COUNCIL OF EUROPE ------CONSEIL DE L’EUROPE

Strasbourg, 22 April 1970 CCC/ACV (70) 11 Or. Pr.

COE064166

WORKING PARTY ON THE STANDARDISATION OP INITIAL TUNING FREQUENCY

I ‘ t Third, meeting (Toledo, 20 - 22 May 1970)

Consolidated technical paper (preliminary text) and observations communicated to the Secretariat by the Working Party members

17.745 04.4/51.04 CCC/ACV (70) 11 - 1 -

CHAPTER I AIMS OP THE CONVENTION

(Mr. Leone)

The Convention is the outcome of a widespread demand for a remedy to the unfortunate situation existing in the musical world as a result of the instability and the rise in concert pitch, which threaten the musical heritage of the past as well as music now and in the future.

Experience, history and the recent work of the Council of Europe Working Party on the Standardisation .of Concert Pitch have amply proved that it is practically impossible to achieve any concrete or satisfactory result without some legal instrument.

At the present time, inter-state structures are being transformed in accordance with the desire for a regrouping, especially in Europe, following modern notions of international co-operation and with the tendency to pool those states' resources. At such a time, having regard to the special nature of the 'subject matter, which thanks .to present-day communication media knows no frontiers,.such a legal instrument, must be common to different countries and'thus international in its effect. In the historical context of today this can only be attained by a Convention or agreement drawn up in accordance with the traditional rules and structures of international law. A state which signs a Convention (and ratifies it, whei'e its constitutional rules provide for-this) undertakes to apply and enforce it on its own territory: this is generally done by introducing into its national legal system a statute or order reproducing the text of the Convention and so giving it force of law. The Convention prepared by the Council of Europe is designed to serve the musical heritage, and this major concern has never been lost sight of in its preparation^ its aim is to protect music and musicians from the harmful effects of instability and the upward trend in the musical tuning frequency without in any way restricting the freedom of artists by enclosing them in a straight-jacket which might prejudice the flowering of their creative and interpretative faculties. While the basic aim, without any doubt whatever, is to fix the initial tuning frequency at 440 c/s at 20 C, much of the text of the Convention is concerned with the conditions - 2 - CCC/ACV (70) 11

. .CHAPTER I OBSERVATIONS

Mr'. - Sasso remains convinced tha.t the work done by the Working Party was necessary in order to establish the; precise nature of the problem but fears that there would be great difficulty in applying any law, however good. He would prefer a preliminary understanding, if possible a sort of "gentlemen's agreement". essential to its implementation. In particular, account is taken of the problem of temperature in the place where the musical performance is to be given, and consequently of the air conditioning of halls, where possible, and the standards which govern (or will govern) the manufacture and importation of musical instruments. The adoption of regulations for the transitional period is additional proof of the flexibility of the Convention and its adaptability to the real requirements of musical performance.

(There will be inserted here a detailed commentary, article by article, on the Convention including its preamble.)

m CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations

Observations on Chapter I as a whole

Mr. Defossez informs the members of the Working Party that, following- its report after the Salzburg meeting, the Belgian Ministers of National Education and Culture have adopted an attitude which represents tremendous progress towards standardisation of the initial tuning frequency.

Mr. Sasso wonders what the situation would be after ratification of a Convention in this field; in his view this would not solve the problem, seeing that in the musical world there are two parties, one for and the other against the idea of standardising A at 440 c/s.

Mr. Crüft feels it would be preferable to adopt a recommendation rather than a Convention. CCC/ACV (70) 11

CHAPTER II

Training the ear

(Mr. Defossez)

I. AIMS

II. METHODS PROPOSED

III. RESULTS. DESIRED

I. AIMS - A. To arrive at a single system for correct intonation.

B. To review ear training for musicians in the light'7'' of the above.

It certainly seems that the work done on the standardisations of concert pitch at 440 is of the greatest importance and' that'"a ' conclusive solution is urgently needed. The continual rise (some orchestras are playing almost a tone higher than in Mozart’s time) was undoubtedly dangerous. But many people think the notion of correct intonation by performers depends primarily on accurate initial tuning; they fail to realise that even when an entire orchestra tunes in carefully and accurately to an A only a tiny part of the problem is solved. How many times have we heard orchestras which have carefully tuned up and then started to play out of tune; and how many times have we met instrumentalists - even in the greatest orchestras - who were aware that some of their notes were wrong but could not decide whether they were too sharp or too flati

The question of correct intonation is admittedly a highly debatable one, for the scales used in ancient and medieval times (and perhaps even today in some parts of the world) are rather different from our major scale. - 6 - CCC/ACV (70) 11

CHAPTER II

OBSERVATIONS •

Mr. Sackur wonders

(a) what is the precise meaning of the statement that "some orchestras are playing almost a tone higher than in Mozart’s time", and what historical foundation there is for this assertion?

