CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor András Ger Professor Reader: Second Supervisor: Professor Constantin Iordachi In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Trials oflèse-régent in Hungary “Horthy is a nobody” – Central Central University European History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Ę Master of Arts 1920-1944 Submitted to Submitted Jan Bröker 2011 by CEU eTD Collection author. the of permission written the bemade without not may instructions these with accordance made in form copies made.Further suchcopies must a partof any librarian.page This the from obtained be may Details Library. University European Central in the lodged full partmayor be made only in with accordance the instructions given by Authorand the in either process, any by Copies Author. the with rests thesis this of text in the Copyright Copyright Notice ii CEU eTD Collection valuable insights, since it deals with the Regent exclusively. lèse-régentWhile legitimacy. to formsclaim new a forward bring could Regent the amnesty only of granting the one aspect in the dynamicby repression processmainly was This claims. of these critical reinforce to means ofcoercive a as served legitimization lèse-régent of trials utterances the andlegitimacy, to claim his itby communicating of way thecanone was and Horthy Miklós suspension on providenarrative of political rights. official provided the While Horthy-cult so-called files.in are documented casethe the that However, by qualitative the of changes numberthe islinkedto quantitative development of convictions legitimacy. The question of tothe regard with are analyzed lawbut application the of the larger context of the political history lèse-régent.in practicelegal Goingit trials ain beyond thetrialsapproach of places regime. Thus, the trialslegal the thestudy analyzes office Prosecutor’s files Crown from the of sample 135 case are not merely understood as theperception of Regent,bothby the delinquents,aswell the as the authorities. Focusing ona into the Regent,the insights theycanprovide asapolitical crimeconsidered against actswere Sincelèse-majesté of these wasbasedlaws1913. onthe against Regent, of between Hungary i.e.1920 and prosecution insultingof lèse-régent,1944. The acts of the The thesis focuses on criminal trials of lèse-régent (Hung. lèse-régent of trials oncriminal focuses The thesis Abstract kormányzósértés ) in Kingdom the iii CEU eTD Collection everything. András Ger Central thanklike Constantin to University.and Professors European would alsoIordachi I Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes for generous the support ofmy MA studies at the I wouldlikeexpress my to to Kruppgratitude the von Bohlen undHalbach-Stiftung andthe Acknowledgements Ę for their insights and help. Finally, I want to thank my wife, Rita Páva, for iv CEU eTD Collection Chapter 3: Trials ...... 37 lèse-régent of Chapter 2: The legal context ...... 20 of lèse-régent Chapter 1: Approaching the Horthy-Regime and lèse-régent...... 9 ...... 1 Introduction Table of Contents 3.2.2 3.2.1 3.2 3.1.3 3.1.2 3.1.1 3.1 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 The legal practice in trials of lèse-régent...... 45 Overview on trials ...... 37 of lèse-régent The development ...... 34 of lèse-régent Aspects of the development of the system of criminal law in the Horthy-era...... 30 The Regent`s constitutional ...... 25 position From Crimen Maiestatis to Lèse-Majesté...... 20 Methods and Sources...... 17 The ...... 16 Horthy-cult The Horthy-Regime...... 14 Communicating Claims to Legitimacy...... 12 ...... 11 Legitimacy Political Regimes...... 9 h eiqetat ...... 46 The delinquent acts Initiation ...... 45 of the trial General procedure...... 42 The delinquents...... 41 The number of convictions...... 37 v CEU eTD Collection Appendix...... 83 Conclusion...... 75 Chapter 4: Reactions to trials ...... 63 of lèse-régent 4.2.2 4.2.1 4.2 4.1 3.2.4 3.2.3 3.2.2.4 3.2.2.3 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.1 Reactions to trials of lèse-régent in Parliament...... 66 Amnesty and Miklós Horthy’s perception of lèse-régent...... 63 Debating lèse-régent...... 69 The Parliament and ...... 67 its House Rules ...... 61 Sentences Defense...... 60 The dynamic of trials lèse-régentof ...... 56 after 1939 Questioning the Regent’s legitimacy...... 53 Mistreatment of ...... 50 the Regent’s deeds Insults...... 47 vi CEU eTD Collection guilt was not questioned.guiltwas not in defendant’s appeal the of imprisonment a court year toone reduced of later sentence was main the Although years. three for offices of loss and rights political his of deprivation one year andOctober 19,1922.His public trial was held March 14, 1923wherehe on wassentenced to six months in custody forand 15days month until Heremained one was placed Szabó detention. under of imprisonment, sameday the forstation questioning.On nearby Szabótothe police Mihály accompanied a fine hisarrival upon who for apoliceman, hadcalled Tillmann soldier recruit atthe shouted of 2000 While Szabó failed!” fatherfailed,Hungarian Horthy your government the national colors, wear the crowns,gives legs.” Immediatelyand footsoldiersthe afterwards have nothing he topicked eat; Horthy at a is fresha piece ofrecruit: crap, who lines “You his idiot, pockets andwhy then do you Lèse-régent was based on the laws against lèse-majesté. Lèse-majesté (from Latin (from Lèse-majesté lèse-majesté. against laws on the based was Lèse-régent The politics of backwardness in Hungary: 1825-1945 2 otherwise. marked unless author the 1 1920 to1944during regency the moreof Miklós Horthy (1868-1957) than 1400 people insulting Regent. the Rezs When he he republic!” reachedthenewspaperstand of addressedIstván Bukor the soldier the live long Jews, the live long priests, the with down government, the with down Horthy, following:“Pull Horthy, governmentout the has failed, Horthy has failed; down with the shouting heard was assistant baker’s old year 41 inebriated the accounts witness to According Kalocsa incentral Hungary. of town of small the inthe streets passersby Introduction –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker targeting the King. See Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion. a detailed 2 for SeeChapter King. the targeting majesty; originating from the Roman legal tradition) was initially defined as any attack (physically orverbally) Lèse-régent is a translation of the Hungarian of the atranslation is Lèse-régent Magyar Országos Levéltár (Hungarian State Archives) K-616, 3. bundle IV-295-924.All translations by are Ę Tillmann who had been standing there: “Such are the soldiers nowadays, Horthy’s nowadays, soldiers arethe “Such there: whohadbeenstanding Tillmann On the afternoon of September 5, 1922 Mihály Szabó aroused the attention of Mihály had been Szabó charged with,i.e. for andfound tried lèse-régent, guilty of 2 This case ispart neither uniquenor of from a mass Yet, phenomenon. 1 kormányzósértés (Princeton, N. J.: PrincetonUniv. Press, 1982), 217. . The term was adopted from Andrew C Janos, laese maiestatis =injured 1 CEU eTD Collection convictions. See Table 1 in the Appendix. in the 1 See Table convictions. 3 follows: as begins which in ajoke, contained issuccinctly Horthy Miklós state became The situation interim solution ambiguous andof its apermanent. Hungary head of initial The throne. Hungarian the from dynasty Habsburg the of dethronization the and exile between royalists and thoseinregain culminating askirmish in1921,with his throne attempt second triedthe twice to loyal to IV, Charles Horthy. Hungary, of King last the addition, In Trianon. of Finally, Treaty in the ratified later be it resulted in Charlescounterrevolution. Hungary also lost roughlybeing two thirds of its former territory, which would sent into asthe well as take-over communist subsequent the revolution, democratic Hungarian Monarchy itandindependence, with long-sought itthe butalso spawned the not only broughtMarch 1,1920.Theabout the break-upof of Austro- warhad the end the incounterrevolution electedRegentof the 1919 was Kingdom of Hungary re-established on World Warand of commander Army’ supreme ‘National so-called the during the Horthy-regime. the of aspects on newlight canshed lèse-régent issueof the arguethat will thesis this however, importantly, More issue. under-researched far so this of potential the to point Parliament severity of the threatfor lèse-régent. were convicted of punishment, the coverage –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker in the media, as well as discussions in There are officialno statistics for theyears after 1942. From 1921to1942 there were altogether1394 Miklós Horthy last commander-in-chief Austro-Hungarian of the Navy in Firstthe 3 Despite this seemingly low number of convictions, the 2 CEU eTD Collection Ignác Romsics, ed., Horthy-rendszer restoration by King Charles IV. An overview on the political system was published by of the KingdomLevente of Püski,Hungary Primeunder Minister PálTeleki 1921,in but had resigned after first the attempt of between the twowars) 2007). Posthumously published was the work by Gusztáv Gratz, korszakrol 1948) (Budapest:Osiris, 2009) and Péter Miklós, ed., Mária Ormos, Mária standard works of Ignác Romsics, of Ignác works standard 6 Monographs, 1994). horseback: Miklós Horthy, 1918 -1944, number major of contributions were published. andperiod aless itideologicallyis charged approach especially inyearsa recent that course of an time. late 1980salready Although the inincreasedshowed interest interwar the as Regent. Horthy of Miklós legitimization the andperiod of in theinterwar regime of political the legitimization of questions the important figure. Looking underneath thelayer of irony thisleads joke, however, the more to comical be asomewhat to appears a king certainly in without monarchy a state head of the Miklós Horthy as an “admiral on horseback,” 5 [Funny Jokes]: http://www.viccesviccek.hu/Okos_haduzenet;last accessed May 21, 2011. 4 –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Among the publications available in English are apart from the seminal biography by Thomas Sakmysterthe Thus the title of the substantial biography of Miklós Horthy by Thomas Sakmyster, The versions of this joke vary to some degree. This version is taken from the Internet Portal The historical assessment of the Horthy-regime changed significantly over the over significantly changed Horthy-regime the of assessment historical The A: No, we do not. SoS: And do you have a sea? A: Admiral Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya. Regent? your is who And SoS: Regent. a but king, a have not do We A: king? your is who And SoS: Monarchy. Ambassador: ofgovernment? form your is What ofState: Secretary inWashington. ofState Secretary the informed Ambassador Hungarian the II War World during USA on the war declared had Hungary When (Re-imagined quarter of a century: studies on the Horthy-era) (Szeged: Belvedere Maridionale, Hungary in the age of the two World Wars 1914-1945 (The Horthy-System) (Budapest:Pannonica Kiadó, 2006), the two recent volumes edited by A magyar jobboldali hagyomány, 1900-1948 , ed.Vince Paál (Budapest: Osiris, 2001). Gratz (1875-1946) had beenForeign Minister 4 Hungary the in twentieth century East EuropeanMonographs, vol. 396 (Boulder: East European Ujragondolt negyedszazad : tanulmanyok aHorthy- 5 i.e. without a fleetin a landlocked country, as 6 One issue that has recently has Oneissue recently received that Magyarország a két háború között (Hungary (The tradition of Hungarian the Right, 1900- (Budapest: Corvina,Osiris, 1999) and (Boulder, Colo.: Columbia Univ. Press, Hungary's admiral on Vicces viccek Vicces A 3 CEU eTD Collection 20, 2011. http://mediakutato.hu/cikk/2010_02_nyar/08_horthy_miklos_husz_eves_evfordulo/01.html; accessed January 20th anniversary of Miklós Horthy's ‘reign’ (1939-1940)), 2010, Internet: nyilvánosság: Horthy Miklós "`országlásának"' húszéves jubileuma (1939–1940) kezdetei (The beginnings of Horthy-cult),”the ‘reign’),” 138-166; ibid., “Horthy Miklós ‘országlásának’ tizedik évfordulója (The tenth anniversary of Miklós Horthy's 11 century formationof Regent-cultthe in thetime of WarWorld (1938-1944)),” II Miklós,in 10 http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:jyu-20103301368; accessed January 2011.20, Studies in Modern Historical Cult Personalities and Phenomena (2009): 93-113. Internet: English “Changing as images of Miklós Horthy,” 9 8 contradicted images. these contradicted recent studies these from Starting this newspapers. of asample of thesis analysis an on based mainly and Horthy will focus on the criminalisHorthy-cult provided by Dávid Turbucz. prosecution of acts thataccount of phenomenonthe inperiod. that questioned or “Cultof Regent”the duringWorld WarIIby OlaszLajos is limited mostly toadescriptive article on the narratives of Arecent Horthy. soon replaced competing,negative Horthy that of images larger-than-life positive, of dominance increasing the he notes period interwar the overview of perception the Worldfrom of WarHorthy First the until day. present the his essay on the images for Horthy. support balance with its evaluation genuine,stressing strong the needto the of Horthy, first publishedphenomenon briefly,identifying “artificial it as and […]government-sponsored” but also in 2007, Ignácanalysis. Inhisseminal biography Thomas on Regent, the addresses the Sakmyster Romsics gives a broad not adetailed offer butdoes of form characteristics, inan enumeration phenomenon of the 7 character. scholarly than publicist ofamore some and quality ofmixed are 2010) contain anumber of articles dealing with aspects of the regime. contributionsThe of latterthe volume on “The In1990TiborHorthy-cult. Dömötörfi an published article ina popularmagazine historical elementsmost notably is attention increased so-called Horthy,tothe theimageofMiklós regard with of the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Horthy-cult.” Ignác Romsics, “Horthy-képeink (Our Horthy-images),” Sakmyster, TiborDömötörfi, “A Horthy-kultusz elemei: (The elements of the Horthy-cult),” Dávid Turbucz, “A Horthy-kultusz (The Horthy-cult),” inRomsics, Lajos Olasz,“A kormányzó-kultusz alakulása a második világháború id , 354-369. Els Ę Horthy Század , 142. OTDK különszám [OTDK Special Edition] (2009): 187-213; ibid., “AHorthy-kultusz Múltunk SPECTRUM HUNGAROLOGICUM 10 11 7 The article provides a first survey of the The first attempt of a systematic research on the His research is focused on the official image of image official on the isfocused His research , no. 4 (2009): 156-199; ibid., Mozgó világ The tradition of the Hungarian Right, 33, 10 no.(2007): 3-32; published in Ę szakában(1938-1944) (The (Leader Cult and public: The História Re-imagined quarter of a Vezérkultusz és Vezérkultusz 4, Cultic Revelations: 12 (1990): 23-26. 9 For 8 In 4 CEU eTD Collection Horthy jun., Regent’sthe youngerson: studies, documents) (Budapest:Holnap, 2002), 105-111. 15 14 202. Yashin, 13 Schö ("Insidiousness": The law as weapon: control, deterrence and persecutionGermany in 1933-1945) (Paderborn: “ Bernward by study the is Germany inNazi measures legal of such utilization the of analysis detailed discussionand legislationsince the 19th century) (Berlin: BWV -Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, 2006). A Jahrhundert Staatsoberhauptes (Paragraphen 94 ff. RStGB, 90 StGB): Reformdiskussion und Gesetzgebung seit dem 19. Hartmann, by Andrea presented is century 19th the under Emperor Francis Joseph) (Wien: Böhlau, 2010). A diachronic study of such measures in Germany since Spitzbube: Majestätsbeleidigung unter Kaiser Franz Joseph Czech, by Philip study recent see the monarchy Habsburg the in lèse-majesté (1600-1800) 12 Atatürk” demonstrate, this is not only livinglimited to heads of state. its as astheof monarchies, case many lawon“crimes against with practicewell Turkey in legal As the legitimacy. to claim ruler’s the defend to that aim: important an share measures and mightWhile theextentextentdiffer degreeof toagreat prosecution legal these publications thataddressthis in topic timedifferent periods as regions. differentwell as century.recent There areanumberof mainly nineteenth developed the insults, during specific protection of the authority or the prestige of a ruler against non-physical threats, e.g. has for manyexisted in centuries, many forms and undermany names. However, the category This only. century twentieth the of phenomenon a they are nor period, interwar the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Miklós Horthy’s second son. glimpseshortis lèse-régent inÁgnesbiography on of Judit trials presented Szilágyi’s of establishment. in astirwhich quite political hadthe caused of Interior, former Minister Beniczky, Ödön of case the to refer mostly and cases, of number low arelatively mention practice in trials of lèse-régent. The case files of criminal trials on lèse-régent offer notoffer only lèse-régent on trials casefilesof The criminal lèse-régent. intrials of practice Horthy lobbiedjunior for pardoning the of This a defendant. focusstudy will on legal the Heimtü Ágnes Judit Szilágyi, In this In this vein Püski, This law was passed in 1951, i.e. 13 years after the death of Mustafa Kemal, called Atatürk. Yael Navaro- On lèse-majesté in Russia see Angela Rustemeyer, seeAngela Russia in Onlèse-majesté ningh, 1998).ningh, Faces of the state: Secularism and public life in Turkey cke”: das Gesetz als Waffe : Kontrolle, Abschreckung undVerfolgung Deutschlandin 1933-1945 Legal measures protection forthe arenotspecific head the of Hungary state of in to The topic of lèse-régent has not yet been researched in detail. Several authors indetail. Several hasbeen yet not researched lèse-régent The topic of (Dissent Honor:and Lèse-MajestéRussia in (1600-1800)) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2006). For (Lèse-majesté and defamation of the head of state (Articles 94ff. RStGB, 90 StGB): Reform The Horthy-System Ifj. Horthy Miklós, akormányzó kisebbik fia: tanulmányok, dokumentumok 15 However, it pertains only to one case in which Miklós , 208; Sakmyster, Majestätsbeleidigung und Verunglimpfung des Dissens und Ehre:Majestätsverbrechen in Russland Horthy (The Emperor is a rascal and rogue: Lèse-Majesté rogue: and a rascal is Emperor (The (Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniv. Press, 2002), , 139f. Der Kaiser ist ein Lump und 13 (Miklós Dö rner, 14 A 12 5 CEU eTD Collection Horthy-era) (Budapest: Napvilág, 2004). (Political journalism as vocation: public sphere, bourgeois press and the journalists in the first half ofpolitikai újságírásthe mint hivatás: nyilvánosság, polgári sajtó és a hírlapírók aHorthy-korszak els 16 fileslèse-régent of this135 case files. For study of case also achieved through selection the is limitation be Finally, the properly cannot analyzed. in lèse-régent trials of denunciation of problem the sentence the only files contain case the Since happened.’ ‘what actually of reconstruction a provide to intend not does and cannot thesis this However, yearbooks. statistical in the figures as appear mainly that cases those on focus will thesis this Parliament casesprominent like of thatÖdön Beniczky, the handful or trialsof involving Members of of framework focusingbein theanalysis study. of this Ratherthan the accomplished on cannot lèse-régent of trials of themedialreception of discussion an adequate Furthermore, system many andthe censorship of involvingtrials newspapersduring the Horthy-era. the to attention pay not specific will this thesis lèse-régent, of acts other as prosecution same weresubjecttothe in press the insultspublished onHorthy necessary. Since is limitation lèse-régent to trials of approach scholarly systematic no hasbeen far there perceived? lèse-régent trials werethe how of lèse-régent Finally, the Horthy-cult? to related defendants of trials punished? Howwerethe Which expressions and deedswere And,prosecuted? if found guilty, howwerethe What A was belegal lèse-régent? definednumber addressed: shall context. as questions of insights.filesbe Thus, theconsidering criminal properly case cannot assessed without the embeddedin alarger formalizedhighly system, hence and does notimmediate provide however, legal was, The practice as Regent. legitimacy Horthy’s to threats (perceived) the of treatment judiciary’s the mainly i.e. authorities’, the document they importantly, a uniquevery intolimited –albeit the –insight of perception popular Horthy. More –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker On theconditions forjournalists in firstthe decade and forfurther literaturesee the study by Sipos,Balázs Facing the complexity of the topic, the number of issues involved and the fact that so Ę felében 16 A 6 CEU eTD Collection delinquent acts that were regarded as lèse-régent. The analysis of these acts and the legal andthe acts of these analysis The aslèse-régent. were regarded that acts delinquent of the general procedure in trials of lèse-régent. The main focus of the chapter will lie on the numberthe of convictions and shall the delinquents be given. Thisis followed by an outline law. shall be analyzed,since theyserved as for the guidelines subsequent interpretation of the entire under period scrutiny isunequal. somewhat distribution their the over development the of analysis a detailed providing of intent initial the Reflecting available for research the and writing of thesisitformedthis afeasible upperlimit. This numbermight seem account arbitrary, buttaking into the limited time and space shall be outlined. Finally,the decisions of the aspects of the development of the Hungarian legal system between the two World Wars in legal criminal itself is third of the practice chaptertrial, dynamic.Therefore, the part constitutional bewill position described. Whilelawsform static rather the basisfor any Regent’s In stepthe a second willbe presented. lèse-majesté legalthe history of of some aspects lèse-majesté laws against basedthe on were lèse-régent trials on the Since will beoutlined. and sources methods the Furthermore, Horthy-cult. the and Horthy-regime the legitimacy, of claims of communication the legitimacy, regimes, political includes This explained. be will myapproach inform thatThe terms lèse-régent. andconcepts issue to of approach Horthy-regime andthe the and can be encountered throughout the entire period have been not been selected for the time after 1930. after time the for selected been not been have period entire the throughout be encountered can and development of the delinquentqualitative acts.and variety the Thus, into the insight an give insultsto order in (seeselected been Chapter 3.2.2.1) however, has, offiles that category vary only to a certain degree 18 17 from (Hung. of Prosecutor Crown office the the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Of the 135 case files 97 are from the first decade and only 38 are from the following period. These second These period. following the from are 38 only and decade first the from are 97 files case 135 Ofthe For adetailed description see Chapter 1.7. The third chapter will address the trials of lèse-régent. First of all, an overview over overview an all, of First lèse-régent. of trials the address will chapter third The The second chapter will illuminate the legal context for the trials of lèse-régent. for trials the of legal context the will illuminate chapter The second The thesis is divided into four thematic chapters. The first chapter will delineate my will chapter delineate Thefirst chapters. four thematic into isdivided The thesis Kúria koronaügyészség , the Hungarian , the Royal Court Supreme 18 ) have beenselected. ) have 17 7 CEU eTD Collection debates on lèse-régent will lèse-régent be considered. debates on parliamentary Secondly, the lèse-régent. of perception Miklós Horthy’s the and of amnesty chapter aspects someshall Thisincludes, of first important be highlighted. grantingall,the of this in framework the becannot presented lèse-régent of perception the of analysis scrutinized. Horthy’s legitimacy. Finally, strategies of defense as well as the sentences shall be response to these can provide insights –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker on the authorities’ perception of possible threats to The fourth chapter will address reactions to trials of lèse-régent. Since a detailed Since a lèse-régent. trials of to reactions will address chapter fourth The 8 CEU eTD Collection the twentieth century scholars increasingly shifted their attention towards the study study the of theirtowards attention shifted increasingly scholars century twentieth the 20 Sozialwissenschaften, 2006), 95f. (Comparative Politics: An introduction) Totalitarianism - Authoritarianism - Democracy),” in 19 and analysis of political regimes that can be traced back to Aristotle from variousapproached angles is alongand there standingtradition of classification the governed. and governing between the those relationships the as well as power, political to access and of exercise form, legitimization, possiblevarious of meaning.Itembraces aspects domination,political suchasthe in broadest of the states form the of denotes government that term asan umbrella introduced regime was political context In state. a scholarly a concrete of anddevelopment conditions the describing historian orthe states different of regimes the between commonalities for in search scientist political the government, of system ideal the for in search philosopher Political 1.1 Regimes willmethodology and sources be addressed. of Finally, questions bethe characterized. will andtheHorthy-regime Horthy-cult claims to legitimacy and coercive means of reinforcing these claims. Furthermore, communicating of the means persuasive juxtapose will legitimacy of differentiation A further delineated and traditional forms and modern of authoritarian shallberegimes distinguished. approach. After a short my informs that concept or aterm eachdiscussing several parts, into is It divided régent. reflection on political regimes, the concept and Chapter 1:Approaching thelèse-régent Horthy-Regime of legitimacy shall be –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid., 95. Hans-Joachim Lauth, “Regimetypen: Totalitarismus — Autoritarismus — Demokratie (Regime types: Political regimes have at all times found the interest of scholars. Be it the will This chapter my anoutlinegive lèse- of Horthy-regime the to andapproach , ed. Hans-Joachim Lauth (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für VS Verlag (Wiesbaden: Lauth Hans-Joachim ed. , Vergleichende Regierungslehre: Eine Einführung 19 Political regimes can and have been have and can regimes Political . 