified as iles polychromes, donc à l’origine de pay- a paisajes únicos identificados como important geological sites. This geological sages uniques et remarquables, considérés sitios geológicos importantes. Este marco framework has given rise to the industrial comme des sites géologiques importants. geológico ha dado lugar a un área indus- specificity of the area, which has become Cet environnement géologique est à la trial específica, que se ha vuelto importante important for the clay supply for the Sassu- source de la spécificité industrielle de la para el suministro de arcilla en las últimas olo and Casalgrande ceramic district over région, devenue importante décadas para el distrito cerámico de Sas- the past few decades. A recent multidisci- ces quelques dernières décades, pour la res- suolo y Casalgrande. Un reciente estudio plinary study analysed the strengths and source en argiles destinée à l’industrie de la multidisciplinario analizó las fortalezas y weaknesses of this environment, with the céramique dans les secteurs de Sassuolo debilidades de este ambiente, con el objetivo aim of identifying an innovative strategy et Casalgrande. Une étude multidiscipli- de identificar una estrategia innovadora to transform the areas affected by mining naire récente a analysé les faits positifs et para transformar las áreas afectadas por activities into an opportunity for environ- les faiblesses de cet environnement, dans las actividades mineras en una oportuni- mental regeneration and an in-depth source le but d’élaborer une nouvelle stratégie dad para la regeneración ambiental y una of information on geology and geoherit- pour transformer les régions affectées par fuente de información sobre geología y pat- age, incorporating tourist trails past various les activités minières en une opportunité rimonio geológico; incorporando rutas para landscape features and abandoned mining de régénération environnementale et de turistas a través de paisajes característicos operations. recueil d’informations plus détaillées con- de operaciones mineras abandonadas. cernant la géologie et l’héritage géologique, incorporant des sentiers touristiques à côté des diverses caractéristiques du paysage et des sites miniers abandonnés.

The geological heritage thin variously coloured, initially regularly various shades ranging from light grey to alternating pelitic layers become discon- red, with absent, uneven geometries turning he flysch complexes (Multi-col- tinuous, lenticular, fraying, turning into into parallel ordered geometries, known oured clays, Argille Varicolori del Casale) are found in a portion of the TBaiso territory, in the Northern Province of Reggio Emilia, Italy (Figure 1). They date from the Cretaceous period and were formed in a reducing environment of an abyssal plain (Bettelli, 1986; Bettelli et al., 1989; Papani et al., 2002). The tectonic events that led to the development of the Apennines disrupted the original sedimen- tary structure, at the same time creating the outstanding shape that marks the local landscape (Figure 2). Beside regularly folded elements, a few complex folded units can be found, also featuring variously oriented disharmoni- ous folds at the points where the original

* Geologist, employee at Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy, Christian.Marasmi@regione. emilia-romagna.it Figure 1: Baiso area, northern Italy. Emilia-Romagna Region (Source: maps.google.com).

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 49 spires, pinnacles, ravines and deep furrows during the Cretaceous era (145 to 66 mil- (Figure 4). lion years ago), spread over an area roughly Vast municipal areas are characterised corresponding to the current Liguria region by extensive badland formations featur- and the Ligurian Sea. ing polychrome clays, thus giving rise to The paleontological study of these sedi- outstanding unique landscapes with large ments is made difficult by the complex multi-coloured ravines: some of them have and troubled history of the Apennine oro- been identified as important geological genesis, as previously described, and by sites, given their great scientific relevance. the deposition paleoenvironment, which Figure 2: Landscape featuring gullies in the Baiso A few remarkable and spectacular gul- was presumably buried for a long time at territory. lies located in the Baiso territory have been an extreme depth, below the carbonate classified as sites of geological interest by compensation limit, i.e. the depth beyond Emilia Romagna: the Casale (Figure 5) and which first aragonite and then calcite tend Mélange di Baiso geological sites (named to dissolve. Under these conditions, the Geosites of the Emilia-Romagna Region, preservation capacity of tiny marine organ- see https://geo.regione.emilia-romagna.it/ ism shells, which are normally used for schede/geositi/ ). biostratigraphic dating of rocks (planktonic The varicoloured clays are also interest- foraminifera and calcareous nanoplankton) ing from the mineralogical point of view: is extremely low: it is in fact almost impos- the formation and development of miner- sible to find microfossils useful for dating als such as pyrite, marcasite, barite, calcite purposes, except in limited cases. Figure 3: Varicoloured clay outcrops. and pyrolusite occurred in very deep basins Hence, the discovery of a Pliosaurus below the carbonate compensation limit, tooth (Figure 7) in the Baiso territory in a reducing environment featuring the should be considered of great scientific presence of organic material. relevance, especially if combined with the The Apennine diagenetic mineral genesis discovery of calcareous nanofossils, which is closely linked to the Apennine orogenesis. made it possible to determine with good Ion-rich fluids, such as iron and barium, accuracy the age of the artefact: Turonian were first adsorbed by clays during the (dating from 93.9 to 89.8 Ma), consistent diagenetic processes, thus giving rise to with the finding in the Scabiazza sandstones gemination nuclei, in a completely buried (Papazzoni CA, 2003). environment, at the interface between permeable lithologies (sandstones) and The “Ceramicland” waterproof (clays) when the sedimented, not completely lithified material was sub- This geological framework has given jected to severe tectonic stress. rise to the industrial specificity of the area Iron sulphide minerals are found in the within the Municipality of Baiso, which Baiso territory, featuring both polymor- over the past few decades has become a phic pyrite and marcasite phases, although very important area for the clay supply pyrite formations are more prevalent. Pyrite for the Sassuolo and Casalgrande ceramic is often found in aggregates on the surface district (Reggio Emilia Province mining of lithic fragments of sedimentary nature plan). The importance and evolution over Figure 4: Badlands featuring varicoloured clays (such as sandstone or limestone) present the centuries of the ceramic clay pits within (argille varicolori). in the clay formation. More recent pyrite features more or less clear shades of a bright brass yellow color; much more frequently, pyrite turns reddish, brown or almost black. In the most frequent cases cube-octahedron shaped pyrite formations can be observed, featuring often curved, saddle-shaped faces, with the presence of geminates and aggre- gates. Marcasite (Figure 6) features a slightly lighter shade of yellow than pyrite; if freshly fractured, it can be found in small-sized pinacoidal prismatic polygeminate aggre- Figure 5: Local site of geological interest, Casale. gates (up to 3–4 mm). Spherical nodules covered with rhombic-pyramidal or cubic as foliations, with colours ranging from and octahedral terminations occur in the brick red to black, alternating with light Helminthoid flysch (Scachetti et al., 2015). grey spots (Figure 3). The so-called Liguride and Epiliguride Runoff has led to linear and widespread paleontological outcrops can be found in erosion, continuously changing the land- the territory, with a broader and more rel- scape morphology, further enhancing the evant presence of Liguride outcrops: these Figure 6: Marcasite found near Cava Il Monte. beauty of spectacular clay outcrops, with are the direct testimony of a vanished ocean

50 Topical - Geological heritage

presence of vast clay-rich surfaces belong- carried out in this environmental context. ing to the geological Mesozoic Clays series It aims to identify an innovative strategy of the Northern Po Valley Apennine has led to transform the areas affected by mining to considerable specific grassland variations activities into an opportunity for environ- as opposed to the usual flora characterising mental regeneration and in-depth geologi- sub-mountainous oak forests. cal and geoheritage knowledge. It begins by With the exclusion of ravines, which analysing and describing the strengths and due to their strong dynamics do not allow weaknesses of this environment. In fact, any grass formation, the other clayey soils the study has shown that on one hand all have allowed the growth of a suitable layer of the abandoned mining areas can be a Figure 7: The Pliosaurus tooth. of topsoil, resulting in the formation of weakness of this territory, being considered the oak forests, which, according to their unattractive by tourists. However, from a edaphic characters and exposure slopes, are landscape point of view, they are often well characterised as either mesophile or acido- contextualised and sometimes no longer phile oak forests. The oak forest formation identifiable: the presence of slopes reshaped prevalent in the area is mainly constituted by runoff gives rise to the outstanding gul- by groupings of downy oak (Quercus pube­ lies now typical of the Apennine landscape. scens) associated with flowering ash Fraxi( ­ The great natural and scenic interest of nus ornus), juniper, blackthorn, hawthorn this area within the municipality of Baiso and firethorn. were confirmed by the classification of The vegetation of the study area is also Argille Varicolori del Casale (the Multi- locally characterised by the presence of coloured Clays of Casale) and ravines extensive populations of Scots pine (Pinus within the sites of geological interest of Sylvestris), which shows good vegetative the Emilia-Romagna region and within the vigour and tends to concentrate mainly at UNESCO MAB (Man and the Biosphere) lower altitudes along the valleys, sometimes area. This led to the drafting of a social and giving rise to almost pure Scots pine forests. environmental enhancement proposal, i.e. Scots pines are also present, although to a a landscape project intended as a tourism- much lesser extent, in very localised nuclei nature-education development project of within sub-mountainous oak forests. the territory under question, based on its geological, geomorphological, paleontologi- The mining paths of Baiso clays cal, botanical and historical features. The European network of minor routes Figure 8: Tower House at Colombaia. The multidisciplinary study "The mining (i.e. local paths and existing trails) cross- paths of Baiso clays" (Cervi et al., 2018) was ing all the territory under study is the main the Reggio Apennines territory led to the economic boom of the district during the 1960s, when raw material for the ceramic tile production began to be sourced locally, mainly within the Carpineti, Baiso and Castellarano municipal areas. The mining industry, which produced locally relevant morphological changes still visible today, also led to the economic and social devel- opment of the so-called "Ceramicland", i.e. a key international benchmark for ceramic tile manufacturing. A further highlight of the local economy of Baiso that results in an anthropic land- scape is tied to mixed-grass fodder mead- ows surrounded by linear hedges. The local- ised presence of rural farming settlements, sometimes characterised by buildings of historical and cultural interest, marks the landscape, as in the case of tower houses (Figure 8) found in the hamlets of Colom- baia and Fontanella (Cervi, 1982,2009).