(b) on what information the hypothesis stated in the sentence as a whole is based?

Mr. Sasso supports the idea expressed in the last sentence of this paragraph, adding that he has often observed the same phenomenon among 'colleagues of his when they have been tuning.

He wonders whether a musician with a'good ear plays out-of­ tune simply because he just does not have the time to listen to himself, and whether education of such a person's ear is possible: the ear itself is good but the individual needs more time than others to judge the pitch desired and only a full psycho-technical examination before musical studies or training could reveal this lack of reflex and the psychological reasons for it.

Mr. Sackur feels it is very dangerous to use the word "scale" ' when referring to the musical theories of the Middle Ages and of Antiquity, which remained unchanged for more than 20 centuries. It is, moreover, very difficult to determine what was the relationship between theory and practice. There is a vast amount of literature on the subject, but it does not fall within the scope of this document to either quote it or discuss it. But we can say that performed.music today (including the music of the dodecaphonists and the avant-garde) is, with very few exceptions* based, on our.major.scale (the minor scale being simply derived from the major). So would it not be sensible and useful for musicians to agree on a single system? We would even say that this was essential.

We speak of ’’musicians” and this is important in view of the well-known long-standing difference between musicians and physicists on the subject of pitch.

It has frequently been pointed out at Council of Europe meetings that work on the standardisation of concert pitch is chiefly aimed at musicians; yet we know that most of those present do not accept as sufficient indications of pitch the terms used by musicians for divisions of the scale. And they look upon "comma”* which is the only term used by the musicians of the world to refer to that interval as an amateur expression.

We realise that no physicists find the comma satisfactory as a division of pitch* for it is not susceptible to adequate mathematical control. In addition, most musicians are ignorant of the differences between the three most common scales (the Pythagorean*'the Zarlinean and the tempered), since with a few rare exceptions our music schools, big and small alike* hardly teach .them.

Just how complete the chaos, is* and always has been, can be seen from a few random statements by experts : (l) "Pythagorus says we find the radiance of the number 5 in the beauty of a perfect 5th". "Descartes and Leibnitz maintain that the ear can only count up to 5"- Huygens, Mersenne and* later, Euler say* "perhaps up to 7"* And Ch-ladmi, somewhat later adds: "up to 19, in certain cases”. With. Helmhotz*. the scale which humanists had previously recommended for its mathematical simplicity i.e., the "geometrists1 scale”, was adopted as the scale of the physicists and was frequently and quite arbitrarily called thè I. "natural scale", although hardly .any serious experients had been carried out to test.the .validity of the theory. v Those who looked Dor confirmation had to make do with very piècemeal findings", .. '

(l) "Qu’est-ce que jòuer juste?"-, van Esbroek Monfort. CCC/ACV (7 0) Observations (l) The problem of how to determine pitch or frequency is not a simple one. It has given rise to violent polemics* the first signs of which we see in the age of Platoj and we do not appear to have done with them even now:

"Pythagoras’ scale is based on successive fifths and is limited to 7 notes* a figure accepted by all musicians at that time . . . . " and further on: "From the harmonic point of view the Pythagorean scale is clearly defective". Further on still: "But certain experiments seem to show (l) that violinists use the Pythagorean scale". It is very difficult to come to any conclusion. "Does this mean that the tempered scale is at present the only one in actual use?"