20 Facing the history of 9 CEU eTD Collection definition might as well characterize earlier forms of nondemocratic government. And as And government. nondemocratic of forms earlier characterize well as might definition and ideology lackan might themobilization.of political thatthisand substantial One argue pluralism limited of presence the through regime a totalitarian from and pluralism, political of responsible thelack through regime from a democratic is distinct regime authoritarian forms Based on an this definition Despite itsthe broadness agood starting definition point. 24 Publishers, 2000), first published in 1975. 1964), 291-342. Juan José Linz, contributions to comparative political sociology 23 Revisited,” recent ofthe assessment An literature8-21). on totalitarianism (Brooker, can be taken from of totalitarianism the review article oftheories by Jeffrey Brooks, development the “Totalitarianism on overview an provides Brooker thesis. ofthis context the in presented be adequately cannot regime and party movement, 22 Macmillan, 2000), 2. are: Linzregimes authoritarian to According is embracing. rather regime definitions of idealthe types of democracy and totalitarianism,of concept the authoritarian 21 as adistinct regimes third type. developed of authoritarian concept the Linzhas Juan José scientist political Franco Francisco of under a casestudy Spain found in 20 the regimes. nondemocratic –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker analysis of modern forms of nondemocratic regimes. comparative the to approaches productively debated most of are one the totalitarianism on theories The totalitarian. and scale:democratic of political the extremes marked the ideal types Two systems. political researchof the on impact had asevere state by the Linz 1964, 255. Juan J Linz, “An Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Spain,” in totalitarian between distinctions the including oftotalitarianism concepts on debates complex The Paul Brooker, Paul quite quite predictable ones. occasionally a small group exercises power within formally ill-defined limits, butactually mobilization, except atsome points in their development, andinwhich a leader or guiding ideology, but with distinctive mentalities, without extensive nor intensive political and elaborate without pluralism, political responsible, not limited, with systems political The Review of Politics Non-Democratic Regimes: Theory,Government andPolitics th century, however, are situated somewhere between the extremes. Based on Based extremes. between the somewhere situated are however, century, 21 The experience of violence, war, terror and terror violence, war, organized genocide of Theexperience Totalitarian and authoritarianregimes 24 68, 2 no. (2006): 318-328. , ed. Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen (Academic Bookstore, (Academic Littunen Yrjö and Allardt ed. Erik , 22 Cleavages, ideologies, andpartysystems: The majority of regimes that can be can that regimes of majority The (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner (Houndmills: Palgrave 23 Unlike the 10 CEU eTD Collection and the ensuing dissolution of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy as Monarchy Austro-Hungarian the and Empire German the of dissolution ensuing the and questionedfor much we Central earlier, can considerthe WorldEurope end of First the War been has authority traditional example, for France, of case in the While ‘traditional.’ as states define weshall these legitimacy,lies question hereon the of since thefocus king’s divine right to rule, and legal authority through the means of a constitution. However, 28 1978), 215. monarchies of the semi-constitutional the that argue onecan Thus, in combination. occur 19rather but regimes, in exclusively legitimacypresent are not of forms these asideal to theirtypes character authority, traditional authority and charismatic authority. Following MaxWeber wecanideal distinguish three between legitimate of rule:types legal to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person.” individual an of character exemplary or heroism sanctity, exceptional the to “devotion the on authority charismatic and traditions,” immemorial of sanctity the in belief “resting “on on ina belief rules,”traditional legality the authority an enacted established of 27 26 1.2 Legitimacy legitimacy. of question the on based drawn be shall regimes authoritarian of forms modern and non-modern between form modern of purpose the For regimes. authoritarian of this thesis theline demarcation of non-modern and between the distinguish to it necessary seems regimes nondemocratic 25 human history.” of most for norm the been “has rule democratic of lack the asserts rightly Brooker Paul –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. Max Weber, Max Ibid., 100. Brooker, In the most simple terms legitimacy can be defined as a “the right to rule.” Non-Democratic Regimes Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology 25 Thus, rather than entering the debate on the various subtypes of subtypes various the on debate the entering than rather Thus, th century mainly combine elements of traditional authority, i.e. the i.e. authority, traditional of elements combine mainly century , 1. 27 (University of California Press, Of these legal authority is Of authority legal these 28 Due 26 11 CEU eTD Collection Tagungen Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung,zur vol. 27 (Marburg: Verl. Herder-Inst., 2010), 27. Not forget to the Hein-Kircher, Heidi and Ennker by Benno edited volume recent Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History article on these two volumes by Yves. Cohen, “The Cult of NumberOne in an Age ofdictatorships: Stalin Leaders,”and the Eastern bloc Stalinismus, Plamper, Jan and Heller Klaus volumes the see regimes 33 32 31 30 29 Communicating Claims to 1.3 Legitimacy legitimacy.” traditional of “breakdown the as identifies Linz Juan what for moment pivotal the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker to thatclaim by population. the phenomenon of cult. leader the of phenomenon without therule to right theregimes of population the convincing aim at because they are persuasive use of force. performance. and elections legislation, limited to are not but include means These One of these means, claims. these reinforcing which deserves between distinguish closerwe shall Therefore, its claims. reinforce to by taken measures regimes andthe claim scrutiny, this to reactions claim, the a of communication the between interplay the through created is theof legitimacy, we shall conceptualize legitimacy as a dynamic phenomenon. The dynamicis acknowledged. is claim its that ensure to mechanisms on also but legitimacy, to claim its disseminating on only not relies A regime legitimacy. to claims implicit are certainly there legitimacy, to claims their of The research on leader cults has recently received an increased interest. On personality cults in communist in cults personality On interest. increased an received recently has cults onleader research The Ibid. 103-108. Ibid. Brooker, Linz 2000, 53. Legitimacy can be further differentiated into a into differentiated further be can Legitimacy The claims to legitimacy can be communicated through several through becommunicated legitimacy can The claims to Non-Democratic Regimes 1st ed. (Göttingen: V & R unipress, 2004). and Balázs Apor et al., 29 persuasive 30 33 , 100. 31 means of communicating claims and claims communicating of means While some regimes might not seek fornot explicit mightacceptance While regimes some Cults revolving around a political leader exist to a varying Cults revolving apoliticalaround to leaderexist Thus, rather than assuming the static existence or absence or existence thestatic assuming than Thus, rather (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). See also the review 8, no. 3(2007): 597-634.With a broader agenda see the more Personality cults in Stalinism: Personenkulte im Der Führer im Europa des 20.Jahrhunderts, claim tolegitimacy The leader cult in communist coercive persuasive means persuasive and the reactions Kritika: means of 32 They 12 . CEU eTD Collection 37 36 35 cult in communist dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern bloc strongly depends on the type of political regime. While democratic regimes might be might regimes democratic While regime. political of type the on depends strongly control overand society.” state “ preventively, e.g. through asystem Every censorship. of dependson of regime a multitude or insurrection, crushing of an theviolent e.g. acceptance claimsbythepopulation, of the underpinning a regime’sat measures aiming forceful since they are be called coercive shall Thesemeans degree. claim to legitimacy. They might be used in reaction to the non- 34 London) where an outline of studythis was presented. of University 2010, 22-23, (October Dictators” of Modern Cults Personality on“The conference recent as: characterized be can Reesleadercults Arfon following but scarce, leader cults of are Definitions of leadercults. for emergence the grounds fertilize the further sphere political the tothem. prone most are that regimes degree in all kinds of regimes. Nonetheless, it is especially modern forms of nondemocratic –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker legitimacy. to claims communicating of means a persuasive of an example as it take shall we complex, isarguablymore While cults of leader important. nature the its function are most integrative and character its construed prevalence, cult’s the legitimacy question of tothe With regard organizations,organs oradministrative devices thatstrengthen its (at least partially coercive) Brooker, Ibid., 4. Ibid., 8. E. A. Rees, “Leader Cults: Varieties, Preconditions and Functions”, in Balázs Apor et.al. (ed.), et.al. Apor Balázs in Functions”, and Preconditions Varieties, Cults: “Leader Rees, A. E. persona. mechanism,which aims attheintegration of the political system around the leader’s managed and constructed deliberately a thus is It indefinitely. persist to expected are expected to subscribe,system a thatomnipresent is andubiquituous andone that is an established system of veneration of a political leader, to which all members of the society The Non-Democratic Regimes coercive means coercive 36 of reinforcing claims to legitimacy ofreinforcing claimsto vary innumbergreatly and 37 , 100. The degree of control, its limitation or the lack its limitation thereof, or The degreeof control, 34 The lack of competition and insufficient control of (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 7. The leader 35 13 CEU eTD Collection thesis, we shall focus on the question of legitimacy. Beneath the unifying label of the of label unifying the Beneath legitimacy. of question the on focus shall we thesis, regime as a whole, which certainly could not be accomplished within the framework of this denomination. of the considered ofestablishing anappropriate agenuineassessment Instead canbe is term Horthy-regime the that therefore in function and focusof thesis this the political system was strongly limited, he symbolized the regime. the symbolized he limited, strongly was system political the of maintenance and establishment the in role Horthy’s that asserts rightly Püski Levente While the henceHorthy-era of or Horthy-regime. speak scholars Horthy-system the and The 1.4 Horthy-Regime political be in placed context. broader the shall practice legal the Rather, trials. the on influence an have politicians that sense narrow in the justice,’ ‘political as beconsidered not shall lèse-régent of trials the Thus, claim. this 40 39 38 regime. a political of expression an as well assume a mediated relation. In this sense laws can be understood as much as a product of, as weshall judiciary. Instead, the influenceon motivated politically adirect, feature which showtrials inthecaseof political for example as asanimmediate one, be understood not to be applied carefully. thesis. this of framework inthe legitimacy to claims The relation between the aspect of reinforcing relevant mostis the justice,” “political be called can Kirchheimer legal system and a politicallegal regime the of utilization The terror. shall outright or system repression of extent the reach might which control, “to bolstercharacterizedby the limitation of control, totalitarian regimes tend to the extension of or create –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker new power positions,” what in the terms of Otto Püski, This is not limited to new legislative acts, but can also be perpetuated through adhering to practice. Kirchheimer, The period in Hungarian history between 1920 and 1944 is commonly referred toas referred 1944iscommonly history between and The 1920 inHungarian period The Horthy-System, Political Justice 8f. , vii. 39 Through legal practice the judiciary mediates judiciary the practice legal Through 38 The term ‘political,’ however, needs however, Theterm ‘political,’ 40 Itis exactly this symbolic 14 CEU eTD Collection 46 ELTE Eötvös, 2008),385. választások 45 44 43 42 system.” post-war the “legitimating of context the in be seen to has out, points rightly Romsics Ignác as which, dictatorial”, or Fascist “proto-Fascist, as condemned was regime historicaldepending inyears following Thus,its the on context. the breakdown Horthy-the 41 regime. authoritarian an of definition Linz’s Juan fit would it that states and features” authoritarian distinctive with democracy “as regime parliamentary a limited his on standard Hungarian history work in the twentieth hecentury the identifies Horthy- intoWorld War II to the demise of the Horthy-regime. entry Hungary’s from span time the covers period last the and right the from radicalism of Prime Minister István Bethlen, the second with the regime’s attempts to cope with the rise 1944. Ignácbetween the weshall distinguish Romsics periods: three 1920s, the 1930sand1941to Following era, further requires segmentation. heterogeneous that avery lies Horthy-regime –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker monarchy. many of featuringa 19 characteristics (half)parliamentarian,” “undemocratic as regime the identifying by differently somewhat question the answer Szabó Dániel and Boros Zsuzsanna in Hungary parliamentarianism on study recent the interwar period.the in states European and southeastern of itcentral political realities tothe regimes andadapt regime” as a“reasonable starting point,” he demands reframeto the concept of authoritarian here in a very narrow sense. Rather than following scholars as Guillermo O’Donnell who O’Donnell as Guillermo scholars following than sense.Rather in herenarrow a very Itisas amodern to note authoritarian label that important regime. isapplied the ‘modern’ Püski, Zsuzsanna Boros and Dániel Szabó, Dániel and Boros Zsuzsanna Ibid., 190. Ibid., 191. Ibid. Romsics, 41 The first period is generally associated with the process of consolidation under The answers to the question of the nature of the Horthy-regime vary vary greatly of Horthy-regime of the nature the thequestion to The answers The Horthy-System (ParliamentarianismHungary, in 1867-1944: Parliament, Parties, Elections),2. ed. (Budapest: Hungary in the twentieth century 45 And tothe usage Levente Püski while of agrees labelthe “authoritarian 46 In the framework of this thesis, the Horthy-regime shall be understood , 232f. Parlamentarizmus Magyarországon, 1867-1944: parlament, pártok, , 129. 42 th century century semi-constitutional 44 However, in their However, 43 In 15 CEU eTD Collection 49 series (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007). 1945: Translated from the Hungarian by Thomas andJ. Helen DeKornfeld Hungarian history history “savior of Hungarian as and country.” identified the counterrevolutionthe later territorial the and Horthy likenedfigureswas togreatrevision. of War inWorld I, role of glorification focusedHorthy’s on the were cultthe The messagesof The 1.5 Horthy-cult regime. the of legitimization in the role a crucial played irredentism as well as Nationalism, Christian in claims Furthermore, tolegitimacy. regimes the cornerstone another uphold was order this needto andthe havingorder restored staunchest claimof pillars. The emerged from the counterrevolution fervent anti-communism belonged to one of its can identify ‘mentalities,’ several as JuanLinz describes them. regimehad the Since period. The most visible being the physical, as well as political absence of the king. War War Iand pre-World I allow post-World between the system, that adifferentiation for of Hungary formallyis reestablished in are1920 there substantial changes in the political 48 modernizing Politics liberator. as ashisimage much canonized as navalcareerwas of Horthy’s framework cultthe 1919 and would later ride into Novembercities Budapeston 16, Thus,hehadentered Horthy’s horse. on a white appearances of the regained territories in a similar fashion. In the 47 ‘traditional,’ of theopposite itas use shall we form of regimes, latter of the character modernizing the stress –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Romsics, On irredentism during the Horthy-era see Miklós Zeidler, Guillermo A. O’Donnell, (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1979). One prime example fora One aspect that deserves closer scrutiny in this context is Horthy-cult. so-called the in context this scrutiny deserves closer that One aspect We rule. to right its communicate to means several employed Horthy-regime The 48 Changing Images authoritarian regime would be Turkey under Atatürk. based on the difference in the claims tolegitimacy. Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies inSouth American , 93. Ideas onTerritorial Revision in Hungary:1920- 49 This image was manifested in manifested was image This , vol.15, CHSP Hungarianstudies 47 Although theKingdom 16 CEU eTD Collection 53 Leaderibid., Cult and Public. 52 51 50 Czech. Philip is to the by approach of lèse-régent informed trials works Angela of the and Rustemeyer My beyond perspective. will go this lawsthesis This andtrials. of contextualization history. Arguablylegal history is necessary, for itprovides theindispensable means forthe legal of isthat obvious approach laws, themost of application the with trials are concerned Methods and 1.6 Sources official narrative on the person and achievements of Miklós Horthy. relevance. In sensethis Horthy-cult as the beunderstood mainthe shall for the repertoire phenomenon of the cultin all its complexity,itis mainly themessages of the cult that are of means to communicate the claim legitimacyto Miklósof Horthy. Rather than addressing the of persuasive asone the beunderstood shall Horthy-cult the made differentiation above “enlargerof country.” the of 1920s. the course –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker state. Czech’s doctoral dissertation completed in 2008atthe Czech’s University completed proves state. Salzburg doctoral dissertation of Russian the of within development the lèse-majesté of legal practice the she contextualizes acts of reverence. orchestrated forthe focal points important increasingly andhis namesake day aswellhisbirthday became his election of the as as Regent, headthe Army, into his of Budapestat celebrations National entry the of of anniversaries The function. integrative fulfilledit an masses, of the mobilization aimed atthe that regimes Rustemeyer, anniversary; tenth The Turbucz, anniversary. twentieth and tenth the both of analysis an presents Turbucz Romsics, On the early phase of the cult seeTurbucz, cult ofthe phase early Onthe Criminal trials can be approached from several different directions. Since criminal in narrative the official the became radical right from the aspropaganda started What Changing Images Dissent andHonor 53 While Rustemeyer deals with an entirely and Whilelegal anentirely dealswith period different context, Rustemeyer 50 The repertoire waslatersupplemented by imagethe of Horthy as the , 101. 51 ; Czech, While the cult cannot be compared to those in totalitarian The Emperor is a rascal and rogue The beginnings . . 52 In line with the 17 CEU eTD Collection varying degree of degree influencevarying the of length of in sentence.The detail the reasoningstrongly the complexity of the case. Thus, multiple delinquencies, the number of witnesses and the the on depends it hand other the on and be longer, to tend which documents, handwritten depends mainly on twovariance This pages. ten more than to two from can reach courts the trial of sentences factors. On the one hand court of appeal and for aninvitation asession Kúria,the of Royal the The Court. Supreme several of the regional courts produced courts. Thus, offering a greater variety than files from from files variety court. Thus,a regional than offering agreater courts. regional different the from files contain therefore and country the in office prosecuting highest forthe were collected that documents arethe Yet,these representative. as equally be considered cannot files case selected The analysis. for acloser selected been have regime files number 135case files(unequally)existing of case the period covering Horthy- of the criminal case files, which are not indexed and therefore had to be browsed for case files oflèse-régent. files case for tobebrowsed had therefore and indexed are not which files, case criminal 54 ( Prosecutor Crown of the office from the stem been selected have that The sources casefilesonlèse-régent. primary arecriminal Thecore sources components. indispensable form thelaws framework legal andthe ontheanalysis of legal focuses the thesis practice, largestof group primary sources. Firstincludesof it all, lawsthemselves.the Since the be main legal into categorized two groups: sourcesand sources. Theformeris other the approaches. differentthese history. willincorporate This thesis political and history criminal history, legal of methods the combines that perspective interdisciplinary an from lèse-majesté of cases he approaches However, comparison. Austrian half of Dual the Monarchy his does notstudy offer animmediate basis for on the focuses Czechonly Hungary. interwar Since of to thecontext to bemuch closer –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker koronaügyész The files can be found in the fond K-616 of the Hungarian State Archives. The bundles 2 to 24 contain the In general these files contain the sentence of the trial court (Hung. court trial the of sentence the contain files these general In A great number of primary sources form the basis for the analysis. These sources can sources form analysis. These the basisfor the of sources number A primary great ) which are kept in the Hungarian State Archives. State ) whicharekeptin Hungarian the 54 With regard to the vast the to regard With törvényszék ), the ), 18 CEU eTD Collection analysis. closer fora a basis be considered cannot which pencil, with outcome the noted usually office Prosecutor’s 55 through excerptsthe thatwere published in collectionsthe of decisions. indirectly, Since are its decisions thearchive been Kúria the available only of has destroyed These shall, however,pages. exceed two in and casesdonot most be much shorter of to appeal tend courts the only be used of in sentences The analysis. of the focus beinthe will that perspective this exactly however, so far as they containeddefendants a reevaluationbiased in bythe Thus,thevoices sensethe they prosecutors. produced that were of the andof a case. witnesseswith carehandled be to have they files are and case criminal As in detail. clearlybe reconstructed cannot only trials the doavailable not allow lack tothe protocol of gendarmerie nor adetailed protocols. police Due the or indictment, for a entire detailed the contain through not do they since trials, the of preparation the into insight give not reconstructiondo they the lens sentence.of There are several limitationsof when itthecomes to the analysis of files.the First of all,the‘facts.’ authorities. Theywitness accounts, as well as further areconsiderations that informed the formulation of the reconstruction a of delinquentact, the reference to trial the including defense and the It is, a of consist latter The reasoning. the by followed itself, sentence the names indictment, the mentions shortly present, persons of names the trial, the of time and place the lists sentence –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker memoirs and diaries, as well as the minutes of parliamentary debates. lèse-régent theanalysis For we shallemploy reactions to of of the period(1921-1942). the of convictions. However, the data are for the entire country and availablefor the largest part is number they only that The caveat lèse-régent. of of trials the foraquantification be used shall providedintoindividualinsight intheHungarian Statistical Yearbooks data the trials The case files only contain the announcements for trials at the at trials for announcements the contain only files case The Other sources include, first of all, statistical material.While the case files offer Kúria , on the back of which the Crown 55 19 CEU eTD Collection from the Roman people to the ruler. the to people Roman from the people. Under Julius Caesarthe people. Julius Under at protecting the treason, insurgency, violence, etc. –against physical theruler werepunishable, with the emerged in the time of emergedin the timeof Roman the in Republic BC. the third century of notion Rome.ancient The backto betraced can that history long a have regulations legal other many like lèse-majesté, against laws fact, In crimes. political as utterances or acts define certain to regimes modern authoritarian or of totalitarian ischaracteristic only not It offense. ofthis history legal account the into take to worthwhile isithad that lèse-majesté developed Therefore, centuries. over against regulations existing already basedon were lèse-régent on proceedings thecriminal Rather period. From Crimen Maiestatis to 2.1 Lèse-Majesté presented. 57 56 legal lèse-régent its development of through as well as the decisions the of notion the of development the Finally, presented. be will Hungary interwar in system law as his right to grant amnesty. Subsequently, some aspects of the development of the criminal since itformedforof basislegal hisaswell be the Regentshall the scrutinized, protection, In a secondconstitutional history bepresented. legal shall position stepthe lèse-majesté of Chapter 2:The legalcontext of lèse-régent –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. Czech, Considering its legal foundation lèse-régent was not a new creation of a new interwar creation was not the of lèse-régent foundation legal its Considering This chapter will outline the legal context of lèse-régent. In a first step aspects of the The Emperor is a rascal and rogue maiestas , the honor and dignity that was originally attributed to the Roman the to attributed originally was that dignity and honor the , Lex Iuliamaiestatis 57 , 29f. , Based on this law all kinds of offenses – such as high was shiftedpassed, which the 56 This regulation aimed This regulation crimen maiestatis crimen Kúria shall be maiestas 20 CEU eTD Collection 65 64 History of Ideas 63 shall call it, developed intoa criminal offense in its own right, but it was also stripped of the rulerbeginningagainst the with 19 of the the in personified ruler. the state, crimen laesemaiestatis The lèse-majesté. of offense of the wasadifferentiation there states other In Caesar. Julius initial trasnfer of the 62 61 60 59 büntet Amagyar 7, (The vol. handbook of Hungarian Law), Criminal Law) (Budapest: Athenaeum,by Criminal 1930), 37. of Authorities Protection Insurrection. Treachery. obsolete in France and was transformed into in transformed and was obsolete France two legal traditions were increasingly merged. increasingly legal two were traditions depending on the respective state. With the French Revolution French With the state. respective onthe depending some These arguably degree lèse-majesté. to changes differed theconcerning of definition and asquasi-sacrilegepower” implied avery high threat of punishment. of by divine majesty representatives anointed “theimage against of ruler was alsodirected legitimacy of the ruler was also based on the divine right torule. Thus, any crime against the principle was prosecuted as prosecuted was principle violated this that any act Therefore, his and subordinates. ruler between the relation of principle The law. Germanic the was lèse-majesté on regulations 58 include to and written verbalinsults. maiestas verbalinsults. or written of exception –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Hartmann, Kirchheimer, G. A. Kelly, “From Lèse-Majesté to Lèse-Nation: Treason in Eighteenth-Century France,” inEighteenth-Century Treason Lèse-Nation: to Lèse-Majesté “From A. Kelly, G. Kirchheimer, Ibid., 36. Czech, Angyal, Pál Angyal, It is in the late 18 The Emperor is a rascal androgue became later an instrument of political prosecution and its definition was extended its definition and prosecution of political an instrument later became Thehandbook ofHungarian Criminal Law Lèse-majestéand defamation ofthe headofstate Felségsértés. Királysértés. H Political Justice 42, 2 no. (1981): 269-286. Political Justice maiestas did no longer serve as a collective term for all crimes against the against crimes all for term collective a as serve longer no did th and early 19 , 33. , 35. infidelitas from the Roman people to the ruler that had taken place under 64 Rather, it Rather,was reduced tothe(written orverbal)insult Ħ , 32. tlenség.Lázadás. Hatóságok büntet 59 . 58 60 Another source for the further development of the of development further the for source Another th The vague definition of the offense century that several important changes were madechanges were important several century that From the 16 , 38. th lèse-nation 61 century. It is important to note that the claim to claim the that note to important is It , 5. th to the end of the 18 65 . 63 This lèse-majesté proper, as we Thus, it was a reversal of the lèse-majesté Ę jogi védelme 62 fidelitas th Ę Journalof the century these century jog kézikönyve jog hadbecome (Lèse-Majesté. crimen laese crimen definedthe 21 CEU eTD Collection 71 70 69 68 67 66 as “personal insult, through sacrilegerevilement, mockery or in publicin front or of several of thus defined as“sacrosanct,” stressingimportance supreme his inviolability. the of prosecution such crimes. the for regulations contained procedural was lastBritain lèse-majestéthe proper in caseof tried 1823. 19 theendmore became important of toward the proper lèse-majesté HabsburgEmpire,the of punishment. severe threat –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker the “infringement of veneration” (Germ. veneration” of “infringement the Austrianthe Penal Code of also1852 that Hungary applied to definedas lèse-majestéproper 3000 Forint.” monetary six years,to penalty imprisonment and aup of upto orcommitsinsultthrone, highis an the person punishableby against king of the for the of legal succession order the of majesty, inviolable the the person against fulminates madeof presslaw with ratification the of It contained“Whofollowing1848. the regulation: in was direction this step Afirst development. important most wasthe proper lèse-majesté senseand broad inthe lèse-majesté between differentiation the law substantive tothe regard indevelopment Habsburgthe Empire. linked thatof the in enough,understandably is,it to that similar Germany and to is lèse-majesté of development The further on ruler. the attacks physical and insurrection lawsthe Stephen,included and against of St. all crownsuchhigh crimes the treason, (Hung. oflèse-majesté cases listedseveral laws andnot only earlier referredinlaw tothese 1715that waspassed IIIa Kingdom. Charles Hungarian Under Law Act 1848:XVIII, § 7. Law Act 1848:III, § 1. In Hungarian “szent és sérthetetlen.” 38-60. see Czech, development early the on overview Foran Law Act 1715: VII. Angyal, Kirchheimer, th century, its importance declined in others. Thus, according to Pàl inAngyal Pàl to Great Thus,according in others. declined importance its century, The Hungarian legal tradition of lèse-majesté reaches back to the beginning of the of beginning the back to reaches lèse-majesté of legal tradition The Hungarian Thehandbook ofHungarian Criminal Law Political Justice , 33. 66 While in several monarchies, such as the German Empire and 69 Ehrfurchtsverletzung In constitution the of 1848 the kinghadbeen , 38. 67 ); this act could be committed actcould ); this 68 felségsértés The law referred to 71 Article 63of ) but also but ) 70 With 22 CEU eTD Collection lèse-majesté proper: lèse-majesté andcoveredin section, not his family,itisare which previous the article140thataddresses Insulting theKing.” and House, Royal the Members of King or of the “Maltreatment is titled section second the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy etc.) and how these crimes are to be punished. areto andhowthese crimes Monarchy etc.) Austro-Hungarian the break theunity of trying forcefully alterlegal ofsuccession, to the order tryingforcefully to forces, enemy to over king the handing thereof, attempt the assault, thereof, attempt 138preciselycomprises what 126 through thiscatalog offenceassassination, the (including sense in broader the lèse-majesté on regulations opens with code penal of the part The general separately. are treated but lèse-majesté, label of under the the king other hand there is lèse-majesté proper (Hung. királysértés), i.e. 75 74 73 sense broader in the majesté lèse- is there hand one the On acts. delinquent the of denomination in the visible became in theAustrian half of the monarchy itsenduntil see Czech, 72 writings.” or depictions distribution graphic of or material, communication printed people, through –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker HPC, §140. HPC, §§ 139-141. Law Act 1878:V (= Hungarian Penal Code), §§126-138. [In thefollowing abbreviated asHPC]. Czech, and deprivation ofoffice. deprivation and exhibiting in public: is punishable for thismisdemeanor by up to three years imprisonment Who commits this insult through distribution in writing, printed matter, graphic depiction or years imprisonment and deprivation of office. Who commits insult an against theking: is punishable for this misdemeanor byupto two The Hungarian a further of broughtpenal development,code 1878 which already The Emperor is a rascal and rogue . It is also noteworthy that high treason and insurrection are no longerno subsumed are insurrection and high treason isthat . It alsonoteworthy 72 74 While articles 139 and 141 deal with all physical assaults on While withking the assaults all on physical 139and 141deal articles (Hung. 75 , 68f. On the detailed analysis of this law that remained in effect felségsértés ), i.e. The Emperor is a rascal and rogue crimes againstthecrown (Hung. crimes against theperson of felségsértés ). Paragraphs ). , 68-80. and on and on the 73 The 23 CEU eTD Collection 79 78 law: defamation. or 77 76 of law.the tightening onthe reasoning behind provides Thelegislative aglimpse statementproper. “dismissiveof treatmentpunishment betweenof the thetwo grades.was But itking’s alsoextended brought two importantThis followedin thepreviouslawonlèse-majestéregulation continuing thedistinction enhancements.deeds” Firstly, to the threatincludewas added theto thesuspense definition of political of lèse-majesté rights. Secondly, the lawcriminal thedefinition insult(Hung.of ragalmazás properhasfrom public. Lèse-majesté tobedistinguished (Hung. cases defamation insultingin more the severe kinginsulting king,the secondparagraph of offense the of lèse-majestéoffense grades simple paragraph definingThe first the of two proper. specifying several waysdifferent insulting of the king, butalso by differentiating between delinquentact. Thelaw notonly extended theregulation of presslawthe of 1848 by It is important to note that –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker lèse-majesté proper is defined as a misdemeanor, i.e. a minor Law Act 1913: XXXIV, § 2. Angyal, HPC, §§ 258-277. )Ę rendiházi irományok political rights and deprivation of office for this misdemeanor. this for office of deprivation and rights political formonetary punishment upto 4000 crowns and further the suspension of his exercising addressed to thepublic,or publicly in isspeech, liable for imprisonment up to years, three Who commits previously this defined misdemeanorin printed, written,or graphic form misdemeanor. this for ofoffice deprivation and liable for imprisonment forup to two years, the suspension of exercising his politicalis rights manner, insulting an in deeds king’s the treats or king, the against insult an commits Who Thehandbook ofHungarian Criminal Law ) and libel (Hung. libel and ) 79 Themanifestation of a republican movement, andits publications, would 77 In 1913 this section on lèse-majesté proper In lèse-majestéwas 1913 thisreplaced section proper on by thefollowing (Decrees of Upperthe House), 1910. Vol. XIV., No. 615-697., 614-618. becsületsértés sértés , 44. ). 76 As Pál Angyal arguesin hishandbook on ) is much more inclusive than that of libel of that than inclusive more much is ) 78 24 CEU eTD Collection uphold the constitutional order, “any attack has to be prevented and has to be repelled.” andhasto has“any attack tobeprevented uphold the constitutional order, 86 Publicationes Universitatis Miskolciensis. Sectio Juridica et Politica 85 84 83 82 81 80 in sentences. too mildin cases past the were over the their jurisdiction had juries that the king,and the laws that wouldnotsufficiently protect that existing the argued is further king.” the of person the respecttowards feelingof “diminish to the threaten –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker no longer contained any reference to a form of state. form of a to anyreference longerno contained August1919 whenweek andfrom 7,over István Friedrich governmentthe took decrees the institutionthe attack intent.” with political of kingdom the which aggression, movement and that “strike that to as follows: goal isultimate defined republic again under the government of of Peidl. government Gyula the republic under again become Augustit 1,1919only a until to proclaimedstayed Republic aSoviet which be later be amonarchy, ceased would to Hungary republic the of 1918 with declaration the years. less lossofits the 16, than two On November territory within large former of parts Hungary had gonea tumultuoustime, through revolutions, with acounterrevolution two and The Regent`s constitutional 2.2 position to addressthe Regent’s legal position. 1920. Butbefore the legal developmentislèse-régent of taken under scrutiny,itis necessary nature” damaginglèse-majestéof proper. punishment the deprivation with ofwas justified rights the “extremely political with Ibid. IstvánSzabó, “A kormányzó jogállása (1920-1944) (The Regent’s legal position (1920-1944)),” Ibid., 618. Ibid., 616. Ibid., 616. Ibid., 615. Ibid., 614. It is this very article that would become the basis for the prosecution of lèse-régent in lèse-régent forof would prosecution basis the the become It isthat very this article Between the end of World War I and the election of Miklós Horthy as Regent as Horthy Miklós of election the and I War World of end the Between 84 85 This state, however, lasted only for a 86 12 (1996): 118. With regard to these fast-paced these to With regard 83 The extension of the threat of threat the of Theextension 80 In order to 82 The 81 It 25 CEU eTD Collection Hungary between the two world wars) (Budapest: Korona, 1998). legitimista politikusok Magyarországon a két világháború között 91 90 89 88 87 for Austria. hehad after made a days similar declaration Charles IV had refrained from question headofstate. the theof active exercise of his politicalmain negotiation the andsolvinga peace facing two challenges: of and the was treaty function in Hungary two Assembly, hadwhich onJanuary been elected and25 restore 26,1920saw needto the order form newNational the changesconcerning ruptures the andgovernment of the enormous –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Habsburgs from the Hungarian throne. Hungarian the from Habsburgs high Hohlen commissioner intheConference banningand resulted Ambassadors of the British the by initiated was that throne Hungarian the to Habsburgs the of return the against could be settled permanently could besettled within permanently a fewyears apeace-treaty hadafter been signed. problem the that ideawas state The general temporarily. head of solveof question the to needed Assembly National the being, time the for impossible throne Hungarian the onto IV officially resigning. The so-called matter of (Hung. king of matter officially the Theso-called resigning. he in exercise made his haddeclarednot inEckartsau without to powers Hungary political bewhether regardedtheKing IVwasstill Charles to hissince of Hungary,with declaration of mostopinionsaffairs actual state pressing onthe was strongly question The diverged. of of a newnational king. thefreeelection preferred Hungary beas Kingof longerand therefore IV couldregarded no Charles that argued electors free the whereas throne, Hungarian the onto return his favored Charles legitimists IVwasstill and arguedthat camps. The rightful the therefore king, act of the National Assembly was declareto all laws and decrees passed between November first interim find The solution. hadto an immediate Parliament the period, interwar entire Szabó, Szabó, Ormos, Ormos, Ormos, The Regent’s legalposition The Regent’s legalposition Hungary in the Age of the Two World Wars World War and Revolutions Hungary in the Age of the Two World Wars 91 While the matter of the king would remain an issue throughout the throughout issue an remain would king the of matter the While 87 , 121. On the legitimists see study the by József Kardos, , 123. With letter signed the of Eckartsau on November 13,1918 , 181. 89 Since this resolution rendered a return of Charles , 78. , 77. (Legitimism: legitimist politicians in 88 There was, also a strong motion királykérdés ) brought out two Legitimizmus: 90 The 26 CEU eTD Collection 96 95 94 93 102. 1900-1948 (The tradition of theHungarian Right, 1900-1948) 92 Hungary. stance in of matter kingthe the Kingdom the and hadinstead of implicitly re-established 16, 1918and1919 null August 7, void.and –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker legitimists and the free claimed electors this principle as supporting their view. point of shared by thenot onlyking the symbol ofis and Stephen the St. of Crown state Holy the principle this butto theAccording also Crown. Holy the of thedoctrine sovereign.nation. Its powers are, however,Theis theso-called in regard this consideration can betakeninto Onefactorthat concept. exercised latter vestingpossibility its of a (transitionarypowers how tosolveHungarian history temporarily. thequestion on state The headof the of inperiod the as) kingdomking. without Both a king wasthe not an entirely alien function properly. function longer of itframework long-term could no 1867constitution the office within and the itbutwas be also a by theking, appointed only needed to this thePalatine Not solution. from the time of St. Stephenadministrative office in Kingdom the of Hungary for several andcenturies, hadbeen in use until 1848. There (Hung. Palatinate wasthe One of these debate. were, however, several arguments against throughout Hungarianthroughout history most János with notably and Hunyadi,who hadfilled the electingRegent(Hung. a sufficiently express desiredthe unity. not it would because unfavorable, deemed was This solution state. head of office of the hold collectively would which council, a governing appoint to was option Another solution. Olasz, Szabó, Kardos, Szabó, Lajos Olasz, “A kormányzói jogkör (The Regent’s scope of authority),” in There were a number of possible solutions for the head of state mentioned during the The Regent’s scope of authority, The Regent’s legalposition The Regent’s legalposition Legitimism 93 Following this rationale the National Assembly looked for inspiration in , 26f. 95 Thus, this idea clashed in several points with the desired interim desired the with points in several clashed idea this Thus, kormányzó ,120. ,119. 102. ). This solution had been employed several times several employed been had solution This ). 96 The Parliament finally chose the third option of 92 Thus, the Parliament did not take an explicit take not did Parliament the Thus, nádor , ed.Ignác Romsics (Budapest:Osiris, 2009), ). The Palatine had been the highest the been had Palatine The ). A magyar jobboldali hagyomány, 94 27 CEU eTD Collection 103 102 101 100 99 98 basis for the trials ofas theking. lèse-régent. Based samelegal the granted protection andwas “inviolable” considered Regent’s was the person on this article the I1920 Law Act: in 14 of article as stated However, was not. theRegent laws whereas sacrosanct, on lèse-majesté therecould be was a marked by Thus, was andright Parliament. the elected Regent a religiousceremony through the difference in the legitimacy of the two. The king was considered 97 thestate. of element sovereign a considered Czechoslovakia. state of strong countries systems such Weimarpresidential with as Germany or amnesty. general nor nobility grant neither could and patronage of right the nor assent royal of right limited, the right todeclare war remained with the parliament, and he did neither possess the seriously were parliament dissolve or adjourn to rights his responsible, he was right, divine by receive hisposition not did Regentfollowing: the werethe Theselimitations powers. negativo highesteem. generally officefrom of Regent was there 1446-1453, a positive precedentwhich promised a –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker solution. a king had toin atsome ittime was clear that point state, theheadof being amonarch which necessitates be chosen and Sincereestablishedof vest Kingdom would in the Hungary,had the Parliament Regent. the that electing a Regent would always remain an interim Ibid., 126. Szabó, Law Act 1920: I. § 14.. Ibid. Olasz, Ibid., 126f. Olasz, , 103. It is important to note that – unlike the king or the Parliament – the Regent was not was Regent the – Parliament the or king the unlike – that note to important is It The Regent’s legalposition The Regent’s scope of authority, . 98 100 The Regent’s scope of authority 99 The rationale for the regulation of the Regent’s powers was a definition Therefore, the Regent’s scope of authority was limited vis-à-vis the king’s In general, the regent’s powers were more limited than those of the heads of 103 This article is especially important informed this important This since it thelegal is context, article especially 101 97 The crucial question was, however, which powers the Parliament the powers which however, was, question crucial The , 122. 116. , 102. 102 While king the his received bydivine office ex 28 CEU eTD Collection 109 108 107 106 105 104 pardon. (individual) grant only hecould previously whereas grant generalamnesty, to rightthe deploy in military the a danger mostbut, him case of importantly,immediate with equipped only extended the Regent’s right to adjourn only changesthose relevant issue tothe oflèse-régentshall be shortlymentioned. and context this in detail all dissolvein be described cannot rights Regent’s the of extension the Since the Parliament,interwar period. entire the through discussed be and repeatedly would from debate start the allowed him to intensive of wasan object Regent’s power scope of The Regent. protect the applied to –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker pardon. powers of many head ofstates in interwarmostly Europe,who granting were limited to period of of time. period indefinite an for empty become had throne the that fact the and situation new the to adjusted subsequent dethronization of Habsburgsthe initial the interim solution neededbe to so-called white terror) during counterrevolution. the so-called terror) white one of mainthe intentions behinditpardon was to hadcommittedthat those atrocities (the rightsthose Miklósinsisted onfrom Horthy beginningthe and someaccording to historians could by law alsograntamnesty. who theParliament, amnesty with grant to right sharedthe Regent the theoretically that extended to meet its former scope, as István Szabó argues. Szabó as István scope, its former meet to extended butan newpowers, existing tograntequipped pardon,already entirely was that power, with The dethronizationwas ratified asLaw Act 1921: XLVII. Olasz, Ibid. Szabó, Ibid. Olasz, Law Act 1920:XVII, § 3. The first extension was ofthe Regent’s ratifiednot already powers law in 1920.This After the two failed attempts of return to the Hungarian throne by Charles IV and the 104 105 The Regent’s legal position The Regent’s scope of authority, While this right was within the same limits as that of the king, it exceeded the This right was given to the Regent without any major debates, it belonged to belonged it debates, major any without Regent the to given was right This 109 The adjustment was itself a longer process that was made in several steps. in made was several that process longer a itself was Theadjustment , 144. 108 115. 106 The Regent’s scope of authority, However, the Regent was not Regent the However, 107 It is alsoimportant to note, 116. 