Vegetation of the area

The vegetation structure that character- izes the study area lies within the framework Figure 9: Topographic map of proposed trail routes in the area. Red dots indicate points of interest, light of sub-mountainous oak forests, typical of blue shows abandoned mining areas featured along the Ca’ vai route (yellow, 4.1 km) and Il Monte the median Emilian Apennine belt. The route (blue, 4.4 km). (Cervi et al., 2018).

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 51 tool enabling the enhancement of environ- gully ridges close to polychrome outcrops centre of the mining sites included mental peculiarities related even to derelict of clays, which are characterised by par- in the Mining Park of Baiso clays. mining areas. To this end, six main routes ticularly bright colours (ranging from dark The centre could offer a wide range have been identified, easily accessible to brown to purple and brick pink). The route, of educational activities linked to the everyone, leading to the main geological, built on clay soil, often features calcareous theme of clay and highlights of natu- geomorphological, landscape and natu- outcrops covered by a manganese layer, or ral highlights, described in special cards more occasionally a few typical minerals, ral and cultural tourism. Finally, the providing information on the natural and including Marcasite, fibrous calcite nodules, presence of large flat surfaces makes it man-made history of the sites. rocky sandstone blocks embedded in clay suitable for tourist and sports events. The Ca’ Vai Route (Figure 9, yellow) is and rarely baryte (barium sulphate). The two sites are connected by secondary the most significant path from the geologi- A further relevant trail is the 4.4 km il roads (Figure 9), thus making the various cal point of view: it allows visitors to fully Monte route (Figure 9, blue) connecting the spatial contexts accessible also by means appreciate the geological characteristics of two decommissioned mining sites known of shuttle buses. These routes are also the Giorgella River Basin, with reference as Il Monte and Castagneto (see Province valuable for local development and tour- also to the quarries that were located there. mining plan, https://www.provincia.re.it/ ism purposes. They will be equipped with The 4.1 km trail starts from the hamlet of page.asp?IDCategoria=701&IDSezione= tourist signs providing a description of the Casale and by following the local north- 4329&ID=86218), featuring two quarries: highlights of the places to be visited, charac- bound path visitors will soon reach the terised by a stunning view, allowing visitors watershed that overlooks the breathtaking • The former Monte Quarry is config- to fully grasp the key aspects of the Baiso scenery of the Baiso geological site of poly- ured as an exceptional open-air class- mining, cultural and historical landscape. chrome clays, among the most significant room for understanding the specific In conclusion, the study allowed us to geological sites nationwide. This stretch characteristics of the mining sites of describe and map the key landscape, envi- ronmental and geological futures of the offers several interesting botanical and clay used in the ceramic tile district. territory of Baiso, identifying a network geological landscape highlights, including It also offers a natural environment, the stunning view of the Giorgella River of paths enhancing the landmarks of the great scenic attraction and a unique gully, featuring its characteristic outstand- area. The study thus provides the basis ing sequence of erosive forms of grey and opportunity for better understand- for the creation of a new Mining Park of polychrome clays. The unmistakable sand- ing the complex reality of Emilian Baiso clays, which is under consideration stone spire of Mount Valestra, a true land- Mesozoic clays. for inclusion in the UNESCO MAB area mark, stands out in the background. • The former Castagneto Quarry, and in Protected Landscape of the hills of Immediately downstream of the south- given its characteristics and easy Reggio Emilia and the Lands of Matilde bound dirt road, previously mined clay accessibility, is an ideal place to host di Canossa. heaps form quarry squares surrounded by the planned information and tourist big boulders. The path leads to stunning

References

Bettelli, G. 1986a.Carta geologica dell'Appennino emiliano-romagnolo 1:10.000 -"Baiso” - Sezione 218120 (Geological map of Emilia-Romagna Appennine 1:10000 – Baiso – section 218120). Regione Emilia Romagna, S.EL.CA., Firenze.

Bettelli, G., Bonazzi, U., Panini, F. 1989. Schema introduttivo alla geologia delle Liguridi dell’Appennino modenese e delle aree limitrofe (Introduction scheme of liguridi complex geology of Modena Appennine and neighboring areas). Memorie della Società Geologica Italiana. , 39. 91–126.

Cervi, G. 1982. Le case a torre dell’Appennino reggiano (Tower houses of Reggio Emilia Appennine), Roma;

Cervi, G. 2009. Architettura rurale dell’alto Appennino reggiano, Reggio Emilia.

Cervi, G., Campana, G., Ghinoi, A., Papazzoni, C.A., Venturelli, A. 2018. Il percorso minerario delle argille di Baiso: una proposta per la valorizzazione turistica e ambientale del territorio (The mining paths of Baiso clays: A proposal for tourist and natural development of the territory). Report, Emilia-Romagna Region.

Scachetti, M., Bartoli, O., Bersani, D., Laurora, A., Lugli, S., Malferrari, D., Valeriani, L. 2015. Minerali della provincia di Reggio Emilia (Minerals of Reggio Emilia province). AMI (Italian Association of Mineralogy), Cremona.

Papani, G., De Nardo, M.T., Bettelli, G., Rio, D., Tellini, C. & Vernia, L., 2002. Note illustrative della Carta Geologica d’Italia alla scala 1:50.000, Foglio 218 “Castelnuovo ne’ Monti”( Explanatory note of Italian geological map scale 1:50.000, sheet 128 “Castelnuovo ne’ Monti”). Servizio Geologico, Regione Emilia-Romagna, Bologna.

Papazzoni , C.A. 2003. A pliosaurid tooth from the Argille Varicolori Formation near Castelvecchio di Prignano (Modena Province, northern Italy). Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 109(3). 563-565. DOI: 10.13130/2039-4942/5524

52 Topical - Geological heritage

Evaporite dissolution sinkholes in the Dwejra Depression, Malta

Peter Gatt*

The well-stratified Oligo-Miocene carbon- Les carbonates bien stratifiés de l’Oligo- Los carbonatos bien estratificados del oligo- ates along the western coast of Gozo Island Miocène, le long de la côte ouest de l’ile de mioceno a lo largo de la costa occidental de include four exceptionally large sinkholes Gozo comportent quatre gouffres de largeur la isla de Gozo incluyen cuatro sumideros (300 to 400 m diameter), smaller sinkholes exceptionnelle (300 à 400 mètres de diamè- excepcionalmente grandes (300 a 400 m de and natural arches, clustered within the 1 tre), des gouffres de plus petite taille et des diámetro), sumideros más pequeños y arcos km-wide Dwejra Depression. The dipping arches naturelles, groupés à l’intérieur de naturales, agrupados dentro de la depresión limestone along the rims of the sinkholes, la Dépression de Dweira, d’un kilomètre de Dwejra de 1 km de ancho. La piedra caliza dissected by faults, shows cyclic sedimen- large. Les calcaires plongeant en bordure que yace a lo largo de los bordes de los tation reflecting palaeoclimatic changes. de gouffres, morcelés par des failles, mon- sumideros, seccionada por fallas, muestra Joints have been eroded to produce natu- trent une sédimentation cyclique en rap- sedimentación cíclica que refleja cambios ral sea arches, including the iconic Azure port avec les variations paléoclimatiques. paleoclimáticos. Las articulaciones se han Window (which collapsed in 2017). The Les joints stratigraphiques ont été érodés erosionado para producir arcos marinos structural depression and sinkholes are pour créer des arches marines naturelles, naturales, incluida la icónica Azure Window linked to dissolution of subsurface evapo- incluant l'emblématique Fenêtre d'Azur (que se derrumbó en 2017). La depresión rites. The dramatic landscape comprising maltaise (engloutie en 2017). Les formes estructural y los sumideros están vincu- exceptional carbonate outcrops along cliffs, structurales, dépression et gouffres sont lados a la disolución de evaporitas sub- natural arches and circular pools and coves liées à la dissolution d’évaporites de sub- superficiales. El espectacular paisaje que formed by the flooded sinkholes in west- surface. Le paysage spectaculaire incluant comprende afloramientos excepcionales ern Gozo are a testament to past climatic des affleurements carbonatés d’exception de carbonatos a lo largo de acantilados, change and catastrophic events pertaining le long de falaises, arches naturelles, pis- arcos naturales, calas y piscinas circulares to the Earth’s geological heritage. cines circulaires et criques, formées par les formadas por sumideros inundados en el gouffres noyés dans la partie ouest de l’ile oeste de Gozo son un testimonio del cambio Gozo atteste des changements climatiques climático y de los eventos catastróficos rela- passés et des événements catastrophiques cionados con el patrimonio geológico de se rapportant à l’héritage géologique ter- la Tierra. restre.