It is disfurDing no react in 'che same work (,'

(7 ) It is strange that* in spite of the vast amount of varied research material afforded by musical performances, it seems that never has there been any clear definition of what "in tune" means (3)* Ernest Closson wrote in 1921: ’"Nowhere do we find a clear and satisfactory theory; historians, theorists* acstheticists either evade the issue or go off the track* drawing forced conclusions or contradicting themselves .... In particular they seem to make too much of-theory." And if we read "Hearing" by Stevens and Davis (1938)* "The Physiology of Music" by Carl E. Seashore (1938) or "Elements d ’une esthétique musicale scientifique" by Charles Lalo (1939)* the conflict of opinions and conclusions takes us back where we started. Most acousticians continue to divide up the octave as follows (frequency references):

DO = 24 RE = 27 MI = 30 FA = 32 SOL = 36 LA = 40 SI = 45 DO = 48 which gives the following intervals : 9 -IO-I6 - 9 -IO-8 -I6 8 9 15 H 9 ÏÏ 15

(1) We don’t hesitate to say "prove". (2) "Le son"* J.-J. Matras* 19^7• (3) "Q.U’est-ce que jouer juste?"* van Esbroek Monfort. - 10 - CCC/ACY (70) 11 Observations

Mr. Geiseler presumes that the penultimate interval should read not '8 but Q and in the language of musicians * in commas, approximately:

DO RE MI FA SOL LA SI DO 1 91 1 8 11 51 191 18 112 115 1 Musicians, however, have always - for more than three centuries, at any rate - used the following scale, which is quite different ; DO RE MI FA SOL LA SI DO 1911 2 1 it! 1 2 1 1 2 112 . II 1 The large numbers of experiments we have made show that this scale is the only one which can satisfy the sensitive ear; moreover, it is the only one to be employed (perhaps more instinctively than deliberately) by great violin and cello virtuosi. The trouble is that physicists have always rejected these figures as unsatisfactory on mathematical analysis.

As far as we know there never has been a physicist who was capable of appreciating Pythagorean pitch as a musician. Savart an acoustician and teacher at the Paris Conservatoire, made the same mistake as all other physicists. S. Auda expressed the opinion, in "Les Gammes musicales", that "The tempered scale is wrong because it is inaccurate; every note in it is out of tune", but it is a fact that musicians have adopted it as the most satisfactory solution ever since the Lime music began to modulate. We believe that the reason why the tempered scale has not always been accepted by the supporters of Pythagorean pitch is that they found it difficult to believe that a note accurately played on the musicians' scale could keep company with the same note played on the tempered scale. The many experiments which we have carried out with the help of the "Orthoclavier" (an instrument which can divide every tone into 9 parts) have shown: 1. That Pythagorean intonation goes perfectly well with temperament.

Example: B is played on the Orthoclavier A qommas from C or half a comma sharper than on the piano. 1 . ', q

At the same time the piano plays :

Any listener is satisfied. CCC/ACV (TO) 11 Observations That notes that are out-of-tune according to Pythagoras do not go with temperament at all.

Example: B is played on the Orthoclavier _ 5 commas from C (Zarlino's theory).

At the same time the piano plays :

Any listener will say that the players are out of tune.

nIn 1790 there were serious differences of opinion among the teachers at the Paris Conservatoire ... The controversy revived with the appearance of Opelt's (183^) and Delezenne's (1848) essays upholding the geometrists’ scale in the face of the supporters of triple progression.” (l)

We could give many other telling quotations. Auda, in 19^7 : "The result has been such confusion that the most learned musicologists have compared it to a hopelessly intricate maze” or, ”It is practically impossible to obtain mathematical accuracy of pitch from string, woodwind, or brass instruments”, or again (referring to scales), "At every turn there is endless confusion which makes it impossible for a good many problems never to be solved."

II. PROPOSED METHODS

'Whereas our first section, outlining the subject, was somewhat lengthy, this one will be particularly short. The important points are these :

1. Physicists, acousticians and musicologists should all recognise that calculation is one thing and music another and that there is practically no divergency of opinion among musicians;

2. Musicians should be able to refer to a single scale (that of Pythagorus) which can be used perfectly well in conjunction with temperament (something which, as far as we know, has never been said before);

3. New methods of aural education need to be devised by experts and become generally taught in music schools.

(1 ) "Qu 1 ost-ce que jouer j u s t e ? 1,' van Esbroeck CCC/ACV (70) Observations 4. Electronic or other instruments should be made generally available srch as will enable young musicians to hear the sub-divisions in our intervals and make them more alive to the various functions of the intervals.