29 CEU eTD Collection 115 114 Regent, 1941-1944) (Budapest:Akad. K., 2007). Olasz, 113 112 110 would remain. nation to the responsibility” his “moral statement legislative the to while according state, the Parliament, thus 1937. de facto elevating himThe to twothe broadest position extensions of a sovereign of the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Regent’s element scope of theof authority were ratified in 1933 and 111 Regent’s legal position temporarily take over the tasks of the head of state. of head the of tasks the over take temporarily later astate council inministerinof 1937)that 1926)andwould a (passed council (passed creation for the astheregulation such response, respective the and articulated indisposition Regent’s the of thepossibility address to passed lawswere Several of succession. interim situation and the high age of Miklós Horthy, became more pressing was the question greater degree in 1942 with the creation of the office of Vice-Regent. of office the the of in creation the degree 1942 with greater aspects of the criminal law Aspects of systemthe development of the system of criminal law in ofthe 2.3 Horthy-era the Horthy-era. With its return to the Kingdom application lèse-majesté. analogous of laws the against of by the protected eldest son, was Horthy, Horthy’s Miklós February 19, 1942István as theRegent. same legal protection whether the Vice-Regent his himfrom exercising circumstances duties. prevented that was exercisingRegent was to fulfill the tasks of the Regent in the case of his indisposition, absence or other the Regent’s powers or not he was granted the Law Act 1942:II, § 10. Szabó, Law Act 1942:II. Several publications have addressed this issue. The most comprehensive study is by by Lajos is study comprehensive most The issue. this addressed have publications Several 1942:II. Act Law Szabó, Law Act 1933:XXIII and Law Act 1937:XIX respectively. For a detailed description see Szabó, see description a detailed For respectively. 1937:XIX Act Law and 1933:XXIII Act Law Olasz, 110 A kormányzóhelyettesi intézmény története, 1941-1944 For the analysis of the trials of lèse-régent it is necessary to address some general address to is necessary it lèse-régent of trials the of analysis For the Article seven of the latter law declared that the Regent was nolonger responsible to The Regent’s legal position The Regent’s scope of authority, The Regent’s legalposition 111 Another issue Another and,facing thatwasheavily debated perpetuation the of the , 145-154. , 161. , 155-159. 129; Szabó, 129; 115 Thus, his beginning with election as on Vice-Regent The Regent’s legal position (The history of the institution of the Vice- 112 This question was only settled to a settled This to was only question 114 Irrespective of fact the of Irrespective , 152f. 113 TheVice- The 30 CEU eTD Collection wartime. during procedure criminal for anaccelerated themeasures 1912 whichdelineated of LXIII LawAct of duration the extended decrees the crisis continuing the to reference With from regulations. previous the was different very underwhichitoperated framework law. substantive well as as procedural affected that furtherchanges several were there regulations November 1919)andKároly March 1919 Huszár (Novemberto 1920). changes introduced under were that governments the of Friedrich István 1919to (August amnesty amnesty in 1921. 1920and more many than 60percent70 000people wereconvicted, of which ca. which of received itsRepublic restoration. at and aiming Soviet the during committed crimes of trials for responsible were that court penal every at again.work another year.another ( 123 122 121 the trial courts ( 120 293. 119 118 117 116 1896 werereinstated. of lawtrials criminal for procedural andthe November 15,1918 thathadbeenmadeuntil amendments November Monarchy hadwhich begun already in 1919. Hungary the Parliament –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker also acknowledged the return to the legal system of the Dual Kúria Law Act 1920:VI. Püski, Ibid. Ferenc Pölöskei, Ferenc Horthy-System, The see Püski, Hungary ininterwar Ministers ofPrime terms the over overview an For Püski, Law Act 1896:XXXIII (=Code of Procedure)Criminal [In thefollowing abbreviated as “CCP”]. Püski, ) and with it most of the legal professionals of the late Dual Monarchy took up theirlate Dual of Monarchy took it of most professionals legal the ) and with While in principal the judiciary of the Dualist period was reinstated procedural the wasreinstated period of Dualistthe thejudiciary inWhile principal The Horthy-System The Horthy-System The Horthy-System 120 This included This the so-calledcreation councilsoffive,of offive consisting judges 118 123 These reinstatements, however, have to be considered in the light of the of light the in be considered to have however, reinstatements, These And while the of official peace-treaty the ratification inTrianon of 1921 törvényszék Hungary after two revolutions: 1919-1922 , 201. , 204. , 200. ), the courts of appeal ( 122 In 1920 the provisional In for hadbeen provisional 1920 the extended regulation 121 From From 1919 to1922 these councilsfive of hadtried 116 117 The penal of includingcode 1878 all the Thus, the three-tier system of courts with ítél (Bp.:Akad. K., 1980), 47.. Ę tábla ) and the Royal Court ) andSupreme Royal the 119 Besides these Besides 31 CEU eTD Collection preventive censorship in wasabolished December 1921severalmeasuresremained in place entireHorthy-era. the ineffect throughout September 1919remained protection Thus, restrictive the state. the of in been PressLawof 1914 whichhad reinstated for the was sensitivity an increased factor important lawthemost criminal of substantive the to furtheracts. delinquent etc. was to be tried by these courts. by these be tried was to etc. insurrection social or state order, the againstcrimes sense, treason, in broader the majesté lèse- involved indictment the in which case any responsibility their under fall not did régent strongly limiting the defendant’s right toemploy legal remedies. While simple cases of lèse- by counterrevolution, the after immediately hadbeen established that their predecessors jurisdiction. their of limits the defined and five of councils 131 130 129 128 127 126 125 creation of bicameralthe system injudges 1927 alsoentered UpperHouse.the the with and judges higher the nominate to right the had Regent The sphere. political organizations. political of members injudges were, allowed not engageprinciple, to inpoliticalbecome activities and could not jury. of instead judges These a were tried by professional lèse-régent cases Hence, the of as hadlèse-majesté. well juries, casesof pressmatters whichbeen presidingas overthe 124 in remained effect. many regulations situation, of provisional asthethe might havebeenconclusion considered –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Pölöskei, Püski, Ibid., § 3. Law Act 1938:XVI. Ibid., 207. Ibid., 206. Püski, Pölöskei, There were also some changes to the substantive law. Concerning the development the law. Concerning substantive the some to changes also There were In 1938 the law on the “provisions in the need to protect the state order” reinstated order” state the protect need to inthe “provisions lawthe In 1938the on The Horthy-System The Horthy-System Hungary after two revolutions Hungary after two revolutions 124 One of these changes that remained in effect was the dissolution of the , 203. , 201. 130 129 126 ,54. , 47. With the war the accelerated procedure wasextended procedure accelerated With warthe the Yet, they were not completely independent from the from independent completely not were they Yet, 128 These were characterized, like These were characterized, 131 127 While the While 125 32 CEU eTD Collection (1930): 138-139. code incode laws1930 provided concerning stricter and espionage. disloyalty lawtwice in this 1938. under 1937 and CrossParty, Arrow wasconvicted infamous Hungarian leader of the the Szálasi, Ferenc butgroups, from 1930s the was also increasingly used against extremism from right. the social order.” or state the overthrowing or of subverting attempts any “violent at wasaiming that any act order.” and social State of the defense “more on effective the Act1921: III Law with was theratification crucial development 141 140 139 136 135 134 133 132 verdicts shoulddifferent openingbe issued statement.for a article inalegaljournal pleading lawyerpublishedan the note that Gábor Gyula “In Crediting Crown.” Holy the Hungarian the of name the “In made be to now thewere name achievements verdicts all since of crown, holy the of doctrine the of the influence ofthe under clearly the statement Regent.”Regent he argued that bya was replaced this adecade After oftheregulation. character transitional the mirrors the state.” Hungarian name the of “In the statement moreby abstract the replaced period verdictsthe been had made“In nameof the King,”the which Law ActIof 1920 ban. a impose even or street the on newspaper a selling of right the withdraw strongly that limited the functioning of press. the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker 138 137 Gyula Gábor,“A Kormányzó nevében(In the name of the Regent),” Law Act 1930: XXXIV, §1. Law Act 1920:I, § 7. Romsics, Law Act 1921:III, §1. Law Act 1921:III. Püski, Püski, Law Act 1930:II and III.Püski, Ibid., 185. Another development was of more symbolic character. Until the end of the dualist The Horthy-System The Horthy-System Hungary in the twentieth century 135 Itwasinitially in as designed a tool left repression the of oppositional , 213. , 213. The Horthy-System , 184f. 134 137 This lawprovided thebasis for prosecution the of Furthermore, the ratification of the military penal , 203. 132 Thus, the Minister of Interior could 141 Jogtudományi közlöny While the reception of this 140 It is worthwhile to 138 65, no. 15 no. 65, 133 Another 139 This 136 33 CEU eTD Collection Statistikai Hivatal (RoyalHungarian statistical office), 1925), 247. 144 Hungarian criminal law) criminal law: appendix to the new, shortened issue of the fourth editon of the author’s “Coursebook of the tankönyve” m c. were published in the collections of decisions. The first (published) decision on lèse-régent firston (published) decision The decisions. of in collections the were published that tocasesoflèse-régent Inthe1920sKúrialaws. made pertaining severaldecisions existing the of interpretation the for guidelines as be considered to had they since Court, another important factor were the decisions of the decisions of the factor were important another inStatistical Yearbook interwar period,the which was in published 1925. law. criminal Hungarian of state current onthe inhis comments noted FerencFinkey as established fully become 143 142 tried in mentionedin 1920 andit in already Parliament was sameyear. the cases werealready first the since customary, became term quickly the that can be assumed (Hung. lèse-régent term of exact origin the the of protection, this designation was not suitable for the situation of interwar Hungary.While majesté proper (Hung. lèse- Act 1913:XXXIV§2,known as application analogous the protected Law through of him was Basedon granted articlethis Regent the same legalprotection asthe king. the inviolable of the and Law Actabove1920: Ideclared Regent 14of the person article however was.Asmentioned itself lèse-régent term The period. of interwar invention the The development of lèse-régent 2.4 in direction. this benot proposal minutesdocument donot determined, parliamentary could any motion the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ferenc Finkey, Ferenc lèse-régent. on debates parliamentary onthe 4 SeeChapter Magyar statisztikai évkönyv While the laws on lèse-majesté formed the legal basis for the trials on lèse-régent on trials the for basis legal formed the lèse-majesté laws on While the The legal basis for the trials of lèse-régent was, as has been demonstrated, notan was, ashasbeen demonstrated, lèse-régent trials for the basisof The legal Ħ ve 4. kiad.-nak új,rövidített lenyomatához A magyar anyagi büntet ” (Budapest: Grill, 1923), 163. királysértés 143 (Hungarian statistical yearbook)(Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi It was also featured in the first edition of the Hungarian the of edition first in the featured also was It ). Since this law explicitly named the king as named object theking the lawexplicitly Since this ). Ę jog jelen állapota: toldalék szerz kormányzósértés (The current state of the Hungarian material Hungarian ofthe state current (The Kúria , the Hungarian, the Royal Supreme Ę ) could not be identified, it identified, be not could ) “A magyar büntet 144 142 By had1923 it Ę jog 34 CEU eTD Collection 151 150 149 148 147 6. case of Ödön Beniczky, former Minister of Interior. Beniczky had published two newspaper two Beniczky hadpublished Interior. of Minister former Beniczky, case Ödön of addressed thequestion of limitsthe of Regentinitsthe of inviolability the in decision the disgraceful expression” was considered as “lack of of respect.” “lack as wasconsidered expression” disgraceful a with connection name“in Regent’s the of ofuse the people group accuse the to as “disgusting Horthy-worshippers.” his country.” isit the headofstate regular serves the of common soldier understanding that knowledge, popular “according to further arguedthat and commander-in-chief, hewasthe Regent since 146 145 answered: “Horthy” anduponleavinghad called:“Come Horthy.” hehad,upon being since lèse-régent name askedwhatthe of his was, shepherd German was made on November 2, 1922 in the case of László Palotai. The defendant was accused of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker superior. “my against notservewasdirected vaguely expression defined son does some a dog,” recruit defensehis the intended for his to gendarme military to thatAccording service. son againsta had whoman protested ina caseof Forexample, indecisions. several repeated head of state.” the towards of alackrespect shows thatthemadestatement […] insulting, or considered itif by could taken be “theitself would suffice decision,in expression that stating another states that “notany specific aim or intentis required.” The decision intent. address wasrequired whetherlèse-régent hadto theKúria question pivotal the Therefore, Regent. the insulting of intent no had defendant the that argued Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 1925, 111. Jen MOL K-616, 2ndbundle IV-2155-922 Palotai László. Collection of decisions in criminal law Collection of decisions in criminal law Ę Balogh, ed., Balogh, The qualification that insults did not have to be aimed directly at the Regent was 148 The 149 147 It decided similarly in a case where a person had insulted a group a personhadinsulted in Itof decided agroup acase people similarly where Kúria Büntet Ę , however, argued that this could have only been directed againstthe been directed have only this could that argued , however, jogi döntvénytár , 1927,116. , 1924,156. 150 (Collectionof decisions in criminal law) Despite the fact that the defendant mainly intended mainly defendant the that fact the Despite 146 This belater repeated stance would 151 Furthermore, the Furthermore, 145 (Budapest: s.n., 1923), The defense had Kúria 35 CEU eTD Collection 155 154 153 five years of the right to vote invote yearselections. national rightfive of to the the anybody, who had been sentenced to imprisonmentfor the misdemeanor of lèse-régent, for years, for franchise national the the thathadbeen in elections ratified 1925 deprived allowed suspension for the of of rights political the for delinquentthe amaximum three of lèse-majesté on law the While punishment. of threat the changing considerably by régent 152 Gyula Ostenburg. murder of the two journalistscounterrevolution. he these having accusedMiklós In Horthy of upthe consciously covered Somogyi and Bacsó that articles ontheactivities containingfindings a report the of of special the during the units had been committed by the unit –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker of extent these developments affected the legal practice in legal lèse-régent. affected trials the of practice developments these extent for the prosecution and the threat of punishment. The following chapter will analyze towhat years. asa lèse-régent forrepresentativefor amisdemeanor aperiod of of beelected ten convicted trend of broadening the understanding of what constituted lèse-régentevenconstituted further. of of trend what broadening understanding the be account, insulted.” witness inviolability the Regent’s person must not in any case, that is noteven in the framework of a and thus strongly depended on the discretion of the judge, the decisions by the Ibid., § 10, 4. Law Act 1925:XXVI, §7, 9. Sakmyster, Collection of decisions in criminal law, 155 Overall, the development of the legal framework for lèse-régent increased the basis the increased lèse-régent for framework legal the of development the Overall, Finally, apart from the decisions of the Admiral on Horseback 152 The decision was as follows: “With regard to the absolute principle of 153 , 139. Since the elements of the offense are framed rather broadly rather framed are offense of the elements the Since 1926,3. Kúria a law affected the development of lèse- of development lawthe affected a 154 Norcould anybody hadwho been Kúria show a 36 CEU eTD Collection giveinsightinto generalthe development of numberthe of convictions for lèse-régent. are available for the years 1921 to 1942 they cover almost the entire period. Thus, they can The number of 3.1.1 convictions sentences. aswell on the as statistics etc.) religion, occupation, do they include convictions, the numberof butalsoon convicts data the (including age, inbiased perception valuableinformation. Notonly some they regards.Nonetheless, contain a feature might and by have been authorities data the collected Secondly, the defendants. the in of conviction the resulted that only butthose in general, lèse-régent of of trials thenumber for statistics comprehensive no of are Firstall, there data. these analysis of the when itcomes to account into havetobethat factors taken some however, Thereare, régent. Overview on trials of 3.1 lèse-régent four parts: the initiation of the trial, the delinquent acts, the defense and sentences. into is divided It files. case criminal of selection the on based practice legal the of analysis second will The and an subchapter delinquents of provide procedure. an outline general the onthe This thenumber statistics includes convictions, overview of lèse-régent. of on trials iswill larger Theinto subchapterageneral chapter two first provide divided subchapters. Chapter 3:Trialsof lèse-régent –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker First of all, the absolute number of convictions shall be considered. Since the data lèse- trials of the on data general contain some yearbooks statistical The Hungarian lèse-régent legalIn thischapterthe inwill be of practice under The scrutiny. cases 37 CEU eTD Collection 157 156 highest absolute number of convictions. However, number the absolute of convictions alone 237convictionslèse-régent forthe inFinally, shows yearconvictions 1940. 1942with the 147 convictionsfor only 80 lèse-régent,jumping andfrom doubled,then to 66 to dropping numberwas more absolute than 1938.In 1939 the after notable occurred fluctuations foran inappropriate. convictions oflèse-régentyear seems average rather was 1928 that assumption Sakmyster’s Thomas convictions the of development overall the intoconsideration Takingconvictions), and1936(31convictions). 1930(26convictions) inin low 1925(25convictions),lowest andrelatively 1928(28 1921 (10convictions) are lèse-régent numbers for of The absolute convictions year. previous of the convictions which altogether for year1924in be the can noted A firstconsiderable peak number absolute convictions. of in the fluctuation of thereisdegree aconsiderable demonstrates as Graph 1 However, 105 persons toca.amounts lèse-régent 63peoplenumberThe for of average peryear. convictions wereGraph 1: Absolute number ofconvictions for lèse-régent convicted, more than twice as many as the 46 –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Sakmyster, Appendix. the in 1 Table see numbers following the For Admiral on Horseback , 139. Source: Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks 157 Themost 156 38 CEU eTD Collection August 1940. million in 2,5 November secondViennaAward the gainedthrough another 1938and account which amounts toca. 1,05 million people gained through the First Vienna Award in intobe taken hasto revision territorial Finally, the for thedecade. second percent 0,8 firstdecade andfor the ca. 1 percent rate ofca. growth annual we can aconsistent assume 9,3 million in 1941 (excluding the regained territories). overall number amounting 7,9 population the of million in to million in 1920,8,6 1930and the growth rate per year is not available the three censuses of the interwar period provide the 159 158 people 000 100 per lèse-régent for of convictions 1Number Table beshall calculated. 000 people, per100 i.e. numberof the convictions convictions, does not provide –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker a sufficient basis for the analysis. Therefore, the relative number of 160 Romsics, See Table 2 in the Appendix. Romsics, Hungary in the twentieth century Hungary in the twentieth century 160 , 155. ,198, 205. 159 Based on these absolute numbers absolute these Basedon Source: Hungarian Statistical Yearbooks 158 While 39 CEU eTD Collection the following abbreviated as “HSTYB.”] See also Table 8 in the Appendix. (Budapest:Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarianstatistical office), 1925, 284). [In Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., 162 161 incidents in inoccurred Budapest 1924. of number a greater that likely seems it year, in that countryside the on investigations anincreased lowmight haveleadTaking numberaccount the intoincidents. to of numberof influenced the In increase. in communal elections place,1924 the took which Budapest puzzlethe of increases steep the in numberthe of convictions in 1924, 1939and 1942. however, inas solvedoes, considerabledrop the the numberofconvictions innot 1940. It somein low ofconvictions explains 1928and1930,aswell relatively extentthe numbers to investigation thiscertainly had the influence numberconvictions.an This on total of any ongoing stopped also but lawfully convicted thatwere notonly those amnesty affected 1928,1930and1940. on March officethe intoof of Regent Horthy’s 1 election the of of ThishappenedMiklós on occasion anniversaries the lèse-régent. committed were three instances there yearbooks dataof granting coveredbythe statistical the During of amnesty. the period in whichbeishas considered the to that Onefactor explanation. further require population and alone the Regent the of growth the to attributed be cannot fluctuations noted grantedabove the Thus, convictions. (general) convictionsnumber still of asimilar of retains to that number developmentabsolute the of amnesty relative the population the of increase to considerable the account into peopletaking when Even who had –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker the general political developments. While the exact reasons certainly cannotbe identified on it seemslikelyNonetheless, larger of the convictions that 1939isconnected after number to parliamentary elections (1922,1926,1931,1935)saw onlyamoderate increase, if at all. previous the year.However, that place took that elections parliamentary the been have The statistical yearbook lists 33 gendarmerie 4.1. investigations Chapter see for1924 of lèse-régent (Országoscases in of amnesty Magyar Királyidiscussion Statistikaia detailed For While this question cannot be easily answered, there might be factors that strongly that factors be might there answered, be easily cannot question this While 162 Magyar statisztikai évkönyv: (Hungarian statistical yearbook) One factorof influence for the risein 1939might 161 Since the 40 CEU eTD Collection percent inpercent 1942. most native notably language, endthe towards periodthe with 16 percentin of 1941 and19 theirdeclared as that German of those in ratio fluctuation the of however,some degree andmother German. as their tongue percent declared 5,5percent Hungarian second largestgroup. Hungarian forming thelarge majority,followed by ca. 7percent German speakers as the language onaverageof delinquents wereregisteredthe as delinquents the of 89percent divorced. or widowers were widows/ respectively and3 percent married and6percent were married, 60 not ca. were ca.30percent convicted those Of isvery stable. also family status to according The ratio and 21respectively. 17, and18 12 and werebetween of delinquents the ca.6percent 22and29,while between years, 50 between were 20percentover delinquents and 49yearsold, ca.17percent ca. 30 168 167 166 165 164 163 delinquents.the of ca.5percent formed Jews and Lutherans andeach as Calvinists 19 percent ca. Catholic, are the entire stablefamily status period. throughout onageand statistics andeducation. background The language,occupational religion,native The delinquents 3.1.2 insights. further casefilesshall provide concrete of the analysis closer the statistics basis of the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker See Table 6 in the Appendix. See Table 5 in the Appendix. Romsics, See Table 5 in the Appendix. See Table 4 in the Appendix. See Table 3 in the Appendix. Regarding the delinquents the authorities collected data on age, family status, data age, on collected authorities the delinquents Regarding the Hungary in the twentieth century, 168 167 This islargely in line with dataof the censuses the from and1920, 1931 On average ca. 69 percent of the convicts declared themselves as Roman themselves declared convicts the of 69 percent ca. average On 165 This islargely in linewith censusthe of data 1931 inwhich 92,1 156. 