I. the Nationalist Cemetery in Hungary

CEU eTD Collection Nationalist, Religious andthe Cultural Space of Two Cemeteries in In partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Arts in Gender Studies in Gender ofArts ofMaster degree forthe In partialfulfillment Supervisor: Professor Allaine Cerwonka Department ofGenderStudies Central European University Central Gendering Cemeteries: Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Budapest, Hungary Bernadett Báll Bernadett Submitted to 2007 By CEU eTD Collection national history but the link between churchstate, and culture tomaintainit. could be because debate, would have exposed not only the omission of women from has to a great extent maintained its role as a potent patriarchal national space, which this as for research, examples taken in Budapest Farkasréti and of Kerepesi cemeteries The of conduct. codes spaceaswellhasspecific itsrole asasemi-private either since opennessliberalismpublic space notnecessarily cemetery the of and does afford greater of the family and household domesticities, stereotypically linked to women. The semi- largely is those andspace of driven roles cemetery the politically reduced traditional to role as mourner in contrast to the warrior hero. Women’s role in this religious, cultural correlates to national religiousand/or symbolism, partially maintained through women’s folk culture. Christianity also plays a significant role in Hungarian history which closely cemetery space, aswell of the mirrors evocation as its traditional legacywhich national based on inclusion of the museum exclusion and as acomparable example the national Budapest, Hungary and patriarchal ideas of power and strength. It will also connect the Abstract This essay will try to establish a link between the urban cemetery space in ii CEU eTD Collection pedx...... 50 ...... Appendix 47 Bibliography...... 45 Epilogue...... IV. The Culture of Reburials, Revolutions 39 and Mourners...... III. The Urban Cemetery, 27 Religion and Decoration...... II. The Urban Cemetery 17 as Museum...... I. The Nationalist Cemetery in Hungary...... 4 ...... 1 Introduction Table ofContents iii CEU eTD Collection the largerthe in genderrelation day present Budapest. of context in the understand to important are – dedications and monuments military – space. The spaces patriarchal nationalist and– environmental geographical – and places influences from religious and national history which codify gender relations of the nationalism and patriotism. The cemetery as a socio-political arena has multi-layered historical heroism, the culture of death, and religion play an influential role in death in Hungary. Thestudy placetakes in a post-communist environment, in which mourning, motherhood, the rural morality, religion, museum, the body and the cult of urban cemeteries in Budapest, Hungary and their link to issues of masculinity, heroism, caseof specific the essaytakes city This of the cemetery. larger context within the nationalism patriarchal of symbol and representation a as cemetery urban the theorists: women a collective patriarchal against uniqueness lineage.promotes which for saidfor change With islittle room there national identity. the that of crucial part duringdormant socialist the (1948–1989), period itstill arecognizableremained and unique, a collective individuality. While the consciousness of "we are all alone" was are alone, does not mean on one’s own but awhole nation collectively alone, meaning historical reasons and the "otherness" of the language and the origins of Hungarians. We Hungarian national identity. It can be summarized as "we are all alone" and is based on 2004:27) (Cerwonka relationship withbecome symbolicofone’s generations.” containers other by Places to infinity visiting certainplaces. “People experiencetheirconnection Introduction The aim of thesisthis is tointroduce a topic largely abandoned by Gender A deep, permeating national is consciousness integral an element of the 1 –Tuan CEU eTD Collection western ideas of progress – triggers down to self-identity. The buried body of the family,in which one’s accomplishments – acts which support and help the nation’s largera largerappealspopulace; tothe that “untouched” rhetoric isa nation onelarge This partof is howmuseums identity. convey which becomes their association national part of the national rhetoric as such; they rather connectto the history through their in lives space,their arepresent arenot the “ordinary people” history. Although nation’s role astheeducator of, although not most the objective information conveyor of about itis a kind of walk through national history isand comparable tothe national museum’s parts cemetery; to the more and recent older are Thismeans thatthere expanded. rather then replace graves – although this is also aninfrequent practice in Budapest –itis rather is cemeteries the eminent, death because while continuum; time/space different of cemetery has a the in thevisual appearance time. However, influences social progressive, which seeks to maintain its role in the democracy order. is largely unconscious. It is also an effort to question the elevated ranking of the city as hierarchy class andof nobility,religious through codes of behavior and heroic respect, asa space ofthecemetery andnormalization the naturalization that tosuggest rather notseekdoes to attribute apassive role woman to andneither an agency per say,but semi-public as well as religious space adds a new dimension to “place”. The essay also to how national and religious symbolisms encode the cemetery space. The cemetery’s forefront of the already largely debated issues of domestic gender roles in the home, and strong influence in the cemetery, but rather brings the space of the cemetery to the a such emanate might it why and gender and nationalism between link the not especially The city is constantly changing its visual appearance as a mode of political and However, this essaydoesnot seek prove any to specific hypothesis,one 2 CEU eTD Collection women and relegates them “femininesphere”. into them the women relegates and which omits animaginedlineage, spaceofbrave creates historical and caregiver the “natural”women’s role of“serving” “mothering”,and asthe mourner, thedecorator, makes monuments, through representation its and hero, (soldier) the war, through in cemetery.The national genderideology the relations influences histories cultural and of in religious nationalism context the theme of overarching The space. cemetery holidays and ceremonies, the reburial culture, and the warrior mentality, analyzed in the the modern context in relation to nationalism and heroism through historic events, the fourth section will show how the “cult of death” in Hungarian mythology,is alive in connection between religion, the nation, and gender (family) through folk culture. And three will deal with the enormous task of bringing in religious practice and showing the national museum, which seeks to illustrate national identity and consciousness. Section factor. The second section will play with the notion that the cemetery is a kind of determining its as as nationalism a spaceofmale importance domination; cemetery’s cemetery space in Budapest is gendered. The first section will deal with the city and the prestigeelevated of cemetery which houses the public figures of nation.the prestige andbrought tothepreserved andtreasured, much barer likethe (parish), implications of religious rituals and practices. These relics in the churches would be withis fraughtin mythological The sense “aura” churches. of cemetery the present of housing in saints relics of practice religious totraditional canbecompared heroism, aristocracy national through and publicfigures, andrepresentation of commemorations This thesis will try to outline the most important factors which reflect how the 3 CEU eTD Collection Nation” (1998). TheseNation” will threeconceptions (1998). be outlines anddiscussed in context the and “Gender in outlines she as race, and origin of ideas the on focus with Volknation, and its references to territory; Kulturnation,in the realm of culture and/or religion; and, citizenship state with which deals Staatnation, of thedimensions to references specific opposites of male and female essentialism are justified (Ibid.:114-124). Bourdieu states thisthat is languagethe ofnatural science andthetool by which the inside men while are outside (women has sexual insideorgan while man on outside).the language usedtodescribe the body, thislinked is also to genderedthe body: women as going up and going down, also bear positive or negative connotations. Derived from the right hand), and as such our interpretation of other factors such as inside and outside, (lefthand, opposites around created movements, on body based are terms and practices fundamental”(Bourdieu 1993:118)in language. The language describeused to rituals existence can all be brought down to a small number of couplets which appear as –butassuperior– where traits. theopposite woman was masculine. After which, these werenot assumptions only maleto beaccepted qualities as characteristically for reason and capacity nature the assumedaggressive an writers rural and theurban (Yuval-Davis 1998).Theorderly insociety works the of these the between difference the which constitutes society, to orderly from nature transition blames writers such as Hobbes and Rousseaufor much placing too attention on the male sex – wereresponsible for creating andreproducing nationalistideology and I. The Nationalist Cemetery in Hungary Nira Yuval-Davis’gender about conceptions and nation will be considered, with Pierre Bourdieu writes that “countless oppositions observed in every area of the of respects most is were which – intellectuals that claims Yuval-Davis Nina 4 CEU eTD Collection privileges” controlled by a separate body of legislation which applies solely women, solely to legislation which applies body bya of separate controlled privileges” “special hand other the on and policies, legal and political insocial, inclusion women’s largely with territoriality. The dualistic nature to female citizenship, on the one hand is is Nina of to Yuval-Davis a nation according citizenship, culture, and origin as markers of the nation. The first distinguishing feature liberation militaryday, or (Kurti parades 1990:5). in “People vs. the State: Political Rituals in Contemporary Hungary”, days such as the ceremony, and commemoration days created by state and nation, expressed LászlóKürti andideologies betweenstate nationalist expresseddifferences in of symbols the ritual create Political rituals for ideal commemoration. heroic image of national a higher 1975:9). A national landscape canbe created through national narratives, tofitthe metaphors a symbolic landscape through andlanguage of (Haworth-Booth similes that the sense of the landscape is based on a displacement from the land, that we live in and selfin tocreate asense order of unity identity.and MarkHaworth- Booth wrote visual truth to forge, validate, confirm, shape, and perpetuate ideas of place, space, time, other. each to significance and correspondence their through only but and/or religious symbols areoften andambiguous be cannot and separated studies apart, space in which study the genderof becomes significant. This is whynational, cultural possible in some parts of the cityscape, the cemetery uses all these to create a potent intocategories, different concepts three these separates While Yuval-Davis Hungary. origin, and its significance to nationalism in the space of the cemetery in Budapest, national and and religion, culture aplace cemetery spaceas of of the territoriality, The root of nationalist sentiment outlined inThe rootof “Genderand Nation” outlined sentiment nationalist separates used for thisa employ study of Budapest cemeteries andFarkasréti The Kerepesi 5 Staatnation or citizenship, which deals CEU eTD Collection form in form space. the etc…This could explain the association of femalethe nude and mournerin monumental mother, fragile, such sameuseof as fertile, that the words, they contain (1990:40) the “gaze” used to look at nature is the same as the one used to look at women, untamedland and untamed the body of woman.the Lucy Lippard has commented that landscape discourse on hasbeenlinked femalebody,the penetration to of the and survey land.the vastness of the environment, and are not unlike early uses of aerial mapping: to control 1998:43) etc…They speak of humans’the isolation tiny-ness relative and within the (Mora patterns, forestation oroil, study of forwater the search the reconnaissance, used for scientific map archaeological military making,surveys, purposes: between the insiders and outsiders (Ibid.:25). Aerial study of the landscape was first bounded territory. This could explain thereconstruction of geographical boundaries inclusion and exclusion of persons through citizenship, markers that state a claim on a meantsocially normativeland, tosurvey this behavior, or conduct accepted also the the enact laws which have tobe followed when on that landmass, and to outline proper large? of society the at expected what canbe biological to role, women arereduced their of state the framework larger biological role as mothers and wives, through the representation of family. If within a anddoes notbelong” who (Ibid.:26)in which casewomen are relegated solely theirto citizens’ thus defined is very much dependant on clear-cutdefinitions of belongswho Yuval-Daviswrites (1998:27).