Ghana's Troubled Transition to Civilian Government

by Barbara Harrell-Bond

This Report reviews events from January 1, 1979 up to the days just preceding the AFRC :Armed Forces Revolutionary Council) coup n June, an event which reflected the ~xtraordinaryconditions of poverty and :rr stration Ghanaian citizens have long The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS American Staff, Inc., founded in 1951, is a non- profit, membership corporation of University of Alabama American educational institutions. It Brown University employs a full-time staff of foreign Universities Dartmouth College area specialists who write from abroad and make periodic visits to Indiana University Field Staff member institutions. AUFS serves University of Connecticut the public through its seminar pro- University of Kansas grams, films, and wide-ranging pub- Michigan State University lications on significant develop- Ramapo College of New Jersey ments in foreign societies. University of Pittsburgh University of Wisconsin

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THE AUTHOR BARBARA E. HARRELL-BOND is a the Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden. Ap- social anthropologist who has conducted pointed a Senior Research Fellow at the research in England and in West Africa. School of Law, University of Warwick, in Her special interests are family, urban 1976, Dr. Harrell-Bond joined the Field problems, law, and the history of the im- Staff in 1978 to report on West Africa. position of alien law in colonial Africa. She received a B. Litt. and D. Phil. in anthropology from the University of Oxford. Her publications include Modern Marriage in Sierra Leone: A Study of the Professional Group and Community Leadership and the Transformation of Freetown (1801-19761, the latter being co-researched and written with two historians, Dr. Allan Howard and Dr. David Skinner. She has also published widely in academic journals, lectured in a number of universities including the Uni- versity of Illinois (Urbana), the University of Helsinki, and the University of 0 1979, American Universities Field Warsaw, and was a Visiting Scholar at Staff, Hanover, NH 19791No. 48 by Barbara Harrell-Bond Ghana's Troubled Transition to Africa [ BHB-7-'791 Civilian Government

In 1978 Ghanaians made political In January 1979 General Akuffo fear in the hearts of the many West history in West Africa by proving inaugurated a program for a return African leaders who were using their that through sustained opposition to civilian rule. A Constituent public offices to plunder the wealth and extreme sacrifice, civilians are Assembly was formed, charged to of their nations. able to bring down a military Head debate the draft constitution for a On the one hand it seems incredible of State and then force a military transitional government which had that observers of the Ghanaian government to make an about-face been prepared in 1978 and to situation throughout the first five on party politics and civilian rule. present a final version for SMC months of 1979 should not have approval by April. Political parties anticipated the June 4 coup d'Btat. began to form under the rules laid On July 5, 1978, General Fred W.K. On the other hand, this is perhaps down in 1978 and elections were Akuffo took over from the less surprising when one reflects, as promised in June, with handover to discredited General Kutu the Legon Observer put it,that civilian rule finally to come in July Acheampong as head of a " . . .diplomats are not 'informed.' 1979. reconstituted Supreme Military Their contacts with people in the council! Although Ghanaians did Akuffo, who had attended the Royal country are exceedingly limited in not greet this change of leadership Military Academy in Sandhurst from range, and their cocooned existence with any general enthusiasm, 1958 to 1960 and had been Chief of sustained by imported food and General Akuffo appeared to many Defense just before assuming drink, protects them from any observers to be responsive to leadership of the Supreme Military firsthand experience of the kind of enlightened opinion from both Council, was regarded in hardships which the rest of us are within and outside Ghana. The international circles as capable of suffering" (June 13,1979). Perhaps country's economic problems dealing with the problems of nowhere in contemporary Africa has remained extremely serious, but the transition from military to civilian this accusation been more deserved new SMC implemented stabilization rule. His program even included than in the Ghana of 1978-79. Even measures-including a tightening of taking steps to deal with the serious after the June 4 coup, observers fiscal and monetary policies, the problems of corruption. The Popular both inside and outside the country depreciation of the cedi by 58.2 Front Party (PFP),which had taken continued to display a near percent, and price control over the policy and leadership of blindness to the significance for the deregulation-and during the first Busia's Progress Party, was believed average Ghanaian of the five months of 1979 they continued likely to win the elections. Since the "revolution" which was led by their efforts to bring some order into PFP promised to continue the PP Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings Ghana's chaotic economic situation. government's policies of and his Armed Forces Revolutionary Potential outside donors welcomed encouraging foreign investment and Council (AFRC). this evidence of a more rational Western-looking foreign policy, It was variously described in the policy and their renewed confidence many outside observers believed in Ghana was reflected in financial that it was only a matter of time Western press as "essentially a mutiny led by a few junior air force support from the International before Ghana was on a more stable officers and some members of the Monetary Fund and other sources economic and political path. (although Britain, which loanedf20 5th army battalion," a coup for a million to Ghana, denied that its But in June 1979 Akuffo and coup's sake," and as an action with decision was based on the Acheampong, together with six of "no popular support," "ill-timed," changeover of government, their colleagues, died at the hands unfortunate, and unwarranted." insisting that its motives were only of a firing squad and the name J.J. That the sufferings of the majority "humanitarian"). Rawlings began to raise a specter of of the population had passed all levels of tolerance several months This Report will review events from Assembly the public was informed earlier seems to have been missed January I,1979 up to the days just through the press of the passing of by most diplomatic representatives before the AFRC coup in June. It various amendments, the contents in Ghana. As one Ghanaian put it, may be that the lessons of the of which reflected some of the "Westerners are quite content to Ghana experience will have some reasons for the serious and growing look no further so long as whoever relevance in understanding and discontent within the society. There is in power adopts monetary policies predicting events in other West were, for example, provisions aimed which encourage and safeguard African countries. This, certainly, is at curbing the widespread their investments and, especially in the belief of many ordinary Africans, corruption among public officials the case of Ghana, give hope that which may explain official attempts and politicians. Political parties were their profits will eventually be throughout West Africa to discredit prohibited from having as a repatriated." The unfortunate