Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Ghana Richard Asante & E.Gyimah-Boadi 2004 Part of UNRISD Project on Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector. All unauthorized citation, duplication or distribution prohibited without the approval of UNRISD and the authors. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................Error! Bookmark not defined. Introduction and argument...............................Error! Bookmark not defined. PART ONE .......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Introduction .................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Ghana’s Ethnic Cleavage and Structure ..........Error! Bookmark not defined. Socio-Economic Inequalities in Ghana ............Error! Bookmark not defined. The Politics of Ethnicity and Political Developments in GhanaError! Bookmark not defined. Political Parties in Ghana ...............................Error! Bookmark not defined. Representation and Ethno-Regional Composition of Parliament in Ghana Error! Bookmark not defined. Representation and Ethno-Regional Composition of Government in Ghana ...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Public Service ...............................................Error! Bookmark not defined. PART TWO ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Institutional Reforms ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Electoral rules for the management of cleavages and inequalities in the Public Sector ..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. Presidential Versus Parliamentary Systems of Government ...Error! Bookmark not defined. Decentralization..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.4 Affirmative Action .........................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 2 Summary and conclusion ............................Error! Bookmark not defined.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 3 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADA - Avoidance of Discrimination Act AFRC - Armed Forces Revolutionary Council AYO - Anglo Youth Association CDD - Center for Democratic Development CDR - Committees for the Defense of the Revolution CDS - Chief of Defense Staff CEPS - Customs Excise and Preventive Service CPP - Convention People’s Party CSPIP - Civil Service Performance Improvement Programme CSRP - Civil Service Reform Programme CYO - Committee of Youth Organizations DA - District Assembly DACF - District Assembly Common Fund DPP - Democratic People’s Party DCE - District Chief Executive DCEP - District Capitals Electrification Project EC - Electoral Commission EGLE - Every Ghanaian Living Everywhere ERP - Economic Recovery Programme FCUBE - Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education GA - Great Alliance GAF - Ghana Armed Forces A GPRSP - Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper GSS - Ghana Statistical Service HIPC - Highly Indebted Poor Country ICWU - Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union IMF - International Monetary Fund IPAC - Inter Party Advisory Council JSS - Junior Secondary School LI - Legislative Instrument MP - Member of Parliament MAP - Muslim Association Party NAL - National Alliance of liberals NCP - National Convention Party NCBWA - National Congress of British West Africa NCWD - National Council on Women and Development NDC - National Democratic Congress NIP - National Independence Party NLC - National Liberation Council NLM - National Liberation Movement NPP - New Patriotic Party OHCS - Office of the Head of Civil Service PA - Progressive Alliance PAMSCAD - Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Cost of Adjustment PCP - People’s Convention Party B PDC - People’s Defence Committee PFP - Popular Front Party PIP - Public Investment Programme PHP - People’s Heritage Party PM - Presiding Member PNC - People’s National Convention PNDC - Provisional National Defense Council PNP - Peoples National Party PP - Progress Party RCC - Regional Coordinating Councils RESEC - Regional Security Council SAP - Structural Adjustment Programme SHEP - Self-Help Electrification Project SSNIT - Social Security and National Insurance Trust SSS - Senior Secondary School TC - Togoland Congress TOR - Tema Oil Refinery UGCC - United Gold Coast Convention UNDP - United Nations Development Programme. UP - United Party VORADEP - Volta Regional Development Corporation WDC - Workers’ Defence Committee WEREMUD - Western Regional Movement for Unity and Development C D ETHNIC STRUCTURE, INEQUALITY AND THE GOVERNANCE OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR IN GHANA E. Gyimah-Boadi (Executive Director, Ghana Center for Democratic Development, CDD-Ghana ; Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Ghana, Legon) and Richard Asante (Fellow, Institute of African Affairs, University of Ghana, Legon) Introduction and argument Ghana, like most countries in Africa is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi- cultural society. Its current population, which is estimated at about twenty million, is a vast mosaic of large and small ethnic groups. The major groups are the Akan, the Mole Dagbani, the Ewe, the Ga Adangbe, the Guan, the Gurma, the Grusi and the Mande-Busanga (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). Despite its rich ethnic diversity, easy geographical and social mobility have scattered people from various ethnic groups throughout the country without destroying or weakening their ethnic bonds. Ethnic rivalries during the colonial era and the effect of colonialism on different groups and regions of the country, coupled with the uneven distribution of social and economic amenities in both the colonial and post independence Ghana have all contributed to the inequalities and to some extent some of the present day ethnic tensions within and among the various ethnic groups and the country in general.1 Even though no part of Ghana is ethnically homogeneous, an overriding feature of the county’s ethnic polarization is the north–south divide and the dominance of the southern half of Ghana in general, and in particular by the Akan group. This segment of Ghanaian society has enjoyed relative economic and political dominance in both the colonial and post-colonial times. In addition, there has been a divide in Ghanaian politics between the populist and the elite strands in society and between the rural and urban populations. The north–south flow of migration is emblematic of the ethno-regional inequalities that have developed in Ghana since colonial times when infrastructural development and productive projects had been concentrated in the south and left the north relatively underdeveloped. It is therefore not surprising that post-independent regimes concerned about the cleavage of the inequality problems in Ghana have adopted various policies and programmes to level the field of opportunities and to address the imbalance in both the economic and political fields (Ghana Human Development Report 1997). The policies range from the distribution of government-controlled resources, staffing of the public bureaucracy, key appointive positions in government and [1] See <www.ghanaweb.com/Ghana Home Page/history/pre-colonial.php> (accessed on 17 September 2003). 2 the public sector, distribution of symbolic goods, coupled with the centralization of political power (Gyimah-Boadi and Daddieh, 1999; Gyimah-Boadi, 2003). Some of the programmes were captured in broad national policies and programmes such as the Seven and Five Year Development Programmes of the Kwame Nkrumah regime,2 the One Year Development Plan of the Kofi Abrefa Busia administration,3 Ghana Vision 2020 and currently the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (GPRSP).4 Specific programmes included rural development, decentralization and affirmative action. The problem of inequality has also been partially addressed through representation and the symbolism of appointments of individuals from a variety of ethno-regional and religious backgrounds to prominent positions in the government, the public and quasi state services. It appears that institutional structures as well as distribution of symbolic and bureaucratic resources that foster inclusion and participation have helped to check ethnic polarization in Ghanaian society. [2] Kwame Nkrumah was the leader of the Convention People’s Party and the first President of Ghana. On assumption of office he drew up two development programmes. First was the Seven-year Development Plan of 1963. The program was aimed at restructuring the Ghanaian economy as well as tackling some of the major inequalities in Ghanaian society. [3] Kofi Abrefa Busia was the leader of the Progress Party and Prime Minister of Ghana from 1969-72. The Busia led Progress Party had a one-year Development Plan July 1970 - June 1971. Similarly to Nkrumah’s development programmes, provision was made for the supply of portable drinking water, health, sanitary facilities etc to the rural areas, and deprived communities. [4] The Ghana Vision 2020 document was put together by the Jerry Rawlings led National Democratic Congress government that ruled Ghana from 1992-2000. The document is a blue- print for the country’s human and socio-economic development. It highlights the need to bridge the country’s inequality problems. The Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper document was put together by the John Kufuor led New Patriotic Party government. The Kufuor government opted for the Highly Indebted