CONSTRUCTING A SPATIAL IMAGINARY: THE FORMATION AND RE- PRESENTATION OF MONTE CARLO AS A VACATION-LEISURE PARADISE, 1854-1950 BY © 2016 ROBERT W. MILLER Submitted to the graduate degree program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson Christopher Forth ________________________________ Nathan Wood ________________________________ Anton Rosenthal ________________________________ Andrew S. Denning ________________________________ Barney Warf Date Defended: April 29, 2016 ii The Dissertation Committee for ROBERT W. MILLER certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: CONSTRUCTING A SPATIAL IMAGINARY: THE FORMATION AND RE- PRESENTATION OF MONTE CARLO AS A VACATION-LEISURE PARADISE, 1854-1950 ________________________________ Chairperson Christopher Forth Date approved: April 29, 2016 iii Abstract In 1854, Monaco faced an uncertain future. The principality subsisted on a struggling agro- economy, encountered serious challenges to maintaining its sovereignty, and contained a disgruntled populace overburdened with taxes and state monopolies. European contemporaries perceived the small state as a premodern, peripheral backwater and as a minor stop on the Grand Tour. Within a few short decades, perceptions of Monaco and its newly-founded city, Monte Carlo, changed so radically that the place became the premier vacation-leisure destination for European and American elites and a byword for luxury, pleasure, and cosmopolitanism. Monte Carlo maintained its reputation as a vacation-leisure paradise and as a playground for the wealthy and sophisticated for 150 years. This dissertation examines how, despite seemingly insurmountable disadvantages, Monaco established and maintained a thriving tourist economy from its early unsuccessful attempts to found a tourism industry in 1854 until its irrefutable operation as a site of mass tourism by 1950. It contextualizes how construction of a spatial imaginary, built through a consistent projection of the city’s image, meticulously-crafted through representational space, and mediated, re-mediated, and disseminated by visitors’ accounts, became crucial to Monte Carlo’s lasting success as a remunerative resort-tourism destination. Contrary to previous histories of Monte Carlo’s tourism economy that have emphasized the roles of the state’s liberal gaming laws and the construction of the railroad for its success, this study contends that the construction of the city’s spatial imaginary was the key factor. This dissertation further examines how Monte Carlo’s casino resort functioned as a forum of class anxieties and social distinction as middle-class vacationers began to encroach on the once- exclusive leisure practices of the social elite. An emphasis on spectacle and Monte Carlo’s iv spatial imaginary allowed casino promoters to navigate the tenuous balance between marketing the resort as an exclusive space and simultaneously operating as a destination of mass tourism. Monte Carlo’s story of success stands as an example of how a consistent spatial imaginary can serve as an economic boon, particularly for tourism-based economies. This is a lesson that cities such as Orlando, Las Vegas, and Macau have learned well as they have capitalized on Monte Carlo’s image, followed the city’s model of remunerative resort tourism, and have developed their own spatial imaginaries to the benefit of their tourism industries. v Dedication To Robert H. Miller, Diane Mitchell, and Jaclyn J. S. Miller for walking down this long road with me. vi Acknowledgments At its core, history is about people and their stories. A historian’s job is to dig deep into records and archives, to peel back layers of obscurity, and present as accurate an account as possible. The reality is nearly always more complex than we realize and the agents of change more numerous than we can identify. So often, people crucial to a story do not get the credit that they deserve. Such is the case with this dissertation. This project would not have been possible without the incredible contributions of my family, friends, colleagues, and educators, who have encouraged me, challenged me, shaped my scholarly interests, and devoted so much of their time and energy on my behalf. Any attempt to accurately record their influence on me and their generous support would be inadequate, but I will do my best to show my thanks. They deserve it; the credit is theirs. I owe a great deal of my desire to pursue a life in academia and my passion for teaching to my own early educators. Growing up in rural Appalachia, an area better known for poverty and poor education than for exceptional teachers, my path in life could have been remarkably different if not for these passionate people. I was blessed to be surrounded by intelligent and dedicated teachers who pushed me to be the best version of myself. Rhonda Watson and Joyce Phillips inspired in me a love of learning. Gwen Pendergraft and Pam Bishop taught me to appreciate a good story and to tell one well. Tim McCarty