the Rawlings-led "revolution." founding member, leader, or accuracy of such remarks is Transition to Civilian Rule: member of its executive any person illustrated by a document prepared The Constituent Assembly who had been disqualified from in Accra during the desperate first In January 1979 General Akuffo being a member of parliament or half of 1979, in which United States- directed the newly inaugurated from holding any public office Ghanaian economic relations are Constituent Assembly to prepare a through having been found guilty of discussed: constitution that would be strong some corrupt practice by a enough for effective government, commission of inquiry. Political Ghana despite its recent economic but without the authority to trample parties were required to publish their difficulties, continues to be the third on individual liberties. Members of sources of income and accounts annually in the local press. All public largest market for U.S. goods in the Assembly were solemnly officers had to declare their assets sub-Saharan Africa. U. S. sales to reminded by Akuffo that even if the and liabilities and those of their Ghana will probably remain over new constitution contained wives within three months of the $100 million in 7979 and may, in fact, prescriptions for good government, promulgation of the new exceed past figures because of Ghana's political stability would still constitution, at the end of every two better management of Ghana's be threatened by economic chaos. foreign exchange resources and the years, and when their terms of office renewed possibility of external One of the controversial issues terminated. All businesses owned commercial financing2 facing the Constituent Assembly by people assuming public offices was whether Ghana should have an must be handed over to the Public Although this document was executive president with a cabinet Trustee before taking office and written to provide "general drawn from an elected body or a parliament was given the power to guidance" to potential investors, it ceremonial president with a prime widen the categories of "public should surely have contained some minister exercising power. Ghana officers" required to declare their had already experienced both reference to the political assets at any time. systems: an executive presidency implications of an economy in which The Assembly also decided that the essential commodities were almost under Dr. Kwame Nkrumah (President July 1960-February 1966) president's salary and other benefits totally absent and malnutrition should be subject to taxation. among both children and adults was and a ceremonial president under Dr. Kofi Busia (Prime Minister Moreover, the president would not widespread? even in Accra, the October 1969 to January 1972). be retired on full salary; parliament capital. On one occasion in the After debating the pros and cons of would be charged with the midst of an acute water shortage, these systems, in February the responsibility of setting the the American Ambassador had had Constituent Assembly voted by 73 appropriate retirement salary. There to call the police to control the to 43 in favor of an executive were also discussions about crowds who had forced their way presidential system along the lines reforming the tax laws so that into his compound to drink the of the American model. (Thus people in the private sector and the water from the swimming pool. It Ghana, like Nigeria, has turned away self-employed would be taxed was an explosive situation and there from the Westminster model.) equally along with the civil servants is very little reason to doubt what However, the ratio showed the who now carried the main burden of Rawlings reiterated throughout the extent to which there was serious income tax. It was further weeks of the Armed Forces division over this issue and revealed recommended that the tax system Revolutionary Council's rule-that the strength of the old political should be broadened so that the had the AFRC not taken control divisions. The 43 voting against the "instant millionaires" would find when it did and had it not executive presidential system were evasion difficult. administered the type of all former Busia supporters from the "discipline" which it did, there There was discussion about the Progress Party. would have been a total breakdown need to reduce expenditure on the of order and many more lives would During the weeks following the armed forces and recommendations have been lost. opening of the Constituent were made for the establishment of a military training scheme. However, In January there was already some February all contractors threatened an amendment that would have openly expressed cynicism about massive layoffs and work stoppages made it obligatory for the armed the arrangements for the return to on all government projects. They forces to engage in agricultural and civilian rule. The Attorney General pointed out that they were having construction work was rejected. and Commissioner for Justice, G. difficulties in paying their workers, Another amendment of extreme Koranteng-Addow, one of the purchasing materials, and paying importance to the public was that architects of the Unigov idea! was their own creditors because the government had not paid them which barred parliament from ever sacked for his criticisms of the since November 1978. In early establishing a one-party state SMC's plans. Professor K. Folson, February workers from the Ghana without submitting the question to Pro Vice-chancellor of the Cargo Handling Company went on the electorate. The constitution- University of Legon, and a member strike and 150 were sacked for makers were at pains to insure that of the Assembly, said that the contravening the collective the "dictatorial" practices of the process of writing a new bargaining agreement. In May the Nkrumah era never again surfaced. constitution was a waste of government resources since there Tro Tro (the local name for the Press freedom was another was nothing wrong with the privately owned vehicles used for controversial issue. It was decided previous one. He expressed the public transportation) drivers struck that it would no longer be necessary fear-which was widely echoed, in protest against the lack of spare for anyone wishing to establish a particularly in the PFP's political parts and poor-quality tires, the newspaper or any other form of campaign-that the proposed drivers accusing middlemen of mass communication to acquire a constitution would give enormous selling tires at C1,400 instead of license from the Ministry of powers to the president and was at the control price of Q130 Information and that the bound to create, once again, a (Q1.75 = $1.00). constitution would provide explicit "one-man showmanship" in the protections for press freedom. A country. Medical doctors also struck and press commission was to be later began a "work-to-rule" established and an amendment was In March there was a public outcry slowdown to draw attention to the passed giving journalists the right, when two Members of the appalling hospital conditions which under the constitution, to withhold Assembly were found guilty of included an almost total absence of their sources of information, save "indiscretion" in the use of public drugs, bandages, and other where a court held that disclosure funds for their hotel essential medical supplies. In May was in the interests of national accommodation. The two managed nurses, 'too, came out in protest defense or the conduct of foreign to save themselves from dismissal against their Q6 per day salary at a policy. from the Assembly by paying these