Introduction

inkholes are widely distributed on the Earth’s surface, especially where subsurface voids are prone to develop. SGiant sinkholes measuring hundreds of metres in diameter are less common and form enigmatic features. Over 50 sinkholes with a diameter >40 m are recorded in the Maltese Islands in the Central Mediter- ranean Sea (Figure 1A). An exceptional cluster of large sinkholes are located along Western Gozo Island where they form a spectacular landscape. The area is a Natura 2000 site and is tentatively being considered as a candidate UNESCO World Heritage Site. Four giant sinkholes dominate the landscape and coastline (sinkhole diameter in brackets): Dwejra (400 m) and Berwin (300 m) sinkholes, which have their base entirely flooded by the sea, Qawra Sinkhole Figure 1: A. Location of the Malta Carbonate Platform (red shading) in Central Mediterranean and map of Maltese Islands showing location of sinkholes with diameter >40 m; B. Map of the four main * Geoscience Malta Consulting, Attard, sinkholes in western Gozo Dwejra Depression; C. Stratigraphic column of the Maltese Islands showing Malta, [email protected] average thicknesses of members and formations.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 53 up to 80 m of cyclic shallow marine sedi- mentation of the Lower Coralline Lime- stone Formation (Oligocene), capped with <10 m of the pelagic Globigerina Limestone Formation (Miocene) that draped the drowned carbonate platform (Figure 2). Gatt (2012) sub-divides the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation into 7 depositional sequences that generally coincide with the 7 lithostratigraphic members (Figure 3), whereas the Globigerina Limestone is sub- divided into 3 depositional sequences cor- responding to the lower, middle and upper members. Each depositional sequence ends with a sequence boundary (Sb) that repre- sents extensive shallowing marked by a dis- tinct shift to negative (δ18 O = -3‰) stable isotopes (Gatt et al., 2010). In the case of carbonate platforms, this represents suba- erial exposure that produces sharp bedding planes and significant changes in carbon- ate lithology. Three Rupelian (SbRu1 to SbRu3) and five Chattian (SbCh1 to SbCh5) sequence boundaries are identified as sharp and distinct bedding planes in western Gozo (Gatt, 2012). In the pelagic Globige- rina Limestone Formation, the depositional sequences end with a phosphorite bed pro- duced during marine shallowing. The geology of the sub-surface base of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation can be deduced from data of two oil wells: (1) the Naxxar-2 dry well in Malta reports Figure 2: (a) Dwejra Sinkhole (marked 1), flooded by the sea and Fungus Rock, a stack along the sinkhole loss of well circulation at the base of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation at rim; (b) Berwin Sinkhole (2) and lowest part of structural low; (c) Qawra Sinkhole (marked 3). Thick a depth between 150 to 200 m below sea black lines are normal faults along sinkhole rim, oblique to the regional east-west trending normal level. Further down the well, fluid loss is and strike-dip faults. Location of now collapsed Azure Window; (d) Maxwell sinkhole (4); (e) Scutella associated with cavernous and brecciated subrotunda pavement exposed near Berwin Sinkhole; (f) Cross-bedded limestone of the Xlendi Member limestone; (2) the Aqualta Well in eastern (location of e and f shown in photograph 2c). offshore Malta records brecciated limestone along the base of the LCL and anhydrite (300 m), infilled with Blue Clay and Qua- Stratigraphy at depths of 156 and 212 m, respectively, ternary sediments and partly flooded, and a measured from the base of the Globigerina remnant of the here named, Maxwell Sink- The Maltese Islands are the emergent Limestone. hole (150 m) (Figure 1B). The sinkholes are parts of the >200 km-wide isolated Malta The nearly vertical wall of the Qawra nested in a larger structural depression, here Carbonate Platform (Figure 1A) that Sinkhole exposes depositional sequences named the Dwejra Depression. Although aggraded >8 km of mostly carbonates 4 to 7 of the Lower Coralline Limestone the base of the sinkholes is <100 m, which since the early Mesozoic over the subsid- Formation (Figure 4). The early Chattian is less than that of deeper sinkholes (>240 m ing North African passive margin (Gatt & (depositional sequences 4 and 5) carbon- deep) in the European continent, e.g., Hran- Gluyas, 2012). The Islands consist of five ate succession comprises abundant micrite, ice Abyss (Czechia), Red Lake (Croatia), Oligo-Miocene formations (Figure 1C); the imperforate foraminifera and coral. The and Pozzo del Merro (Italy), their size, and topmost Upper Coralline Limestone Forma- overlying circa 30 m-thick depositional their clustering within about 1 km2, makes tion (UCL) and the basal Lower Coralline sequence 6 (Migra l-Ferha Member) is the sinkholes in western Gozo exceptional Limestone Formation (LCL) consist of shal- entirely exposed and marks a dramatic at the European level. low marine carbonate sediments, with the change to coralline red algae deposition, Discontinuities and differential marine latter extending to below sea-level, reaching characterised by thick beds of rhodoliths in erosion of the carbonate stratigraphy pro- a formation thickness that ranges from 200 coarse algal sand. The lower part of deposi- duced natural arches in Dwejra and Qawra to <400 m (Gatt, 2012). The range in thick- tional sequence 7 includes large cross-bed- sinkholes. A stack called Fungus Rock is ness reflects the shallowing of the carbonate ding (Figure 2f) dominated by large benthic what remains of collapsed arches. The most platform towards western Gozo (Pedley & foraminifera, especially Lepidocyclina, cor- recent arch collapse was that of the spectac- Bennett, 1985), which is the result of ante- responding to the Xlendi Member. Further ular Azure Window in March 2017, which cedent Eocene bathymetry. up the succession, Mara Member sediments was a background to epic fantasy films. The sinkholes rims above sea level expose become more micritic where the echinoid

54 Topical - Geological heritage

of metres. The gradual subsidence of the cavern roof produced the structural depres- sion with concomitant concentric faulting preserved along the rim of the Qawra Sink- hole (Figure 2c). At a later stage, large parts of the cavern roof collapsed, producing the large vertical sinkholes that cut into the dip- ping limestone of the structural depression. The upward void migration produced a considerable volume of breccia. Volume increase by bulking as well as the surface subsidence of tens of metres had to be com- pensated by the spread of breccia into the intact part of the subsurface cavern. The faults and vertical joints along the coast were susceptible to differential marine erosion, creating several natural arches in the Dwejra Depression, e.g., Azure Window and arches in Fungus Rock and Qawra Sinkhole. The growth and eventual collapse of these arches became the main process of the erosion of the rim of the sinkholes, sometimes leaving stacks behind, as in the case of Fungus Rock in the Dwejra Sink- hole, or complete collapse, as in the case of the Azure Window.

Discussion Figure 3: Depositional sequences and stratigraphic members of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation and the eight sequence boundaries (Sb) spanning the Rupelian (Ru) and Chattian (Ch) stages. Grey Circular collapse structures related to shading indicates depositional sequences exposed in the Dwejra Depression. carbonate or evaporite dissolution have been widely reported in the Mediterra- nean. Most of the sinkholes in the Mal- tese Islands are karst features created by carbonate dissolution along major joints, rooted in the horizontally-bedded Upper and Lower Coralline Limestone forma- tions. The two limestone formations have enough compressive and tensile strength to support large caverns. The accessible, larger intact cave systems in Malta (Figure 1A) are also found in these two formations Figure 4: Dipping beds and faults along the Qawra Sinkhole western rim and natural arch that allowed and are characterised by narrow (<30 m) partial flooding of the sinkhole. Red lines mark sequence boundaries between sequences 6 to 8. Inset and long (<150 m) geometry controlled by jointing. When the caverns reach a critical shows Azure Window prior to its collapse in March 2017. size between 40 to <250 m-wide as a result of carbonate dissolution, the cavern roof scutella subrotunda forms dense pavements step down into the structural low (Figure collapses, forming a sinkhole. exposed in the area between the Berwin and 2c), with antithetic faults developing in The sinkholes in the Dwejra Depres- Qawra sinkholes (Figure 2e). response to surficial extension (Figure 3c). sion differ from the other sinkholes in the The bedding dips 9° towards the southwest Maltese Islands for three reasons: 1) the Structural geology (Figure 4), whereas the bedding at Fungus large sinkholes are clustered together, 2) Rock, a remnant of the western rim of the the rock between the sinkholes is dipping, Bedding is generally horizontal along Dwejra Sinkhole, dips 9° north. and 3) the size of the depression is indica- the cliffed coastline of Gozo, except along The structural low, here named the tive of the development of a much larger the rim of the sinkholes in western Gozo. Dwejra Depression, developed by subsid- cavern size, over 1 km wide. These factors Structure contours of the top Lower Cor- ence that produced surface extension. The suggest a mechanism responsible for the alline Limestone confirm that a structural depression is 1 km wide, although its axial Dwejra Depression that differed from that low is centred over Berwin Sinkhole (Figure length is mostly submerged and may extend for other sinkholes in the Maltese Islands, 1B and 2b). Faults in the structural low are to Maxwell Sinkhole and to ta’ Harrax, east formed by the post-Miocene dissolution of oblique to the regional normal and strike- of Dwejra Sinkhole. The Dwejra Depression limestone. The clustering and large-sized dip faults which trend east-west. Normal suggests the development of a large subsur- sinkholes in the Dwejra Depression of Gozo faults along the rim of the Qawra Sinkhole face chamber with a roof span of hundreds resemble those found in the offshore East-