“The integrity and viability ‘communitythe of of Often the mapping of the land alsoimplies mapping the body. Much of the Territoriality means to possess land, to have power over the use of that land, to 1 It is evident that the building of the cemetery falls into a masculine, into falls cemetery the of building the that is evident It 6 CEU eTD Collection this tradition. this follow was likely to power, urban cemetery the for became city Since the ashowcase services in city the developed outof needthe for thoseliving and/or workingin city.the The city was the space for control over the larger territories, which were rural, and most significantly triumph: the arch de triumph in Paris is one very public example. the control, and the commemoration of territory; a showcase of heroism and might, but a game between men, among men and for male ego and power. The cities were builtfor affected by these wars, fought on theirland and sometimes in their backyards. This was the first millennium, as a consequence of wars and conquests. The population was also them. remember who women and country their for die who men fight for freedom and the women who give birth to future freedom fighters, and it is symbolically the men who go to war and the women who stay at home, the men who notions nationalistic but they are based on patriarchal hierarchies of worth. It is after all linked to the heroic and mythological traditions of the nation. Not only are these traditions (Ramamurthy These1997:151-198). traditions favor certain are views that documentary and pictorial anthropological, of tradition in the follows but stigmas ‘national race’ (Yuval-Davis 1998:31). through their biological role asmothers,justnot but any butchildren desired the weekend “trip”. was on a weekday, when women would visit the cemetery irrelative of holiday of domain,private wasmany most there of evidence noticeable cemetery,this at the the public domainbut upkeepand the falls careof cemetery the into feminine the and These territorial boundaries were in constant flux in Europe, over the course of thecourse over flux in in Europe, boundaries constant were These territorial or not seektochangestereotypes does iconography cemetery’s follows,As it the 2 The women’s role is obvious; to supply and maintain the nation 7 CEU eTD Collection Buda hills,meant that most of the population would not be inclined to visit. The strict (Ibid.). Lajos, Deák FerenceKossuth and Lajos, known for their role in 1848Revolutionthe Half in streets the Hungary are named afterpeople buried there, including Batthyány stars during state-communism, which now stand alongside heroes of the Revolution. huge builtwithmausoleums,notable themselves personages whichweredecorated red most revival. The classical Western European followed among trees the scattered Hungary’s wealthiest andmost prominentmen women.and The sculpturedmonuments cemetery. Built over a century ago and opened in 1849, it is the final resting place of prominence isinlarge partdue to extensive national the flavor of Kerepesi the houses, byfar largest the numberof distinguished Magyars 2003:1). (Tóth Howeverits landscape. it then becomes clear how the cemetery can claim its status in the larger national its hierarchy based on residence; of wasand became that is a space still cemetery ranked of the dead is based on the status of the dead and the prestige of the cemetery. The of rest was as important as their place during life. In the public cemetery, the mapping prestigious temple in their country. This most religious affiliation meant that their place Ninety-one Popes are buried in St. Peter’s, and Kings are put to rest in the most pyramids in of Cairo, which largestthe and oldest (Giza) was completed in 2560BC. themost Gods, well tothe Egyptian dedicates werethe knownof burial which crypts Egypt’s high reign, most the grandiose and architectural astonishing feats represented The Farkasréti by comparison remained a public cemetery, it’s in location apublic by the cemetery, remained The Farkasréti comparison cemetery Farkasréti the of Carpathian-Basin, the Among territories all the The burial place, tomb, crypt orgrave signified the status of its barer. During 8 CEU eTD Collection Károlyi, the first president of Hungary in 1918,in the 1960s. Nagy Imre was to follow consisted of Rajk László and three other communist leaders in 1956, and Count Mihály uprising,in also 1906, before Firstthe WorldWar. The reburial socialismduring against Habsburgthe in Empire, 1906, and Rákoczi Ferenc, leader the of 1703-11 the Lajós in Thököly1894 (Ibid.:450), leaderImre, the of 1670sandthe 1680suprising 1991:440). (Gal as anationalimage hero” of Bartók the toreinforceandrecreate myth were used could now claim their support of a national hero; “allegory, decontextualisation, and and years, several for body his for return the for lobbied have they politics; Hungarian disenchanted” people. The socialists used the reburial to reclaim their place in body was toBudapest,returned and this eventmobilizing thousands of“politically would soon succumb to German Fascism,in 1940. In the summer of 1988, Bartók’s for the United States, declaring that he could not live in a country that he believed and is in cemetery. there, Farkasréti buried the Communist cemetery, the son of Bartók Béla forbade for his father's ashes to be taken from 1948 till 1989. After the change of regime, it was still considered by some as a Socialism during cemetery part of highlighted mostthe the in Kerepesi cemetery, the surveillance of Kerepesi. In 1958, aMausoleum for the Labour movement was created also an act or rebellion againstthe communistregime after their close control and Budapest, the cemetery combines historical and modern areas; to be buried there was flourish into an “artist” cemetery. Not only does it have a spectacular view over leftto Farkasréti as areaction, the Kerepesi over cemetery and control regulation Bartók’s Bartók’s reburial followed thatof Count Batthyány in Lajós June 1870, Kossuth BélaBartók wasburied in a New cemetery inYork 1945; he hadleftHungary 9 CEU eTD Collection century, which went handin hand with progressive and aesthetic architectural itin on late nineteenth took innovations the in technological Europe the Western on the path with the rest of Western Europe. Budapestfollowed suitwith the rest of 1848 and 1914.Along with national revival, civilization the project markedBudapest or given, and contribute to the nationalization of dead heroes. natural seem would assumptions these andHungary meant that made between Bartók, Stalinism), and an uncompromising, pure, universalist humanitarian (Ibid.). The links son of Transylvania, an antifascist, avictim of Stalinism (his art was banned in times of essays (Ibid.). Bartók became a népi (folk) scholar and artist, an urbanite, European, the musician:interviews with figureslinked Bartók,newspaper to and spreads,pictures, exhumation and reburial, the Hungarian media ran story after story, on the life of the leastat 200 years” (Ibid.:440-441)writes Gal. two During the weeks separated that the Hungarian identity constituted and pervaded political Hungarian lifeforand economic and relationship between Hungary, about the haveimages and Europe that arguments imagesrelied a much arguments on and older setof of Bartók “representation Since between a “hero” of the nation, which they compiled, and the legitimacy of Socialism. history. Afuneral brings the back “hero” historicallife. to These figures are again part of the national discourse, and they are again part of larger interpretation” (Gal cleanse1991:27) to impurity, andbe fitfor funeralthe (Ibid.). that “death recasts the role of the mortal who has died: it gives his or her life a new Hungary, attests to a “cult of death” in a larger historical framework. Susan Gal wrote in Horthy 1989, and Miklós in 1993 (Rév The1995:15-39). history of reburials in Hanák places Budapest on between a “RevivalistHistoricism” on 1998) (Hanák Hanák Budapest places a link tocreate Béla’s composer, the body, back Bartók brought The Socialist 10 CEU eTD Collection executions, exiles, and political suicides, which can explain how funerals and reburials in the cemetery is one example to strengthen Hungarian’s historical association to Attilaresting of 2003:1-53). place poet the József (Tóth removed to this cemetery from other ones in Budapest –for example, it is the fourth were War several UntilWorld II, tombs Kerepesi cemetery. atthe executed) and those established for those who were denied a church funeral (those who committed suicide lives on in the museum and the cemetery space. In 1874, a special parcel was it, which explains Hungarians affinity heroicto death of the warrior (suicide), which overcome to fight its and victimization, and oppression foreign of legacy the on built is history because nations inother ‘conqueror’ as history in Hungarian relevance much as of the Hungarian Nation from another oppressor. The association of the “survivor” has longer fear the reprisal,a because they no survival represent of state but testimony the to dead martyrs lineage historical through of nation.the butfollow to in nationalistthe tradition monumentof building infuse to animagined innovations along wasbuilt not house in with only other deceasedthe the to architecture cemeteries The metropolis. century nineteenth of the (Ibid.:3) center” and cultural legislative “administrative, the in shaping influences these about writes Hanák leisure. brought new dwellers to the city, but alsomany tourists who came for amusement and industrialprosperous innovation influenced by ideologyWestern of progression. This millennium celebrations. The city was by now oriented towards an ideology of building and house all opera the built 1896,aroundaround the time of Hungary’s someendeavors, of includewhich the underground metro system, parliament the The cemetery socialistkept signifiers such as and monuments after plots 1989, 11 3 The burial of suicide victims suicide of burial The CEU eTD Collection illustrates forillustrates Hungarianthe “uniqueness”the ofits culture. languageforHungarian foreignerthe aswell its worldly furtheras uselessness constitutes one of the most significant national symbols. The difficulty learningof the universities. Hungarian has survived at many itsattempts abolition, and as such population. During