time when it cost at least C30 to hotel costs and writing letters of purchase food for one meal for a But the most controversial apology which were printed in the family of four. Even the Musicians' amendment, as it later turned out, local papers. Union marched on the SMC was that which indemnified the protesting corruption within the Supreme Military Council, the Industrial Relations recording industry. National Liberation Council, and the Tension was also mounting on the National Redemption Council-the industrial front. In November 1978 Akuffo's Travels three past military governments- Akuffo had imposed a state of In the meantime Akuffo was putting for acts committed in connection emergency after a wave of industrial considerable effort into foreign with the coups of 1966 and 1972. unrest, including a strike by relations. During a @-hour visit to This indemnification was to apply thousands of civil servants in Benin he conferred with President only to those acts committed on the support of their demands for more Mathieu Kerekou and they released two days on which the coups were pay-which resulted in some 2,100 a joint communiqu6 which effected, although the press was being sacked for defying the expressed support for ECOWAS, quick to point out that these government's ultimatum to return to criticized South African white rule, provisions did not preclude work. Although Akuffo lifted the and restated their support for the Ghanaians from taking legal action state of emergency in January 1979 Patriotic Front and for SWAPO. against any member of these and appointed a committee to Akuffo also took the opportunity to military governments for misdeeds inquire into the civil servants' make a special appeal for African committed while in office, if cases grievances, industrial unrest members to adhere to the OAU could be established (Daily Graphic, continued during this period of charter, especially the OAU May 28). Nonetheless, there were transition. There was a 15-day strike resolutions on mercenaries-a clear immediate protests against the fact in January by railway workers who reference to the attempted coup in that the amendment appeared to demanded more pay. One Benin in which mercenaries were rewardthe coupmakers by contractor was beaten by his said to have landed at Cotonou providing pensions, tax exemptions, workers because he had failed to airport from a neighboring African and other benefits. pay them for three months and in state. Akuffo visited lvory Coast in March confidence in his leadership were abandoned factories could not be to enlist that government's not entirely misguided. It is accounted for. Such revelations assistance in curbing the smuggling significant to note, however, that added to the festering rage of the across their shared border, the accompanying public revelation public. especially the smuggling of cocoa. concerning the causes of Ghana's Prospects for joint energy economic ills did more to fuel the It was well-known in Ghana that a exploration were discussed, as were public's rage toward those seen to sizable proportion of the country's plans for creating a direct telephone be responsible than to reassure chief source of foreign exchange, link between the two countries. Ghanaians about the reality of cocoa, was regularly smuggled with Akuffo also visited Liberia to positive changes promised for the the connivance of the Border establish a permanent future. Guards into lvory Coast or Togo Ghana-Liberia commission, where it was sold for higher prices implementing an earlier agreement It was apparent to all Ghanaians that than were paid in Ghana. Smugglers between the two countries. Again, a the country was suffering from a had the added incentive of being joint communique'was issued, foreign exchange crisis. This crisis paid in CFA francs with which they expressing their commitment to had developed, the public was could purchase items that were increased cooperation and the informed, because of the "lack of scarce in Ghana for resale at high promotion of mutual economic any system of priorities over the profits. A more problematical activity. In May Akuffo also spent past several years for the use of question, however, was the two days in Togo in an attempt to foreign exchange." It was learned whereabouts of the foreign reduce the tension existing between that in 1978 the value of im~ort exchange earned from cocoa sales the two countries. The problem of licenses issued was doubleathe through the Cocoa Marketing smuggling cocoa, timber, diamonds, amount of foreign exchange Board. The Archer Committee was and various manufactured items available. Moreover, it was rather charged with investigating the was discussed and, as a result of the lamely explained that the system of board, which was later described by visit, four Ghanaians who had been monitoring the repatriation of one member as a microcosm of the accused of subversive activity foreign exchange earned from national economy, rife with against Togo were released. It is exports had been "weak and corruption and every kind of abuse. also conjectured that it was at this ineffective." And who had been The committee's reports further meeting that agreements were responsible for such angered the public because they reached which, only a few weeks mismanagement? Everyone knew revealed officials' attempts to evade later, led the Ghanaian police to that it was the members of the responsibility. One chief of the cooperate in the kidnapping of two military governments and other Cocoa Marketing Board denied all Togolese, resident in Accra, who officials who headed boards and knowledge of the board's sales were to be tried for treason in Lome. corporations and banks. operation account for the first 18 months of his office. The Managing The visit which was probably to Over the weeks information became Director of CMB told the committee have the greatest significance for more specific. One investigating that it was the Bank of Ghana that Ghana's economy after the June 4 committee revealed that Q10 million should be made to account for the coup was Akuffo's trip to Nigeria, had been lost to Ghana through the earnings from cocoa. One director where he discussed with General illegal granting of credits by the failed to show up to give testimony Obasanjo arrangements to set up a Timber Marketing Board for exports when he was called. Files dealing permanent joint commission to of timber products and that officials with a cocoa-buying company that oversee oil exploration in the two from four government agencies had was partly owned by a South countries. Obasanjo and Akuffo had been involved in transactions which Korean firm mysteriously been classmates at Sandhurst and it utilized fictitious bank documents. "disappeared." It was disclosed that appears that they re-established In one case, a forged permit allowed employees were responsible for their friendship during this visit as one firm to export Q21,000 worth of adulterating cocoa and that the they considered plans for the return timber products and the foreign CMB had provided large amounts of of their respective countries to exchange equivalent was not money to finance the Unigov civilian rule. Later, it was the repatriated. As one former SMC campaign. AFRC's refusal to heed Obasanjo's member and Head of the Border plea to spare Akuffo's life that led Guards noted in his testimony In March, in the hope of easing the Nigeria to cut off Ghana's supply of before this committee, "the sales of inflationary pressures, General oil. timber are fraught with loopholes Akuffo took an extreme step to due to the absence of a ledger reduce the amount