Up till now teachers have gone no further than to point out that the tonic can attract the pitch of the leading note very close to itself .1 but it has never been possible to play the leading note at its correct pitch.

It is high time this, was remedied.

IH. OBJECTIVES

In the course of a variety of duties (as orchestral conductor for 45 years, and as Inspector of Secondary Musical ^ Education for 10 years) I have observed time and again that the < most serious and widespread weaknesses,' even in the greatest orchestras, have to dc with intonation.

It is comparatively rare for a rhythm to be faulty; errors in style are relatively f-wr; attack has improved considerably thanks to radio and recordings; balance is quite often wrong but i~ fairly easily put right. In our view intonation remains problem No. 1 for musicians.

I was in New York last week to conduct the American Symphony Orchestra, which is an exceptional orchestra from every point of view. How astonished 1 was to find that some of the notes of the solo oboe and solo bassoon were out-of-tune.

I observed something similar only yesterday, as one of the judges in an international string quartet competition: most defects were due to sorj '■usly out- of-tune playing.

I do nob agree with the widely held view that "a good ear” is simply a gift of naturo; I believe the ear can perfectly easily be trained.

A good ear means having a good memory for sound. It can be cultivated like any other form of memory.

The results we achieve will depend on the extent to which we apply the methods set forth at the beginning of Ihaptcr II,

\ CCC/ACV (70) Observations CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations

Observations on Cliapter II as a whole

Mr. Sackur thinks there is a misunderstanding about the role of science: science never attempts either to make value judgments or to impose standards. Musicians are free to adopt and propagate whatever system of intonation they find most satisfactory. The physicist may assert that each musician plays with his own scale, if he can prove it after measuring it. The two notions are on quite different planes. But when teaching or laying down standards the musician cannot ignore scientific facts such as the threshold of sensitivity of the ear and the non-constancy of perception of sound. He refers to: Frits Winckel : "Music, sound and sensation" (Dover Publications, New York, 1 9 6 7* PP. 87 - 124) and Pierre Schaeffer: "Traité des objets musicaux" (Seuil, Paris 1 9 6 6, pp. 159 - 214).

MM. Ugo Leone, Pietro Righini, and Alberto Leone:

"We do not entirely share the author's pessimism with regard to the usefulness of an initial tuning frequency and its influence on performance: clearly initial tuning frequency does not solve all the problems but it is an essential starting point. As for the value of the "comma" as a term of reference (somewhat doubtful in our view from several points of view) and the insoluble problems raised by the co-existence of various musical scales, while in no way overlooking their importance, we are inclined to believe that more importance attaches to clear recognition of a • state of affairs which we murf, accept. There is no doubt that the essence of the problem lies in the possibility, the necessity even, of providing adequate training for future generations of musicians: for this reason, we fully subscribe to the view stated by the author particularly in point 3 of paragraph II and in paragraph III and would have wished, to see even more emphasis placed on this aspect of the problem, which we consider co be of prime importancej we venture to suggest that, on the basis of the tempered scale, which is accepted by all musicians and which cannot be left out of account, and taking the A at 440 c/s everything possible should be done to train the musician's ear from an early age, while at the same time imposing strict discipline on him and constantly obliging him to tune his instrument with the aid of a tuning fork cr other tuner and not allowing him, through sheer laziness, to rely exclusively on his ear. CGC/ACV (70) 11 Observations

In any event, whatever the method employed - and this also applies to the preparation of any explanatory works which may be necessary - only the services of highly■qualified specialists should be called upon. We are also entirely in agreement with the use of electrical or electronic instruments to give young musicians (and others . ..) as accurate a sense as possible of the different sub-divisions of intervals. In this connection we.would point out that in Turin, at the Electronics. Department of the "Galileo Ferraris" Institute, trials- are at present being carried out with a special keyho instrument which can demonstrate over a range of five octave all the imaginable intervals, including the most subtle nuances of pitch. Mr. Rj.ghini would be happy to give the author of this chapter further details on this subject. CCC/ACV (70) 11 - 19 -

CHAPTER III

TEMPERATURE AND THE PITCH OF INSTRUMENTS

.(Mr. Sackur)