the socialist period, Russian was mandatory in all schools and frequently secondused in language because Hungary,of largethe German speaking speeches and poems. Before World War II, German was the most important and and historical consciousness areadingof includehistory. These national also songs, weapon to control or oppress a nation, which relies on national language as a source of songs, cuisine customs, and language. Theinfluence throughlanguage is often a very powerful traditions, cultural transmits who woman the is it Yuval-Davis to According dress, behavior, literary customs, and artistic modes of production, and language. part III). There are identifiers linked to specific cultural codes, expressed in styles of this includes (national,popular) state, (and culture religion, which will be dealtwith in along sidehim 2000:677). This(Glatz changedwhole the composition of the representKossuth hero,butthe working the class, peasantsandfought soldiers that monument outside the parliamentbuildingin which Budapest, since 1952,not only 1848 revolution,for expressed, example, through the visual redesign of Kossuththe working class,for example, were written into public history as the true heroes of the previous monuments, reframed its history to fit their cause. The peasant and the 1995:15-39). instead of victory parades have became representative normalof ritualspublic (Rév Much like rewriting history, the Soviet Union rather then destroying the destroying then rather Union Soviet the history, rewriting like Much The second feature of feature The secondby a nation written about isYuval-Davis 12 Kulturnation, CEU eTD Collection Workers Movement Pantheon (built by the communists) in the same cemetery, the same day, and authorities believe by the same people, a message was written on the and his bones stolen along with his wife’s urn on Wednesday May 2, 2007. On the Budapest, as a symbolic and nationally driven space. János Kádár’s grave, was dug up wife’s remains, can only testify to the importance of the national urban cemetery in rewrite cultural and religiousideology monumentthrough building. apparatus was one, but by meansno the only political actor to try to influence and recognizing social the inof constructs gender theirterritory. own communist The state woman as muscular and strong figures of the nation, and at the same time did not and man depicted which building, heroic of tradition monumental in the followed spreadingof theadvantages equality freedom from and ideals western of itcapitalism, not only in the cemetery but throughout the city of Budapest. While communism was to monuments their cause, and heroic erected placed communists ideology, the secular despite in thespace.However, be could performed ceremonies any that religious congregations, and burials had to be approved by the authorities. It was not until 1988 burial to national figures. During communist rule the cemetery was used for atheist but it was not until the change of regime in 1989, that the cemetery again opened for leaders.1952 by After1952there waslittle dangerof communist cemetery destruction, and of past”(Miles 1997:23). complexities the wrote that sometimes the desire for change is to “purge the unclean, abolish the mess Kossuth’s contribution to the Revolution and gives it to the people. Malcolm Miles monument form a one point perspective toa triangular composition; it diminished The recent incident in the Kerepesi cemetery, concerning János Kádár his János and concerning in incident cemetery, Kerepesi The recentthe WorldWar Second until the after closed was entirely cemetery The Kerepesi 13 CEU eTD Collection Volknation andpublic art politicalin propaganda century twentieth the and earlier” (2000:301-334). backlash is hardly surprising, writes Foote et al., “given the close connection between redirection of popular energy and discontent intonon-threatening public channels. The Communist State. The aim was a peaceful alliance of the masses with the state, and the iconography, by appropriated andradical workers tradeunions tosymbolize the legitimacy. The street was filled with revolutionary songs, red banners,flowers and according to the period. It was a socialist ritual, in which rested state power and Lenin, as well as Stalin, Mátyás Rákosi,Khruschev, Brezhnev and János Kádár May was reconfigured to fit the new state hegemony, with pictures of Marx, Engels and “purified” Hungary. rather its importance, as a symbol of a specific national pride, and its claim for a incidents arehighly uncommon however, which not attest does toits insignificance but to execute many revolutionariesthe of including ImreNagy in 1958. Such graveyard whomadewith apact Sovietthe Union during 1956Revolution the and gave the orders of Communist Hungary,from 1956 onward. However, he is also viewed as a traitor, control), and is seen by most Western analysts as a lenient and economic savvy leader state understrict (although with west the trade a leaderwhosanctioned reformer, http://nol.hu/cikk/444987/).Kádár János whodiedin 1988, wasseen by some asa "Gyilkos és áruló nemnyugodhat” szent földben were words from taken a song by a Hungarian nationalist band rock from Transylvania: 1 “A murderer and traitor,cannot onrest holy ground” (Translated from Hungarian by Bernadett Báll) The third andfinalfeature important of a nation Yuval-Davisaccording to is The unearthing of Kádár happened a day after May Day. In 1948, the first of , the origin of a people often referred to as race. The nation (people) must 14 1 (Bárkay & Fekete,3 May 2007, CEU eTD Collection roles as well as being actively involved in controlling other women” (Anthias &Yuval- (Anthias women” other in controlling involved actively being as well as roles them. Women actively inparticipate of process the andreproducing modifying their book in totheir “Introduction” torememberYuval-Davis’ andimportant Floya Anthias stated list of 63 men who represent all areas of socio-political struggle to the arts. of a out both actresses females, had2 http://www.answers.com/topic/kerepesi-cemetery) of best knowndead in Kerepesi on one website (Answers Corporation 2007. buried there, and the notorieties which rest there, divided by a high wall. be cannot and cemetery the to next live who people the between dichotomy interesting isSo an cemetery. there the is to next in Budapest, Roma of the population segment The Kerepesi interestingis further since eighththe district whichisinhabited by a large religious space, their segregation also alludes to a larger historical legacy of Hungary. implies a link between the nation and the cemetery, rather than it directly referring to a ÓbudaCemetery, and Farkasréti within the space Jewish the cemetery that mention also a testament to their status as an under-class in Hungary. Itis also very interesting to is in Budapest from prestigious national more Theircemeteries the measure. absence while others claim itis closer to 5 per cent. The census can be used as an excluding per cent(The CIA World 2004-2006, Factbook, http://worldfacts.us/Hungary.htm.), of the Roma is a much more contested issue in Hungary, some statistics put it around 2 population;the statistics aroundtend tofluctuate this number.However population the a race(Yuval-Davis 1998:30).Hungarians in about90 Hungary constitute per cent of an of create imagined “purity” assimilation to or forcedin integration form of the either believe in the myth of a common origin forits survival. This often follows exclusions Women-Nation-State The status of well known women in the cemetery is alsovery insignificant,a list that “the roles that women play are not merely imposed upon 15 5 Itis 4 CEU eTD Collection agenda, however, but it became a marker of “normality”. became butithowever, a marker of agenda, spreading of those heroic acts. Not all women were the followers of a larger male in the role females’ the then rather nation, the of maintenance the to contribution many European cultures, including Hungary, the emphasis is on the male’s heroic in imagery national to comes it when that, rather but is secondary contribution women’s relevant cultural information has been little. This does not imply in any way that of dissemination the over control the significant, been has women of contribution such as wars, states, armies, the breadwinner or husband, and so on. So while the that the roles which were allotted to women served a larger agenda controlled by men, based onpatriarchal whichlargelyprinciples unquestioned. go Itis alsorelevantnote to accepts as normal (Ibid.). ideas the morality family which for larger now in ideal bourgeoisie the society Europe, century nationalism,most significantly controlled by malethe sex, which also produced these signifiers are produced according to George L. Mosse by the rise of eighteenth by andcontributing to even disseminating and national ethnic signifiers,creation the of thought previously then agency more have women that imply might roles, these of some as participants in national, economic,political military and struggle (Ibid.:24).While itsfinally and of of culture;and as astransmitters ethnic/national signifiers difference; of ethnic/national groups; as participants in ideological reproduction of collectivitythe for asof boundaries thenation; the biological reproducers Yuval-Davis,reproducers as Levi-Strauss (Yuval-Davis 1998:24).These are,accordingroles Floya to Anthias and culturally and construction symbolically,the through of collectivities written about by Davis 1989:11).Women also contribute patriarchalto nationalism,biologically, As a result, while women play a role in creating national space, the message is 16 CEU eTD Collection invert it through the semi-public, semi-private space. it semi-private semi-public, the invert through and collective, the represent to individual the of use the through nation the contest They symbols. national of representations theireach through cognitive other compliment in buried museum “hero” same cemetery artifactin The the the the time. the and both function in the realm of the nation, representing it, contesting it and inverting it at of the representation itsand direct itsfor thereligious futuredo thesame, andwhilethecemetery past seeks to affiliation heterotopias they all function differently. The National Museum functions to glorify the specificities of a certain society which creates them. Although, all societies can claim spacesthatremainother heterotopias (Ibid.:22-27). of outside time; they function as a “public space” is an illusion; and they have a function in all the society; and it has several spaces in one single space. Fourth, heterotopias are slices in in function determined and precise a have they them; have societies all heterotopias: and (Foucaultcontested, inverted” 1986:24). Foucault six outlines of principles simultaneously are represented, can culture, foundbe within the real that other sites the defines as counter-sites, “a kind of effectively enacted utopia in which the real sites, all he which museum cemetery the both as heterotopias, describes the and Spaces” Other becomes the construction of nationalist rhetoric (Ibid.:28). Michel Foucaultin his “Of the portrayal of a ‘national golden age’ in the far – mythical or historical – past, which memory, atransformation of popular oral andtraditions languageintowritten form, and The UrbanCemetery II. as Museum The first three principles seem to show that these spaces conform the to conform thatthesespaces show to seem principles first three The ideologyNationalist according Yuval-Davis to is a rediscovery collectiveof momento mori 17 creates a different function. They also CEU eTD Collection Not only thesemuseumsdid play a considerable role in preservingbut thepast they patriarchal and as right, a resultits exclusion of Yuval-Daviswomen, states (1998:24). Rousseau and introduce civil Hobbes freedom in enforcesa society that itthrough colonialism. and imperialism