164 With regard to the declared native declared With the regardto 163 Thus, over 50 percent of Thus, 50percent over of the 166 Thereis, 41 CEU eTD Collection industry. in years. of Thus, 63convictionsthe 1932 out 35were of people employed inthe total the majority of Overall, cameof such abackground. régent. from delinquents the 74percent the convicts came frommostly the agrarian people sector theworking ratio differs in in thesome agrarian sector and the industry were convicted for lèse- (Hungarian Legal History),ed.Barna Mezey, ed.3rd (Budapest: Osiris, 2004), 411. 169 filed or ways. acitizen Either acomplaint, inhappen two This could prosecuting authority. and examination. the changes. mentioned above lèse-régentwas Codeof the Criminal of Procedure with1896, whichwas reinstated the requirements that had a number of were there becould built, lèse-régent acaseof Before of trials. appeal to be fulfilled. The steps basisand the entire process could last up to several months or even years,for especially in cases the procedural framework of trials General 3.1.3 procedure of is into system political of the relevance. integration of lesserdegree the that is possible it futile forare this on reasons the While speculations 135 case files only involved which18 women delinquents, toca.13percent.as amounts Calvinists, ca. 6 percent as Lutheran and ca. 5 percent as Jewish. as percent ca.21 Catholic, asRoman were registered percent in ca.64-66 which 1941 –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker 172 171 170 Romsics, Attila Horváth et al., “A Perjogok Története (The History of Procedural Law),” Ibid. in See Table 7 in the Appendix. When taking into account the professional background it becomes apparent that apparent becomes it background professional the account into taking When The preparation of a trial can be divided into two distinct phases:distinct investigation the two into canbedivided a trial of The preparation The route from an act of lèse-régent (real or imagined) to a sentence took several 171 Hungary in the twentieth century There are no official statistics on the gender of the convicts. However, out of the 172 The first step, however, was the notification of appropriate the of notification was however, the step, Thefirst , 156. 169 Magyar jögtörténet 170 While in While 42 CEU eTD Collection actively involved in trials of lèse-régent and did not have to initiate prosecution. initiate to have not did and lèse-régent of in trials involved actively not Regentwas the prosecution, initiate criminal to was required party where damaged the punishment exceeding five years of imprisonment or inmatters. imprisonment press yearsfive or of punishment exceeding of involved threat inonly that cases wascompulsory the examination Procedure, was suitablefor a trial. Whilethe was inexact procedure delineated Codeof the Criminal (Hung. headed byaninvestigating magistrate defendant. the exonerate guilt of the defendant, but also had to takecollectnot to wasobligedonly the anyevidencewhichproved investigation the prosecutor into consideration any circumstances longerlastof shoulddays, detainment but not than could be 15 prolonged. that could for flighte.g. risk. bered-handedif caughtcould or, delinquent detained also The respectiveprosecutor. the be to had forwarded it authority to appropriate the made to committed. been had act the where place the on based authorities. other or police the to court, a trial to directly were notbutrequireddo so. to 181 without the insulted party becoming active. (HPC §§270-273) 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 notice. to their came that activity onanycriminal report to obliged legally were organizations, enforcement law in employed those only not servants, civil all that note to important is It citizen. by assistance a to or wascalled act the witnessed authority personally state membera a of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker optional in most cases of inand optional lèse-régent mostcases if only applied was of a person other accused CCP §§ 102-129. The laws on libel and defamation list also several situations inwhich the prosecutionwas warranted Horváth, CCP § 147. CCP § 141. CCP § 16. Ibid. CCP § 89. CCP § 87. The second phase in the preparation of a trial was the examination. This phase was The History of Procedural Law 173 The citizens on the other hand had the right to report a criminal activity, a criminal report to right the had hand other the on citizens The 179 Unlike in simple cases of libel or defamation of normal citizens, normal of defamation or libel of cases in simple Unlike 174 The complaint could be done in writing or verbally,in bedone either or writing Thecomplaintcould , 413.CCP §§ 83-86. vizsgálóbíró 176 In the case that the report was not was report the that case the In 175 ), who decided whether a case Jurisdiction was established was Jurisdiction 181 Thus, it was 177 180 Theperiod 178 In his In 43 CEU eTD Collection as valid the case would be forwarded to a court of appeal. While the courts sentences were courts While the a court ofappeal. to forwarded be would as validthecase be verified.had to etc.) birth, of place (name, age, data andtheirbe personal registered had to involved judge,persons all 189 188 187 186 185 184 183 182 nullity. for make aclaim or appeal as well as the defendant, could employ differentlegal remedies. They could either file for an i.e. prosecutor the parties, both verdict declaration the Following the of was passed.verdict and doors judge the had to observe several regulations in adecision. reaching defense. the and prosecutor the of finalstatements the wasconcluded by of trial the evidence. Thispart crucial the formed often these statement, baseda verbal on were lèse-régent cases of includingplace, hearingthe witness of the evidence took accounts. Subsequently defendant. the of statement the by followed prosecutor, the through indictment ifpossible. session one within finished be and wasto procedure regulated a strongly followed itself The trial accounts. witness the and evidence on based the to reach a sentence bejudge had heard the hadto and parties different defendant. as well court appropriate as the indictment, whichwashandedtothe prepared the caseindicated the that for was trial the examination) prosecutor the completed, suitable crimeshigher too. with of a threat punishment, –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker CCP§§ 381-424 §§ and 426-440. CCP §§ 321-330. CCP §§ 314-320. CCP §§ 306-313. CCP §§ 301-305. CCP § 541. Horváth, cases. these for even suspended was examination the 1938:XVI Act Law With The central event in the prosecution was the trial. In the course of the trial the trial the of course the In trial. the was prosecution in the event central The 183 The History of Procedural Law 187 Afterwards the judge had reach to a decision. happened This behind closed 185 189 The actual trial began with the presentation of the of presentation the with began trial actual The , 413. In the event that the basis for the claims was regarded 184 After the official opening of the trial by the 182 If the investigation far as (and, as If investigation the 186 Since most of the of most Since 188 Finally, the Finally, 44 CEU eTD Collection 191 190 figure seem misplaced, on speculations sincehigher. However, dark isthe it notany is much darkfigureof The of identification lèse-régent the arguably acts delinquent. of the lead to that information the provided thus and theincident reported that earwitness often an itwas verbally was committed lèse-régent majority cases in the of vast the that Considering acts. of be delinquentto thecharacter the related has This number,however, to percent. high is The detection they highsome extraordinarily insights. rate provide ahundred almost with i.e. rural the of areas, gendarmerie, the jurisdiction include the they only since representative by investigations between gendarmerie the 1922 and 1934. data for thenumber only TheHungarian Statistical observations. of Yearbooks provide general some make only can we information this mention explicitly files case all werenotified authorities the how and not arenocomprehensive available statistics there on in Since, of case convictions, unlike the lèse-régent. cases of the of for theevaluation crucial Initiation of the 3.2.1 trial defenseandsentences. the remarks on short by followed be will This account. into taken be shall development quantitative the for factors lèse-régent the of Afterof acts acategorization by and courts. theiracts handling the all address initiationthe of trials. The second part will provide the analysis of the delinquent The legal practice in trials of lèse-régent 3.2 granting (individual) (general)or pardon amnesty. binding, Regentcould the annulasentencestop any or investigation ongoing by trial or –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker See Appendix Table 8. Table Appendix See analysis. a detailed for 4.1 Chapter See The question of howThe know the authoritiesincidentsquestion aboutof gotto oflèse-régent is of first will It lèse-régent. of trials in practice legal the analyze will subchapter This 190 191 While these numbers While numbers are not these 45 CEU eTD Collection supervisor trial. Since the files neither contain reports on the investigation and examination nor the nor examination and investigation the on reports contain neither files the Since trial. in thefocus. Another caveatis that the case files contain only such acts that were brought to is that authorities the of perspective is the it files, since case value limitthe of not the does however, This, committed. actually were acts these how whether and reconstruct to task bethe itcannot files thecase through available isonly theseacts of information Since the The delinquent 3.2.2 acts to extend sample the of filesand includeindictments. andcase to reports police the citizens thatinitiated a trial. However, for amore complete picture it would be necessary reporting the authorities. to Overall, the casefiles support assumption the it was mainly that among tenants, likely also otherfactors that played arole inthedenunciation.in Thus, cases of quarrels 196 195 194 lèse-régent. for prosecution to subject became Regent to the reference through but 193 by complaint. a initiated were 192 arises. motives of lèse-régent were (in most cases) not the victim of the delinquent act, the question ofcitizens. of bycomplaints initiated their were by gendarmerie the investigations of the 80percent more than average On clear. rather limitations the of ratio complaints and civil servants catching adelinquentred-handed seems aboveis stated to the subject data While the of. informed they incidents were with those rather thebut authorities’ dealing is interest, that of incidents actualnumberapproximate of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker MOL K-616, 5th bundle IV-637-928 Boldog Gyula. MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-81-925 Buda István. MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-1588-925 Liptai Jánosné. citizen, another insulting at aimed consciously a delinquent which in lèse-régent as tried were cases Several See Appendix Table 8. The only exceptionbeing 1923,when 26 out of 49 investigations of the gendarmerie This section will focus on the delinquent acts that were prosecuted aslèse-régent. were prosecuted acts that onthe delinquent focus will This section 196 it seems obvious that personal motives were – at least in part – reasons for 193 194 Their actions might have been motivated by loyalty to the Regent, but it is it but Regent, the to loyalty by motivated been have might actions Their disagreements between customers, between disagreements 192 Considering that the citizens who reported an incident an reported who citizens the that Considering 195 or between workers and their and workers between or 46 CEU eTD Collection “Horthy is a nobody, a scoundrel, azero, a rascal, Ishit on Horthy, I shitin Horthy’s mouth, ranting continued bastard” butalso said“not that only not sinceextent he a great to Farkas hurrahed obviouslyhim, outraged which namesomebody up Horthy’s inbrought Újpest in Whenin atavern assistant. July1924adiscussion butcher’s a42yearLászlóFarkas, old bitch.” Horthy wasThus, Horthy. Miklós among to reference clear a contain they otherspersonally Regent the to addressed referred to as “rascal,”necessarily Whilein the entireare not they period. throughout encountered varying degrees 200 199 198 197 3.2.2.1 mightthat have to contributed higherthe number of shall convictions be assessed. factors different the and scrutiny closer be under shall 1939 from trials the of development the Subsequently analysis. the facilitate and material the of fororganization an they allow fit in Although acts intolegitimacy. many several cases delinquent the categories, the of Horthy’s questioning deedsand Regent’s the of mistreatment the insults, categories: three between differentiate Weshall act. an such be considered was to define what to judges’ discretion the largelyit on depended vague.Thus, remainedrather lèse-majesté actof be an has considered to of what definition the etc.) graphic depiction word, printed whatintoan insight was considered by aslèse-régent judges. the give can they However, be assessedproperly. cannot prosecutor of role the the indictment, –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker The Hungarian expression “kurva anyját” occurred in five cases. in five occurred anyját” “kurva expression Hungarian The cases. infive occurred “csirkefogó,” Hungarian The cases. eleven in be encountered can szarva” van “le expression Hungarian The cases. 135 of the in21 occurred expression This “gazember.” Hungarian In 200 The first category is that of insults. These are among the most frequent and be can frequent most the areamong isinsults. These of that The firstcategory Although the article on lèse-majesté specified various forms (spoken, written Although forms lèse-majesté articlethe or on various specified (spoken, written One example for a rather prolific combination of these expressions is the case of isthe case expressions of these combination prolific arather for One example Insults 197 “shit,” 198 “scoundrel” 199 or “son of a 47 CEU eTD Collection police, gendarmerie or army “Horthy army police, or gang,” gendarmerie instancesseveral in which a delinquentnamed lawenforcementorganizations, such the as delinquents were targetingwith insults. the Regent Thus, among the casefiles canfind we insulted him but also the Regent with saying: “God fuck also the one, who makes the makes who one, the also fuck “God saying: with Regent the also but him insulted István Buda who had a of Vitéz. Order is membersof the files in personalcase the reappears that quarrel with demonstrates. Palotai László caseof as the aslèse-régent prosecuted also vitéz András Botos in “Horthy’s dog.” such anorganization a store and not only outlaws.” pay.” streets of Gyöngyös: for 1921on Thus, soldier, examplethe aformer István inOctober Zabolyák, complained “God fuck Horthy, intowhich by was incorporated swearing, e.g. fuck Regent the saying “god Horthy.” son of a bitch, he still owes me twenty days of members were granted the hereditary title of “vitéz” (valiant) and a parcel of land. parcel a and (valiant) of“vitéz” title hereditary the granted were members The regime. ofthe supporters to granted was later I and War World in been active had that those reward to 113, no. 1(2000): 35-78. The order hadbeencreated by Miklós Horthy, who was commander, also its in 1920 felszámolásig (The history of the order of vitéz from the 30s to its dissolution),” 210 209 208 207 bundle IV-1026-923 Dr. FischerArthur. FischerArthurné. 206 2609-924 Lux Adolf; MOL K-616, 5thbundle IV-305-928 GadócziGáborné. 205 204 203 2nd bundle IV-91-923 Zsemle István) and table (MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-2246-924 Czakó Elek). IV-437-939 Kun Mihály ), nose (MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-366-923 ifj.Tardi Gábor), (MOL head K-616, 202 give a shit.” which is translated literally in this case as “I shit on him,” figuratively it would rather be translated as “I don’t 201 Regent with their excrements. instances specified inwhich waysvarious delinquents the in the which they would coverthe ugh! him]” I spit spat andsubsequently [on ground.the on –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker On the history of the order from the 1930s see Szilárd Tátrai, “A vitézi rend történet a harmincas évekt harmincas a történet rend vitézi “A Tátrai, Szilárd see 1930s the from order the of history the On See Chapter 2.4. MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-2155-922 Palotai László. MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-1247-924 Kruták Ferencz. MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-1485-924 Csikos Mihály (Samu). 2nd K-616, MOL file the in encountered others, among was, pribékek” “Horthy expression Hungarian The The Hungarian expression “Horthy banda” was used relatively frequently, e.g.MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV- MOL K-616, 2ndbundle IV-1723-923 Zabolyák István. meg.” bassza “Isten Hungarian bundle 13th K-616, (MOL mouth Regent’s to the reference with expression an such contain cases of the 15 MOL K-616,5th bundle IV-687-928 Farkas László.Farkas used theHungarian expression“szarom reá,” 204 As the decisions by the Kúria repeatedly stressed itrequired As stressed the Kúriawas not that the decisions bythe repeatedly 207 Also quite frequent were cases in which the delinquent had called a member of delinquentin the had calleda were cases which Also frequent quite 202 Another variation of this category were the instances in were the category of this Another variation 208 The reverse, i.e. afterHorthy,naming was adog The reverse, 205 “Horthy’s henchmen” 201 210 There are several other several Thereare Hadtörténelmi közlemények Such a case was that of acasewasthat Such 209 206 Another group or“Horthy’s vitéz Ę l a l 203 , 48 CEU eTD Collection first-class Béla Kun.” Béla first-class Felföldi answered: “Be it Miklós Horthy, or Béla Kun, it doesn’tmatter, Miklós Horthy is a Regent, was the thatthere his attention calling to auditor’s the tax Upon owner. tavern a from whowas tax the collecting purchase with ataxauditor, whicha debate triggered economic situation and had moaned “today there is nothing to eat, because there is no king,” aslèse-régent. wereprosecuted comparisons in andfrequently of century,practiced framework was encouraged other the Horthy-cult, the and of figures history Hungarian such János Hunyadi,as who in hadbeen Regent 15 the comparisons. It is worthwhile to note that, while the comparison between Miklós Horthy as especially insulting. This was not only so because this was contradicting Miklós Horthy’s is noking.” there “because food no was there that hadsaid, Felföldi sentence to the country are starving.” to portray his person Kun, Béla and of that with his person equate to state headof tothe insulting is itdeeply that in a way stating, that he is the reason why […] the citizens of the Turbucz, 212 211 because heis aroguishalso imbecile.” –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Kun, a person that belonged to the Béla comparison with the is itthat noteworthy However, his person. of intentprotecting the to point mainly cases these of trials the Regent the of person the involved) (or on focused acts defamation. these Since or libel andslander in cases of were applied and standards that as lèse-régent. In theirhence also and blaming theRegent this as judgeconsidered the situation.Nonetheless, the assessmentfor cause of the as king the of most absence the rather but insults Regent the identify explicitly not he did the judges could rely on the definitions 215 214 213 János Hunyadi and Lajos Kossuth. For the analysis of newspaper articles on the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of Horthy in office see office in Horthy of anniversary twentieth of the occasion the on articles newspaper of analysis the For MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-81-925 Buda István. Ibid. Ibid. MOL K-616, 6th bundle IV-574-930 FelföldiPál. Leader Cult and Public 214 213 The latter part of the statement deserves closer attention. According In the reasoning for the judgment it is stated: “It is without doubt, is without “It stated: isit judgment the for reasoning the In . Among. the most frequent comparisons Kingare BélaIV (1235-1270), damnatio 211 A subcategory of insultsthe is of that unfavorable 212 memoriae Pál Felföldi had complained about the dire of the Horthy-regime, was regarded was Horthy-regime, the of 215 Thus, th 49 CEU eTD Collection reason, together with Miklós Horthy, that prices are so high.” Kun.” “Horthy is saying byforce, likebecame Regent arascal andherun and Béla off will with Kun by undesiredBéla general. notonly comparison GézaFischer Thus, the employed 1921: “Horthy 1921: “Horthy in toKecskemét vain,comes wheatif price is the 8000 crowns. days Three István Csábi venthisgave to feelings in asimilar in fashion in atavern in Kecskemét June dire situation. the blamed him for economic andof top himasacoward on that portrayed had not only questioned the rightfulness of Miklós Horthy’s election as Regent, for the Regent’s dignity.” diminish theduerespect “able to usedexpressions were the judgethat sentence argued the sent my son into the netherworld.” the into my son sent the case of János Krammer this took a quite personal form: “Horthy is a rascal, in Siófok he In for blaming acertain act. Regent the of mentionedas in through case Felföldi, above the the Parliament, but were also spread throughout the building. the throughout spread also were but Parliament, the 221 220 219 218 of inebriation. degree high the the case file does not provide However, Army.any information National the for as center to command the howmade been Krammer’s had Siófok son which died. during Krammerwas counterrevolution acquitted due to 217 216 3.2.2.2 legitimacy. to claims regime’s the of one was communism of threat (perceived) againstfight the as the and “thesavior of country,” the propagated officially was Horthy in which regime the of myth founding the was counterrevolution the since so more even but anti-communist, staunch a as conviction personal –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker This claim is not entirely unfounded, since at the time of the election armed troops had not only surrounded only not had troops armed election ofthe time atthe since unfounded, entirely not is claim This Ibid. Ibid. MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-1571-922 Fischer Géza. MOL K-616,2nd bundle IV-93-923 Kram(m)er János. Krammer referred to the time of the Romsics, 218 The second category is that of mistreatment of is mistreatment of thatRegent’sThe secondThis of the could category occur, deeds. In another instance Fischer had pointed at an image of Francis Joseph: “He is the is “He Joseph: Francis of image an at pointed had Fischer instance another In Changing Images Mistreatment of the Regent’s deeds of theRegent’s Mistreatment , 93. 220 Fischer’s statement qualified as lèse-régent in several He ways. in several lèse-régent as qualified statement Fischer’s 217 In most cases, however, the blame remained rather remained blame the however, cases, most In 216 219 In the reasoning for the 221 but also 50 CEU eTD Collection 225 224 223 222 everybody is afraid of Horthy’s aggression.” country, this In workers. the for remains money less that so Switzerland, to it takes and “Horthy hadis a amillion stating: for andsentenced beentried rascal. Hegets peng Nagy János frequently. beThus, quite encountered can situation economic general to the later he may go belly up.” –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker 227 226 and only later molted to become awhite.” tobecome molted later and only in September 1920while working on Andrássy Avenue: Horthy “Miklós was a communist “communists.” them made Karényi, to speculate with foreign money,not only the ministers but also the Regent,” which, according conclusion that “the Regent as well as the ministers have more money than their salary, they “gross abuse hadBireczky while he aggravating that madethis as statement was on a duty interpreted and of the hisfor judgehaddeemeduntil theespecially it thepunishment the reasoning trial. In as trust thatdelinquenthad been detained wherehe remained for aperiod fiveof months and 21days had been placed in him.” Jen madebeen János had orientation Regent in general but also had mocked his appearances on horseback. There were,however, horseback. There his inhadon but mockedRegent also appearances general him rawly.” and his rides doanything;heon not pony, does when they iscommunism there will roast Hungary’s Regent; worst nothingbuta pumpkinseed, else he more paymentgets a than king expressedby wifethe of Gyula Knapp, ofthe one few female “Horthy delinquents: is The assumption by asmorecommitted severe. members lawthe were regarded organization of enforcement that the Regent is not fulfilling the duties of his office properly was MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-91-922 Bireczky János Jen MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-702-924 Karényi Ferencz. MOL K-616, 7th bundle IV-1606-932 Nagy János. MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-2300-924 Csábi István. MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-1008-924 Knapp Gyulané. Ibid. 227 In had case this notonly Horthy’s conductas delinquent the questioned 222 Speculations on the Regent’s financial situation and its relation its and situation financial Regent’s the on Speculations Ę Bireczky. The member of the police force hadstated force of Bireczky. police member The the 224 A similar remark concerning political Horthy’s concerning Asimilarremark 223 225 Ferencz Karényi drew the rather paradoxical drewthe rather Karényi Ferencz Immediately following his statement the statement his following Immediately Ę . 