Every instrumentalist knows that-a wind instrument has to be warmed up before'-it is played so that the temperature of the air.; in the tube is stabilised in relation to the temperature of the concert hall. The reason for this is that in.a given length of tube the pitch of the note produced depends on the speed ah which the air vibrates - and this varies according to temperature.' The problem, as far as the standardisation of concert pitch is concerned, is of course the pitch of instruments at the temperature of the hall at the beginning of a concerti any rise in that temperature during the concert has no bearing on the tuning problem. The sort of increase generally observed is in any case very slight, 2°-3°C on average; and the present tendency - which with tenchical progress is bound to spread - is to install air-conditioning in concert halls, as has already been done in a good many broadcasting studios. Temperature rises in concert halls are responsible for frequency variations which are merely supplementary to those caused by purely musical factors (see Chapter V).

We should first observe that the problem only concerns wind instruments, which cannot be tuned; one note can be corrected by lengthening or shortening the tube (where this is possible), but then the distances between the holes are no longer in the same relation and the instrument plays out of tune. A wind instrument is tuned at a certain temperature, and this can vary from one manufacturer to another (l). The wide range of reference temperatures applied by manufacturers in Europe is a major obstacle to standardisation of the initial tuning frequency^ It is quite clear that an instrument tuned at 440 c/s at 15 c will -not produce the same notes as an instrument tuned at 440 c/s at 20 c. In addition, if conditions in the concert hall at the time of tuning and during the concert are very different from those envisaged by the manufacturer, the musician will find it very difficult to play in tune, since he will instinctively keep to the natural pitch of his instrument.

(l) Sackur, M. Standardisation of concert pitch, Council of Europe, Strasbourg 1 9 6 8. - 20 - CCC/ACV (70)

CHAPTER III

OBSERVATIONS Players are thus subjected to difficult and artificial conditions which jeopardise expressiveness and tone. Differences in tuning tempo ratures have even been said to be the main cause of the present variations in concert pitch in Europe (2).

There are two ways of assessing the effect of temperature on the pitch of instruments ; theoretical calculation according to the laws of physics or measurement with the help of instrumental players. First, here are figures obtained as a result of calculation.- Given a pipe with a frequency of 435 c/s at 15 C we obtain the following figures (frequencies expressed in c/s and temperature in °C) :

Temperatures Frequencies (3)

15 4 3 5.O 20 438.8 25 442.6 30 446.5 35 450.4 40 454.1

The approximate rise in frequency is 4 c/s for every 5°C. This is the figure adopted by instrument makers for purposes of tuning; it is slightly less than 1 c/s per 1 C around treble A.

A very interesting experiment was carried out in 1969 by Professor Righini in Turin. Musicians played in a hall of variable temperature end •'•.he frequency of the treble A occurring within a short musical phrase was measured. The findings were as follows :

(2) Leipp E.. Agostini F-, Castellengo M., Un diapason électronique nou au à l'Opéra de Paris, Bulletin du groupe d :acoustique musicale. No. 40, Faculté des Sciences. Paris, February Ì9 6 9. (3) Courrier de la Normalisation, March-April 1938. CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations CCC/ACV (TO) 1,1 - 23 - Chapter III (Sackur)

Temperature( in degrees C ) 18 20 2;3 25 Instruments Frequencies in c/s

Flute 437 438 438 439 440 441 441 442 1 3 2 2 , 2 2 2 2 Oboe 442 443 439 440 441 442 444 1 3 1 3 2 2 2 Clarinet 441 442 442 443 442 443 443 444 —? 1 D 3 1 2 2 3 1 Bassoon 442 443 443 444 444 445 445 446 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 Horn 439 440 441 442 442 444 445 1 3 2 2 4 1 3 Trumpet 438 439 439 440 440 441 441 442 3 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 Together 439 440 441 440 441 441 442 443 444 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 The figure beneath each frequency gives the number of times each one was observed.

The rise in frequency is somewhat less than that calculated in theory - between 4 and 5 c/s for a 7°C temperature increase. This can be put down to the instrumentalists’ gversion to playing flat (instruments had been tuned at 20 C). This aversion was Well brought out by Professor Righini, by recording treble A at 0 C . We then get 435-436 c/s, whereas the frequency we might expect at that temperature is 42? c/s. An organ' pipe with flute mouth will give a frequency of 429 c/s in like conditions, thus confirming the theoretical figures.