instilled me with a strong work ethic, motivated me to persevere through challenging circumstances, and eventually convinced me that it was possible to write a five-page paper complete with citations and a bibliography. Lt. Col. Rick McClure showed me that there was more to the world than my own little corner of it, demonstrated the values of studying other cultures and other times, and sparked my interest in this project by organizing a trip to the French Riviera and Monaco. vii I must extend my gratitude to my college professors who have done so much to shape me as a scholar. My instructors at Eastern Kentucky University went well beyond their classroom duties to provide me with personal attention and to prepare me for my graduate studies. I am particularly indebted in this regard to David Coleman, Robert Weise, Brad Wood, John Lowry, Dana Patton, and Sara Zeigler. I owe special thanks to Karen Miller, Gregory Gunderson, and the late Robert Topmiller, who set an example of how an educator can not only inspire students in the classroom, but also teach their students to make the world a better place. My graduate career at the University of Kansas has been extraordinary and I have benefited greatly from the personal instruction and care from the history department faculty. I would like to thank each of my professors, but particularly Leslie Tuttle and Robert Pergher who supervised this project from its earliest stages. This dissertation would not have gotten past the developmental stages without their tutelage. I offer my most sincere and deepest appreciation to members of my dissertation committee, who have guided my research, supervised my teaching, challenged me in the classroom, and worked tirelessly to further my professional development. Anton Rosenthal sparked my interest in visual culture, cultivated my interest in tourism history, and showed me how to analyze less traditional sources and incorporate them in the classroom. Nathan Wood has fundamentally shaped my teaching philosophy and has devoted a great deal of time to my development as a historian. Barney Warf influenced my interest in the spatial dimensions of historical study and guided my exploration of geographical theory. Andrew Denning provided an experienced eye to my analysis of vacation-leisure, sports, and tourism and has spent a great deal of his time working toward my professional development. No person has done more on my behalf or is more deserving of my thanks than Christopher Forth. He has gone far beyond what viii should be expected of an advisor and mentor, has remained as dedicated to this project as I have, and has spent unfathomable hours working on my behalf. His guidance has vastly improved my research and writing, but more importantly he has served as the model of what I want to become as a scholar, educator, and mentor. I will never be able to repay his generosity, but I hope to some day pay it forward. Thank you, Chris. The research for this project could not have been accomplished without the generous financial support of benefactors to the humanities and the hard-working staffs of archives and libraries in three different countries. I would like to recognize the charitable and philanthropic advocates of scholarly inquiry that made this dissertation possible: Laura D. Kennamer, Phyllis Springer Sipahioglu, and Sui-chan and Aleksander Mrdjenovic. I would also like to thank the KU Department of History, Humanities & Western Civilization Program, and Cultural History for providing financial support as well as professional and teaching experience. The staffs at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, François-Mitterrand in Paris, Bibliothèque municipale de Toulouse, Bibliothèque Louis Notari in Monaco, and the University of Miami Libraries in Coral Gables were extremely accommodating, helpful, and supportive of my research. I would particularly like to thank the staff at the Archives départementales des Alpes-Maritimes in Nice, and archivist Jean-Bernard Lacroix, for their exceptional hospitality and assistance in collecting a considerable amount of visual sources. The trip was made possible through the Peter Gilles Springer Fellowship for Study in France. The staff at the UNLV Special Collections and the Center for Gaming Research in Las Vegas warrants another special mention. My trip to the archives, funded by the William R. Eadington Fellowship, was a particularly pleasant and fruitful one, due in large part to the helpful and knowledgeable staff. Su Kim Chung, Delores Brownlee, ix Peter Michel, and David G. Schwartz were excellent hosts who contributed substantially to the source collection for this dissertation. On a personal level, I extend my hearty thanks to my friends and colleagues who have provided a much needed break from the rigors of academia, encouraged me from afar, celebrated my achievements, supported me in my failures, and pushed me to pursue my dreams. Nathan Albright, Travis Burgess, and DaJuane Harris have been brothers to me.