of currency in Economic Measures and the book." Another committee circulation. All the borders were Cost of Living investigating the Western Region closed and new cedi notes were Akuffo's stabilization measures Development Corporation found exchanged for old notes at a loss. were, on the whole, sensible and that C352,658 provided by the Persons changing less than C5,000 suggest that those who had government to reactivate were given seven new notes for ten old cedis; those changing more than One can get some idea of the mood businessman "only"f68 per day in that amount received only five new of the Ghanaian public from a report Ghanalife for the average person notes for ten old cedis. Those who entitled, "What the papers are continued to grow more difficult. had their money in bank or savings saying in ~hana"~in which an Nor were there any signs that things accounts did not, however, suffer editorial from the Daily Graphic, would improve. The loans from the such losses; their money was "Time to Deliver" was summarized: IMF and other sources during this changed on a one-to-one basis. period were officially earmarked for During the struggle for independence we were exhorted to importing spare parts, machinery, While the exercise punished and raw materials for industry; but smugglers, tax-dodgers, profiteers seek first the political kingdom and all other things would be added unto factories continued to stand idle or and black-market operators (some produce far below capacity. of whom were on the other side of us. Almost 22 years after that event, not only has nothing been added to Essential commodities, many of the border), it also hurt quite unfairly which could be produced in Ghana, farmers and others who had no the political kingdom, the very existence of that kingdom appears were unavailable and food was in access to banks or who habitually increasingly short supply. Periodic kept their savings at home. questionable to most citizens because of the economic bondage petrol shortages put a further strain From the official point of view, the most people have been thrown into. on the transport system and food distribution. For those who had currency changeover was a success, It is all very well for people in access to black-market currency resulting in a reduction of 740 authority to make speeches about and could travel, Lome was the million cedis in circulation. But there self-reliance, tightening of belts and source of commodities such as were many objections to the manner other such exhortations, nobody soap, cooking oil, powdered milk, in which it had been carried out. has yet told us how a household is tinned meat, sugar, toilet rolls, etc. There was a general outcry that the supposed to exist without Hence, the currency black market plan had not been kept a total secret something as basic as soap. . . was extremely active, f I costing as so that many people were able to Nobody has yet come up with a much as 20 cedis. In Lome there make hasty bank deposits before coherent explanation about why in were no shortages and smuggled the exchange operation began. The the year of Our Lord 1979, we items, produced and manufactured unfairness of allowing these should rely on corn cobs rather than in Ghana, could be found on sale deposits to be changed with no loss toilet rolls. . . How come that the there. was also condemned and the government still maintains a fully government was urged to impose a staffed department of Price Control The press kept the Ghanaian public tax on all bank and savings Unit and yet nobody takes the informed of other irregularities. It accounts. It was noted that there slightest notice about how much we was learned that most of the 5,000 had been many "changeover pay for goods? [On the1 tons of wheat that had arrived in contractors" who charged 10 ''miracu1ous"reappearance of November 1977 as food aid from the percent for their services and who scarce essential commodities at the European Economic Community engaged in other illegal practices. Makola markets at such prices as (EEC) was, 18 months later, rotting Police and soldiers were accused of C2.40 for a tin of milk, C6 for at Tema Harbor and that the wheat having changed money for "big sardines, C20 for Exeter corned that had been allocated and men" and for exercising a beef, small and large-size tins of delivered had been declared unfit for considerable amount of brutality mackerel at C2.50 and C 12 human consumption. How, when during the two-week exercise. On respectively, St. Louis cube sugar at there was a shortage of wheat for the last day of the changeover, C 14,apacket, Pepsodent toothpaste bread in the market, had such a journalists were mobbed by angry at C12per tube, Asepso soap for C8, waste been allowed? The public crowds in Bawku and Kumasi and and a large size packet of Omo learned that the donors had been accused of not having informed the detergent at C 12. instructed through repeated cables public of the Border Guards' and telexes not to send the wheat to The Graphic gravely submitted that brutality and the "dubious actions Tema, where there were no bags or it was time "we started to reap the of bank officials' and security other facilities for dealing with it, but fruits of discipline in public life that personnel against the masses. to Takoradi. Despite these was promised seven months ago; When the Border Guards have been instructions the wheat had arrived in and if once in a while somebody felt shooting, killing and molesting poor bulk at Tema where it had been left like eating one tin of corned beef, it defenseless and innocent people to the ravages of weather and should not cost him half his monthly here in your presence you have rodents. And in April an even pay." ignored the tragedy" (West Africa, hungrier population was informed April 16,1979). There were many Although there was a very slight that 30,000 cartons of fish had arrests in connection with the (and brief) reduction in the cost of spoiled owing to negligence of the currency change and three people living , Business Traveler ( West Tema Food Complex Corporation were reported to have died of Africa, January 15, 1979) could and had, at the order of the Ministry exhaustion while waiting in queues. report that it now cost a traveling of Health, been dumped. In January, as part of the economic selling the tickets, or his brother, becoming much more than a stabilization program, tough import and they get the tickets first and go. symbolic issue for the Ghanaian restrictions were introduced and With money and connections, you public. Over the past six years, as 7,000 small businessmen were can travel, at best, quickly and the economic situation in the excluded from importing goods in comfortably. At worst, you can country had deteriorated and the an attempt to "bring sanity into the simply jump the queue. standard of living had been rapidly country's import trade." Later on, falling, the public had been Otherwise you stand in the sun, however, and despite the extreme subjected to the conspicuous and shuffling occasionally and watching. shortages of imported goods for arrogant consumption practices of They say "Ghanaians are too sale, the public was amazed to learn Acheampong and his colleagues. patient, too docile." People see that the Tema port was congested Everyone knew of Acheampong's what is going on at the kiosk and in with unclaimed imported goods. famous "green pen," his trademark, Importers were asked to clear their the little space behind the kiosk and with which he authorized all kinds of goods immediately or risk a white wall-a few men and large and small financial deals for his confiscation