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 55 ern Mediterranean formed by the dissolu- tion of Messinian evaporites which can be >1 km wide (Bertoni & Cartwright, 2005). However, Messinian evaporites are absent over the Maltese Islands and their shelf area (Gatt, 2007). A deeper, underlying mecha- nism for sinkhole formation linked to the Cenozoic geometry of the Malta Carbonate Platform is proposed. Western Gozo was a bathymetric high of the Malta Carbonate Platform during the Miocene, when it was subject to erosion by strong currents (Pedley & Bennett, 1985). During the Palaeogene, the same area expe- rienced episodes of subaerial exposure. The base of the LCL coincides with the Oligo- cene-Eocene boundary which correlates to evaporites that were widespread in North Africa and produced during regional arid climatic conditions (Gerdes et al., 2010). The Maltese well data supports deposi- tion of extensive evaporites at this level as evidenced by brecciated limestone from collapsed caverns and anhydrite in Naxxar and Aqualta wells. Western Gozo may have experienced sabkha-type of environments during Late Eocene subaerial episodes which could have produced several tens of metres of evaporites. The density and size of the sinkholes in Figure 5: Proposed development of the Dwejra Depression and sinkholes based on a NW-SE cross section. western Gozo suggest the dissolution of top Sedimentary succession at the Dwejra Depression is correlated to the Aqualta Well offshore Malta. Eocene evaporites underlying the circa 200 m-thick Lower Coralline Limestone Forma- the horizontally bedded Lower Coral- The seven depositional sequences of the tion, as the single underlying process for line Limestone Formation. Lower Coralline Limestone Formation the formation of the Dwejra Depression. are interpreted as having formed during 2. The subsidence of the limestone over Evaporite salt beds are prone to dissolu- third-order sea-level cycles of circa 1.2 tion by infiltration of undersaturated water, the cavern created concentric faults Ma duration, controlled by the waning especially during prolonged sea-level draw- and dipping forming the structural and waxing of the Antarctic ice sheet, downs, as happened during the Messinian low. The load was diminished by ero- when the Earth had a unipolar ice-sheet. salinity crisis. sion, especially of the softer Blue Clay The changes in biota and level of micrite The cavern roof collapses when it reaches and Globigerina Limestone forma- up the succession are interpreted as sug- a critical thickness (t) and the cavern tions. gesting shallow marine to restricted con- reaches a critical width (w). Studies on 3. Continued subsidence and evaporite ditions during depositional sequences 4 sinkholes found that the stability of cav- dissolution welded the Lower Coral- and 5, when oligotrophic sea conditions erns generally followed the relationship t = stimulated high carbonate production. line Limestone with the top Eocene 0.7 w (Waltham et al., 2005). Based on this Depositional sequence 6 suggests deeper, relationship, the 300-metre-wide Qawra carbonates. Holocene sea-level rise moderate energy, open marine and meso- Sinkhole would have collapsed when the flooded the cavern and saturated the trophic conditions. The sequence abruptly cavern roof thickness beneath it dimin- limestone, causing a reduction in its changes along SbCH4 to shallow, high ished to circa <200 m, which is the entire strength, already weakened by fault- energy, open marine deposits in the lower thickness of the Lower Coralline Limestone ing and jointing. Parts of the cavern part of depositional sequence 7. Further up, Formation. roof collapsed to form the four large sea-level deepened. The lithological changes A three-stage development of the Dwejra sinkholes in the Dwejra Depression. are interpreted as resulting from meridional Depression through time is proposed The breccia produced spread into the climatic shifts in North Africa which was (Figure 5): relatively dry during depositional sequences intact parts of the subsurface cavern. 4, 5 and 7, but became more humid during 1. During the Pleistocene glacial period, The rim of the sinkholes preserves the depositional sequences 6 and 8, result- sea level was 120 m below present, the dipping bedding of the Dwejra ing in greater continental fluvial discharge which would have exposed evapo- Depression. Most of the Globigerina of nutrients into the Neotethys, creating a rites along the Eocene-Oligocene Limestone has been eroded from the mesotrophic sea where coralline red algae boundary to freshwater dissolution. Dwejra Depression, and an outlier of (Migra l-Ferha Member) could thrive (Gatt The dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite transported Blue Clay is preserved in & Gluyas, 2012). Eventually, the carbonate formed an incipient cavern beneath the Qawra Sinkhole. platform was drowned during eutrophic

56 Topical - Geological heritage

marine conditions that deposited sporadic • The limestone depositional sequences have occurred by infiltration of mete- phosphates, and later draped with pelagic exposed along the sinkhole walls oric water during the Messinian sea- sediment of the Globigerina Limestone show cyclic sea-level changes that level drawdown. Formation (Gatt et al., 2009). throw light on the Oligocene pal- • The concentration of sinkholes nested aeoclimate. in the Dwejra Depression makes this Conclusions • The mode of formation of the sink- area an of exceptional geological her- holes in limestone is related to sub- itage at the European level. • The size of the sinkholes in western surface evaporite dissolution unlike Gozo exceeds 300 m diameter. The the other sinkholes in the Maltese sinkholes are clustered within the 1 Islands which are the result of lime- km-wide structural depression, here stone dissolution. named the Dwejra Depression. • The dissolution of evaporites could

References

Bertoni, C. & Cartwright, J. 2005. 3D seismic analysis of circular evaporite dissolution structures, Eastern Mediterranean. Journal of the Geological Society, 162. 909–926.

Gatt, P. 2007. Controls on Plio-Quaternary foreland sedimentation in the region of the Maltese Islands. Bolletino della societa geologica italiana, 126(1).119–129.

Gatt, P., Tucker, M. & Davies, R. 2009. Drowning of the Malta carbonate platform: facies and sequence stratigraphy of the Lower Coralline Limestone (U. Oligocene). In: V. Pascucci & S. Andreucci (eds.) Sedimentary Environments of Mediterranean Islands, Conference abstract book, 27th IAS Meeting of Sedimentology, Alghero, Italy, p. 181.

Gatt, P., Tucker, M. & Armstrong, H. 2010. Climatic Controls on Porosity in Subtropical Carbonate Platform Reservoirs. In: J. Gar- land, J. Neilson, S. Laubach & K. Whidden (eds.) Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis, Petroleum Group Conference Abstract book, Geological Society, London, pp. 125–126.

Gatt, P. 2012. Carbonate facies, depositional sequences and tectonostratigraphy of the Palaeogene Malta Platform. University of Durham, UK: PhD thesis (available online).

Gatt, P. & Gluyas, J. 2012. Climatic controls on facies in Palaeogene Mediterranean subtropical carbonate platforms. Petroleum Geoscience, 18. 355–367. DOI: 10.1144/1354-079311-032.

Gerdes, K., Winefield, P., Simmons, M. & Van Oosterhout, C. 2010. The influence of basin architecture and eustacy on the evolu- tion of Tethyan Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonate sequences. In: F. van Buchem, K. Gerdes & M. Esteban (eds). Mesozoic and Cenozoic Carbonate Systems of the Mediterranean and the Middle East: Stratigraphic and Diagenetic Reference Models. London: Geological Society, Special Publications 329, pp. 9– 41. DOI: 10.1144/SP329.2.

Pedley, H. & Bennett, S. 1985. Phophorites, hardgrounds and syndepostional solution subsidence: A palaeoenvironmental model from the Miocene of the Maltese Islands. Sedimentary Geology, 45. 1–34.

Waltham, T., Bell, F. & Culshaw, M. 2005. Sinkholes and Subsidence. Chichester: Praxis Publishing Ltd.

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 57 Unearthing Europe’s Bronze Age mining heritage with tin isotopes: a case study from Central Europe

W. Powell1*, R. Mathur2, J. John3, M. Price4, H.A. Bankoff5, M. Tisucká6, L. Godfrey7

Being exclusively placer-based, evidence of Etant exclusivement d’origine alluvionnaire, Al estar exclusivamente basado en sitios prehistoric tin mining in Europe was erased l’évidence d’exploitation minière d’étain en puntuales, la evidencia de la minería pre- rapidly in the fluvial environment. Circum- Europe fut rapidement effacée dans un con- histórica de estaño en Europa se borró rápi- stantial evidence has suggested that the tin texte environnemental fluvial. Une preuve damente en el entorno fluvial. La evidencia ores of the Erzgebirge along the German- circonstancielle a suggéré que les mines circunstancial ha sugerido que los minerales Czech border were exploited in the Bronze d’étain de l’Erzgebirge, le long de la frontière de estaño del Erzgebirge a lo largo de la Age. To investigate this further, tin ores germano-tchèque, furent exploitées pen- frontera germano-checa fueron explota- from the three Erzgebirge plutons, as well dant l’Age de Bronze. Une investigation plus dos en la Edad de Bronce. Para investigar as Cornwall, were isotopically characterized poussée dévoile que les mines d’étain des esto más a fondo, los minerales de estaño and compared with the Sn isotopic composi- trois massifs plutoniques de l’Erzgebirge, de los tres plutones Erzgebirge, así como tion of Bronze Age tin-bearing artifacts from de même que celles de Cornouailles furent Cornwall, fueron caracterizados y compara- the region. After accounting for isotopic caractérisées du point de vue isotopique dos isotópicamente con la composición fractionation associated with the smelting et comparées – composition isotopique de isotópica del estaño de los artefactos de process, a probabilistic approach indicates l’étain - avec les artefacts à étain de l’Age de la región en la Edad del Bronce. Después that at the transition to the Middle Bronze Bronze de la région. D’après les données de considerar el fraccionamiento isotópico Age, the predominant mining center was the de la fracturation isotopique associée à un asociado con el proceso de fundición, un Central Pluton, but mining activity shifted processus de fusion, une approche à l’aide enfoque probabilístico indica que, en la to the Western Pluton for the remainder of de probabilités indique qu’au moment de transición a la Edad del Bronce Media, the Bronze Age. la transition vers l’Age de Bronze, le cœur el centro minero predominante era en el de l’exploitation minière correspondait au Plutón Central, pero la actividad minera massif plutonique central mais les activi- se trasladó al Plutón Occidental durante el tés minières se déplacèrent ensuite pour resto de la Edad del Bronce. occuper le Massif ouest, durant la période restante de l’Age de Bronze.