226 Thus, acts of lèse-régent of Thus,acts Ę ayear 51 CEU eTD Collection commit, and decimated the people.” the decimated commit, and and Horthy are alsonothing.was crap, In1920Horthy mass murderhea murderer,real did others: “You will see, communism will win. […] The Hungarian governmentis crap,Kallay Ignáchad Bobák, who been tried inDebrecen December had 1943.Bobák said among used the “rough expressions in wartime, in extraordinary times of emergency.” case, considered it asaggravating that hehad not only alsoinsulted the government, but had directs it.” “Ininsummer isandamong others: a persecution workers Hungary 1920of there Horthy entire period. the recurringit, throughout were asIgnácRomsicstermed “veritable counter-cult,” of this limited the counterrevolution, periodtropes immediately werethe tothe incidents these after might to thinkwere diametrically that one Although official narrative. the that opposed beyond the time in office was, theoretically, grounded in the king’s divine right to rule,itbeyondto inofficewas,theoretically, divine right intheking’s the time grounded protection the of extension the While purpose. different a with applied however, was, It new. was and lèse-majesté, not thus had in acts of prosecution protection beenpracticed the The retroactive protection. retroactive was granted Regent the that demonstrate They 232 231 230 229 228 went.” robbinglonger,wheremurderer.Miki rule he also goalltheother much killers won’t will goMiklós let abroad, they Horthy cannot himinanywhere becauseheisa99 don’t percent is dictator, Miklós Horthy the person:Hungary “In that he to whispered March 1929, inin onthesituation atavern an Spain Szeged Mátyas sawa article reading person When Péter acts. more severe was accusedof Regent the inwhich instances numerous –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. MOL K-616, 24th bundle IV-53-944 Bobák Ignác. MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-305-1922 Tóth Imre. Romsics, MOL K-616, 6th bundle IV-446-930 Péter Mátyás. 228 These cases point to an important aspect of the legal practice in trials of lèse-régent. in legal the of trials aspectof an practice important to These casespoint This case also demonstrates the increased sensitivity to those images of Horthy 230 Changing Images The latest of such incidents that was among the selected files is the case of 229 Thus, we find the case of Imre Tóth, whohad said in the town of Vészprém , 95. 231 In its reasoning the council of five, that tried the 232 52 CEU eTD Collection themes. Pál Angyal argued in his handbook on criminal law that even the “ the even that law criminal on handbook in his argued Angyal Pál themes. recurring the of one however, is, king uncrowned) (and crowned the and Horthy between comparison The acts. the of assessment detailed a contain not did sentence the inebriation, degree of their great werenot punisheddueto casesdelinquents both the since in legitimist position when he said: “Horthy is a nobody, long live king Otto.” majesty.” his is not He Horthy? is that “Who stated: Netye name day. Regent’s the of occasion the it on been in hadclosed vain, since were thelocal toenter tavern his efforts him that Horthy?” “nobody,” a Regent namingthe others are among canbecategory that inthis The acts placed 239 238 Róbert. 237 236 235 János. 2.4. Chapter See journalists. 234 of two murder the about knowledge had Horthy claimed 233 3.2.2.3 any insults, but to actively reinforce Horthy’s claim legitimacy.to protect Regent from the servednotonly to lèse-régent, of this legalmechanism sensethe any statements on inHorthy’s involvement orknowledge of white so-called the terror. prosecute to was employed protection the Instead, retroactive was protected. which Horthy from itisyouthful (mere)follies however, not lèse-régent, In caseof follies. the youthful from mighthave arisen harm from any that dynasty respective the protect to often served –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-1582-925Herbelyi Zoltán. MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-2832-924 Netye Tódor. MOL K-616,3rd bundle IV-1587-925 ZimmermannJános; MOL K-616, 4th bundle IV-1224-926 Éder MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-377-925 Szabó János. MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-1566-925 Vicza János. MOL K-616, 2ndbundle IV-687-922 Viszeralék József; MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-1566-925 Vicza This was also the basis for the prosecution of former Minister of the Interior Ödön Beniczky, who had The third category of delinquent acts is The third category acts of delinquent that of questioning Regent’slegitimacy. the 237 238 234 In this vein acted Tódor Netye on December 6, 1923 when TódorNetye hadtoldveinsomeone In onDecember 6,1923when acted this And Zoltán Herbelyi displayed even what might be considered an outright an be considered might what even displayed Herbelyi Zoltán And “nothing,” Questioning theRegent’s legitimacy 235 “a random fellow” random “a 236 or asking the question “who is [that] 239 However, 233 rex In 53 CEU eTD Collection feeling of discipline.” of feeling to the demolition JB] they were suitable in were present tavern, the [that enlistees to the but regard with ofstate, the due obedience of person headof the insults only“not againstthe wereconsidered these rough Furthermore, to the head of the for authority.” conscious demolition “he the judge, expressionsRegent’s the of used army and the lessening monthsAccording imprisonment. assessment the two punishment of the to of wasraised to of the as way. of hisachievements naval inanundesiredofficers monetary appeal In court the Constantinople.” in holiday his had trouble, was there when who, mate, a such was Horthy an admiral; just of a train station he had said: “I don’t know the Regent, Ijust know the king. Horthy, he was dynasty, i.e. the original objects of protection. (dethroned) the or king the vis-à-vis even legitimacy to claim Regent’s the reinforce Regent, the same protect legalmechanism was employed Regent.Thus, to the itwas used to as Horthy Miklós of with election the But entire era. the throughout continued application its majesty king,and the the protect of wasintended to lèse-majesté The law on régent. lèse-in trials of became apparent that ambiguity tothe This case points lèse-majesté. well as King Charles IV, too.” had insulted as “rascal” who Mátyáshad indemonstrates, ina and1939 quarreledNagy tavern with he a postman whom had continued “the whole world is a rascal, […] Horthy and 244 243 Horthy had been stationed in Constantinople. 242 241 240 lèse-majesté. against hereditárius –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. Ibid. MOL K-616,3rd bundle IV-61-925 Bocskai István. Before hisposition asaide-de-camp to the Emperor MOL K-616, 18th bundle IV-72-941 Nagy Mátyás. Angyal, 36. The case of István Bocskai points to another facet of the legal practice. In tavern the In legal practice. of the facet another to points Bocskai István The caseof ,” the hereditary king, i.e. the uncrowned Habsburg Prince Otto was i.e. hereditary protected Otto uncrownedking, Prince Habsburg the ,” the 242 Thus, not Bocskai only Horthy’slegitimacy,doubted butalso his treated 240 241 The protection also pertained to the deceased king, as the case of 244 Consequently, Nagy had been sentenced for both lèse-régent, as lèse-régent, hadboth for Consequently, beensentenced Nagy The unambiguously positive assessment of Horthy’s of past positive Theunambiguously assessment 243 54 CEU eTD Collection from 1915 to 1917. (Turbucz, 1917. to 1915 from 245 identified Jews” “the delinquentAnother longer.” we don’tneedhimany No stay. he to can continue sothat peacetreaty, the is a tyrant, and anyway the Entente commands him. Of course,official portrayal of Horthy: “Whyhe don’tyou gohome?wouldn’t What doyou give about Horthy? He want us to sign from the diverted strongly that role Horthy’s of Miklós assessment an reached Viszeralek inJózsef treaty June1920 signingthe Trianon of his peace varieties.the of In reaction to in distinct formulated was This strings. Horthy’s pulled else somebody that suspicion in covered protection. retroactive the also andwere Regent, the on narrative official the of werepart officer naval as a achievements –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker the judge.the receiving instructions.” for but notHitler,for but christening of aship, to the October HerrHorthy beordered will Draws-Tyschen had predicted familyto the he wasstaying with in followingthe 1938: “In the ship “Prinz Eugen.” 251 250 249 Jen Braun 248 247 246 dynamic, which shall be under closer scrutiny in the following section. with that sovereignty and the Regent’s dignity.” irreconcilable is him, hemay command sothat state, of another state head of the to called wouldbe state, Hungarian of the thesovereignty represents andexpresses who Regent, the him. to Hitler asgivingorders This included, among others, the image of Horthy as “the hero of the Novara,” the ship he had commanded he had ship the Novara,” ofthe hero “the as ofHorthy image the others, among included, This Ibid. Miklós Horthy and his wife were on avisit to Kiel inAugust 1938, among others Ibid. for the christening of MOL K-616, 13th bundle IV-38-939 Draws TychsenHellmuth. MOL K-616, 13th bundle IV-38-939 Draws TychsenHellmuth; MOL K-616, 13th bundle IV-956-939 MOL K-616,10th bundle IV-1248-936 Erdei Ferenc. MOL K-616, 2ndbundle IV-687-922 Viszeralék József. Miklós Horthy`s legitimacy was also questioned by statements that expressed the expressed that by statements questioned was also legitimacy Horthy`s Miklós Ę . 250 In the reasons given for the judgment he further argued that “the statement that “thestatement that he further argued judgment for the given reasons Inthe 249 The beginnings The expression “Herr Horthy” was considered as “derogatory” by “derogatory” as considered “Herr was Horthy” Theexpression 248 On a visit to Hungary the German journalist Hellmuth journalist German the Hungary to visit a On , 157-160.) 245 247 as controlling Horthy whereas others named others whereas Horthy ascontrolling 251 The latter case already indicates acertain indicates casealready Thelatter 246 55 CEU eTD Collection Horthy. Miklós Regent the to pertained still lèse-régent of cases of majority the that seems it files case selected the Basedon or Vice-Regent. Regent the against insults directed between ratio basis for prosecution. Nonetheless, areno there numbersavailable thatwould suggestthe same the István granted extendedtheHorthy was protection, evenafterhis certainly death, isfollowing“That way: he didwhat deserved; why off he take drunk?” the death István’s of news the commenting others among been had she since Regent, Vice- the and Regent insulting the for both wastried Horváth Lajos of wife Thus, the only for a few months. István Horthy ina died inplane crash August1942, he hadheld the officeof Vice-Regent Since as theRegent. with samelegalprotection the he granted Vice-Regent, which was as Horthy of is István election the effect hadcertainly an aspectthat Another in wartime. more prosecuted actively butalso indicated, Ignácz Bobák of case mentioned as above the War ItisWorld II. acts very lèse-régentlikely were not of only that morepunished, severely is at leastaccount, be into from 1941, taken thathas Onefactor to oflèse-régent. acts the in onwards. Thissection quantitative qualitative linkthe changestothe developmentwill mentioned this is: MOL K-616, 24th bundle IV-212-944 Kukucska János. 255 254 253 252 right. extreme the legitimacy from to Horthy’s claims to threat increased apparently the especially from second half occurred the that is 1930sonwards. Oneof the of changes these suffice as an explanation. The quantitative change might number of convictions wasmuchhigher andthusthe circumstances of not war alonethe do be related to a new quality of acts 3.2.2.4 –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Of the 135 case files there are only two that have the Vice-Regent as object. Apart MOL K-616, from 22nd bundle IV-744-943 the Horváthabove Lajosné. kings. deceased the included also that lèse-majesté, with practice usual the been had This 2.2. Chapter See 1942. February in Vice-Regent elected was Horthy István As demonstrated above there was an increasing number of convictions from above from increasingnumberconvictions 1939 there of was As demonstrated an It was, however, already before Hungary’s entry into World War II in 1941, that the in that World1941, War II into entry Hungary’s before already was, however, It 255 The dynamicof trials of lèse-régent after1939 252 Buteven legal hisinthe remainedafter place. death protection 254 The fact that fact The 253 56 CEU eTD Collection 260 259 258 257 aggravating factor in the sentence. See Chapter4.3.2. 256 the 1938 underpublic.of exclusion the János Pál Hitzinger,case whose council wastried by infive ina of Budapest December How sensitive the authorities –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker were to such a threat demonstrates the case of the engineer by some of whoaccording guests, the sentence,the to of hadthought Horthy.formula The “Long liveleader!” the had shouted: Bobor Boldizsár a certain andentered song “I amMiklós Horthy’s soldier”in being played ina tavern had group Rákoscsaba the and associates. inofJánosGödör documented case the National Army,who Regent,the had ‘supreme the been, others, among leader’(Hung. was the that understanding the to asdetrimental regarded Party, was Cross ofArrow the supporters only leader.Arrow Cross Party. Thus, the notion of the leader, which was Theemployed by the members and two competing leader Hungarian the of the name“Szálasi,” wasthe posters these onto stamped hehad leader.” notionsis our “He text the others among and theRegent of portray centered of “leader”November 14,1938Székely had stamped several posters of Miklós Horthy,featured a that of night the In committed. had he that act an but are expression, verbal a for not lèse-régent, of also of hada trial becomesubject acertain the delinquent The similarity. Székely demonstrates sentencethe “Horthy is loved by Army the and thepatriotic nation.” commented a passage on Horthy’s success as admiral and also drew a questionmark next to hadParty, Among Hitzinger markedaspeechon achievements. he Horthy’s others Socialist National (Hungarian) dissolved already then the member of Svaszta, Gyula certain he from hadthat borrowed a In abook suchmaterial. featured case evidence, Hitzinger’s Ibid. The original title of the song by Pál Kalmár is “HorthyMiklós katonája vagyok.” MOL K-616, 16th bundle IV-200-940 GödörJános és társai. Ibid. MOL K-616, 16th bundle IV-602-940 HitzingerJános Pál. Hitzinger had already been subject the of trial ofa lèse-régent inwhich 1921, was laterconsidered an 256 Unlike trials,in most no whichthere physical was 259 Upon hearing on the street the street the on hearing Upon 257 The case of Mátyás Thecaseof 260 258 IĘ Hewasjoined vezér The text that ) of ) of the 57 CEU eTD Collection accelerated prosecution. In its reasoning the council argued that the used expressions were usedexpressions the arguedthat thecouncil its reasoning In prosecution. accelerated adelinquencycommitted fell that under LawAct1921:III and thus was eligiblefor the council fivein Budapesttriedof case,since the having defendantwasalsothe accused of 265 264 claim. this substantiate might court alocal from files that likely it is instance) one in procedure of accelerated cases (in instances two in tried been already had thus and Prosecutor Crown the to forwarded were that trials conclude 263 262 261 you. Soon Beneš will come and then the haggle,world taught like to not teach Horthy Beneš us haggleUpper Hungary, did us, with don’t will be better, you will see.” Upon August 1939. a customer’snegotiate attempt to the“I price, heanswered: from am in near in of Dömös watermelons Esztergom was selling village the Klobusiczky, who country,” to this process. Thus, while in the official narrative Horthy was portrayed as “enlarger of the aclear connection demonstrate also lèse-régent as were prosecuted that acts the of Several in a higher numberof convictions. resulted also legitimacy to claim Horthy’s to threat (perceived) increased the that likely, is While the sample of case files should be expanded to allow for a more thorough analysis it identifiedas “long expression a “Hungaricist.” of an livetheleader”was unambiguous –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker leader.” “Podkarpatszka will be Ukrainian,Beneš bewill the lord and Horthy longerwill no bethe Farkavec, whoafter beinglicense deniedfor a playing musicin a said:tavern territories. these in legitimacy to claim Horthy’s servecould also toreinforce in Lèse-régent themselves. occurred regainedthe territories also acts these fact that is the account into be taken has to that aspect Another prosecution. MOL K-616, 16th bundle IV-427-940 Klobusiczky (Sumig) János. MOL K-616, 16th bundle IV-515-940 Farkavec László. Only two out of the 135 selected cases were tried in the court of Kassa (Košice). Romsics, But since the files only Ibid. The judges used the Hungarian “hungarista.” A second factor that has to be taken into consideration is the territorial revision. territorial is the consideration into be taken has to that factor A second 264 262 A comparison between Horthy and Edvard Beneš had also been made byJános had Beneš also Horthy and Edvard between A comparison Changing Images those that contradicted our even doubted this narrative became subject to subject became this even narrative contradicted our doubted that those , 101. See also Turbucz, also See , 101. Leader Cult and Public 263 One of these was the case of of László case the Oneof was these . 265 The special 261 58 CEU eTD Collection than the Regent are documented in a number of instances that involve Szálasi involve Hitler. instances Szálasi in that of or are documented number a than Regent the ‘leaders’ loyalties toother Thecompeting prosecuted. Miklóswere position Horthy’s to a threat as apossible were regarded actions or facilitated that Statements convictions. of higher number II War World into entry Hungary’s and revision territorial the with connection head of Hungarian forstate. the “dueof the respect” ismy leader.” Hitler Swabian, also answeredHungarian question whetherhe the not following “Iwas the way: am territorialthe revision by saying“we Germans Transylvania brought back you,” to buthad that of János Mülléder, an ethnic German. He had not only questioned the Regent’s role in 271 270 269 268 267 266 workhave for afew to fucking peng you Here here workers forwill Hitlerbetter the comes. be when It thelaurels. gains much and horse his white on marchedinto UpperHungary Horthy was heard saying:“Miklós Hungary just three days intoUpper hewent is because aftera coward Regent The isnow. Szálasi where prison, into the troops and so greetedJulyoccasions throughout he1939. On one occasion “Horthy is said: crap. Heshould beput them.” different on revision in role territorial the Horthy’s with his dissatisfaction expressed Party, legal protected measures.” through same, [which] without doubt offends the honor of the Hungarian head state,of which is also the citizens Hungarian the who teaches haggler, as“apetty he wasportrayed that stated manner.” […] in “the treatinga derogatory person Hungarian Regent the of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. MOL K-616, 18th bundle IV-936-941 Mülléder János. Ibid. MOL K-616, 16th bundle IV-253-940 Stepán Sándor. Ibid. Ibid. Based on these cases a dynamic in trials of lèse-régent can be perceived that, in that, canbeperceived lèse-régent of intrials a dynamic cases Based on these Stepán Sándor, a 23 year-old baker`s assistant and member of Cross and Arrow the member of a23year-old baker`sassistant Sándor, Stepán 270 Favoring Hitler over Horthy clearly meant an infringement an meant clearly Horthy over Hitler Favoring 267 Ę for Horthy.” 271 269 A similarly case of lèse-régent was A lèse-régent case of similarly 268 On another occasion he occasion another On 266 They further They 59 CEU eTD Collection witnesses. andher son,”butdid not regardthis as sufficientto question credibility the the of defendantAndrás manhandledthe fact the “physically considered that Lováshadrepeatedly livedLiptai, inthe who same houseasthe familyAndrás of the courtof Lovás, had appeal János of wife the of case the In easily achieved. not This was extent. a great to other each if were contradicting credible,they or not witnesses were the arguethat could successfully havingThis thedelinquentact. committed if strategy,however, could defense the only work 273 272 walknot alone […],did notspeak properly,yelled incoherently, andable wasnot get to “he could that inebriated so was defendant the that confirmed independently had witnesses case of him aboveJánosKram(m)er judge mentioned the the acquitted because several only inebriation. judgeseasily Butthe werenot such convinced of inthe circumstances. Thus, the defense usually resorted to the claim of absence of criminal responsibility due to ofhis by confirmation judge. guiltthe since he had any “without it,” reason withdrawn which in turn was considered as a “ifthat thought acknowledge hewould it, doesnot they him,”notaccepted manhandle was he because madeheonly, had confession that the assurance Navratil’s police station. on confessed the already He had,however, in court. his guilthad who Navratil, denied Róbert case of it. Oneexampleisthe deniedact or delinquent the committed having strategy defensethe of depended onthequestion whether defendantsacknowledged the to The files. case basedthe on identified be can that patterns certain however, There are, just remarks. but short defense argued, the how of contain a description donot sentences 3.2.3 Defense –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-1588-925 Liptai Jánosné. MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-1080-922 Navratil Róbert. The assessment of the strategies of defense is a difficult endeavor, since the endeavor, is adifficult defense of of strategies the The assessment Since a large number of cases involved delinquents under the influence of underalcohol, influenceof the numberlarge delinquents Since involved of a cases 273 272 In most ofthe selected cases the defendants denied 60 CEU eTD Collection 275 274 hisundressed” on own. –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker the 135filesthe under scrutiny, in of which 115 resulted a conviction in instance, first the there of Out rights. political of suspension and offices of deprivation the of use is the however, interesting, Most of threat punishment. the of spectrum whole use of the madefrequently only infourinacquitted caseswerethedefendant a court of appeal. And years. maximum of three for a whichallowed beeninhad law, since it not the line with years. among others wheresentenced hehadbeen by court, trial sentence of the the was acorrection reduction for the raised.deprivation In 15 cases the court of appeal reduced the sentence. In the case of László Farkas this Thus, of out 135filesthe only29containedruling. adifferent In ten cases thesentence was of officemajority and of suspensionthe cases the court punishment. of degree the regarding made of be can that politicalappeal observations important two however, upheld the verdictrightsare, There conducive. not seems themselves penalties the of comparison adetailed acts of the forrespective five of were cases thedelinquents not only lèse-régent forpunished but delinquentalso other trial [!] court. Sentences 3.2.4 of punishment. lead toastate of senselessness,it was at least considered as mitigatinga factor in the degree not judgehad ineyesof the of drunkenness sentenced. were the If degree defendants the MOL K-616, 5th bundle IV-687-928 Farkas László. MOL K-616, 2nd bundle IV-93-923 Kram(m)er János. 