by the government: women come to the back windows friends. It was public knowledge and call for their "friends" inside. At they protested that the recent that he gave huge contracts to economic measures had caused the the front, the queue does not even "girlfriends" and others unsuited to congestion, in particular the new reach the kiosk, a man sits on a table carry them out productively. It was rule requiring importers to declare and collects money, tickets come widely believed that the foreign their sources of foreign exchange as from his voluminous pocket. There exchange earnings from cocoa part of the clearing process. Since are middlemen at the front too, the which had "gone missing" had been official sources of foreign exchange ticket contractors. transferred to the foreign bank to make purchases abroad had been . . . But then the woman who has accounts of his and various other all but closed to most businessmen joined in the grumbling against all military officers. It was said that at and traders, a number of illegal the kalabule sees a friend who one point he had created a crisis in methods had been used to pay for comes and tells her he got his ticket Accra's banking circles by having so imports: foreign exchange was by paying fifteen cedis to someone, many banknotes printed that the purchased on the black market; and she goes off to do the same. capital's vaults ran out of storage space. One rumor in Accra alleged locally produced goods were . . . In discussing the relation that when Acheampong had smuggled to neighboring countries between the oppression of waiting negotiated for a loan in Europe, he where they could be sold for foreign and a system of oppression, it is had been told that he should use his exchange; "under-invoicing" relevant to consider the kind of "own" money since he had more in exports and "over-invoicing" exploitation and profiteering that his Swiss bank account than the imports which passed through goes on in a queue for transport amount he was wanting to borrow official bank channels were also again as a microcosmic example of a for Ghana. While the average common practices. The fact that all phenomenon of national person could scarcely find food for these sources of foreign exchange proportions. This is where the ticket required the complicity of officials one meal a day, huge mansions collector, like the civil servant or were being built in the most was not lost on the Ghanaian public. politician, can exploit his position for expensive sections of Accra. (The personal gain at the expense of the Official pronouncements on price piece of land lying between the public. controls were of little help to the airport and Legon University, where consumer in a seller's market. These days taxi-owners are there are many such houses, is Periodic attempts to enforce price demanding anything up to (2200 a sarcastically referred to as the controls simply caused commodities day from their drivers. A lot of the "army barracks.") to disappear completely. Those who drivers complain, and mention the could afford to pay joined the On July 5, 1978, the fateful day kalabule price of spare parts as well when he fell from power, prevalent "kalabule" system6 As as what they have to give to the one Ghanaian described the Acheampong-who was described police [in bribes]. Others point out as suffering from shock-was problems of traveling during this that the car-owners have to pay period, driven to the luxurious lodge built by enormous amounts to import their Nkrumah high above the Volta Dam It is quite simple: if you cannotpay cars from the ports. In any case, at Akosombo. Later he was moved [in this case1 at least C15for your added costs get passed down until to a rest house at Amedzofe, a C I I ticket from Kumasi then you they reach the person in the street, beautiful mountain village near Ho, must stand in the queue and watch who has no one to pass them to in the Volta Region. He was the kalabule going on. A bus comes (West Africa, April 2, 1979). described by Akuffo as "a free into the petrol station, fils up very The Problem of Acheampong man." At the outset of his career as slowly, and goes. The queue and the Military Head of State, General Akuffo had scarcely moves. Some people pay a What was going to be done about declared that "our primary function bit more, or they know the man General Acheampong? This was as a government is to heal the wounds of this country." In January Achearnpong to be subjected to any stance he maintained in a press 1979 he granted an amnesty for all inquiry, because his testimony conference just before his political refugees and ordered the would incriminate Akuffo and most execution.) While some Ghanaians release of all those who had been of the other senior officers as well. comforted themselves that there convicted of subversive activity by Evidence of Acheampong's would be nothing to prevent the military tribunals during economic crimes mounted. One new civilian government from later Acheampong's regime. (This was committee found that he, together bringing Acheampong to trial, the third such "amnesty" with the former Commissioner for others pointed out that he could announced since July 1978 when he Finance, Dr. A.K. Appiah, had take advantage of the moment and had taken office. There is evidence, negotiated a one-billion-dollar loan flee the country. After all, it was however, that in July 1979, there from a mysterious source in France assumed that he had sufficient were still many persons in detention in a manner "prejudicial to the funds stowed away in foreign who had opposed Acheampong's interests of the state." Another accounts to support himself for life. Unigov campaign.) "loan" agreement with the Phoenix Others went so far as to suggest that this might be exactly what the Demands from the public and from Finance International of Jersey present Supreme Military Council within the junior ranks of the army Island was investigated and it was had intended-that Acheampong for an investigation into found that although Ghana had leave the country immediately so as Acheampong's affairs during his six transferred 800,000 Swiss francs to to obviate any incriminating years in office were steadfastly this company as an insurance fee, ignored. Complaints from young no money had been received from revelations in the near future. officers that the public's respect for Phoenix. The committee found that Undoubtedly, the likelihood that the army had plummeted "improper pressure" had been put Acheampong, with the probable dangerously and that the army's on Dr. Appiah by General complicity of his colleagues, would tarnished image could only be Acheampong. slip out of Ghana at the first rescued through such an opportunity was a factor in In May the pressures became precipitating the attempted coup on investigation were topics of press irresistible and the SMC finally May 15. debate within a month of issued a decree stripping Acheampong's overthrow. Indeed, Acheampong of his military titles, The Political Campaign there is evidence that even at this his property, and his pension, and There were other reasons for the time there was a threat of a violent prohibiting him from entering any growing discontent. Elections were coup led by the lower ranks. Yet, in military bases on a penalty of five scheduled for June 18 and although February 1979,when Akuffo was in years imprisonment. He was the ban on party politics had been Liberia, he could respond to banished to his home village. The lifted on January I, 1979,the questions about Acheampong's decree charged him with process of organizing parties and future with comments on