Introduction Since the invention of extractive metal- matic conditions. Weathering and fluvial lurgy in the Balkans 7,000 years ago, human processes associated with Europe’s tem- he discovery and characterization technological and social development has perate to Alpine climate produced placer of mineral resources remains a cor- been inextricably tied to the availability tin deposits from the natural breakdown nerstone of applied Earth Science. of mineral resources, as is evident in the of bedrock ores. Being easier to work and T fundamental three-age system of European requiring fewer resources, placer deposits 1 Department of Earth and Environmental prehistory: Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron were exploited rather than the nearby bed- Science, Brooklyn College – CUNY, Age. However, much of Europe’s ancient rock ores from which they were derived. 2 Department of Geology, Juniata College mining heritage remains to be discovered. Unfortunately, the wooden tools associated 3 Department of Archaeology, University Extensive bedrock mining of European with sluicing and panning are unlikely to of South Bohemia copper, dating as far back as the Eneolithic be preserved, and the mining process itself 4 Department of Anthropology and (ca. 5000 BC), has been documented in leaves only ephemeral scars (Tolksdorf et Archaeology, Brooklyn College 5 Serbia and Bulgaria. Although extensive al., 2019). Consequently, the archaeologi- Department of Prehistory and Antiquity, subsurface and open pit tin mines dating cal record of early tin mining in Europe National Museum in Prague to the Bronze Age have been documented has been largely erased in dynamic fluvial 6 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University in arid regions of Iran, Central Asia, and environments. * [email protected] Central Turkey, such mines are absent in Lead isotopes have been used in archaeo- Europe. This is due to the contrasting cli- logical studies of copper ore provenance for

58 Topical - Geological heritage

decades, given that Pb isotope compositions can indicate potential ore sources based on the age of the ore from which the metal was smelted. Although this approach has been used successfully to link Late Bronze Age tin ingots from the eastern Mediter- ranean with Variscan ores (Berger et al., 2019), Pb isotopes cannot be applied to tin provenance studies for bronze, for which the signature is derived from the volu- metrically predominant copper ore. The recent development of analytical techniques for the measurement of tin isotope com- position has been considered a promising means for approaching tin ore provenance and thereby determining mining practices associated with the prehistoric production of tin bronze. Recent studies of tin ores and tin-bear- ing artifacts from Central Europe and the Mediterranean suggest that multiple tin sources were in use across Europe in the Late Bronze Age, including those of Corn- wall and the Erzgebirge (Berger et al., 2019; Nessel et al., 2019). However, confidently assigning ore provenance has been con- sidered problematic due to the extensive compositional overlap between metallifer- ous regions, with the geological processes Figure 1: Granitic plutons of the Erzgebirge region. Named sites on this map refer to sites from which that produced this extensive fractionation cassiterite samples were obtained. being undocumented. Although there are 29 radioactive iso- topes of tin, none have half-lives long enough for geological time frames; 126Sn has the longest half-life of 100,000 years. So, unlike Pb, there is no age dependence in the Sn system. A given mining region is likely to have similar bulk average Sn isotopic compositions inherited from the source rocks from which the tin granites were derived, and the partitioning of Sn between the magma and the residual rock during anatexis. However, isotopic variation Figure 2: Rib ingots from the hoard at Habří, South Bohemia. between deposits or ore zones may result from fractionation during ore genesis. fluids with lower δ124Sn values (Wang et the mining of Erzgebirge placers. Archaeo- Precipitation of cassiterite requires the al., 2019). Thus, ores formed at shallower logical evidence of prehistoric mining of oxidation of tin from Sn2+ to Sn4+, and the depths at which boiling is possible will these ores has been mostly circumstantial, stronger bonding environment associated exhibit greater degrees of Sn fractiona- based on the spatial association of placer tin with oxidized tin favors the heavier iso- tion (Wang et al., 2019). These processes sources with clusters of Early Bronze Age topes (Yao et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019). may lead to isotopic fingerprints of related Únětice culture and Late Bronze Age Lausitz Thus, redox-related Raleigh fractionation ore bodies that would match that of their culture settlement sites. However, a recent results in the progressive enrichment of derived metals. geoarchaeological study documented direct lighter isotopes over time (Yao et al., 2018). evidence of placer mining near Altenberg in Thus, small, rapidly formed ores would be A case study in Central Europe the early second millennium BC (Tolksdorf expected to have more homogenous iso- et al., 2019). topic compositions, whereas larger deposits The Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) of The Carboniferous granites (330-295 Ma) in which the reaction front had advanced Saxony and Bohemia is a classic ore local- that are associated with tin mineralization significantly over time would likely exhibit ity that hosts both copper and tin miner- in the Erzgebirge include the fault-dissected a more heterogeneous and zoned isotopic alization. In this region, tin mining (both Western pluton, the poorly exposed Cen- signature. Evolution of a vapor during ore bedrock and placer) has been documented tral pluton, and the Eastern pluton (Figure formation also induces fractionation of tin as far back as the 12th century at Ehrenfried- 1). The granitic magmas were produced isotopes, resulting in enrichment of heavier ersdorf and Altenberg, and Agricola’s De from the late syn-collisional melting of isotopes in the vapor, leaving the residual Re Metallica (1556) includes references to Sn-enriched sedimentary rocks derived

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 59 ples (predominantly single crystals from the collection of the American Museum of Natural History) from the Erzgebirge and 14 from Cornwall were added to the dataset of Haustein et al. (2010) for a total of 89 samples from the Erzgebirge (38 from the West Pluton; 16 from the Central Pluton; 35 from the East Pluton), and 41 from Cornwall. Cassiterite samples were digested following the procedure of Mathur et al. (2017). Bronze Age copper ingots in the shape of ribs (Figure 2) are widespread mainly in southern Germany, Upper Austria and South Bohemia. Specifically, more than 40 hoards of these ingots are known in the South Bohemian region. Copper ribs are found almost exclusively in hoards, which usually contain tens, but sometimes hun- dreds of ribs. The largest hoard so far was found in Oberding in Upper Bavaria in 2014 and contained 796 ingots. The precise chronological definition of rib ingots occurrence is difficult, as hoards generally do not contain any types of chronologically sensitive artifacts. In gen- eral, their occurrence can be expected in the later phase of the Early Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, according to the Central European chronol- ogy A2 and B1 periods. The weight of the rib bars has a relatively large dispersion, but on average it is around 100 grams. The rib ingots have a relatively varied elemental composition, sometimes including tin (up to 3%) and, in rare cases, large amounts of lead (up to 38%). In this study, 30 rib ingots from five Bohemian hoards (Habří, Kroclov, Kučeř, Slavč, Veselíčko) with a range of 0.4 to 3.5 wt% Sn were analyzed. In addition, 17 later bronze items (BrB to HaA) including pins, wires, bracelets, and axes from museum collections in České Budějovice, Prague, and Salzburg were analyzed. Samples were Figure 3: Histograms of δ124Sn values for cassiterite and bronze samples. (a through d) Histograms in obtained either by drilling with cobalt- yellow, and model curves for the cassiterite data the black curve is the 50% quantile density for each tipped bits or cutting with cubic boron 124 δ Sn value across posterior samples, blue bands mark the ±2.5% quantile density. (e) Histograms nitride cutting wheels, after the patina was of bronzes from two time periods of the Bronze Age. MBA=Middle Bronze Age; LBA=Late Bronze Age; removed. Approximately 0.02-0.1g of each n=number of samples. bronze sample was digested in ultrapure

aqua regia (3ml HCl, 1ml HNO3) to which from the erosion of Gondwana (Romer & Here we focus on the Erzgebirge and its 0.02ml HF was added. Samples were heated Kroner, 2016). Mineralization is predomi- potential exploitation at two points in pre- at 90°C for 6 hours in enclosed Teflon con- nantly associated with greisens and, to a history: the later phase of the Early Bronze tainers. lesser extent, vein systems. Tectonic tilting Age and at the beginning of the Middle A small aliquot of each sample solution of the section resulted in larger, more deeply Bronze Age (Reinecke BrA2 to BrB1, c. was dried and the redigested solutions were eroded, predominantly S-type plutons being 1900–1500 BC); the latter Late Bronze Age purified using the ion exchange chromatog- exposed in the southwest, and smaller, (Reinecke BrB2 to HaA, c. 1500-1000 BC). raphy described in Balliana et al. (2013). A-type, volcanic-associated plutons to the Given their proximity and size, deposits of Samples were measured on the Isoprobe northeast (Breiter, 2012). Such variation the Erzgebirge and Cornwall are the most MC-ICPMS at the University of Arizona in geological setting would be expected to likely sources of tin at this time. and the Neptune MC-ICPMS at Rutgers be associated with variation in Sn isotopic To characterize the ores, the isotopic University within 24 hours of digestion. composition between the plutons. composition of 43 new cassiterite sam- Solutions were measured and corrected

60 Topical - Geological heritage

3e). This indicates a change in tin ore source from the Early-Middle Bronze Age transi- tion to the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Given that there is a compositional over- lap between the four localities, a probabil- istic approach was adopted. Figure 4 plots posterior probability bands as a function of δ124Sn value assuming the prior prob- ability of all four sources are equal (0.25). The probability bands in Figure 4 apply to single observations. In order to assign provenance probabilities to assemblages of artifacts, which consist of multiple observa- tions with differing δ124Sn values, we imple- mented a model in which all artifacts were assumed to originate from the same source. The likelihood that each source gave rise to the assemblage was calculated, averaged across Bayesian samples of the cassiterite densities. Assuming, as before, that each source has the same prior likelihood, the posterior likelihood is proportional to these averaged likelihoods, normalized such that the posterior likelihood sums to one.