275 The second observation concerns the punishments. It can be noted that the judges the that noted be can It punishments. the concerns observation second The vast the of appeal. In courts the by sentences the concerns observation firstThe andin anumber of amultitude factors since on The depended punishment degree of Hence, the court of appeal reduced the latter part of the sentence to three years, three to sentence partof the latter the of appeal reduced court Hence,the 274 In most cases, however, this strategy did not work and the 61 CEU eTD Collection act of lèse-régent meant a severe limitation of the delinquent’s political rights. political meantof delinquent’s limitation a severethe lèse-régent act of accountinto a convictionand franchiseit the for of an becomes taking apparent that 1925 regarding thelooking duration imprisonment.However, supplementary of atthe punishment “sentences meted out by the court were less draconic,” might be true to some extent imprisonment and one year of deprivation (by the Pécs court). suspension (by court), Budapest the were punished for months two imprisonment of and three years of deprivation and who aredelinquents there Thus, noteworthy. more becomes even fact this imprisonment, of Whenaccountpossibleinto enormous in the differences extent. greatest taking duration the was court in frequently employedemployed Budapest cases inits the and especially of so measure of adelinquenthisandof depriving suspending offices his rights was political the that itis significant quite numerous, are verdict influence the that factors While the 277 276 of by year Gy Debrecen, only courts suspended for the one weretried wererights and the political of offices was deprived 34 cases delinquent inwhichthe that it is mostly the regional courts that were rather lenient with this measure, since 29 of seems the it distribution regional the Regarding years. three for suspension and deprivation with punished files, delinquents werethe of in selected the 60percent morei.e.In 71 than cases, In rights. 34 cases the was year one delinquentfor punished of deprivation suspension.and delinquentwas punished totwoyears of of deprivation office andsuspension of political are only eight cases in which the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker delinquent was spared such a measure. In two cases the MOL K-616, 3rdbundle IV-464-924 ifj. Klein (Oberritter) János. MOL K-616, 3rd bundle IV-2248-924 Nagy Jánosné. Thus, Andrew C. János’s assessment that after the liquidation of the revolution afterthe revolution theliquidation of that the assessment AndrewThus, C.János’s 276 whereas others were punished to six months of 277 Ę r, Pécs andr, Szeged. 62 CEU eTD Collection IV-393-940 Breu IV-393-940 János). trial in was 1939, becameto subject grantthe of amnesty 1940 (MOLK-616,of 16th bundle 1928 (MOL K-616, 5th bundle IV-497-928 Heller Ignácz), similarly János Breu,whose first 278 proceedings. ontheclosing of the note file a case contains delinquent’s instancesthe inwhich several find prosecution. caseswecan the to among Thus, convicted andsubject thatwere all those includedit manyhow amnesty, granted exactly asto were numbersare nopeople available commemorating into andof office Horthy’s 1944.While election the inApril Regent, there March around years weremade 1940 1 of the These 1928, 1930, régent. public declarations investigation, alsoincludedsentencedwere underdeclarations lèse- or for whotried people Amnesty and Miklós Horthy’s perception of 4.1 lèse-régent involving lèse-régent will be scrutinized for recurring notions. debates parliamentary the made. Finally, be in will media the lèse-régent of of trials presentation on the general remarks some step In a second shall beanalyzed. lèse-régent of perception Regent’s the and amnesty step afirst In thesis. of this framework the as well as lèse-régentbeyond of sources of limits would the go available perception the the trials of of Chapter 4:Reactions to trials of lèse-régent –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker “it has been eight years, since in the times of doom the will of the nation” had made him nation” had the will years,doom the of of times sinceinthe “ithas been eight that recounted Regent the in which statement a with opens declaration The 1928. 1, March Thus, e.g.Ignácz Heller, whoseproceedinghad begun in 1924 wasamnesty granted in During hisDuring Regency Miklós Horthy amnesty granted several times. Fourtimes these Acomprehensive analysis will totrials oflèse-régent. addressreactions This chapter The first declaration of amnesty that pertained to acts of lèse-régent was issued on was lèse-régent of to acts pertained that amnesty of declaration The first 278 63 CEU eTD Collection 285 284 283 282 281 280 279 as follows: amnesty for the state. head of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker statement refers to the fact that the army is engaged “in the protection of our Eastern The opening clemency. were granted that those of in selection the reflected which isalso insulted me.” have who those, to turn all, of first will, I pardon to leaning my “With declaration: second amnesty applies, the first of which is “the insult of the head of state.” This isfollowed bydetailed description of categories the to which of delinquent acts this who have me.” insulted statement of the Regent:Unlike the rather abstract formulation in the text of 1928“First the declaration contains an explicit of all, I wouldwas used lèse-régent. differencein the declaration that in second concerning wording this like to exerciseit.” orareunder forfor lèse-régent, prosecution were convicted forgivenesswho those, all to amnesty announces state towardsof head the that fact, in the manifests forgiveness those, to grant amnesty. MTI preparedalist of all in instancesprevious which Regentthe hadmade useofhis right anniversary of Miklós Horthy’s tenth the of on occasion the later years madetwo was already of amnesty declaration election as Regent. On the occasion of the declaration the MTI [Hungarian News Agency] -NapiHírek [Daily News] –February 29, 1940, 42. MTI [Hungarian News Agency] -NapiHírek [Daily News] –February 28, 1930, 33. Ibid., 40. MTI [Hungarian News Agency] -NapiHírek [Daily News] –February 28, 1930, 38-40. Ibid. Ibid. MTI [Hungarian News Agency] -NapiHírek [Daily News] –February 29, 1928, 23. obligatory to every citizen and have committed crimes on political grounds. political on crimes committed have and citizen every to obligatory practice forgiveness to whothose, have rejected moderation the conductand which is as far as the interest of the country allows, with confidence in their future behavior Iwant to 285 279 The declaration of amnesty is The set ofamnesty from declaration 1944 adifferentbackground, against He also thanked those thathadsupported him Healsothanked those formulated reasons the and 282 With regard to the declaration of 1930 the report states: “The of of declaration the report spirit1930 the With regard to 284 The text of the declaration from 1940 is very similar to that of the 283 It is worthwhile to note 280 281 The next The 64 CEU eTD Collection 288 287 286 his as model. FrancisJoseph personal role regarded perception, who Francis Joseph hadamnesty been onseveralgranted occasions certainly influenced Horthy’s underjust therule thatof Thefact, thatclaim ruler. tolegitimacy: forgiving andthe of lèse-régent. of Through actof the Regentclemency couldmake another,additional the nature ambiguous tothe pointof amnesty legitimacy, declarations the to Regent’s claim the strength” moral increase the national mental to unity and the to protect and“in interest borders” the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker question that cannot be answered. One aspect that certainly influenced Horthy’s position to position Horthy’s influenced certainly that be aspect answered.One cannot question that 290 LLC,2000), 162. 289 137-141. intent.” or movement political “nationalist a with in connection act granted only on basethe individualof pardon and only thoseto who had committed such an was amnesty clemency of the limitations.importantgeneral Instead weretwo régent there instancesindividual also pardon. in several but amnesty, he only granted sincebe not doubted, cannot lèse-régent cases of aspects that might have shaped Horthy’s perception of these incidents. That he was aware of wecandelineatesome of his Horthy personal and through contemporaries the recollections a number prisoners.” pardon meto of political enabled Regency, my of years ten in the forward gone had that country, the of pacification the that election Miklós Horthy states in his memoirs: “My greatest pleasure on that day was the fact his of anniversary tenth the to With regard amnesty. granting of practice the on assessment personal his on glimpse valuable yet tainted, certainly a gain also can we recollections On the practice of granting amnesty under Francis Joseph see Czech, Joseph Francis under amnesty ofgranting practice Onthe Ibid. MTI [Hungarian News Agency] -NapiHírek [Daily News] –April 22, 1944, 15. There are no explicit numbers for individual pardons in cases of lèse-régent. incases pardons individual for numbers explicit no are There Horthy, Nicholas Horthy and Andrew L. Simon, While the prosecution of can lèse-régentmeansof consideredWhile theprosecution acts of of be a reinforcing Horthy`s personal opinion on cases of lèse-régent is not easily assessed. However, assessed. easily isnot lèse-régent of oncases opinion personal Horthy`s 286 the Regent decided to grant amnesty. However, with regard to cases of lèse- 290 To exactly what extent he was aware of these trials is a Admiral Nicholas Horthy: memoirs 289 The Emperor is a rascal and rogue 287 (Simon Publications 288 Through Through his , 65 CEU eTD Collection Representatives,” 1927-1944). perception perception lèse-régent. of the on insights valuable provide can debates these of analysis the Yet, discussions. debates.it Infact, ismainly in thefirst decade is itthat brought upin parliamentary To be sure, lèse-régentcannot atall be an considered topicomnipresent inparliamentary shall beIn a involvinglèse-régentrégent. the parliamentary second step analyzed. debates lèse- only) forframework debatesof the (not thesince they provided will be delineated, man.” honourable and atrustworthy shown confidence “the lose might he that crown Hungarian the the due respect. In a passage in hismemoirs he describes his denial of the offer of accepting shown not had he since lèse-régent, for prosecuted subsequently was person the that likely 294 293 memoirs: 1918-1945.) (Budapest: KossuthKönyvkiadó, 1983), 79. 292 counterrevolution inSzeged. 291 Reactions to trials of lèse-régent in 4.2 Parliament dignity of the office (and person) of Regent. protect the measure to necessary a heas it regardedthem seems likelythat be reconstructed scolding.” him good a when stoppedthe passed car,got Regentoff,the him.personand Horthy tothe gave went his hadinhat,Csabahim:not workerdidtake off whichShvoy 1922 ´”A accompanied on and Szeged toKecskemét, Regent’s tour on incident,”the whichhadoccurred “delicate clues. some provides isdiary Kálmán inShvoy’s that contained report short a perception this As to of Regent. theoffice of is hisperception lèse-régent trials of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Nemzetgy 295 Horthy, Ibid. Kálmán Shvoy, KálmánShvoy (1881-1971) playedhad arole in theorganizationof the national army during the For the purpose of this thesis the term ‘Parliament’ shall be used to referto ‘the lower house’ only, i.e. the This section is divided into two parts. In a first step the parliamentary house rules Ħ lés Memoirs (“National Assembly,”1920-1926) as well as its successorthe Shvoy Kálmán titkos naplója és emlékirata: 1918-1945 , 152. 294 Although Horthy’s personal perception lèse-régent certainly cannotof personal Although perception Horthy’s 292 And subsequently the police took careof person. And took the subsequently police the 295 (Kálmán Shvoy’s secret diary and diary secret Shvoy’s (Kálmán Képvisel Ę ház 291 (“House of Shvoy noted a 293 It is very 66 CEU eTD Collection 300 333-342. 299 Osiris, 2002), 149. 298 297 296 out of hand. Apart frommanagedifferentdisciplinary measures athandto resolve debates situationsand got to that the cloture,left. the from stemmed mostly which i.e.government, the abrupt termination the criticism of of peak 1926 sawthe to from 1922 period legislative especially butthe of debates, MP could be possibilities for constructive opposition. limiting effectively role, active an play not could opposition the of members where of committees, in the visible werealso composition itsand the effects government-party), of Parliament opposition. the for space maneuvering (the limitedheld the party seriously government majority the parties. Theoverarching president and the opposition the governmentparty between imbalance was structural the important and both issues. constitutional and laws electoral reform, land as such issues, controversial vice-presidentsonly from emergednot This stemmed heated debates. of wasaplace Parliament years Hungarian the interwar the fact from ofthat the parliament,the it sinceranks hadthey provided to ofthe legaldealthe framework The Parliament and its House4.2.1 for Rules withthe discussions. an During enormous the –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker legacy of problematic and call everyone toorder,which more than once ledtotumultuous sessions. to attempts presidents’ the and interjections frequent of by interplay the was characterized made ample use of this opportunity. The parliamentary political culture of interwar Hungary expression of criticism lead a chargedto atmosphere. To be sure,members of the opposition Parliament, unlike the heavily censored press, still provided one of fewthe platformsfor the Püski, Ibid., measures. disciplinary consequent the and disturbances notable most the over overview an gives Pesti Ibid., 126. SándorPesti, Ibid., 125. Püski, For an analysis of the parliamentary debates it is necessary to address rules address house the is to necessary it debates parliamentary the an of analysis For The Horthy-System, The Horthy-System, Az újkori magyar parlament 125. 129. 297 The imbalance was strongly reflected in the offices in the reflected strongly was imbalance The 298 This structural imbalance and the fact that the that fact the imbalance and Thisstructural (The modernHungarian Parliament) 300 The president of the Parliament had 299 Thefirst decade, (Budapest: 296 Most 67 CEU eTD Collection 303 302 him opposition to frequently relatively whichas “temporary referred head of state,” was not “Miklós Hunyadi,” blending Horthy’s name with that of János Hunyadi, the members of the as mocked twice was only Regent While the state. of head time, the from to time also, and Members of the opposition Regent’s scope of authority surfaced thementioning of Horthy Miklós was unavoidable. used their right of speech of the question whenever the But debates. of the beleftout a rule, as should, earlier) been to strongly criticizehad (astheking state headof the Parliament of the etiquette the According to Parliament. the government 305 304 301 Crossparty keep membersin check. of Arrow tothe designed specifically were 1939 from reforms The legislation. influencing in measure effective most ability obstruct, which beingto deprivedconstructive of oppositional hadwork beentheir andParliamentmade more itbutthey efficient, also targeted oppositionthe in reducing their effects of these reforms were of president. the rights the of expansion and wasaconsiderable twofold. there committees the They certainly ‘modernized’ sessions of wasexpandedtothe cloture the frame, bein time given a specific bills were to the proceedings of the importantbrought changes.limited, several Themodifying was speechtime proposals of There were three revisions of housethe rules in 1924, in 1928 andin 1939. The reforms of debates. the conduct affectedthe consequently which in theinterwarperiod, rules liberal of than those Tisza-periodthe from 1913, therewereseveral of revisions housethe use it house wasdecidedtomorewhich rules from the first period the legislative 1908, were in most casesbe drastic the removed from by guards the sessions. parliamentary speak, be beor theirto right or excluded bereprimanded,disciplined they could deprived of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Pesti, Ibid., 122. Olasz, Ibid., 160. Püski, Another central aspect to consider is the general treatment of the Regent in of Regent the treatment consideris general the to aspect central Another The modern Hungarian Parliament The Horthy-System, The Regent’s scope of authority, 119. 103. , 156. 304 301 While in While 303 The 305 302 68 CEU eTD Collection 308 Year-Volume, Page”]. 2010. Available from http://www.ogyk.hu ; the parliamentary minutes will be quoted in the following as ”KN- 307 306 House.” with followingis “Thatif lèse-régent, the words: in himlikethis talk about they the and of Regent,leaders government the counterrevolution. to andhis connections the the Szilágyi, MP,whoindependent had Pál infamous talked of about Prónay, squad one the Lajos a speech to of the party, reacted governmentmemberof 1923 Sándor Putnoky, InDecember by wasinterjected “lèse-régent” representatives. whenthe word instances several were There by interjections. disturbed regularly were where speeches culture, legal the lèse-régent the issue wasdebated. practice of or legislation concerning e.g. debates, other of framework larger in the Thirdly, attention. oppositional MP. Secondly, representatives reported on incidents that had come to their party by interjectionsas well both for government ascatchphrase was employed it all, of First contexts. in different mentioned is Lèse-Régent discussions. parliamentary isdecade. It inwas mentionedyears especially in 1925to1927thatlèse-régent the Debating lèse-régent 4.2.2 solution. Horthy amereinterim as to reference asa intended butcertainly regulations against –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker accidents and lèse-régent are permanent headlines.” are permanent andlèse-régent accidents Christianthe into interjected an onlèse-régent:party, opposition “Carongoing debate member of Rakovszky, In 1925 István connotation. different a very with albeitcatchphrase, KN-1922-XXXIII, 358. Sakmyster, Nemzetgy As mentioned above, the Parliament of aspecific featured interwarof debate Hungary ParliamentAs mentioned above, the mainly in first the inoccurred debates parliamentary lèse-régent The mentioning of 307 306 Members of the opposition also employed the word “lèse-régent” as a “lèse-régent” employed word the also of opposition the Members Ħ lési napló Admiral on horseback [Minutes of the National Assembly], 1922Vol. XVII, 318. Accessed October18, , 145. 308 Béla Fábian, member of the 69 CEU eTD Collection government should see to itlonger in should military make seeto government that nowould arrests authorities cases order of order of military the command.” protest, thataHungarian be Szilágyi: citizen,the havecivilian, arrestedon to ”ButIa can The involvement of militarythe in investigations of lèse-régent wasadmonished by again. thatmight happen hefeared itbeen and beaten Hungarian throne, the up and had return onto to IV Charles of attempt second i.e.the Budaörs, at skirmish the after arrested theparliament. of attention the military. by the arrest illegal” “completely the criticized strongly and accusations any the of authorities. military son on grounds lèse-régent,“espionage,of insurrection and Idon’tknowwhat […]” by amemberRupert, of Liberal the Opposition, admonished detention the of a father andhis 316 315 (Ibid.) merits.” great earned wartime and peace “in but had university, technical achievements as admiral. According to Szilágyi, Hitzinger was not only the president of the athletic club of the 314 313 312 311 310 309 in shouted “The lèse-régent!” lèse-régent on manylawsuitsown 1927: on are their he when trials of number the on concern his expressed poignantly Party, Democratic –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker word lèse-régent in a parliamentary debate was already in 1920byRezs in lèse-régent was October already word a parliamentary debate a instances in up mentioningcertain Thefirst whichMPbrought lèse-régent. case of of the We etc.! accusations!” already these know “Lèse-régent who exclaimed: end in of opposition the 1940byKároly memberMárothy, of National the Socialist Front, lèse-régentwas also term from and asaplaceholderfor politicizedfar prosecution unjustthe Ibid. Ibid. KN-1920-XIV, 288. This was thesame János Pál Hitzinger who was in1939 tried for questioning Horthy’s Ibid. Ibid. KN-1920-VI, 98. KN-1939-V, 458. KN-1927-II, 181. However, lèse-régent was not only used as a catchphrase. There were a number of number were a There catchphrase. usedasa only was not lèse-régent However, 313 On December 31, 1921 Lajos Szilágyi brought the case of János Pál Hitzinger to 312 He deemed this a false pretense, since they were not questioned on questioned not were they since false pretense, a Hedeemed this 314 He further mentioned that Hitzinger already hadbeen already thatHitzinger mentioned Hefurther 316 Finally, Szilágyi made an interpellation that the that interpellation an made Szilágyi Finally, 310 Ę Rupert. 309 The 315 311 70 CEU eTD Collection 323f.). BélaFábianon June 18, 1925(KN-1922-XXXIII, 358) and SalyEndre May on 5, 1926 (KN-1922-XLII, 323 322 321 320 319 318 317 Budapestat the court lèse-régent to286proceedings he of in juxtaposed court 1900, which in Budapest fivetried the were oflèse-majesté Baracsthere cases to According comparison. régent. lèse-instances of four Amongwere these theelections. in around time the been committed Interior Iván Rakovszky,mentioning A first madeonJuly trialsa number of the of 31, 1922byMinister was of who gave an account of cases. quantity the of perception wasthe of contention Onepoint attention. deserve closer of the number of delinquent acts that had of lèse-régent. –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker others. years.” in last three the lèse-régent […] for as lèse-majesté,for of imprisonment such long period to not a and sentenced people were Social Democrat, stated,comparison with“that cases of lèse-majesté under Francis Joseph. OnJuly 17, 1923 underImre Györki, the 68 year-long a employed representatives Several lèse-régent. of trials of number asahigh regarded rule of Francis Joseph not so many months and the newspaper Újság,in which his articles were printed, was banned. eight after freealready set but imprisonment, years of three to sentenced was Beniczky election of the modifyinginincident ActI1920whichfavored used and proposal handeda to this a ruling Member of andParliamentMinister incouncil of Interior the 1919-1920. instead of Horthy, which remained an attempt in vain. Among others GyulaPeidl made the same comparison on May 26, 1925(KN-1922-XXXII, 206), as wellas KN-1922-XIV, 168. KN-1922-III, 137. Ibid., 140. Ibid. See Chapter 2.4. Ibid., 289. 323 321 There are several issues concerning lèse-régent that were repeatedly and were repeatedly thataddressed lèse-régent concerningThere areseveralissues On March 24, 1927 Marcell Baracs, National Democrat, quantified this quantified Democrat, National Baracs, 1927 Marcell OnMarch24, However, several MP of the opposition repeatedly admonished what they 317 The most discussed single case was that of Ödön Beniczky,former 322 This argument was repeated byseveral was repeated Thisargument 318 The social democrats Thesocial 320 319 71 CEU eTD Collection practice of trials on lèse-régent. One point of criticism was the franchise of The franchise1925. of the of One criticism was point lèse-régent. on of practice trials times were still lasting and necessitated lèse-régentof by sharing tumultuous the assumption Rather than the that opposition. the the trials, the MP of the opposition to perception the of trials the This argumentation was diametrically of opposed Pesthy questionedPál the explanation for the present state: for thepresent explanation and an on development the estimate an gave Pesthy also was decreasing. lèse-régent lèse-régent. cases of was muchmentioning lower than the hadstated, without opposition numberof the exact numbers the cases atthe of open December workload.he arguedthat In courts’ 1927 of form large lèse-régentthe part a would claimparty, thattrialsthe of government doubted the Hungarian head of state’s punishment.” authority headwithout Hungarian of state’s the as possible.” asoften occur lèse-régent of trials these that state of the interest in “notitwas the that stated forward broughtparty. by May Justice, Thiswas Minister of on Pál Pesthy,3, 1927.Pesthy 329 328 327 326 325 324 war!” also was andthere […] was [a]revolution there “Inmeantime the statement: this followed Novemberfrom November 1925to 1926. –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Ibid. KN-1927-VII, 213. Ibid. KN-1927-III, 206. Ibid. KN-1927-II, 181. 