conquest, legacies of built war, on they are peace andprosperity, time of relevant preserve their cultures. What is most interesting is that while museums flourish at a the country, usually a major historical event, a flourishing of new ideas or as a need to the 1848 revolutions. Many of the National Museums were born in a significant era for and fought they for causes wouldoften inspirethat changein in evident societies, their national army was created, composed of the citizens of the country rather then for hire only was there a flourishing of philosophic consciousness but political ones as well, a not change, to about was this But 2000). (Zmora countrymen fellow their with then in countries other with hadmore in aristocrats common anaristocrat societies, between to look within their country for identity markers. In the past class was the connection started countries the of many when Revolution French the after important very became seems to follow a specific path of heroic accomplishments. The emphasis on nation isit spreadfrom person,person to tocreate codes of behavior and tospace. attitudes human contact with the space. The space does not function on its own, but like a virus spaces are notconfined to a territory, and that its value dissemination is a cause of all reveal these areas, that to “public infection space”andits its illusion of other “time”, multiple in times of a single Thecemetery’s representation continuum. time/space The three later representations of heterotopias reveal in reveal its function of a different laterheterotopias representations The three In large written partthe works of enlightenmentthe period, with suchwriters a in linearity museum history the of cemetery of space the and The representation 18 CEU eTD Collection under oppression or sentenced unfairly. Duncan Cameron goes as far as to say that “imagined community” (Anderson 1991:1-65) in which national history was either 20 time of the civilization project during the country’s “golden period” at the turn of the display of mausoleums, monuments and obelisks, shows its emulation of the West at a The cemetery is a walk though the national history, which the museum depicts,its national pride in an era when nationalism wasjust flourishinginto andcoming its own. nineteenth century – when many of these cemeteries were erected – they were an act of and preserve it for the future. This might seem obvious and alittle trivial but in the of museum country’scemetery and past isthe and preserverepresentations tocollect triumphal wars, and great leaders, these are all present because one of the aims of any musicians etc… This lineage is present in the cemeteries’ representation of past glories, Cemetery alone there are over 10 000 well known Hungarian celebrities, politicians, rather pride and honor. The cemetery is a type of national relic museum. In Farkasréti of the city landscape. It was not meant to be ignored; it did notbring regret or fear but thebuilding.Boulevard; paidhomage to selling(Gratz 2000:395).A their goods prominentstreet even today called the Museum Hungarian National Museum was in front of a bustling marketof vendors and craftsmen the main streets of the city, where society interacted. During the nineteenth century the located on itself was Thebuilding nation. of the arepresentation themselves became only buildings which housed artifacts of great importance for the nation but they werenot as buildings aman madewell.aesthetic imprinted future architecturally These th century. The national museum, not only expresses national consciousness but an but consciousness national expresses only not museum, national The The location of the cemetery in the middle of the city meant that it became part 19 CEU eTD Collection is no exception to the rule and although different divisions bear unique and often in larger citiesthe with a significantpopulation highlyand educated citizens. Budapest andpractices Most from Western visitors. approval receive of changesplacethese took power. City building was a great way to show affinity Westernto traditions and of colonialism, Central Europe also sought a place in the Western World of prestige and by in Europeans which barelandscapethe was seen as opposing the civilization project improving (Osborne world” 1988: 166).Andmuch like the conquestof NewWorldthe in an image an unacceptable an embarrassment, was state undisciplined alien, inideology times)the to (according its and “Thefacilities. raw, environment cultural of 20 reburial projects the preservation of religious relics and national heroes deceased, exemplified by the only collecting and preserving artifacts but safe-keeping as well, this is also evident in the past” (Simpson 2001:68). As a result many of the museums took on the role of not of vision expectaromanticized mayand or present of their culture, aspects positive the history especially ones own. “Members of a community will often wish to show only represent in factasubjectiveway areto spaces Museum cemetery and The acceptance. through its link toWestern cultural ideals fosters which a kind of“civilized” importantly population, andmostin outsidethe to world acceptability a way creates that anda revisedcemeteries presentmuseums both which is history to the presented then completely partial, these national museums have a specific role to play in society. The controversial (Cameronsubjects” Although 1971:11-24). no can one ever be “museums have a social responsibility to present the public with an objective view of The civilized city often meant improvements in its infrastructure, political infrastructure, in its improvements meant often city civilized The th century century Hungary. 20 CEU eTD Collection museum would be cousins, which sprang from the same grandfather, both in the it heritage. as asymbol national recognize people would of their locations in museum was the more city. capital the Themoreprominent accessible the only subjected toprivate collections; they were displayed in institutions,public in often state, believed in the future of a nation and its culture: their own. Art was no longer library as 2000:358). well (Gratz These figures rather believing then in future the of the collection andof books artifacts in 1802, creating notonly a national museum buta entire his donated who Széchenyi, Ferenc Count Hungary’s as such men nation; national museum was often a person or person’s donation of their collection to the hands meant that the public could never have access to them. The first step in creating a inelite system hierarchical extremely art’s hands, in other disappeared have might they future. were also selections from a heroic history, a heroic past and displayed to retain itin the funding it and donating their collections and artifacts. The artifacts that were donated of extent the to importance its in believed who patrons wealthy be to had there that support such policies, whom will not be ignored; that culture is the nation. This meant that people powerful are there that oppressed, be not will nation the that message a clear was century twentieth early and nineteenth inthe museum national a Building independence. and liberty for symbols become have and identity, and consciousness old creation and the isof acommonlynew environmental spaces view.agreed upon opposingviews, advancement the of housing,better job opportunities, and restoration of Many of the most important artifacts were in private collections – and although If the simile of the family is used for the nation, then the cemetery and the Museums not only help to preserve national culture but play a role in national 21 CEU eTD Collection legacies of World War Two, which are often absent from the National Museum as well their lineage of heroic pasts such as Magyarization in the late nineteenth century, or museumsthe be to possible proud of – butoften excluding facts which notfitintodo and the cemetery as a playground of great men who made all that is now presented in nineteenth century and post-communism, museums when were under national control, cultures in a way that suits their purposes – for the museum the display of civility in the “authentic” in of presenting are “business” the cemeteries as well Museums as National creating a national consciousness there are several things that should not be ignored. legitimacySocialist a at time of political in1988, Hungaryturmoil (Gal 1991:440-458). but in all his protestation his wishes were ignored, and his funeral was a tool for does want a pompous funeral, and especially not while the streets have foreign names, reconstruct and reconvene history. Bartók Béla, in his will specifically outlines that he the national fabric, because of the control over “the end”, which gives power to an uncritical view point. It is only once someone is dead, that they can become part of end” isfor canmeanhistory torespect closed, often dead, whichconnected the means history.that Not only “death”does in language useprovoke silence, buta belief in“the place asabarerof insociety, “theis by dead”.What Imean dead” “the “the end”of institutions, one of mostthe sticking differences for cemetery the is its unquestioned already promoting. However, among the many similarities between these two national selected histories, to make it appear as a linear form history,of which these spaces are with the death, this way it comes full circle, a beginning and an end, according to while complimenting the lived experience of hero(akindthe of inbirth) museum,the business of preserving andrepresenting(dead) thepast asa public service living, for the Although National Museums are seen as representing and to some to extent and as representing are seen National Museums Although 22 CEU eTD Collection Public monuments, unless under very specific circumstances, donot have the ability to paintingmight over time; needpublic works constantattention andfunding upkeep. to little mean marketartworks capitalism, to rather money makingthen because as and whetherpatterns in interaction public spectacle, a kindvoyeuristic space. of Public from the curious public visitor, by encasing them in glass, the cemetery is open to sexual, the mourner or the saint. religious affiliation. Female figures in the cemetery depict women as either overtly in a hope senseand form freedom, democracy the further of creates of cemetery creates a false sense of consciousness. The city view from the hill of the Farkasréti museum, enclosed the unlike space so,the cemetery, the of More open unnoticed. more politically infused, since monuments in the cemetery, unless overtly political, go is bein even noticed cemetery? to This question the havetobenakedwomen (statues) men of women. A similar question can be put forward in the cemetery space: Do have be to naked togetinto MET?;the manyReferring the to naked paintings doneby due to the lack of female artists in the Metropolitan Museum of Art was: Do women over its elitist practices of omission. The famous question proposed by the Gorilla Girls little debate has seen thecemetery minority works, gender and theomission of over “ordinary” history. seen as radicals, such as the SS in Germany, which deviates from and is an exception to Hungarian involvementin the deportation of Jews,except the Arrow Cross, which are as Hungarians are victimsthe presented in andpast, socialist little ismentioned about Museum, much likeNational point that out It isinteresting to cemetery. as the What is the value of art in the cemetery? While the museum protects its artifacts is museum While the What valueof the art in protects cemetery? the of While analyses overits museum have debates the exhibiting created practices, 23 CEU eTD Collection Hills; itis a cemetery with a view over the whole of Budapest. It is noted for its power” (Milesrepresents is 1997:37).The inFarkasréti cemetery located Buda the he “viewpoint the that states is of height conventional critical to urban planning and place where they meditate, picnic, talkgardening, women,other to do pray. and religious practice, as well as respect for the nation. It is formany elderly women a surveillance is not taking place. The code of conduct is partly as a connection to do not feel directly surveyed by a paid employee but that does not mean that though control is in the hands of the visitor. This is why women in the cemetery space imposed andimposed codes by visitors, expected feelsthrough of other itbehavior; as is in self- surveillance cemetery the However, and security. extensive surveillance museum is surveillance. Again the cemetery seems more open, without camera as an exterior. the plot) in a public setting (of the cemetery). The cemetery becomes an interior as well a space(visiting intoprivate are coming cemetery tothe living visitors the reveals that private space (with monetary value) as well as a public space without that value. This every ten years. This is primarily the reason how; the cemetery can be viewed as a However, the cemetery plots have to be paid for, first the funeral and then fees paid have value, amonetary howcanitbe tocapitalist measures? assessedaccording exactly because ofits absence from commodifiedthe world. When something does not economic status. According toMalcolm Miles public art differs from art in the museum make money. The appeal monumentsof in the cemetery comes down to political and/or the the months of February-May 2007. 