Kazenas et al. (1996) noted that SnO2 evaporates at a noticeable rate above Figure 4: (a) Posterior probability bands as a function of δ124Sn value assuming the prior probability 1225°C, a process likely to induce fractiona- of all four sources is equal. (b) Isotopic composition of bronze artifacts corrected for smelt-associated tion. Furnace-based casting experiments fractionation (-0.2‰). at 1100–1200°C documented a 0.5‰ per amu shift in composition along the surface Table 1. Probability of derivation of tin from groups of artifacts from a single ore source. due to selective evaporation of lighter iso- topes of tin (Yamazaki et al., 2014). Based Provenance Probability Artifact Smelt on cassiterite smelting experiments, Berger Assemblage Fractionation West Pluton Central Pluton East Pluton Cornwall et al. (2019) concluded that a negative shift of 0.25 ‰ per amu in the composition of EBA-MBA 0.0 0.0% 0.6% 0.7% 98.7% tin-bearing artifacts is required before EBA-MBA 0.2 0.0% 99.8% 0.2% 0.0% comparisons are made with isotopic com- MBA-LBA 0.0 87.4% 11.0% 1.6% 0.0% positions of ores in order to compensate for smelting induced fractionation. Accord- MBA-LBA 0.2 99.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ingly, the provenance probability model was run using the measured δ124Sn isotopic for mass bias as described in Mathur et al. the black curve is the 50% quantile density values of artifacts, as well as measured δ124S (2017). Data are presented relative to the for each δ124Sn value across posterior sam- minus 0.2‰ (124/116, 8 amu). The results NIST 3161A Sn standard (Lot# 07033) in ples and the blue bands mark the +/-2.5% are shown in Table 1. per mil notation defined as: quantile density. Although there is sub- Assuming that the tin for the Middle to stantial overlap between sites, variations Late Bronze Age artifacts from the Czech in mean and range are evident. As was pre- Republic and Austria was derived from dicted based on the geological setting of the one of the four tin sources studied here, three plutons of the Erzgebirge, the deeper there is a high probability that the ore was Whole procedural 1σ errors for analysis level ores of the West Pluton exhibit the associated with the West Pluton of the are δ124Sn= 0.08‰. lowest degree of fractionation (Figure 3d), Erzgebirge (99.9% with -0.2‰ correction; Histograms of the Sn isotopic compo- and the East Pluton tends to higher values 87.4% without correction). The Sn isotopic sitions of cassiterite from these four sites of δ124Sn (Figure 3b). The isotopic compo- composition of the older rib ingots indicate are illustrated in Figure 3 as bar graphs. sition of Cornwall and the East Pluton are that the associated tin was sourced from a Model curves for the cassiterite data were similar (Figure 3a and b), although Corn- different site. If one includes the correction calculated using a Bayesian framework by wall tends toward slightly higher values. for evaporative loss during smelting, then sampling for the parameters of a three- The two groups of bronze artifacts from the model indicates that there is a 99.8% component Gaussian mixture density using Central Europe exhibit distinct isotopic probability that the tin ore was derived from the Stan programming language (https:// distributions. The older rib ingots have a the Erzgebirge Central Pluton. If, however, mc-stan.org/users/citations/) called with modal peak of δ124Sn 0.65‰ and a positively the uncorrected value is used, the model the rstan R package, a platform for statisti- skewed distribution, whereas the group of indicates a 98.7% probability that the tin cal modeling and statistical computation younger artifacts have a δ124Sn mode of was of British origin. Given that there is no (https://www.R-project.org/). In Figure 3, 0.4‰ and are negatively skewed (Figure archaeological evidence for a strong trading

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 61 connection between Britain and Bohemia ing induced fractionation is considered this correction factor should be used in in the late Early Bronze Age, the Central more likely. This would provide empirical future Sn provenance studies. Pluton provenance associated with the evidence to support the experiment-based 0.25‰ per amu correction factor for smelt- conclusion of Berger et al. (2019), and that

References

Balliana, E., Aramendía, M., Resano, M., Barbante, C., & Vanhaecke, F. 2013. Copper and tin isotopic analysis of ancient bronzes for archaeological investigation: development and validation of a suitable analytical methodology. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 405. 2973-2986. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6542-1

Berger, D., Soles, J.S., Giumlia-Mair, A.R., Brugmann, G., Galili, E., Lockhoff, N., & Pernicka, E. 2019. Isotope systematics and chemical composition of tin ingots from Mochlos (Crete) and other Late Bronze Age sites in the eastern Mediterranean Sea: An ultimate key to tin provenance? PLOS One, 14. e0218326. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218326

Breiter, K. 2012. Nearly contemporaneous evolution of the A- and S-type fractionated granites in the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge Mts., Central Europe. Lithos, 151. 105-121. DOI: 10.1016/j.lithos.2011.09.022

Kazenas, E., Bol’shikh, M., & Petrov, A. 1996. Thermodynamics of processes of vaporization, dissociation, and gas-phase reactions in vapors over tin-oxygen system. Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk. Metally, 3. 23–29.

Mathur, R., Powell, W., Mason, A., Godfrey, L., Yao, J.M., & Baker M. 2017. Preparation and Measurement of Cassiterite for Sn Isotope Analysis. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 41. 701-707. DOI: 10.1111/ggr.12174

Nessel, B., Brugmann, G., & Pernicka, E. 2019. Tin isotope ratios in Early and Middle Bronze Age bronzes from Central and south- eastern Europe. The Journal of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, 2. 1-11.

Tolksdorf, J., Schröder, F., Petr, L., Herbig, C., Kaiser, K., Kočár, P., Fülling, A., Heinrich, S., Hönig, H., & Hemker, C. 2019. Evidence for Bronze Age and Medieval tin placer mining in the Erzgebirge mountains, Saxony (Germany). Geoarchaeology, DOI: 10.1002/ gea.21763

Wang, D., Mathur, M., Powell, W., Godfrey, L., & Zheng, Y. 2019. Experimental Evidence for Fractionation of Tin Chlorides by Redox and Vapor Mechanisms. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 250. 209-218. DOI: 10.1016/j.gca.2019.02.022

Yamazaki, E., Nakai, S., Sahoo, Y., Yokoyama, T., Mifune, H., Saito, T., Chen, J., Takagi, N., Hokanishi, N., & Yasuda, A. 2014. Feasibil- ity studies of Sn isotope composition for provenancing ancient bronzes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 52. 458-467. DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2014.09.014

Yao, J., Mathur, R., Powell, W., Lehmann, B., Tornos, F., Wilson, M., & Ruiz, J. 2018. Sn-Isotope Fractionation as a Record of Hydro- thermal Redox Reactions. American Mineralogist, 103. 1591–1598. DOI: 10.2138/am-2018-6524

62 EFG Strategic Plan 2018-2022 Towards a sustainable future

1. EFG Members 2. EFG Network Developing and maintaining a strong EFG Member network Participation in the global • To network for sharing knowledge, good practices community and maintaining and experience international networks • To disseminate policymaker agendas to National Associations (NAs) • To participate in initiatives contributing to European policies on geosciences issues • To facilitate information flow between Members and policymakers • To enhance cooperation with international geoscience organisations • To represent geologists • To promote the global mobility of professional geologists

3. Professional expertise 4. EFG Projects Promotion of geoscience professional excellence Participation in EU and • To promote the EurGeol title and uphold the status international funded projects of professional titles • To participate in funded projects to expand the net- • To support the development and expansion of the work and EFG’s capacity to influence policymakers Competent Person concept • To diversify income streams • To promote Continuing Professional Development, supporting geoscientific education and high-quality training • To promote professional specialisation and public access to registers of geoscience experts • To support early career geoscientists 6. Panels of Experts • To ensure monitoring of and strict disciplinary control over professional practice Provision of independent, reliable information on geoscientific issues • To provide information to policymakers that is au- thoritative and objective 5. EFG Communication • To become the European organisation of reference on the professional practice of geoscience Accessible communication of geosciences and outreach • To create public awareness of the importance of geoscience to society by promoting public out- reach and understanding of geosciences • To communicate transparently to National Associations and other audiences

European Federation of Geologists European Geologist 48 | November 2019 63 The voice of European Geologists www.eurogeologists.eu News corner: Compiled by Anita Stein, EFG Office

EFG welcomes Glen Burridge as on subsurface energy projects, where he its new Executive Director developed a reputation as a trusted voice on technical excellence, project governance On 1st October 2019 Glen Burridge took and capability development. up the role of the Executive Director of the In recent years, he has driven several European Federation of Geologists (EFG), cross-industry efforts concerning risk and succeeding Isabel Fernández Fuentes. the use of geological models, including “As someone passionate about gaining three recent pioneering conferences for greater recognition for the importance of the Geological Society of London: Sharing earth science – and the role of the geologist an Uncertain World: Lessons in Managing in telling that story – I’m delighted to have Risk, Managing Risks across the Mining and the rare opportunity to join an organisa­ O&G Lifecyle and 4D Subsurface Model- tion at the heart of shaping that message ling: Predicting the Future. in Europe both through its professional and He has a diverse background, having pean Association of Geoscientists & Engi- project activities. I look forward to working worked across the spectrum of geosciences neers (EAGE) and co-founded the Geome- with our national association members and for a number of international oil & gas chanics Technical Section of the Society of EFG’s incredibly dynamic Board to play our operators as well as specialist consultancies Petroleum Engineers (SPE). part in responding to the critical themes of and research institutes. His keynote talks He has a Bachelors of Science in Geo- energy transition, climate change, societal at international conferences have tackled physics from the University of Edinburgh engagement and raw materials supply firmly topics as wide-ranging as novel ways of in Scotland and a Masters of Science and on Europe’s agenda.” Glen Burridge, new viewing resource exploration risk and the Diplôme d’ingénieur in Petroleum Geo- Executive Director, EFG future of geomechanics as a discipline to science from IFP’s Ecole du Pétrole et des Glen brings to this multi-national organi- the human factor in geomodelling and the Moteurs in Paris. He has lived and worked sation more than 20 years of global experi- importance of intercultural competence. in multiple locations across Europe, North ence as a geologist and management advisor Glen is a Platinum member of the Euro- Africa, Middle East, India and Australia.