the former committing various acts of conducting campaigns was fraught leader's "need for a rest." Earlier the economic and administrative with difficulties. The first blow to assets of five of Acheampong's misconduct against the state and political activity was a former aides had been "unfrozen" the people of Ghana: he was disqualification decree that banned and, as was noted, the Constituent accused of interfering personally in 105 politicians from holding public Assembly had indemnified the the economic and financial office because various commissions coupmakers and made provisions management of the nation, thus of inquiry had found them guilty of for their retirement pensions. creating grave distortions in defrauding the state or abusing their properly planned programs, issuing office. The list included some very In March 1979 the Ghana Bar highly placed individuals, including Association asked for an import licenses and contracts to friends, printing too many cedis, and one of the SMC's own appointees investigation of all armed forces to the Constituent Assembly. One personnel and public servants taking dubious foreign loans to the detriment of the state. commentator (West Africa, January during the past six years of military 8, 1979)argued that this action by rule. There were also demands that It is hardly surprising that this action the SMC was most unfortunate, all loans made from the state coffers by Akuffo concerning Acheampong since Ghana needed the leadership during Acheampong's time in office produced only further public anger. represented by men included in this should be published. Akuffo's How could a man charged with such list. The feelings of the Ghanaian complacency in the face of such serious crimes against the state not public, however, were more widespread discontent and his be brought to trial? If he was guilty, accurately reflected in a letter in apparent refusal to do anything then "village arrest" was hardly an response to this editorial: about these demands (which came adequate punishment. If he was not from within the military as well as guilty, then he should be allowed to It is pretty sad to note that some from the civilian population) led to stand trial in order to clear his name. critics of Ghana who charge the the obvious conclusion that the (Acheampong himself asked for an people in high places with bribery SMC could not afford to allow inquiry, denying all charges-a and corruption and nepotism are the same people who use democracy as remains largely invisible, while the candidates received equal votes a cloak to cover offenders in our General Acheampong remains the in the second election, parliament society. Democracy should not be a skeleton in the military closet, and again by secret ballot and without ladder upon which certain natives more than ten commissions of debate, would decide which should dupe the country to enrich enquiry tediously investigate the candidate should be president. themselves. .. I disagree with you affairs of state agencies and that those banned are individuals, turning up sorry As far as the Ghanaian public was indispensable. Ghana can do away scapegoats and small fry, the concerned, the front-running parties with these cads whose ignominious hallowed "return to constitutional (the PFP and the PNP) were simply behaviour has plunged it into an ru1e"is very much under way. As the old Progressive Party and the abysmal status both politically and the different parties deploy their Convention People's Party with new economically ( West Africa, loudspeaker vans and other names. The United National February 5, 1979). weapons of the electoral arsenal, we Convention (UNC)was the result of That over the weeks following must bear in mind that a split from the PFP. The Action certain persons included in the list "democrac y "is capital-intensive Congress Party was led by Colonel were "selectively" allowed to appeal (WestAfrica, March 12, 1979). Frank Bernasko and although he was described as having a "clean the judgments and that a number of It was alleged that the PFP received these were "cleared" did little to image," his chances were limited by money from South Africa through the fact that he had been a encourage public confidence in the contacts in the lvory Coast and that impartiality of the legal process. Commissioner for Agriculture under it had paid &7 million for the building Acheampong. Both the PFP and the The SMC imposed other restrictions used for the party headquarters. PNP suffered from leadership that were bound to hamper According to other rumors, most of problems and internal conflicts. The "conventional" campaigning. One the PFP's funds came from the two leading candidates for the PFP, decree prohibited parties from Lebanese business community and Victor Owusu and J.H. Mensah, had importing cars and other equipment some directly from President been disqualified by the SMC for their campaigns. Later on, Houphouet-Boigny, who had been decree and their appeals were however, this decree was reversed an admirer of Busia (Houphouet- pending. Both men were ultimately and the importation of a limited Boigny had sent foodstuffs from cleared and Victor Owusu became number of vehicles (100) was lvory Coast to Ghana at the time of the PFP's candidate for president, permitted, to be paid for by the Busia's funeral.) Certainly, the but Mensah was taken to court a parties. Raising campaign funds was parties showed evidence of having second time and was not cleared, so another matter in which the SCR funds, although political activities that he was unable even to stand as interfered: individual contributions were visibly affected by losses a member of parliament. Mr. lmoru were limited to &1,000 and incurred at the currency Egala hoped to be the PNP donations from aliens were changeover. In fact, it was candidate, but he too had been forbidden. Nevertheless, as one suspected that the very timing of disqualified and was not cleared. journalist put it, the changeover by the SMC was a Very late in the campaign, the PNP deliberate attempt to curb the put up Dr. Hilla Limann as its financial excesses of the campaign. . . .politics and money remain presidential candidate. indissolubly linked. In the present Before the end of January, 16 set-up you must be wealthy or have parties had been formed and more While outside observers like to see access to capital before you can were to come. The Constituent ideological differences in the effectively claim to represent the Assembly anticipated that voting parties-the PFP leaning to the right best interests of the nation. Two would be highly fragmented and and the PNP to the left-in fact, as major formations in Ghana, the they provided for this in an far as Ghanaians were concerned, People's National Party [PNPI and amendment to the Presidential neither party represented any clear the Popular Front Party [PFPI, will Election Decree. The president was ideological stance. As for the PFP have spent millions of cedis [and to be elected with 50 percent or program, one supporter summarized hundreds of thousands in other more of the votes. If no candidate it this way: "Look at the stores, currencies1 by the time the June obtained at least half the vote, a there are no goods in them. We will elections come around. It was a nice second election was to be held make the goods flow!" (West idea to decree that no Ghanaian within 21 days. If three or more Africa, March 12, 1979). As for the could contribute more than C 1,000 candidates obtained the highest PNP, which appealed to the to a party. But money moves in, out number of votes in the first election, memory of Kwame Nkrumah