2 Personal observation over an extensive period of about three months at the Farkasréti cemetery, between cemetery, Farkasréti atthe months three ofabout period extensive an over observation Personal Malcolm Miles outlines the importance of the “Planned Gaze” in public works, in public Gaze” “Planned the of importance the outlines Miles Malcolm the and cemetery the between similarity and deviation important Another 24 2 CEU eTD Collection The Kerepesi and the Farkasréti cemeteries in Budapest are not only are not and only in a religious Budapest cemeteries Farkasréti the and The Kerepesi firstcentury on firstkingthe rested by acceptance of the Hungary.the Christianity of critical role in Hungary’s national history. The legitimacy of the Magyars in Europe in representation of the history of Christian religious practice. Christianity has played a museum is a unlike the also thecemetery cemetery, beto the easily compared citizen. faithful iscemetery highly inview politically controversial of nationalism a respectful and a 2001:250). However, social inresponsibility a National Museum and evenmorein a pieces requiring knowledge of traditional skills andartistic conventions (Simpson practices by establishing of programmes restoration and are-creation of significant material greatly preservation of the andtherevivalcontributed culture to of traditional of research and preservation, artifacts they deem worth while. National Museums have collections, and addressing social and political issues. But they are also in the business archives and to access increased arts, the of tothem: revitalization associated which sought toprovoke fear “the of inferno” control to behaviour. These monuments sought to provoke fear of the state, not unlike the religious figures dignitaries, as well as erecting an enormous monument to the Workers’ Movement. Socialistimprinted period the symbol star the of on moseleumsthe of threethe 1848 known for its natural spring water, and caves. The Kerepesi Cemetery during the a cemetery itsduring planned in phase century; mid-nineteenth the Buda the hills are be areathan it aresort more to wanted city,several people the towards sight spectacular While the spaceofin in function, canquite museum,its the messageand part Over last the thirty years museumshave takenoverroles notpreviously 25 CEU eTD Collection its association to the national departed figures. national tothe departed its association national space but also asocial and culturally constructed one, most revealing through 26 CEU eTD Collection et. al.et. 2000:301-334). individuals,private and the national aregovernment no longer its sole (Foote supporters organizations,local veterans’ government, and survivors’ associations, businesses and New monuments today are being sponsored by political, social and religious with religious ones, tocreate a link between, the people, the nation and Christianity. church knewtheimportance also of using historical and cultural connected symbols cultural symbols in its pursuit of a collective national identity when it suited them, the in Hungarian history. While the state knew the importance of using religious and family and faith. Christianity is a direct connection to power, territory and conformity in events historically culture. popular recognized legacy tothe of Király) testifies (István alsoKing called Stephen opera, rock modern only is Stephen the first King of Hungary but he is also its Saint. The very popular and to the thrown and one that is embedded in a deep seated national consciousness. Not Communist (Finnes government” 1999:20). King Stephen has a controversial accession “Emigrants Hungarians in USwere the outraged thatCarter would legitimize thus a it symbolized a kind of legitimacy. It was returned in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter. crown, a symbol of the nation and religion was smuggled in and out of the country,for The treasure. greatest its is nation and people Hungarian the represents symbolically reality directly crowned by the pope is uncertain, but the holy crown, which with the crowing of King Stephen by Pope Sylvester II in Rome, whether he was in III. The Urban Cemetery, Religion and Decoration The cemetery as a “holy ground” is based on religious connection to nature, the nature, to connection religious on is based ground” “holy a as cemetery The The history of Hungary or at least its fore into “civilized” culture came in 1001, 27 CEU eTD Collection in multitudeof the churches builtfrom 1880 to1914 (Hanák 1998). importance of can be religion seen for nationalism; the further became housinga cause exclusion and anincrease in building.church The importance oflanguage, worship and increase in social and national imagining that took on a new Christian belief of an city, creating the the of on periphery becamecondensed Hanák. Thepopulation 2003:1-53). couldbeceremonies arrangedduring era forbidden Communist the by (Tóth state the city officials it became the desired destination for burial, where private Christian Tóth Vilmos is, and has always been a public cemetery. Built on a hill and away from political figures. Its“forced” Farkasréti sibling,the in cemetery Budahills,the writes known for having over3000 representatives of national history,mostly prominently for(cemetery show) since 1885, only figuresaccepts distinguished burial for and is which a“disztemet in was declared The Kerepesi Budapest, cemetery spaces. driven toppled. TheRegnum Marianum country) church (Madonna’s was builtduring the the 1956 revolution, but to make way for the twenty foot monstrosity, achurch was In 1951,amonumentwas erected to Stalinin Square,whichthe down was cut during wasused Ground) Square, by (Parade military for Socialists the parades. and workers’ peaceful Catholicism with a massive military parade (Kurti 1990:5-8). The Felvonulási religious holy day, St.Stephen’s Day itconsequently withconflicted its previously was declared Constitution Day. Implemented to mute the attraction of the pre-socialist, Religious Holidays were suppressed by in socialists the 1948, and August 20 As populationthe increased in soBudapest, did the shiftin ideology, writes The urban cemetery’s national references are very politically economically and politically arevery references national The urbancemetery’s 28 th Ę ” CEU eTD Collection and even somewhat idyllic akind of landscape, and even somewhat amystical has landscape the cemetery, the within practice of religious/moral conformity through representationthe monuments of graves and to them.Alsopartly due tothe seem conveyto a slower linear historical line of historical tragedies and triumphs outside the cemetery, the time inside retains only those historical wins and losses which and one of its visible representations of this is the cemetery. While the city changes secondary role to Christian symbolism (Ibid.). a on took in cemetery the symbolism military was atnational It and thistime that communism. to contrast a direct as symbols Christian he evoked power; his legitimize dictator. He used the country’s disenchantment over itslost territory as a means to defeat over Béla Kun’s communist regime in Hungary, and would rule the country as a Admiral Horthy was to lead the country intoa Christian nationalist fervent after his retained only ofitsone-thirds previously historic territory during Hungarian Empire. Nationalist” (Ibid.) feel after the signing of the Trianon Treaty in 1919, when Hungary 2003:5) cemetery for historical figures. Itstarted to develop amore “Christian (Tóth a“liberal-nationalist” and wasrather largely secular considered Farkasréti was the Ferenc in separate mausoleums. Before the First World War, this cemetery, along with Budapest, it houses the national heroes of Batthyány Lajos, Kossuth Lajos and Deák in it WorldWar. Kerepesi theSecond is located of after center the “reintegration” religious sentiment. The Kerepesi cemetery became one of the targets for magazine.ujember.katolikus.hu). Christian-nationalism in 1931, under Admiral Horthy Miklós (Bókay, Aug.-Sept. 2006, Socialists also knew the importance of the cemetery space for national national for and of space cemetery knew importance the the also Socialists Cities arecontinuously being reshapedtofit presentpolitical the expectations, 29 Et in Arcadia Ego Et in ; the sense that even CEU eTD Collection driven symbols of war, but it uses “folk” tradition (peasant), classical references profoundly flee to from reprisal. emigrate, Magyarország butmost needthe through to misunderstood severed and national figure, historical lineage is enough, which is into worked a historic legacy of a without. A person does not have to live, orwork in theirhome country to be claimed a reflection on all, and this is evident not only from within the nation but also from to the national image; the contribution of one person from a designed group is a past that is rooted in such conflicts. Many of these figures are seen to have contributed However, actors, singers, composers, and engineers, for example, are associated with a a national heroic past of political revolts/wars) is not evident in the span of their life. many public figures rest in the cemetery, their direct connection to nationalism (links to which both conform a to tradition/historical representation nationalof identity. While how the cemetery as a space of national and religious fervent creates a double bind in This exemplifies from itsseparate counterpart. religious are hardto ideologies national into the cemetery space, through the use of King Stephen as king and saint,means that and order. ideals tradition of patriarchal conformity, reiterate hasandto theability experiences, ithistory certainbares upon of andcodes respectability spirituality beyond everyday speaks ofthenan But asabeginning rather death, end. of thisand death landscape also setting religious life The then death. its rather of representation history, of idyllic of an representation isits landscape idyllic to cemetery’s Whatadds mortality. the in a most perfect and tranquil landscape, such as Arcadia, we are reminded of human The cemetery is with is masculineThe cemetery not endowed which only a national space, The combining effect of The combiningof national effect and religioussymbols andtheir transference 30 CEU eTD Collection relations” (1998:23). The legitimacy of children are based on the construct of the natural and universal phenomenon iswhich an“‘automatic’ extension of kinship Yuval-Davis writes in her