Federation thanks Isabel sustainable development in Europe. With Fernández Fuentes for this target in mind, she has recently taken outstanding contribution up the role of Project coordinator of the CROWDTHERMAL project on behalf of To embark on new professional adven- EFG, which kicked off during September, tures, Isabel Fernández Fuentes has moved and so she will firmly remain part of the back to Seville in Spain at the end of Sep- EFG network. tember after managing EFG’s Brussels office Isabel is excited about this new career for more than 17 years. step and looks back on her longstanding Isabel began her professional career with role as the EFG Executive Director: a decade in applied research, implementing “It has been a real privilege managing geophysical technologies for the Spanish the EFG office over these years. EFG is a ministry of public construction. She set up continuous source of learning, which has the EFG office in Brussels in the early 2000s, helped me to understand the European pro- European and Belgian colleagues, an event establishing its credentials at the heart of ject with its challenges, but also opportuni- which also enabled Glen Burridge to be offi- Europe and developing crucial links with ties, to share experiences and understand cially introduced to EFG’s Brussels network. the EU institutions. what unites us across Europe and beyond.” On this occasion of change of Executive In the next instalment of her career, EFG took the opportunity to thank Director, the EFG Board and staff wish the she intends to unite these two elements, Isabel for her outstanding contribution to greatest of success to both Isabel and Glen focusing on coordinating projects which the organisation during a festive reception in their new endeavours! contribute to the energy transition and on 25 September attended by dozens of her

64 News

EFG releases position paper on means to achieve those ambitious targets. the energy transition Based on the expertise that professional geologists provide, EFG believes geothermal On 20 June 2019 the European Federa- energy (both shallow and deep geothermal),

tion of Geologists (EFG) released its posi- CO2 capture, and mineral extraction are tion paper on the energy transition. As part of the answer to the challenges set out Europe is accelerating the transition from by the climate crisis. All three geological fossil fuels to renewable energy to meet the activity areas are developed in EFG’s posi- goals set by the ratified Paris Agreement on tion paper that can be downloaded here: climate, the EU will need to develop the http://bit.ly/2XVOQip

Bill Gaskarth receives EFG Bill, as he is universally known, was Medal of Merit appointed as GSL’s first Chartership Officer in 2009 and was pivotal to the development In recognition of his major contribution and strengthening of the Chartership pro- to the development and wide recognition cess within the Geological Society. In the of the status of professional geologists both light of his long-term commitment, exem- nationally and internationally, the Geologi- plified by his exceptional and distinguished cal Society of London (the Society or GSL) contribution to the geological profession, proposed Dr JW (Bill) Gaskarth for award EFG considers Dr Gaskarth to be a very of the EFG Medal of Merit in 2018. The worthy recipient of the EFG Medal of Merit. official award ceremony took place during the recent EFG Council meeting in Delft, Read more: https://eurogeologists.eu/ the Netherlands. bill-gaskarth/

EAGE/EFG photo contest 2019 the categories Geosciences for society, Congratulations to the winners and Women geoscientists, and Landscape and thanks for sharing your passion for geo- EFG and EAGE are pleased to announce environment. Thank you to all who have sciences with the public! the winners of the 2019 edition of the “Leg- participated in the contest and in the public More information: https://eage.eventsair. ends of geoscience” photo contest. We have voting that allowed us to determine the win- com/photocontest received many amazing photos depicting ners of this edition.

First prize: “The Himalayas – A Folded Second prize: “The Vinicunca Legend” by Third prize: “The Solution of the Student and Faulted Beauty Undergoing Weather- Dario Chisari Hammer in the 21st Century” by Camille ing” by Soumya Chandan Panda Thomasset "In 2016 I travelled all the way to Peru just "This photo was taken in the North of to take one single photo. This one. I think "This photo shows students of Savoie Mont India. The Himalayas were born from this peak fully deserves to be considered as Blanc University during an end-license trip extreme conditions as two continental plates a legend of geoscience. It used to be a much in Morocco. We can see here the size of the collided. These majestic mountains are a harder (6 days) hike to get all the way up to mine truck behind those brave looking stu­ geoscientist’s paradise with their folded and the Vinicunca (also known as the Rainbow dents. I have chosen this picture because we faulted structures and so many secrets unex­ Mountain). I got discouraged many times due worked hard to organise this trip and mining plored. The weathering induced by ice water to difficult meteorological conditions and a is essential nowadays for society." and wind can be clearly seen in the picture. thin layer of snow which wouldn’t have given One is simply awestruck standing in front of such a crisp image. Nowadays a new road these legendary mountains." opened up and it’s much easier to get to the top (about 3 hours). Needless to say that meteorological conditions can change here at any moment….I think that was even more than I could possibly have dreamed of for my 32nd birthday." European Geologist 48 | November 2019 65 Horizon 2020 projects secure Europe’s global competitiveness in The projects CHPM2030 and UNEXMIN the period 2014–2020. EFG is currently recently closed, but new projects have Horizon 2020 is the biggest EU research involved in five active Horizon 2020 pro- already been granted and will start soon. and innovation programme ever, with jects: INFACT, INTERMIN, MINLAND, Below you will find descriptions of the nearly €80 billion of funding available to ROBOMINERS, and CROWDTHERMAL. topics and aims of these projects.

CHPM2030 Objectives: of 3-4 km in a way that the co-production The CHPM2030 project aimed to develop of energy and metals will be possible and a novel pilot-level technology which com- may be optimised according to the market bines geothermal resource development, demands in the future. Led by the Uni- minerals extraction and electro-metallurgy versity of Miskolc, the project was imple- 654100 - CHPM in a single interlinked process. In order mented in the cooperation of 12 partners Combined Heat, Power and Metal extraction to improve the economics of geothermal from 10 European countries. from ultra-deep ore bodies energy production the project investi- START DATE: 1 January 2016 gated possible technologies of manipulat- DURATION: 42 MONTHS ing metal-bearing geological formations http://chpm2030.eu with high geothermal potential at a depth

UNEXMIN invasive methods for autonomous 3D mine robotic technology to this new application mapping for gathering valuable geological environment and to the interpretation of and mineralogical information. This will geoscientific data. open new exploration scenarios so that Work included component validation and 690008 - UNEXMIN strategic decisions on the re-opening of simulations to understand the behaviour of Autonomous Underwater Explorer for Europe’s abandoned mines can be sup- technology components and instruments to Flooded Mines ported by actualised data that cannot be the application environment, construction START DATE: 1 February 2016 obtained by other ways. of the first prototype, development of post- DURATION: 45 MONTHS The Multi-robot Platform represents a processing and data analysis tools and pre- www.unexmin.eu new technology line that is made possi- operational trials in real-life conditions. ble by recent developments in autonomy The final, most ambitious demonstration Objectives: research that allows the development of took place in the UK with the resurveying UNEXMIN was an EU-funded project a completely new class of mine explorer of the entire flooded section of the Ecton that develops a novel robotic system for service robots capable of operating without underground mine (UK), which nobody the autonomous exploration and mapping remote control. UX-1 was the first robot of had seen for over 150 years. of Europe’s flooded mines. The Robotic its kind. Research challenges were related to Explorer (UX-1) was designed to use non- miniaturisation and adaptation of deep-sea

MINLAND Objectives: The MinLand project is designed for Access to mineral resources in Europe is addressing this challenge: to facilitate min- one of the pillars of the Raw Materials Ini- erals and land-use policy making and to tiative (RMI). Yet competing societal inter- strengthen transparent land use practice. ests, such as expanding cities, infrastructure MinLand is composed around the acknowl- development, agriculture and nature con- edgement that the call requires a broad and servation, have had negative effects on the competent consortium with strong links to 776679 – MINLAND available area for exploration and mining of related projects and activities, a compre- Mineral resources in sustainable land-use mineral resources. Consequently, the supply hensive and structured data repository, an planning of mineral raw materials within the EU is at efficient work flow and strong and broad START DATE: 1 December 2017 risk. Therefore, the integration of mineral stakeholder involvement. DURATION: 24 MONTHS resources policies into land-use planning at http://minland.eu/ different scales and levels is a key factor for achieving the goals of the RMI.