for and about in Ghana in mysterious and there were no withdrawals, support, there was a certain ways. And nowhere is the power of parliament, through a secret ballot confusion concerning policy, as money in action more blatant than and with no prior debate, was to illustrated by an interview with in a place like Ghana. So while the elect two such persons to be the lmoru Egala, recorded by the BBC powerful Lebanese community candidates in the second election. If Network Africa: Q. What about other aspects of his Party Candidates and Their Running in Ghana today, more people are [Nkrumahl policies? Do you still having to struggle to survive than Mates consider yourselves as a socialist ever before. The economic situation Mr. William Ofori Atta and Alhaji party? Where do you stand on is the dominant fact of life, and Mahama lddrisu (United National public ownership and things like Convention) party politics has yet to become the that? issue of the day. Life is Dr. John Bilson and Mr. John unquestionably hard for most A. Well, before Kwame Nkrumah Kportege Kportugbe (Third Force) Ghanaians, and a people that was overthrown, he had this.. .er.. . became cynical about politicians what do you call it, state ownership Dr. Hilla Limann and Dr. J.W.S. de and soldiers several years ago has, and private.. .mixed economy. I Graft Johnson (People's National think I still stand by that. Er, we've Party) at present, little time for civilian "redeemers. " come, our background, Ghana is Mr. Kwasi Amoako Atta and Mr. socialist, there's no doubt about Ernest Obed Andoh (People's The political parties were attempting that. What we lack is capital to work Vanguard) to conduct their campaigns in a with. And we've tried it by trying conventional manner in a social state-owned enterprises. Even up to Col. Frank Bernasko and Mr. Attoh situation that was anything but the moment, with change of Okine (Action Congress Party) conventional. The various governments, we find the mess Mr. Victor Owusu and Alhaji commissions of inquiry were daily even the Army are in with Yakubu Tali Tolon-Na (Popular increasing the public's awareness of state-owned enterprises. We now Front Party) the extent to which those in believe that we need good qualified authority had been enriching people.. . train them and then they Alhaji lbrahim Mahama and themselves illegally and at the can run the business properly. We Professor Mawuse Drake (Social expense of the society. The still believe, what the party believes Democratic Front) disqualification decree had caught is no any -isms or anything. Our Independents and Their Running leaders from nearly every party and people are hungry.. .they want had thrown their organizations into Mates food, they want clothing, they want disarray. The general economic Mr. R.P. Baffour and Nana Debrah shelter. If they can get those things situation, together with the Apreku I (the only woman then other -isms can come restrictions placed upon them by the candidate) afterwards. We don't want to stress SMC, made it difficult for the parties on these things now. Mr. lmoru Ayarna and Mr. Kofi Kissi to use money in their campaigns in Q. You're not hostile then, in Debray the "conventional" manner to win principle, to private capital and Mr. Kwame Nyante and Mr. Baiden support. The issues of Acheampong private investment? Amissah and the probing of the military were not being faced directly, and the A. No, no, no, not at all. I think.. . Mr. Mark Diamond Nii Addy and Mr refusal to do so seemed to underline er.. .it's a good thing, it's a good R.A. Quansah the futility of the campaigns being thing once it's under control. You Source: West Africa, May 7, 1979. conducted. No one knew the extent see, some of our people call of the economic crisis "and some Ghanaians capitalists.. . l don't see scramble for access to quick people add that the mechanism for any capitalists in Ghana. They are all money" (WestAfrica, March 17, collecting economic and statistical living on overdrafts. You see, that's 1979). There was relatively little date has broken down completely." the essence of the thing. There are interest, the same commentator "Ordinary people do not need no capitalists. We are all averred, in what the politicians had statistics to know their hunger and background socialists.. .all the to say about their programs for the tiredness," declared a writer for parties (WestAfrica, April 30, 1979). direction of civilian rule: West Africa (March 12,1979). *X*X* On the left as on the right, the The daily struggle to live decently At the final count before the problem is that of leadership, seen in has become a fact of overriding elections there were 11 presidential many people's eyes as importance in Ghana today. Party candidates: 7 were from political "sikadicious, " discredited, politics has to compete with parties that had survived SMC opportunist, and with nothing to unemployment, electricity disqualifications and mergers; 4 offer but promises. One person said: blackouts, water shortages, long were running as independents. "You can think of somebody to vote queues for transport, and a steadily Outside observers interested in the for, then you see that he is together rising cost of living. Ghana's direction of Ghanaian politics were with some very dubious people." A problems are obviously too serious concerned with the various party lecturer in Kumasi said what the for party politics to be considered as platforms in the campaign but in country needs is 20 honest men at any thing more than a formal Ghana "Most people see the the top. Others wonder if that many improvement on military scramble for political power as a could be found.. . . The point is that dictatorship. There is evidence that even in April Among the other issues taken up by oppression and political Ghanaian politicians realized that the students during this period of enslavement of the country. The public discontent had reached an transition was the outcry against the statement recalled that throughout explosive level. At a meeting with indemnification of the military. They the colonial period with very few the SMC all but three of the pointed to the fact that many of exceptions, the police were usually registered political parties asked Ghana's politicians seemed just as armed with truncheons and in the General Akuffo to postpone the anxious as the military to let the face of extreme provocation had date of handing over of power to guilty slip quietly from the scene used tear gas to disperse boisterous civilian rule from July I,1979 to without facing the charges against rioters. It was a great shame that January 1, 1980! Not surprisingly, them. after 22 years of independence from the Supreme Military Council colonial rule that the government of declined the invitation to continue The last straw for the restive Ghana should see fit to arm the ruling the country any longer than population was the senseless and police on ordinary duties with live fatal shooting of one student and they had already promised. ammunition which they readily used the wounding of two others by without the least provocation on armed police in the middle of Accra The Attempted Coup in May defenseless students. The during the first week of May. statement condemned these Governments (as well as interested Student volunteers had been observers) are usually more brutalities, particularly this last clearing the railway station of the shooting incident, and said that preoccupied with identifying the filth that had collected as a result of acts of brutality was evidence of sources of protest and revolution, the total breakdown of services. cowardice, irresponsibility