article “Gender and Nation” that nations are viewed as a andproduced reproduced, and although itis an illusion itis a well founded one. Nina procreation and death and the world of intimacy” (Ibid.:86). The “family” is being andits garden” Silvawrites using Bourdieusian “all theory, pertains that tosexuality, environment, which creates gendered spaces. “The female space is that of the house social in the identity, social determines essentialism, biological specifically (2005:84-85) naturalizationthe of gender in roles which sexual identity, ormore system [along with] the state, are the key sites for the maintenance of naturalization” Theory thanks toGod(Crowley 2004:281). symbolized religious ferventand devotion, were decorating objects often done togive national cultural revival. in Crafts Hungary are often from derived folklore, which These designs and others inspired the Arts and Crafts movement in Hungary and common in Hungary; they were colorful and elaborate to create spiritual enlightenment. very was in folklore symbolism decorated churches of Peasant work God. time to the his/her who devotes peasant, faithful the peasant, of good the images nostalgic full of culture of the nation. Craftis one such artistic expression. Arts and Crafts writings are from usedfor livedcontribute livedexperiences. Objects every to the day experiences is“Culture Ordinary” Stuart wrote Hallwho believedculture(1999:33-44), that derives (civility), andnational symbols tomaintain(flag) agendered historical imagining. Elizabeth Silva, in her article in her Silva, Elizabeth , writes that “together with the domestic sphere, the Church, and the educational Gender, HomeandFamily inCultural Capital 31 CEU eTD Collection decoration decoration has become necessary in thehome (Lewis & AlthoughCho 2006:69-91). W. Theodor nation. the “flowering” of the nation as the role of women to reproduce, and bear sons for the Nationalism the promiseby keep has state, nation rhetoric to the used prosperous. the on a tomb by a woman can be interpreted as a kind of promise of giving new life, and and symbol fertility,linkedof to reproductivethe system female.the of Layingflowers words like to bloom (into a young lady) or to flower (into …). woman’s sexuality, not only in the arts such as Georgia O’Keefs’ paintings, but in tothe associated closely Flowers are decorate grave. the usedto often flowers are remembrance,for example the hanging of photographs on the wall. In the cemetery, 2005:88). To love isvery closely associated to decoration, asasymbolic form of that is to transform love into a loving disposition, which falls upon the woman (Silva of gender disparities,it nevertheless has a very real purpose, says Pierre Bourdieu, and Expectations in Hungary” (1995:22-23).Even if familyisthe a fictitious classification public spheres, expressed Acsády Juditin herarticle “Shifting Attitudes and versus a bad one rests on theirideals relating to traditional roles of the private and primary role in moral defining standards. The definition of wifegood andmother its effect on limiting society’s movements. The gender roles in Hungary seem to play a femininity is a wide spread problem, differenceslie the in its degree ofimportance and bearbiological capacity children to (Ibid.:30). relates toher of asnational control legal means,the reproducers women family through Wildflowers have alsobeen linked to graves as a kind of symbol new birth,of masculinity ideals and about incultural relations gender and The difference Adorno wrote that modernity has made the city so unlivable, that 32 CEU eTD Collection in Hungary, writes Susan Gal,in her article “Gender in the Post-Socialist Transition: the from of shift ones” aspart post-communism the than rather social natural andcategories domestic unit” (1998:99).“Gender and… arebeing reproduction discussed as moral the management of the public image and social appearances of the members of the naturally take charge of everything concerned with aesthetics, and more generally with Masculine Domination nolonger part of livingthe human but heroicthe (superhuman). become evident how Heroes of the Nation, will never die and as such remain immortal; representational of life, the fragility of life, the shortness of life: of humanness. It as long as there is someone who remembers them. Flowers are symbolically decorationthrough isat not all unusual considering thedeadareneverthat really dead ideadecoration. life that The desirable isbrought through todeath and acceptable iscemetery for living the rather then dead.A the is previously space undesirable made kind of irony in decorating the cemetery to make itlivable, but in all respects the domestic roles of women in the home and their transference to the cemetery. There is a linkis made tothe a direct cemetery the decorate home needto the the and decorate need betweenthe If to is nature. backcreated a comparison to of reverting advantages the and life, city of dysfunction the of suggestive is also decoration without home the home. If decoration is needed to make the home more livable, then the unlivability of isa decoration associated to more “livable” space modern in drudgery of the urban the societies. Western in series television decorating with today obsession the about writing homes have always been decorated to either show status or for function, Adorno is What does it mean for the cemetery to be decorated? Pierre Bourdieu wrote in that evident become it considered, are decoration, home about ideas Adorno’s If , that “within the division of domestic labor women quite 33 CEU eTD Collection late nineteenth century. They looked for inspiration in the “backward lands” of lands” inis of for inspiration what They “backward looked century. the late nineteenth in the symbols, national their in reviving interest a great had Hungary including nations Many lost time. of a traditions noncorrupted the representation, of “authenticity” myths of nationality in theform of “imagined communities” 1991:1-65). (Anderson homogeneous created ofbeing and center as the religion whichreplaced artifacts” community that created its own narrative. Benedict Anderson calls nations “cultural imagined thenation as an about wrote Anderson Benedict for thenation. narratives andimagined pasts alternative creates cemetery the within consciousness historical on the deceased and their connection with the land. The promotion of the collective is based identity whose mythslegends; a people anation and present, of into the heroes, it. preserve to message) of (dissemination women’s role (reproduction) tokeep these memories alive, while itis the state’s role 1994:66-84). It seems as itisthough thenation’s role (national rhetoric) and the “authenticity” fixity andof that and history preservation requires remain (Bhabha that protection the Hewrites repetition. itsfor continuous of need because stereotypes, reinforces preconceived notions which foster stereotypes. Hequestions the validity of for adeclining population” (Ibid.:271). Homi Bhabha claims that it is repetition that debates about the future of the nation. Women have become the source and the product is very much a national where discourse women’s biological rolereproductive has led to decline andtheworry “imminentover the death of nation”the (Ibid.:269). Population to communism in 1980s came the from populistwith groups, a concern over population Abortion inDebate Hungary” (1994:257).She writes that one of major the oppositions By isolated 1900 andthe had regions primitive fornew appeal, their The landscape of nation creates the cemetery the of historical whichinfuses past 34 CEU eTD Collection 2004:196) in its revival form. The floralgrave-post, motifs, customs, poetry, tales, collective and do not maintainonly boundarieswithin because ofhistorical lineage. that members of a national group believe their futures to be interdependent with the ‘honor’ (Yuval-Davis 1998:29).Otto Bauer’s conception “commonof destiny” states sake of the “women-and-children” that men go to war “the embodimentof the collective the future, for the nation. Cynthia Enloehas pointed out that it is apparently for the consequence for women. Women are reminded that they are responsible for the life, for family, sharing life and death. The symbol of life with death has a very real still life in the rest of the group. Since the rural community would often be like a close heard in North America. It could mean that although death has come to one, there is ancient symbols life”of (Keserü 2004:196) very different from “Rest in Peace” often century, with the Arts and Crafts movement in Hungary. The “grave-post is one of the andstars tulipsincorporated were into alivingfolk tradition, during the early 20 example is in front of the Mammut Shopping Center in Budapest. The grave posts with cemetery as well,in most cases to signify the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. One fashionable 1989(Foote, after et.al. They 2000:301-334). have appearedoutside of the pole. These poleshave wereoutlawedand become during extremely communism legacy of religious art, historical art, and national art. craft sought alegacy in emotion, emotion from a past, for the present. Emotion is also a prospect of emotion was in modern art only a consequential reaction to a work, while was a “product of a strongly-feltunderstanding thepast” (Crowley of The 2004:282). now Romania, at the time part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Interest in the ordinary The grave-post also alludes to the “creative forces of mankind” (Keserü forces of also “creative alludesthe to The grave-post A very significant representation of folk culture in the cemetery is the grave 35 th CEU eTD Collection sought the discovery of the inner life of man. Körösf all the social classes around the idea of the “house”. It was related to folk culture, and it Hungary,in early the twentieth century, combined cultural and issues, political uniting was part of nature, but nature as a ‘she’. The association of craft towomen meant that everything that wasmade by was adornedNature by her”(Crowley 2004:281). Craft Useless Toil” that, “everything that was made by man was adorned by man,just as Arts and Crafts movement. William Morris in 1885 wrote in “Useful Work Versus as family,the and through family,the biological motheringreproduction, andmourning. which all nation, prosperous the promote symbols through of patriarchal such control, cemetery. Through these areinfusedgrave-poles religious,folk, and national tradition, tied grave aroundthe stoneitself, themany or wooden polesgrave throughout the added symbol that is the ribbon symbolizing the national flag. These ribbons are either them: the home, family, and reproduction through religious symbolism. But there is an cemetery still convey the symbols with which the national revival sought toinfuse distinctly national, radical character (Ibid.:192). The grave poles in the present day 201). philosophy: Love, knowledge, Virtue, and Honesty, with Christ at the helm (Ibid.:188- influential folk artist Körösf inthem is newform…That most some the task (Ibid.:196) the of art” Hungarian revive to have we and nations the of consciousness in the deep slumbering symbols myths andballads werepartof folk national the “We have arousetheancient revival. to The merits of utility, so much rejected in art were one of the cornerstones of the Folk art was seen the most harmoniums and purest type, that could convey a Ę i declared. The rise of the Second Reform Generation in 36 Ę i put into his art, his life CEU eTD Collection nationalism, religion and (folk/national) culture. coming together of past and presentin a religiously coded space, combining the exemplifies symbols two these of combination The nationalism. and revolution ancient symbol of “purity” and “authenticity” while the flag is a very modern symbol of with the Hungarian ribbon: the traditional with the modern. The grave posts is