66 News

INFACT obstacles to be overcome by innovation, on the world stage by establishing perma- dialogue and reform. nent infrastructure to drive innovation in The Innovative, Non-invasive and Fully the next generation of exploration tools: Acceptable Exploration Technologies tools that are cost-effective, designed for 776487 – INFACT (INFACT) project unites stakeholders of EU conditions and its raw materials strat- Innovative, Non-invasive and Fully Accept­ Europe’s future raw materials security in egy, and high-performing in terms of envi- able Exploration Technologies (INFACT) its consortium and activities. Via effective ronmental impact, social acceptability, and START DATE: 1 November 2017 engagement of civil society, state, research technical performance. DURATION: 36 MONTHS and industry, the project focuses on each of INFACT is comprised of the following www.infactproject.eu these obstacles. It will co-develop improved main components: systems and innovative technologies that • Development and testing of innova- Objectives: are more acceptable to society and invig- tive, non-invasive exploration tech- Exploration discovery of raw material orate and equip the exploration industry, nologies. resources requires innovations that either unlocking unrealised potential in new and • Foundation of 3 test sites for explora- change the geological targets of exploration, mature areas. tion technology in the south, centre the physical places that are reached, or the The project is developing innovative and north of Europe. manner in which they are explored. Despite geophysical and remote sensing technolo- • Stakeholder engagement, education its rich history of mining and residual gies (less invasive than classical exploration and policy reform. mineral wealth, current conditions within methods) that promise to penetrate new These actions combine to reach each of the EU present a number of social, politi- depths, reach new sensitivities and resolve the main areas in which the EU has the cal, legislative, cost, technical and physi- new parameters. power to influence change in its raw mate- cal obstacles to raw material exploration: The project will also set the EU as a leader rials security.

INTERMIN Objectives: • Introduce an international qualifi- INTERMIN is intended to create a fea- cation framework for technical and sible, long-lasting international network of vocational training programmes; technical and vocational training centres • Create a conceptual framework for for mineral raw materials professionals. the development of joint educational Specific objectives: training programmes based on pre- 776642 – INTERMIN • Develop common metrics and refer- sent and future requirements by INTERNATIONAL NETWORK OF RAW ence points for quality assurance and employers; MATERIALS TRAINING CENTRES recognition of training; • Create and launch a joint interna- START DATE: 1 February 2018 • Develop a comprehensive compe- tional training programme by a DURATION: 36 months tency model for employment across merger of competences and scope http://interminproject.org the primary and secondary raw mate- of existing training programmes. rials sectors;

CROWDTHERMAL ment tools. In order to reach this goal, the details of alternative financing and risk project will first increase the transparency mitigation options covering the different of geothermal projects and technologies types of geothermal resources and various by creating one-to-one links between socio-geographical settings. The models will geothermal actors and the public so that be developed and validated with the help 857830 – CROWDTHERMAL a Social Licence to Operate (SLO) could of three Case Studies in Iceland, Hungary Community-based development schemes for be obtained. This will be done by assessing and Spain and with the help of a Trans- geothermal energy the nature of public concerns for the dif- European survey conducted by EFG Third START DATE: 1 September 2019 ferent types of geothermal technologies, Parties. Based on this feedback, a develop- DURATION: 36 months considering deep and shallow geothermal ers’ toolbox will be created with the aim http://crowdthermalproject.eu installations separately, as well as various of promoting new geothermal projects in hybrid and emerging technology solutions. Europe supported by new forms of financ- Objectives: CROWDTHERMAL will create a social ing and investment risk mitigation schemes CROWDTHERMAL aims to empower acceptance model for geothermal energy that will be designed to work hand in hand the European public to directly participate that will be used as baseline in subsequent with current engineering and microeco- in the development of geothermal pro- actions for inspiring public support for nomic best practices and conventional jects with the help of alternative financing geothermal energy. Parallel and syner- financial instruments. schemes (crowdfunding) and social engage- getic with this, the project will work out

European Geologist 48 | November 2019 67 ROBOMINERS the envisioned ROBOMINERS technology ROBOMINERS will deliver proof of line, mining will take place underground, concept (TRL-4) of the feasibility of this underwater in a flooded environment. A technology line that can enable the EU large diameter borehole is drilled from the have access to mineral raw materials from surface to the mineral deposit. A modular otherwise inaccessible or uneconomic 820971 – ROBOMINERS mining machine is delivered in modules via domestic sources. This proof of concept Resilient Bio-inspired Modular Robotic the borehole. This will then self-assemble will be delivered in the format of a new Miners and begin its operation. Powered by a water amphibious robot Miner Prototype that will START DATE: 1 June 2019 hydraulic drivetrain and artificial muscles, be designed and constructed as a result of DURATION: 48 months the robot will have high power density and merging technologies from advanced robot- http://robominers.eu environmentally safe operation. Situational ics, mechatronics and mining engineering. awareness and sensing is provided by novel Laboratory experiments will confirm the Objectives: body sensors, including artificial whisk- Miner’s key functions, such as modular- ROBOMINERS will develop a bio- ers that will merge data in real-time with ity, configurability, selective mining ability inspired, modular and reconfigurable production sensors, optimising the rate of and resilience under a range of operating robot-miner for small and difficult to production and selection between differ- scenarios. The Prototype Miner will then be access deposits. The aim is to create a ent production methods. The produced used to study and advance future research prototype robot that is capable of mining high-grade mineral slurry is pumped to challenges concerning scalability, swarming underground, underwater or above water, the surface, where it will be processed. The behaviour and operation in harsh environ- and can be delivered in modules to the waste slurry could then be returned to the ments. deposit via a large diameter borehole. In mine where it will backfill mined-out areas.

Book review by Antoine Bouvier Volcanologue

by Jacques-Marie Bardintzeff nent office: what is the key for becoming tain dweller and a botanist as a grand- Published by: Harmattan Editions, France, 180 a volcanologist? father along with a first-rate skier for pp, 2017 (in French) Looking at Jacques-Marie’s experience, a grandmother; to be physically fit the right answer is: ISBN: 978-2-343-12326-4 and to maintain this fitness through • to be first of all passionately curi- cycling, athletics and parachuting; ous about science and then to work • to meet remarkable teachers – both obstinately to become deeply versed by scholarly and human standards: in physics, chemistry and geology Henri Vaissière (secondary school), as taught at university colleges or Jean Gourc and Robert Brousse engineering schools specialising in (Paris-Sud Orsay University). these areas (in his case, Ecole Normale The biographical elements mentioned in Supérieure in Saint-Cloud, France); the book provide allot space also for infor- • to participate in field discoveries and mation on data sampling and measurement near craters and on volcano slopes, docu- scientific analysis resulting in a higher mented through amazing photos accompa- degree in Natural Sciences, then get- nied by clear and comparative descriptions. ting a scientific research position at Of course, the security risks close to an the Paris-Sud Orsay University while erupting volcano are obvious and the right earning a Doctorate in Volcanology; decision needs discernment and experience. • to travel around the volcano world to Jacques-Marie Bardintzeff has written meet famed volcanologists and then, several books targeted at both specialists as a Professor of Petrography, Vol- and the curious public, well as giving con- canology and Planetary Science, to ference presentations in many countries with active volcanoes. These nearly always share major theoretical and practical inspire a trip up to the edge of these great findings with students. structures. Moreover, like for any unconventional Volcanologue, the latest book from Easy to read for 7 to 107-year-olds, the profession, you need some luck during your Jacques-Marie Bardintzeff, answers the book rivals Jules Verne’s written works in study years: question asked by many high school pupils excitement. and university students wishing to avoid a • to be born at the foot of the Alps and professional career confined to a perma- close to mineral sites, having a moun-

68 News

Book review by Marko Komac and Nina Zupančič 70 Geological Wonders of Slovenia

Edited by Nina Rman & Matevž Novak 2016. About 27 authors and several other logical collections in Slovenia offers the Published by: Geological Survey of Slovenia experienced colleagues from three main most comprehensive overview of private (GeoZS), Ljubljana, 204 pp, 2016 Slovenian geological institutions contrib- and public collections in this country at ISBN: 978-961-6498-46-3 uted to the volume, from the Geological present and is regularly updated on the web- Survey of Slovenia, the Department of Geol- site accompanying this publication, http:// ogy of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and www.geo-zs.si/index.php/en/?option=com_ Engineering of the University of Ljubljana, content&view=article&id=180. At the end and the Slovenian Museum of Natural His- of the book, you can find 164 professional tory. Colleagues at UNESCO Geopark Idrija references in English that supplement the and Geopark Karavanke and the Institute popular science description of the phenom- of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature ena. For every location a general description Conservation also supported its content. and further reference are provided, there In addition, more than 40 collaborators and is a detailed map indication, an accompa- 15 organisations provided the photographs. nying photo of the site, the description of The content was reviewed by two professors the access, its coordinates and a QR code of geology from the University of Ljubljana, that leads the reader to the online map with prof. dr. Jože Čar and prof. dr. Jernej Pavšič, further descriptions and web links. while two designers made it very attractive. The book is designed as a tourist guide The book consists of 204 pages, where and is useful to a wide audience, from the 70 outdoor sites – covering the three schools to individuals, from families to solo billion years of geological history in the hikers, and although it is mainly focused Slovenian area - are listed according to on outdoor enthusiasts, it also includes their position in 12 statistical regions. museums that host interesting geological An additional six appendices highlight examples found on Slovenian soil. The aim the most exquisite features of rare miner- of the book is to advocate for geology, its The guidebook 70 Geological Wonders als and fossils in Slovenia which remain use in society and in everyday life. of Slovenia was published by the Geologi- strictly protected and so whose sites are not cal Survey of Slovenia to celebrate its 70 open to public, or unique samples such as Readership: all those that like geology years of existence. The first 500 print-runs a meteorite that are no longer placed at (including geologists, students and teach- in the English language have been made their original location but are stored in ers ;) available since the beginning of September geological collections. The list of 84 geo-

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