and with an eye to suppressing them, While waiting for transport to return than in examining their causes. The wanton disregard for human life to the campus, they were singing (WestAfrica, May 21, 1979). role of students in the political and drumming. One policeman developments in Ghana over recent objected to their "noise" and some The situation had gone too far, years (as in many other politically provocative remarks were made by however, for the public to be troubled countries) has been one of the students, who had long since satisfied when the SMC set up yet increasing importance. While it is lost respect for police authority. The another commission of inquiry to true that they welcomed policemen returned a few minutes look into the confrontation between Acheampong's takeover of the later with armed riot police. It was the students and the ~olice.The Busia government, they were also alleged that the shots were fired in a scene was indeed ripe for civil among the first to condemn his scuffle over a gun, but there is unrest; later, the AFRC was to excesses. In Ghana, students are evidence that the shots that justify its actions on the grounds given credit by most everyone for wounded and killed came from that unless it had acted, there would sustaining the opposition to the idea another direction. Angry protests to have been widespread riots and of Unigov. Although the the SMC came from nearly every destruction of property. professionals and others joined in organized body in the country. A It was on May 15 that the name of and supported the demands for the summary of a statement delivered Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings retirement of the military rulers, it by the Ghana Bar Association to the was first heard over the international was largely the students' consistent SMC illustrates the general sense of news as the leader of an attempted stand which resulted in outrage and the public's support for coup. Between 50 and 60 airmen Acheampong's downfall and the the students: had moved with armored personnel SMC's decisions to give up their carriers and small arms to attack 3 idea of "National Government" and The Ghana Bar Association has targets in Accra. Forty hostages, to return to civilian rule. The called on the SMC to stop with including the British Military sacrifices that the students made in immediate effect the issue of live Attach6, were held for a short while the process were not insignificant. ammunition to the police and before the group was overpowered. On several occasions during the military personnel assigned to duties One air force officer was killed in the past three years, the university has among the public.. . [noting that1 attempt and another officer and a been closed by order of the military recent Ghanaian history was replete number of airmen were arrested. as well as in protest by the students with police brutality against The hostages later reported that the and these breaks have interfered defenseless students of secondary aim of the coup was to take over the with normal study, examinations, school and the three universities, government for two more years to and graduation. Students have been and that the impression could hardly prove that Ghana's army was beaten by the police and the be resisted that the police had set capable of governing. They also said their faces against the enlightened military, and some have even died. that the "rebels" aimed to expel all and articulate sections of the public. That they continued to voice the Lebanese from Ghana. growing public condemnation of the The record of students in recent organs of government served to times was one of unparalleled Life in Accra was reported to have increase the tensions between patriotism, singular courage and returned shortly to "normal." This themselves and the police. selflessness in their stand against so-called normality included more angry demands for those who had As for the attempted coup, Major members of the armed forces, worked closely with Acheampong General N. Odartey Wellington, saying that under no circumstances to be brought to triaL7 One such Army Commander, made a should a situation be created where demand came from a member of the statement denying that abortive members of the forces would have PFP who listed the names of those uprising in the air force was an to fight one another? who should be charged under the indication of any conflict between Major-General Wellington was to be Subversion Decree for economic the air force and the rest of the one of those who died on June 3 and political crimes committed armed forces, or between other when the solidarity for which he against the people of Ghana. The ranks and the senior officers. He appealed developed among those Attorney General and Commissioner was reported as saying that it was who shared the objectives of those for Justice reassured the public that "purely an insurrection by a few he labeled as "misguided." it was still open to the present or misguided individuals." He was future governments to prosecute speaking at a ceremony in which Mr. I.K.Acheampong, but declined officers and men were being to say whether the SMC was honored for their gallantry in prepared to do so. The topic was on quelling the uprising and he called the front pages of every newspaper. for peace and solidarity among the (November 1979)

NOTES

1. For a brief review of Ghanaian submitted a report proposing "union the repeated failures of this department politics, 1969-1978, see Barbara Harrell- government" consisting of a president in Accra, which has been the scene of Bond, "Politics in Ghana, 1978," AUFS having executive powers, a so many large fires this past year, is Reports, No. 49, 1978. vice-president, and a unicameral more complicated and will be examined legislature elected by universal adult in more detail in a later report on 2. "Foreign Economic Trends and their suffrage. For reaction to the idea of corruption. It is sufficient here to say Implications for the United States," July union government, see my 1978 AUFS that one multinational, Chubb, supplied 1977, United States Department of Report, "Politics in Ghana, 1978," No. Ghana with two orders of used fire Commerce. 49, 1978. engines which were of 1939 vintage. On 3. One study found that 18 out of 24 arrival they were found to be 5. West Africa, February 26,1979. children examined in one rural area were nonfunctional-wheels, lights, and suffering from malnutrition. Ewusi, K. 6. The word "kalabule" was invented other essential parts were missing. In Planning for the Neglected Rural Poor in by Joyce Addo, who wrote a TV drama 1979, Accra had only one functioning Ghana, UNIRSD, January 1978. about bribery and corruption in appliance. Ghanaian society. 4. When General Acheampong began 8. ". . .This denial by the Army in October 1976 to speak openly of a 7. "Normal" during this week also Commander seems to be a direct return to civilian rule, the Supreme included another large fire. This time the response to the suggestion that the Military Council established a United Africa Company's warehouse uprising may have been inspired by the 14-member ad hoc committee to burned down and firemen were blamed dissatisfaction with the way in which the consider what kind of civilian for failing once again to work efficiently. SMC has handled the case of former government would best suit Ghana's One Ghanaian accused the Fire Head of State Mr. I.K. Acheampong" social conditions. After 27 public Department of not showing the ( West Africa, May 28, 1979). meetings in 9 regions of Ghana, it necessary "maturity." The truth behind