an ribbon as well. But the most significant signifier of national identity was the grave post, signifiers in the cemetery space. Reefs can be purchased with the red, white and green around the grave stones, and do not reveal any specific pattern, but are rather common the most widely used symbol of nationalism in the cemetery. The ribbons are tied signifying the national flag: three stripes from top to bottom of red white and green,is were often not considered original). silk, beads,andnatural dyes (theexceptions were incorporations from regionsother and associated to nature, through the use of natural materials, such as wood, wool, cotton, part of the tradition of decorative arts. These decorative arts of craftare also closely also exemplifies mourning and remembrancememory) (keeping handiwork, through as emotion link Craft’s to of craft. arts “feminine” aboutthe through are brought culture in folk the their of andcourage, representation violence traits asmasculine represented because aregendered, whileacts Theseimagined of war are imagined past. pasts acts from which the symbols derive, such as wars, but those symbols become part of an one. intellectual an then rather pursuit manual a an then artist; rather fora craftsman theskills of was appreciated for craft recognition It seems that national symbols, and in most cases the Hungarian ribbon, Hungarian the cases most in and symbols, national that seems It Traditional art’s link to national revival and emotion, does not exemplify the 37 CEU eTD Collection placed, by a grave stone or between graves. or by agravestone placed, cemetery. Some of these grave polls did not signify a grave at all but were simply control to traffic. lineroutes cemetery the andpolice officers frequent, and national heroes. Streets are closed down, bus routes are expanded and more cemeteries to pay tribute, lay flowers and light candles by the graves of their loved ones following first of November, brings the whole of the Christian population out to the the but celebrated is not Eve Hollow’s 1). (November Day Saint’s All most turn-out: the with and Easter Christmas, especially most but commemorations military day, a frequentoccurrence andare common on every holiday mother’slaborincluding day, see a 1956dedication without agrave-pole andaribbon, grave post, without specific national reference visible in the cemetery, it is unlikely to is to associated fallenthe 1956revolution.the of While graves exhibiting other the Hungarian is“authentic” revivedin culture cemetery, the a 1989,andafter phenomenon other signifiers beyond the marking of the grave. This symbol of traditional and this symbol. this in dedicated 1956revolution,bore to the Óbuda also specific monumentthe cemetery Despite the fact that Hungarians are notdevout church goers, cemetery visits are The Hungarian grave polls with the ribbon were a very common site in the 8 38 6 This implies that the grave posts have posts grave the that implies This 7 in the Farkasréti cemetery. A CEU eTD Collection (Foote et. al. 2000:303). Ironically, János Kádár died the same hour Nagy Imre was these political prisoners set the stage for the collapse of the Communistgovernment” Public“IninRákoskeresztúr Cemetery 1989 Budapest. for held reburial the ceremony four dissidents other of 1956revolutionthe in were buried Parcel 301 of the inexecuted 1958 (Rév 1995:15-39). occasion of October 23, the first day of the revolution and July 16, the day Nagy was cemetery. After 1982, the police closed this part of the cemetery on the commemorative beginning of 1980sflowersthe wereplaced on in ground the darkestcorner the of the and the others were in Plot301 of the largest public cemetery in Budapest. In the buried were secretly in pseudonyms, cemetery under Nagy spreadthat the butrumors courtyard of the prison, and then in an unmarked grave for over thirty years. The bodies Imre was laid to rest on the exact day of his execution, after first being buried in the leader executedthe of 1956revolutionthe On (Gal 1991:452). JuneNagy 16,1989, Imre Nagy. Critical and opposition intellectuals had asked for the body of Nagy Imre, mythical andstirringproportions collective sentiments. uprising against Sovietrule. Itmarks thefirst day of 1956uprising,the acquiring 1956 the commemorating Budapest in rally sanctioned officially first the at anthem national the sang they as flags and candles held Hungarians in 1956, began revolution living namely communist anti-heroes, Kádár János.On October 23,1989, day the the one issue. These ‘undead’ culture heroes, in particular Imre Nagy, were set against the IV. TheCulture of Reburials, Revolutions and Mourners In 1989the reinterment of dead heroes denied properburial became the number Excavation started just afew months prior, when it was revealed that Nagy and The return of the body of Bartok Béla was the socialist answer to the body of 39 CEU eTD Collection masculine strength and the heroic martyr. The historical monuments and shrines monuments historical and heroicThe martyr. the strength masculine iconoclasm of political in symbols andEuropean are rooted nation? their These events of such a martyr. If men are the martyrs what is the role that the women play in the can his (Rév 1995:35).Theuseof quite sex easily “he” throughout the quote testify to madea newafter he live which him anew death; death, cannot martyr” version of a martyr is a martyr from the height of his death. He can be reburied, but he cannot have of one political gifts/consequencespower. the of Hungarian Hungary control of over half of the Austro-Hungarian territory. National revival was failed revolution of 1848, acompromise was with reached Austria in 1867, whichhave to represent human and national liberty along with social progress (Ibid.:88). After the been called the Hungarian “Marseillaise.” After this event the National Museum came the “National Song” (Lázár 1995:88) almost as important as the national anthem; it has Petöfi recited in front Sándor National Museum where of the gathered revolution, the Museum on March 15 greatestevent, which gave the start to the revolution, on the steps of the National the brought together that person, asthe who iscited importance, great figureof national greatest and most beloved poets in Hungarian history. He was not only a poet, but a obsession with the “cult of death” in Hungarian history. Pet of past. Magyar the heroes tothe connects Crown Holy Christian where the Square place Hero’s atthe funeral took legally by rehabilitated Courtof Supreme the Hungary, amonth his after reburial. The “Death makes the martyr, and his death rewrites, reinterprets, his whole life. A The forsearch the body of Pet th , 1848. This was the mass meeting, the greatest starting event of Ę fi in Sándor 1989 continued the legacy of 40 Ę fi Sándor is one of the CEU eTD Collection between the wilderness on the one hand, and urban civilization on the other (English –amiddle of pastoral state scenes conventions follow pictorial Cemeteries package. in rather afragment buta representational of reality isnever a “truth” there layered one, then isit includes cemetery,andthis butrather being alinear the this change amulti- social[the] communion” (Ibid.:30). Mourningis a kind of catharsis whichthrough nationthe “reintegrates into deadthe the past and meditating upon the woes of the homeland”(Ibid.:22) wrote István Rév. female figure representing Hungary, drapedin immersedmourning, in memoriesthe of and whenitwas visitedremembered. alive came or building. As a semi-public place it became a space where the nation rested, not died, monument in cemetery displayed identity national of growth the into influence an establishing and reestablishing bonds the of a community” (Rév1995:30).This carried “The care of the dead has always been one of the mostimportant instruments in sentiments (Kurti dangers andanti-state to avertnationalism 1990:7). the of nascent 1848-49symbolsthe with those of Bolshevikthe Council of inRepublics of 1919 order became a serious of rites known as “Revolutionary Youth Days.” This synthesis merged redefined as a class war and an international struggle by the socialists. March 15 only national holiday survive to Stalinist reorganization. The 1848revolution was that died for the revolution, and the ones that would never be forgotten. It was also the holidays et. al. (Foote 2000:306). to dedicated national in causes areimbeddedthese of traditional timelessness the Over the course of time and space everything changes, alters, is reinterpreted an“allegorical features in Kerepesi the Lajos’ Mausoleum Kossuth cemetery On March 15, reefs are laid on the graves of the heroes of the nation, the ones 41 th CEU eTD Collection might have preserves theirfamily, through other chores, such as cooking or cleaning. and care. Women preserve memory, through the preservation of the graves, as they much like they have had to do all their lives. This implies the naturalization of women family other members, and/or in for their they husbands care which space cemetery Third, that older women seem to use this space to combine home and work; the bikes. Second, it is a very crowded and condensed space, even without people, and First, the space if used as a park, as a recreational space, where people jog and ride their canbegathered. presumptions be very however important done to needs more research meet with other retired women, talk and even picnic on the grounds. cemetery are rarely found spending as much time there as women, who use the space to Although men have social codes in the cemetery as well, the few men who do visit the apply mostly womento as well through their association to the family and to the home. majority of personal care of the cemetery plotis done by women, these social codes set of social codes. Since caregiveris often associated to female work and since the vast is betweenin by sendera thecaregiver andthereceiver governed the which mediator peacemaker is a symbolic one for national growth and survival. The cemetery acts as a links women to the role of the peacemaker, the peacemakerin the home; the role of the preserver of memory and mourner“the through mother”.Caregiving and “mothering”, in literature and gender presented arts. the roles, butitgeneralization shows the very real link many people make in with connection counterpart, the masculine pursuits of an intellectual city. This is an overt 1979:5) –which displays mixturethe female sensitivity nature andtowards its This is solely from a three month observation of the Farkasréti cemetery, and Women’s reproductive role plays a central role in associating woman to the 42 CEU eTD Collection creation of women, writes Catherine Lutz et al (1990). However, the representation of representation the However, al et Lutz (1990). Catherine writes of women, creation eating. have a gender elementin so far as they code such things as walking, talking or even That itis engrained in body the learnedthrough habits and dispositions. These habits unconscious. essentially “natural”, the to concede to forced being without embodied of of “body the hexis” (Bourdieu 1993: for deceased. the andrespect contemplation walking wasmuch slower, andit was not due to inability.their Thisimplies national and religious markers. For example I found that in the cemetery, the pace of graves,the they are stillfunctioningin a spacewhich codifies their through conduct, care of totake women obliged arenot andthey to islargely relegated it while aplace because space? Yes andof in the No, mean necessarily they are control that that does them. While itis obvious that the majority of the visitors to the cemetery are women, Many of the elderly women also had potting plants, potting soil and watering cans with one out of ten came empty handed, and these were younger women with families. wife. driven however, and is often based on essentialist concepts of woman, asmother or for women isThe integration newlegal