325 the war and the revolutions we live in mentally agitated and upset years. before we warlived in last the ofa60-yearthe years long period, peace and now that after level of the numbersafter therevolutions,did butwhich not in yet–thenumber setof will trials those to sink the beforeI believe,when the quietude sets in,when mentalthat quietude thesets in, which has to set in war. Never leave out of consideration […] that after all These interjections already point to the line of argumentation of the government the of argumentation of line the to point already interjections These 326 Buthe “inacceptable deemed it that also somebody impaircould reduce or 328 On December 2, 1927 Pál Pesthy stated that the number of of numberthe cases that stated of Pesthy On 2,1927Pál December 324 Two interjections by government party MP party government by interjections Two 327 András Simon, MP of the 329 Kúria 72 , CEU eTD Collection 337 336 335 334 333 332 331 330 in different the becomes apparent This bifurcation lèse-régent. of trials of the assessment increased.” be and be cannot the prestige cannotpromoted for theheadlove of state sentences the strict withdraconian measures, such ”[…] lèse-régent: these use of of trials headstate. of the increasefor for the respect be suchalongnot suspension time would to elected of rightthe the that argued and regulation this behind intention the questioned Democrat, Social lèse-régentfrom votingfive beingyears) (for 10years). from and (for elected Gyula Peidl, for convicted whowere people others law excludedamong mentioned above the As heated. debate on the bill, wasratifiedAct asLaw in very which XXVIof general 1925, was –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker of of lèse-régent. as for “agents a highernumberincidents and provocateurs” a cause denunciation suspected lèse-régent.” he committed simply say: they someone, catch to want if they is, fashion the Today ridiculous. are lèse-régent name “Thelaw. January Szilagyi On 20, 1922Lajos manycomedies stated: run that under the legislation.” of fulfill work the expresshis but political in conception […], no way evidence, thatprovides heis unable to Fábian perceived a qualitative difference. aqualitative perceived Fábian aim. original the to wascontrary many trials the of effect the that remarked Szilagyi authority, Regent’s broad.” isvery not andwhat régent KN-1922-XIV, 168. Ibid. KN-1922-XXXIII, 358. Ibid. Ibid. KN-1920-XV, 315. KN-1922-XXXIII, 413. KN-1922-XXXII, 206. The analysis of the parliamentary discourse on lèse-régent demonstrates abifurcated demonstrates lèse-régent on discourse parliamentary the of The analysis But the criticism exceededthis the lawandquestioned specific general use of the 334 336 In comparison to the handling of lèse-majesté under Francis Joseph Béla Joseph Francis under lèse-majesté of handling the to comparison In His colleague Imre Györki the had similarmade Györki and questioned His colleague remarks Imre 330 In the same debate Andor Szakács argued: “Who insults thekingmight “Who Andor Szakácsargued: In same the debate 331 333 As to the aim of the regulation, i.e. to protect the 332 He also noted that “the definition what is lèse- 335 Thus, he referred to the problem of 337 73 CEU eTD Collection rather the citizens that could cause considerable damage to their fellow their citizens. to damage considerable could that cause citizens the rather butmilitary, of the involvement the admonish statements earlier the although authorities, itnecessarily was notthe that however, noted, They as aform of them coercion. perceived presented trials of lèse-régentstrongly as a necessity dictateddiverged.head of state from insults, etc. is not generally questioned the byevaluation of the legal practicethethe protecting of circumstances,intent the While interjection. an as is used lèse-régent which with notions Thus, the opposition the MP of –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker the government party and the Minister of Justice 74 CEU eTD Collection were considered non-desirable. This legal mechanism, however, was not wielded by the by wielded not was however, mechanism, legal This non-desirable. considered were that reactions of those prosecution subsequent andthe these claims to reactions legitimacy, possibility for prosecution. was to be considered lèse-régent by the decisions of of the by thedecisions lèse-régent be considered was to what of definition the of extension an saw law substantive The Horthy-era. in the lèse-régent of trials the War Iand World endof the before lèse-majesté of trials between prosecution inthe aconsiderabledifference which created juries, the of notably dissolution the firstlaw, themost legal procedural of Thispertains, impact had practice. all, to the on an that factors of number a identify could thesis the Yet, analysis. the limitto a sets sentences, scrutinized inall its complexity and of certainly nature the casefiles,the containing only be hardly can This butstatic. dynamic was anything lèse-régent of prosecution acts of itwas régent andhowbe punished. to lèse- of an act be considered to what was determining in discretion of degree considerable judgesin hada general, legalpractice strongly the shaped the andframework the procedural Whilelaws the was mostinterest. of that of acts, these judiciary’s assessment the precisely, more and, isit reactions authorities’ the Yet, Horthy. Miklós of popularthe perception considered asinsults against the Regent, the analysis of the trials offers an indirect access to were lèse-régent acts of Since Horthy-regime. context of the inthebroader trials placed the thesis the aspects legal the of an outline While providing focus. in the was lèse-régent history focus on analyzing norms and their development. Thus, the legal practice in trials of legal narrow the beyond goes that a perspective been from has approached issue researched Conclusion –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker The trials were a part of the dynamic interplay between the Regent’s claims to Although the legal foundations of lèse-majesté and lèse-régent are the same,are the and the lèse-majesté foundations of lèse-régent Although legal the farThis so under- lèse-régent. of ananalysisof trials haspresented This thesis Kúria , effectively the enhancing 75 CEU eTD Collection prestige, cannot be answered. What is for certain is that a conviction for lèse-régent resulted lèse-régent for is aconviction for is that certain What be answered. prestige, cannot Regent’s the diminish to rather or protect to serve would trials of number large the whether of periods Thequestion time. had that asked during been the parliamentary discussions, longfor influence limited political generally the of deprivation in the régent could result especially franchise noteworthy.In combination with actlèse- the of 1925 committing an king.the vis-à-vis reinforced was legitimacy to claim Regent’s the in which trials in those apparent point to an ambiguity apparentlyin the numberthe of these trials was much lowerapplication than that of trials of lèse-régent, they ofWhile last King IV. Charles crowned anddeathof the dethronization the even after the laws. This ambiguityhadlegal king.protect in means been that The king to inthe created remained order place, becomes even more a in place:iswithout is contextthe whichthetrials particular ambiguous take kingdom the different for throughout providedalegal timeof periods What head the protection of state. severely. The trialsmore punished was lack‘due respect’ of inwhich the of emergency, astate was considered of lèse-régent wartime the Furthermore, Hitler. Adolf and Szálasi Ferenc notably most ‘leaders,’ other to are not entirely unique,threat to the legitimacy of the Regent. This threatsince manifested itself in expressions of loyaltyseveral an increased demonstrate (perceived) forms invarious casefiles from period this period the types of regimes theentire throughout canbeencountered ofhislegitimacy asthequestioning deeds, aswell of Regent’s the mistreatment the insults, While incidents. of a new backto quality traced be number after1939can lèse-régent.especially Thus, of convictions cases rising the the of in thatthequantitativefluctuations canbelinkedtoaqualitative demonstrated development files case the of analysis The authorities. the to report to right their of use frequently quite made citizens indicate statistics available the and files case asthe In fact, alone. authorities –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Concerning sentencesthe the extensiveuseofthe issupplementary punishment 76 CEU eTD Collection creation of new legal measures that aim at protecting the head of aim headnew that protecting the legal of creation state. measures at of also prove a worthwhile endeavor since it could illuminate the use of existing, as well as the lèse-régent. A synchronic comparison, most notably with and other authoritarian lèse-majesté of regimes practice legal wouldin the discontinuities and continuities the to point would comparison This thesis. the of continuation fruitful a seems Joseph, Francis under Hungary of Kingdom inthe legal the to practice with regard especially diachronic perspective, subordinates orsuperiors. competitors, tenants, its legal used denounce, legitimacy e.g. mechanism to or theirthe regime threats against to which evaluateproperly in thedegree the citizens to participated the actively defending can insights provide on utilization the system of by legal the citizens.the This would helpto it since promising, acts oflèse-régent especially seems about informed authorities were the way the of Acloser analysis attention. further deserves for actsof denunciation motivation all, the phase of the initiation and preparation of the trial, and in particular the extent of and complex dynamic of legitimization and expresses a new claim to legitimacy. the into variable new a brings amnesty granting of practice The demobilization. political that a convictionof the delinquent acts were committed in a tavern or under the influence of alcohol, itseems for lèse-régent in exclusion the Taking delinquentfrom the of account thatmany political the intosphere. was less –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker an act of political repression, than an act of Secondly, the work can be continued in a comparative manner. On the one hand the hand one the On manner. a comparative in becontinued can work the Secondly, Based on the results of this thesis several possible lines of inquiry open up. First of 77 CEU eTD Collection Magyar statisztikaiévkönyv Magyar Törvénytár Gábor, Gyula. “A Kormányzó nevében (In the name of the Regent).” Nemzetgy Horthy, Nicholas, and Andrew L. Simon. Gusztáv. Gratz, Finkey, Ferenc. )Ę Balogh, Jen Angyal, Pál. Printed Sources Magyar Országos Levéltár (Hungarian National Archives) Sources Primary rendiházi irományok http://mpgy.ogyk.hu. Landerer1920-1944. & Heckenast, Budapest: House of Representatives). Királyi Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), 1925-1944. editon editon “Coursebookof author’s the of Hungarianthe law”).criminal Budapest:Grill, 1923. material Hungarian the criminal appendixlaw: to the new, issue shortened of fourth the Publications LLC, 2000. Vince Paál. Osiris, 2001. Budapest: no. 15(1930):138-139. büntet http://mpgy.ogyk.hu. s.n.,1921-1930. K-428 Magyar Távirati Iróda (Hungarian Telegraph Office); (Hungarian http://mol.arcanum.hu/mti. Office); Telegraph K-428 Távirati Iróda Magyar office)Prosecutor’s (Crown K-616 Koronaügyészség Bibliography –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Athenaeum, 1930. (Lèse-Majesté. Treason. Insurrection. Protection of Authorities by Criminal Law magyar büntet Ħ lési napló lési Ę Ę jog tankönyve”c.m , ed. Felségsértés. Királysértés. H Magyarország akétháború között A magyaranyagibüntet Büntet Ę (Hungarian (Hungarian Collection of Franklin. Budapest: Laws). 1920-1944. jog kézikönyve (Thehandbook of Hungarian Budapest:Criminal Law). (Minutes of the National Assembly) National the of (Minutes (Decreesof UpperHouse).the Budapest: Landerer &Heckenast, 1913. Ę jogi döntvénytár (Hungarian statistical yearbook). Budapest:OrszágosMagyar yearbook). (Hungarian statistical Ħ ve 4.kiad.-nakúj, rövidített Ę jog jelen állapota: toldalék szerz Admiral Nicholas Horthy: memoirs Ħ (Collection of decisions in criminal law). Budapest: law). in criminal decisions of (Collection tlenség. Lázadás. Hatóságok tlenség. büntet (Hungary wars). between (Hungary Edited by two the /Képvisel lenyomatához (The current state state of current (The lenyomatához Ę házi Napló Jogtudományi közlöny Ę “A magyar “A . Simon Ę jogi védelme (Minutes of the of (Minutes ) . Vol. 7.A 65, 78 CEU eTD Collection Dömötörfi, Tibor. “A Horthy-kultusz elemei (The elements of the Horthy-cult).” Czech, Philip. Cohen, Yves. “The Cult of Number One in an Age of Leaders: Translated by Steven E. Harris.” Horváth, Attila, Csaba Kabódi, Barna Mezey, and László Pomogyi.“A Perjogok Története [The Hein, Heidi. Andrea. Hartmann, Dö Brooks, Jeffrey. “Totalitarianism Revisited.” Brooker, Paul.Brooker, Boros, Zsuzsanna, and Dániel Szabó. Boros, Zsuzsanna,Boros, ed. 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Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. (Hungarian Legal History), edited by (Parliamentary debates in the Horthy in the debates (Parliamentary The leadercultincommunist 68,no. 2(2006): 318-328. Schö (Kálmán Shvoy’s secret Shvoy’s (Kálmán ningh, 1998. . Houndmills: . História 12 79 CEU eTD Collection Navaro-Yashin, Yael. Navaro-Yashin, ———. Linz, Juan J. “An Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Spain.” In ———. “A alakulásakormányzó-kultusz amásodik világháború id ———. “A kormányzói jogkör (The Regent’s scope of authority).” In Olasz, Lajos. O’Donnell, Guillermo A. Miklós, Péter, ed. ———. Lauth, Hans-Joachim.“Regimetypen: Totalitarismus —Autoritarismus — Demokratie (Regime Kirchheimer, Otto. Kelly, G.A. “From Lèse-Majesté to Lèse-Nation: Treason in Eighteenth-Century France.” József. Kardos, Janos, Andrew C. on the Horthy-era), 354-369. Szeged:Belvedere 2010. 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Romsics, Ignác. “Changing images of Miklós Horthy.” Rees, E.A. “Leader Cults: Varieties, Preconditions and Functions.” In ———. “Horthy-képeink (OurHorthy-images).” Ormos, Mária. Ormos, Pesti, Sándor. 213. ‘reign’).” Horthy's Budapest: Osiris, 2009. (The tradition of Hungarianthe 1900-1948), edited by Right, Ignác Romsics, 138-166. 4 (2009):156-199. (1939–1940) 35-78.(2000): order of vitéz from the 30s to its dissolution).” 2002. (Miklós Horthy jun., the Regent’s younger son: studies, documents). Budapest: Holnap, Publicationes Universitatis Miskolciensis. SectioJuridica etPolitica monographsEuropean no.396.Boulder, EastEuropean Colo: Monographs, 1994. and Lèse-Majesté in Honor: Wiesbaden:Russia (1600-1800). 2006. Harrassowitz, Right, 1900-1948). Budapest: Osiris, 2009. Behrends, Polly Jones, and E.A. Rees, 3-26. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. communist dictatorships: StalinandtheEastern bloc Osiris, 2002. 93-113. Cultic Revelations :Studies in Modern Historical CultPersonalities and Phenomena (2009): Jan Bröker –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Univ. 2007. Press, Vezérkultusz ésnyilvánosság: Horthy Miklós “`országlásának”’ húszéves jubileuma Hungary inthetwentieth century Az újkorimagyarparlament Hungary in theageofthe twoWorld Wars 1914-1945 (Leaderand Cult public: The anniversary20th of Miklós Horthy's ‘reign’ A magyar jobboldalihagyomány, 1900-1948 Dissens undEhre:Majestätsverbrechen inRussland(1600-1800) Ifj. Horthy Miklós, akormányzó kisebbikfia:tanulmányok,dokumentumok Hungary’s AdmiralonHorseback: MiklósHorthy, 1918-1944 Els Ę Század OTDK különszám (OTDK Special 187-Edition) (2009): . Budapest: Corvina,. Budapest: Osiris, 1999. (The modern Hungarian Parliament). Budapest: Hungarian modern (The Parliament). Mozgó világ A magyarjobboldali hagyomány, 1900-1948 Hadtörténelmi közlemények SPECTRUM HUNGAROLOGICUM SPECTRUM Ę l a felszámolásig (The history of the , edited by Balázs Apor, Jan C 33,no. 10 (2007): 3-32. (The tradition of the Hungarian the of tradition (The . Boulder, Colo.: Columbia The leader cult in 12(1996):117-172. 113, no. 1 Múltunk . East . (Dissent , no. 4, 81 CEU eTD Collection Zeidler, Miklós. Max. Weber, New York: New York: Columbia University 2007. Press, Hungarian byThomasJ.andHelenDeKornfeld Press, 1978. http://mediakutato.hu/cikk/2010_02_nyar/08_horthy_miklos_husz_eves_evfordulo/01.html. 2010.(1939-1940)), –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Economy andsociety: an outline of interpretive sociology Ideas onTerritorial Revision in Hungary: the 1920-1945:Translated from . Vol. 15. CHSP Hungarian studies series. . University of California 82 CEU eTD Collection 1939, 213; 1940,205; 1941,293 ; 1942,298. 322; 1930, 327; 1931, 335; 1932,343; 1933, 370; 1934, 378; 1935, 405; 1936, 365; 1937,378; 1938, 359; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 252f.; 1923-1925, 320-322; 1926, 292; 1927, 281; 1928, 327; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 338 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: numberTable 1:Absolute lèse-régent for of convictions Appendix –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Year Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1942 1941 1921 Number of Convictions of Number (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 237 119 147 105 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 25 46 34 10 80 66 45 31 52 47 338 Magyar statisztikai 83 CEU eTD Collection 339 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: Table 2:Relative forlèse-régent numberof 100000people)convictions (per –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker 341 340 1939, 213; 1940,205; 1941,293 ; 1942,298. 322; 1930, 327; 1931, 335; 1932,343; 1933, 370; 1934, 378; 1935, 405; 1936, 365; 1937,378; 1938, 359; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 252f.; 1923-1925, 320-322; 1926, 292; 1927, 281; 1928, 327; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) Year Romsics, Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., Ibid. 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 Hungary in the twentieth century Number ofConvictions Number 237 119 147 105 80 66 45 31 52 47 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 25 46 34 10 (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Population of Number Estimated 12871703,9 12871703,9 12871703,9 10289388,7 9166060,26 9093313,75 9021144,59 8949548,21 8878520,05 8554567,97 8469869,28 8386009,19 8220771,68 8600000 7900000 8808055,6 8738150,4 8302979,4 8139377,9 ,155. 8668800 8058790 7979000 341 340 339 Number of Convictions per 100 000 people 100 000 per of Convictions Number Magyar statisztikai 0,58 0,53 0,65 0,72 0,47 0,30 0,37 0,33 0,57 0,69 0,31 1,30 0,58 0,43 0,13 1,84 0,93 0,62 1,43 0,72 0,49 0,34 84 CEU eTD Collection 1939, 213; 1940,205; 1941,293 ; 1942,298. 322; 1930, 327; 1931, 335; 1932,343; 1933, 370; 1934, 378; 1935, 405; 1936, 365; 1937,378; 1938, 359; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 252f.; 1923-1925, 320-322; 1926, 292; 1927, 281; 1928, 327; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 342 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: Table 3:Age lèse-régent acts for of convicted of people –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Year Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 Convictions of Number 237 119 147 105 10 80 66 45 31 52 47 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 25 46 34 12-17 (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 21 19 15 1 4 3 1 1 2 0 2 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 2 4 1 1 18-21 342 15 16 1 2 3 2 7 2 0 2 1 5 2 8 6 3 1 0 9 6 3 1 22-29 11 17 12 10 10 20 27 13 17 25 14 1 7 8 7 6 3 4 9 6 3 6 30-49 136 22 25 25 32 33 24 15 17 18 19 31 24 51 24 21 55 29 61 33 21 5 More than 50 years than More Magyar statisztikai 16 13 10 14 24 38 28 24 30 13 16 6 8 6 7 4 7 4 8 9 5 1 85 CEU eTD Collection 1939, 213; 1940,205; 1941,293 ; 1942,298. 322; 1930, 327; 1931, 335; 1932,343; 1933, 370; 1934, 378; 1935, 405; 1936, 365; 1937,378; 1938, 359; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 252f.; 1923-1925, 320-322; 1926, 292; 1927, 281; 1928, 327; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 343 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: forof lèse-régent Table 4:Family people convicted Status –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Year Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 Married Not 74 47 22 58 26 10 15 17 20 12 16 14 19 33 17 3 5 9 8 8 6 7 Married 145 63 49 81 37 27 24 31 36 34 40 25 16 21 19 22 38 26 67 25 24 (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 7 Widow/er 343 13 1 4 2 6 2 4 1 0 0 6 5 5 2 4 1 0 6 7 6 2 7 Divorced 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 3 0 2 3 0 2 0 5 3 2 2 1 1 children with 131 24 24 34 30 26 20 13 19 18 17 38 20 49 20 24 55 42 71 31 30 6 Magyar statisztikai 86 CEU eTD Collection 1939, 214; 1940,206; 1941,294 ; 1942,299. 323; 1930, 328; 1931, 336; 1932,344; 1933, 371; 1934, 379; 1935, 406; 1936, 366; 1937,379; 1938, 360; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 254f.; 1923-1925, 323-325; 1926, 293; 1927, 282; 1928, 328; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 344 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: forTable 5:Language lèse-régent of convicted people Year –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., ctions Convi 237 119 147 105 80 66 45 31 52 47 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 25 46 34 10 Hungarian 153 124 101 86 68 63 40 28 50 46 55 60 37 24 27 28 44 49 20 41 29 7 German 46 19 17 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 0 2 5 5 2 3 1 1 (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal kian Slova 344 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 3 7 3 0 1 an Romani 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 ian Ruthen 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 2 0 0 1 an Croati 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 Serbian 10 Magyar statisztikai 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 ani Rom 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ers Oth 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 6 0 0 2 0 0 87 CEU eTD Collection Year 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 1942 1941 1939, 214; 1940,206; 1941,294 ; 1942,299. 323; 1930, 328; 1931, 336; 1932,344; 1933, 371; 1934, 379; 1935, 406; 1936, 366; 1937,379; 1938, 360; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 254f.; 1923-1925, 323-325; 1926, 293; 1927, 282; 1928, 328; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 345 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: forTable 6:Religion lèse-régentof convicted people –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., ctions Convi 237 119 147 105 80 66 45 31 52 47 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 25 46 34 10 Catholic Roman 141 85 61 84 39 33 21 32 33 46 47 32 17 23 17 34 38 25 69 31 26 5 Catholic Greek 23 9 2 5 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 6 0 1 0 ist Calvin (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 11 13 11 15 20 31 16 14 32 19 7 8 5 6 5 6 6 7 9 2 1 6 345 elic Evang 18 14 1 5 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 3 0 0 0 6 1 4 4 Orthodox Greek 20 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 3 1 1 0 2 0 0 an Unitari 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 sh Jewi 10 Magyar statisztikai 0 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 st Bapti 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 rs Othe 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ist Athe 88 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 CEU eTD Collection Year 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921 1939, 215; 1940,207; 1941,295 ; 1942,300. 324; 1930, 329; 1931, 337; 1932,345; 1933, 372; 1934, 380; 1935, 407; 1936, 367; 1937,380; 1938, 361; Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 256f.; 1923-1925, 1926,326f.; 294; 1927, 283; 1928, 329; 1929, évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 346 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: for Table 7:Occupational background lèse-régent of convicted people –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., ions Convict 147 105 237 119 25 46 34 10 80 66 45 31 52 47 57 63 41 26 31 28 47 57 re Agricultu 122 60 45 54 28 22 10 14 13 17 15 15 11 10 20 22 27 36 13 8 8 4 Mining gy Metallur and 4 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 3 1 0 0 Industry (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 346 18 35 14 12 14 23 15 38 12 18 67 34 16 50 22 14 12 16 22 8 9 1 Trade 10 10 11 13 6 2 5 1 1 3 2 4 1 7 3 2 6 4 2 3 4 1 t Transpor 5 1 1 0 1 0 4 1 2 8 1 1 0 6 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 4 ed employ self- and service Public 14 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 7 0 1 3 4 9 1 1 0 0 2 yed unemplo and Daylabor Magyar statisztikai 13 6 1 6 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 0 1 3 0 5 4 2 2 9 4 nt serva House 1 1 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 4 1 1 1 1 0 wn unkno and Others 89 11 7 2 2 4 2 0 4 1 2 3 0 1 2 2 2 1 0 5 1 2 1 CEU eTD Collection 1930, 299; 1931-1933, 343; 1934, 351. Hungarian statistical office),1919-1922, 219; 1923-1925, 284; 1926, 265; 1927,254; 1928, 300; 1929, 295; évkönyv: (Hungarianstatistical yearbook) 347 Hungarian Yearbooks Statistical Source: Investigations 8:NumberGendarmerie of Table –Lèse-régent Jan Bröker Year Országos Magyar Királyi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal Hungarian statistical office), ed., 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 Number of incidents 49 56 63 80 63 88 86 58 59 45 53 30 33 Resolved (Budapest: Országos MagyarKirályi Statistikai Hivatal (Royal 347 63 80 62 88 86 58 59 45 53 30 33 49 56 Reported Persons 58 68 47 77 80 53 46 40 39 21 31 26 45 Persons caught, brought in Magyar statisztikai 18 21 18 24 10 15 12 18 23 17 9 9 9 90