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Le Gouvernement Des Langues Cacophonies d’empire Juliette Cadiot, Dominique Arel, Larissa Zakharova To cite this version: Juliette Cadiot, Dominique Arel, Larissa Zakharova. Cacophonies d’empire : Russes et Soviétiques face au multilinguisme. CNRS editions, pp.368, 2010. halshs-00694751 HAL Id: halshs-00694751 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00694751 Submitted on 6 May 2012 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Cacophonie d’empire Russes et Soviétiques face au multilinguisme Sous la direction de Juliette Cadiot Dominique Arel Larissa Zakharova Juin 2009 1 Table des matières Remerciements ................................................................................................................... x Notes sur la transcription ................................................................................................... x Introduction: Le gouvernement des langues. Russes, Soviétiques et leurs héritiers face au multilinguisme, Dominique Arel et Juliette Cadiot ............................................... x Première partie: La Russie impériale Identité et allégeance dans la politique linguistique de l‘Empire russe dans les territoires périphériques occidentaux au cours de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, Alexei Miller ............................................................................................ 5 Entre identité culturelle et identité religieuse : l‘échec de la russification des offices religieux catholiques dans les provinces biélorusses (1860-1880), Mikhail Dolbilov .... 25 Langue ukrainienne et projet de science nationale : les étapes d‘une légitimation académique (fin des années 1880, début des années 1920), Aleksandr Dmitriev ........... 47 Deuxième partie: La construction soviétique À grands pas vers le russe : l‘égalité des langues dans les années 1920, Juliette Cadiot .................................................................................................................. 68 Consensus, différends et obstacles pratiques dans l‘organisation de l‘enseignement primaire en ukrainien et en biélorusse (1920-1927), Caroline Gauthier ......................... 89 Une langue minoritaire élevée en langue d‘État : le tatar en Crimée soviétique (1921-1941), Grégory Dufaud ....................................................................................... 109 Un cas d‘étude de la politique soviétique en matière de langues dans les républiques orientales : transformations et adaptations de la langue des Juifs de Boukhara (1917-1938), Zeev Levin ............................................................................................... 129 3 Troisième partie : Les années d’après-guerre À la recherche des cadres nationaux: La langue d‘instruction en Carélie en tant qu‘instrument de discrimination positive (1945-1964), Larissa Zakharova ...... 149 La langue des enfants soviétiques: Langues, éducation et société en Volga-Oural (de 1938 aux années soixante), Xavier Le Torrivelec ................................................... 169 Quatrième partie: Le post-soviétisme Orthographe et identité : le rôle des médias dans l‘échec de la réforme orthographique de l‘ukrainien de 2001, Volodymyr Kulyk .................................................................... 193 Encadrer le pluralisme ethnique: La mission ambiguë des écoles ethno-culturelles à Moscou, Françoise Daucé ........................................................................................... 211 Déclin du russe et politiques linguistiques en Géorgie indépendante postsoviétique, Silvia Serrano ................................................................................................................. 230 Tableaux et cartes .............................................................................................................. x Glossaire ........................................................................................................................ 253 Bibliographie.................................................................................................................. 257 Index .................................................................................................................................. x 4 Alexei Miller Institut d‘information scientifique en sciences sociales de l‘Académie des sciences de Russie, Moscou, et Central European University, Budapest, [email protected]. Identité et allégeance dans la politique linguistique de l’Empire russe dans les territoires périphériques occidentaux au cours de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle Dans un État hétérogène sur le plan linguistique, et d‘autant plus sous le régime de l‘Empire, la réglementation de l‘usage des différentes langues au sein des administrations, des institutions judiciaires et du système éducatif est incontournable. Outre les dispositions réglementaires « habituelles » visant avant tout, du moins du point de vue des pouvoirs publics, à assurer le bon fonctionnement des organes du pouvoir et du système éducatif, il existe également d'autres interventions de l'État dans le domaine linguistique, dont l'objectif premier est davantage de toucher directement à des questions d'identité et d‘allégeance. La langue est l‘un des principaux constituants du sentiment d‘appartenance ethnique. Les lettres comme l‘alphabet représentent des symboles chargés de sens qui ont bien souvent joué, et jouent encore un rôle clé dans la construction de l'identité1. On ne s'étonnera donc pas que les pouvoirs publics cherchent bien souvent à avoir la main mise sur la langue, l‘alphabet et l‘orthographe. Et cela n‘est pas l'apanage du régime impérial. C‘est un phénomène que l'on observe aussi dans les États où le pouvoir cherche à gagner une légitimité nationale. Dans l‘Empire, une telle immixtion du pouvoir dans les questions linguistiques vise assez peu souvent à changer radicalement l‘identité nationale, c‘est-à-dire à provoquer une assimilation, mais plutôt à opérer des « ajustements » ciblés sur l‘identité et le processus d‘identification. Jusqu‘à une période récente, toutefois, l‘interdépendance unissant langage et construction de l‘identité a été étudiée presque exclusivement dans l‘optique du nationalisme et de la formation des nations2. Pour étudier les politiques linguistiques du régime impérial, il est important de distinguer certains facteurs spécifiques. En premier lieu, sur le territoire de l’Empire apparait une structure particulière d’interrelation entre le centre administratif, siège de la prise de décision, et les communautés des périphéries, dont les sphères linguistiques subissent la réglementation. Cependant, dans presque tous les cas de figures, l'influence n’est pas à sens unique, et s’exerce également des périphéries vers le centre, aussi bien que l’inverse. Dans les périphéries de l‘Ouest de l‘Empire de Russie, la vie politique était animée par un grand nombre d‘acteurs. Les autorités locales pesaient sur les décisions du 1 Cf. notamment : FISHMAN J. A., « Language and Ethnicity: The View from Within », dans F. COULMAS, The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, Cambridge, MA, Blackwell Publishers, 1997, p. 339. 2 Cf. notamment : BARBOUR S. et C. CARMICHAEL, eds., Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000, où le contexte de l‘Empire n‘est pratiquement pas pris en compte. 5 centre impérial dans des domaines variés, y compris d‘ordre linguistique, parfois en faveur d‘une répression plus sévère, parfois, au contraire, en faveur d'un assouplissement des mesures. Les natifs occupant un poste administratif pouvaient par ailleurs se déclarer partisan d‘une position aussi bien que de l‘autre3. Les grands propriétaires terriens ainsi que le clergé toutes confessions confondues, qui formaient les castes traditionnelles de l‘élite locale, jouaient également un rôle important, même si celui-ci était en perte de vitesse dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle. Même lorsque ces élites locales se trouvaient en situation de conflit avec les autorités centrales, et n‘avaient pas accès aux postes administratifs, les communautés locales disposaient de nombreux moyens pour opposer une résistance au pouvoir politique et lui faire connaître son opinion, que ces moyens prennent la forme de protestations loyales ou déloyales, d‘opposition légales ou non aux décisions des pouvoirs centraux allant jusqu‘à leur sabotage4. Souvent, l‘élite locale traditionnelle se démarquait du reste de la population locale par sa culture et sa langue. Quant aux classes non privilégiées, elles n‘étaient pas homogènes, elles non plus, et elles présentaient des caractéristiques différentes du point de vue culturel comme linguistique. Ce facteur revêtit une importance significative à mesure que se répandirent les idées nationalistes, et il généra l‘apparition dans la région de nouveaux acteurs sociaux ayant bien souvent une vision de l‘essence même des groupes ethniques, de leurs problèmes et de leurs intérêts, fondamentalement différente de celle de l‘élite traditionnelle polonaise. Cette nouvelle élite régionale, composée par exemple d'intellectuels nationalistes, entrant
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