measurescultures. of often politically different women in society, throughtowards legal and social means,behavior which distinguishesmale’s the the perimetersis it of that implies This politics. and culture society, moreoften noticeable by distinctionsthe between women their(1998:28), place in 9 These tospacecanbest reactions bedescribed Bourdieu’s byusing theory Pierre On forobservation threehours on Wednesday May I found2, 2007, that only It is also avery interesting point, by Yuval-Davis that cultural differences are These emotions are not arepression or asuppression in men, they are the …) . He states that body hexis is an emotion that is 43 CEU eTD Collection consciousness and their role in the maintenance of masculine/ feminine gender roles. gender feminine masculine/ of maintenance in the role their and consciousness national havemadeand to in have cemeteries still the contributing contribution influence to its citizens. Inlight of this,it would be a mistake to overlook the significant with present, socio-political the of part important an play but past the well as the past. Issues with a reference to nation-building do not belong exclusively to even in hibernation but are living entities of everyday life. History lives in the present as longer recognized aspractices buttruth,asymbol heroism for 1988). (Shapiro no nation, the of consciousness the in imbedded are they that approved, and customary socertain, isso they become have not space’smechanics because can the alter whether thosepresent, people andfeelingof actions person space the the transgress who goes unnoticed, it become a natural way “feel”to in that space. Space determines that and unconscious largely is However behavior. proper about ideas national religious/ courageous, brave and strong as well. The “gaze” is presentin the cemetery, through evokes feelings, itis also the place of rest for those that put on a brave face, the natural fact, whether this be so or not (Ibid.). So while the cemetery is a space that closeness to nature as bioevolutionary is another. She concludes that itis seen as a preside. Women’s role is part of their biological makeup, is one argument, their of the mother because itis central to the “sexual division of labor” (2000) in which men According Nancy women especially mothering. roleChodorow, to to the are segregated aneedlegitimates control for (Ibid.:87). emotion by women, for example crying, is seen as irrational and antisocial, which What must really be understood mustmanyWhataboutreally be is understood dead thatthey notcultures or are Emotion is seen aswomen’s (Ibid.:82-83)work andeverything toit, associated 44 CEU eTD Collection cemetery often follow a preconditioned embodiment of reproducer, as the nation of the embodiment follow apreconditioned often cemetery apex of positive masculine traits, the warrior is the nation. The women within the the dead, the celebrations of a legacy, acelebration of the past. The national hero is the rhetoric, and political rhetoric. Commemorations and holidays are the celebrations of analyze space. the Hungarianlegacy history’s national influencedthe reburials of religion and culture. The space has reveled that there are several waysinterpret to and cemetery in Budapest has a long historical past, which is plagued by nationalism, they reveal something about a society, and that they have certain reproductions. The seems locked in time. as a burial which ground, deserves and itsrespect, codified religious iconoclasm which the city. This can be explained by its use as a national landscape of heroes,its function more so is a place where cultural change comes even slower then within the confines of perception, often through our national, cultural and historical pasts. The cemetery even start to think of how we see and construct essence, and how that itself influences wecan of normalization place, our is hidden behind spacewhich isan there to essence (somewhere, somehow, sometime) a single essence to a space. Supposing first that was there that andsecond ideal is of way seeing the observation objective that Epilogue The cemetery reveals that gendered spaces are present in every-day that in life, arepresent every-day gendered spaces that The cemetery reveals The quote above perfectly exhibits the often misleading ideas about space. First essencethe of be things hidden from us. for the simple pleasure of seeing, and solong as we fail to do this, so long will Very rarely are we able to free our minds of thought and emotions and just see after what our prejudices tell us should be seen, orwhat our desires want tosee. We look at a thing and think we have seen it, and yet what we see is only – Bill (StrongBrandt 1975:7) 45 CEU eTD Collection roles through its “timelessness” in roles through reinforces behavior.a space codes certain that of gendered these reinforces cemetery The nation. the of care-giver mourner and mother, 46 CEU eTD Collection Bókay, László. 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An Interdisciplinary Introduction Barbara Penner and Iain Borden (Eds.) the Theory ofPractice, Sírját” (They … János Kádár’s Grave). Martin’s Press. 1-15. Nina Yuval-Davis (Eds.) http://www.answers.com/topic/kerepesi-cemetery. Transition in Australia No.1. 11-24.No.1. Speed ofNationalism Masculine Domination . 22-23. Native to the Nation: Disciplining Landscapes and Bodies Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and . Minneapolis: University Minnesota Press. of Kerepesi Cemetery Kerepesi Új EmberMagazin(New Man Magazine) , Revised Edition. London: Verso. Facts AboutHungary CUP. 114-124. 47 Women-Nation-State The Locationof Culture . University StanfordStanford: Press. . . New York: Routledge. Gender Space Architecture: Népszabadság Online . U.S. Department of . New York: St. Curator . London: . . Vol. 1,No. 9. Vol.14, Outline of . CEU eTD Collection Lewis, Tyson and Cho, Daniel. (Fall 2006). “Home Is Where The Neurosis Is: A Lázár, István. (1995). Kurti, László. 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Era University of Wisconsin Press. the Farkasréti Farkasréti Cemetery) the Century Landscape Photographs Theory”. 15-39. Issue: Identifying Before Histories:Eastern Europe and After 1989. London: Routledge. 151-198. New Press. Culture”. In Liz Wells (Ed.) Cambridge University Press. Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (Eds.) London: Routledge. Cambridege University Press. StudiesEmotion: in Emotion and Social Interaction . London: Routledge. Photo Speak Monarchy, Aristocracy,State in and the Europe 1300-1800 On the Beaten Track: Tourism, Artand Place Women, Ethnicity and Nationalism: The Politics ofTransition. Art, Spaceandthe City: Public ArtandUrbanFutures The Politicsof Representation The BritishJournal of Sociology Making Representations: Museums inthePost-Colonial . New York: Abbeville Press. 49 Budapest Negyed Photography: ACritical Introduction Representations . London, UK: Gordon Fraser. The Iconography ofLandscape . Madison, Wisconsin: The Language and the Politicsof Ę Története”. (The History of Vol. 56,No.1.83-101. Vol.11,No.2-3-4. 1-53. The Land: Twentieth No.49, Special . New York: The . Cambridge: . . . . CEU eTD Collection the May First celebrations. Photograph takenby Bernadett Báll. 2 1 Appendix Female attending the grave on May 1, 2007, flowers are also very visible on many of the graves due to Farkasréti Cemetery,May 2, 2007. Photograph taken by Báll.Bernadett 50 CEU eTD Collection Cemetery. 4 Thomas Kabdebo (Ed.) (1966). Translated by Thomas Kabdebo to grow on my beautiful heart. start will poisonous grass and lie, shall I earth blessed in mehigh hang me, catch They'll I may kill and I shall rob. job: a - that's heart a pure With the buyerwill be the devil. Perhaps, if no else will I sell all my twenty years. years my are of power My store nothing. to next eaten have I forthe third day - without fussing lover a or kisses without coffin-cover or crib without without God or homeland either Without father without mother With a pureheart. (1925 Tisza Szél) 3 Highlighted yellow/greyin is the largely abandoned and overgrownIsrael burial space at Farkasréti Poem by József Attila, who committed suicide at the age of 32. József Attila Poems . London: The Danubia Book Co. 51 CEU eTD Collection 56) 55) 54) 53) 52) 51) 50) 49) 48) 47) 46) 45) 44) 43) 42) 41) 40) 39) 38) 37) 36) 35) 34) 33) 32) 31) 30) 29) 28) 27) 26) 25) 24) 23) 22) 21) 20) 19) 18) 17) 16) 15) 14) 13) 12) 11) 10) 9) 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) 5 Partial list of celebrities resting there resting Partial listof celebrities Leó Szilárd (physicist) Antal Szerb (writer) Alajos Stróbl (sculptor) (architect) Steindl Imre of Mothers") "Saviour (doctor, Semmelweis Ignaz Frigyes Riesz (mathematician) Miklós Radnóti (poet) Tivadar Puskás (engineer, inventor) Karl Polanyi (economist) Mihály Munkácsy (painter) Zsigmond Móricz (writer) Kálmán Mikszáth (writer) László Mednyánszky (painter) (sculptor) Medgyessy Ferenc movement) Jacobin Hungarian of the leader (Franciscan, Martinovics Ignác Viktor Madarász (painter) Georg Lukács (philosopher) Károly Lotz(painter) (mathematician) Fejér Lipót (architect) Lechner Ödön GyulaKrúdy (writer) Dezs Károly Kisfaludy dramatist,(poet, painter) Karl-Maria Kertbeny (writer, translator) Mihály Károlyi (President) engineer) (inventor, Kandó Kálmán Kadosa (composer) Pál leader) (Socialist Kádár János Attila József (poet) MórJókai (writer, 1904) Mari Jászai (actress) Miklós Izsó (sculptor) chemist) winner Prize (Nobel Hevesy de George Jen Alajos Hauszmann (architect) Artúr Görgey (general) János Garay (poet) Károly Ferenczy (painter, along with Béni Fereczy and Noémi Ferenczy, his brotherGyörgy and sister) Faludy (writer, poet, translator) (sculptor) Fadrusz János (composer) Erkel Ferenc Loránd Eötvös (physicist) (composer) Egressy Béni Gergely (linguist,Czuczor poet) Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka (painter) Ottó Bláthy (electrical engineer) Lujza Blaha (actress, "the nightingale of the nation") István Bethlen (Prime Minister) Jen Miklós Barabás (painter) Béla Balázs (writer, film aesthete) Mihály Babits (poet) János Arany (poet) József Antall (Prime Minister, historian) Ignác Alpár (architect) Ady (poet) Endre Ę Ę Heltai (writer) Barcsay (painter) Ę Kosztolányi (poet, writer) 52 CEU eTD Collection Báll. 6 63) 62) 61) 60) 59) 58) 57) shot into the crowds gathered at Kossuth SquareonOctober 25,1956. Farkasréti Cemetery.“Bloody Thursday” happened on the third day of the revolution whencommunists victim of 1956, with grave-post and ribbon. Photo takenon May 2, 2007 by Bernadett(Our BállBeloved at the Father: the victim of “Bloody Thursday” /I place my soul into your hands dear Lord), the 7 Grave post betweencemetery plots Farkasréti atthe Cemetery May 2, 2007.Photograph by Bernadett Plaque reads: Édesapánk: A “Véres Csütörtök” Áldozata / Atyám a te kezeidbe teszem le az én lelkem azén le teszem kezeidbe a te /Atyám Áldozata Csütörtök” A “Véres Édesapánk: reads: Plaque Mihály Zichy Miklós Ybl (architect) times) three Minister (Prime Wekerle Sándor (composer) Weiner Leó Mihály Vörösmarty (poet) – his tomb is one of the oldest extant tombs: he was interred inÁrmin 1855 Vámbéry (linguist) Mihály Táncsics (writer, politician) (painter, graphic artist) (painter, 53 CEU eTD Collection the 1956 revolution) marked by the wooden grave post and the Hungarian ribbon representing the representing national flag. Photoribbon taken onMay 6, 2007, Hungarian by Bernadett the Báll in and the Óbuda Cemeterypost in Budapest.grave wooden the by marked revolution) 1956 the 8 Plaque reads: A 1956. évi forradalom és szabadságharc h szabadságharc és forradalom évi A 1956. reads: Plaque 54 Ę si halottai (the heroes and freedom fighters of fighters freedom and heroes (the halottai si CEU eTD Collection Báll. 9 Elderly womenpicnicking in theFarkasréti Cemetery May 1, 2007. Photograph taken by Bernadett 55