In another experiment (4), the final chord of a musical performance was compared with the opening chord. It was observed that whereas the strings had remained more or less 'constant,

(4) Lotterrnoser, W., Braunrauhl H.J.v., Beitrag zur Stimmtonfrage Akustrische Beihefte (Acustica) 5.>92, 1953* CGC/ACV (70.) 11 Observations

\ Mr. Defossez asserts that no definite conclusions can be drawn from this table, since the author recognises that instrumentalists have an aversion to playing flat and so correct instinctively, either by pursing the lips or altering the position of the instrument ... He quotes the example of Mr. Rampai, a flutist who always plays in tune, who explained to him, "I do not play with rny instrument, I play with my ears”. the wind instruments had not j the clarinet and the tuba in particular had risen about 4 c/s. So we can say that, for practical purposes, wind instruments rise or fall by 1 c/s per 1 C around treble A. CCC/ACV (70) Observations CHAPTER III

PITCH CHANGES IN ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS DUE TO TEMPERATURE

(Prof. Winckel)

If concert pitch is to be intentionally standardised the instruments which sound the initial tuning note must maintain sufficiently constant frequency when changes of temperature occur, and in the event of such changes the instruments of the orchestra must retime. Temperature can range from 15°C (e.g. in a church at the beginning of a concert) to J>6°C (e.g. in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus in July 1969 during the performance of "Tristan and Isolde"), a total of 21°C,

The first thing to note is that, while string instruments can go very much out of tune, as can keyboard instruments over a longer period, wind instruments with side holes and organ pipes, especially the flutes, do not. In a cylindrical air-tube the frequency of a note is proportionate to the speed of sound, which depends on the temperature. The effect of temperature on wind instruments varies according to shape, size,- material, grip, etc. Given a limited frequency range around a central 440 c/s we can expect a shift slightly less than 1 c/s per 1°C rise or fall in temperature. More accurate calculation can be made in the-case of organ pipes according to the German DIN - Deutsche Industrie - Norm of 1317 by using the formula A f = 0.08lit where/I f is the change in frequency and Zl\t the change in temperature. It is reckoned that three or four minutes' is required before relatively stable conditions for tuning are obtained. CCC/ACV (70)

CHAPTER ITT(Mr. Winckel)

OBSERVATIONS Recordings have sometimes been made to check departures from tuning frequency in the course of a lengthy orchestral work played in a rising temperature (l). These show that individual instruments go less out of tune than theory would suggest. The strings depart only slightly from the standard, adjusting very closely by ear to the changing pitch of the orchestra without any attempt to return to the standard 440 c/s. Obviously the behaviour of each orchestra depends on its discipline. Thus the recordings showed that tuning at the beginning of a piece is often very careless, so that the figures obtained at the end do not then give a true picture of the effect of temperature or of the syntonic comma shifts which follow from natural departures from tempered frequency (see Winckel, Chapter V p. 3)- For the present it is not possible to be more specific about the effects of temperature on strings, as makes vary considerably. But strings are more elastic (7/) hut are hygroscopic and go out of tune with increased humidity, the strings getting thicker and the tension greater. Steel strings are less elastic (less than 2%) but are more susceptible to temperature change. There are now strings with a steel wire foundation, which are gaining in popularity, but we have not enough data on them yet. The same is true of strings made of artificial materials. The measurements taken also show that fixed-note wind instruments do not vary so much (clarinet - 4 c/s maximum). By over-blowing, i.e. increasing the wind pressure, a player can raise the pitch somewhat (in the clarinet the range is 7- Mr. Defosses wonders whether the differences are the result of lythagorean intonation. + 30 cents with a light reed)* which is particularly useful if the tuning frequency used by an orchestra is higher than standard pitch or the normal pitch of his instrument.

Our own experience has shown that the quality of the wind playing in the orchestra suffers by over-blowing for the fact of blowing harder causes tension in the player, thus making "expressive” passages less relaxed and quick runs less elegant and causing lack of dynamic control.

Pitch also suffers in concert halls with poor acoustics as members of the orchestra cannot hear one another well enough to keep in tune with each other.

We must also remember that for the future an increasing number of modernised and new concert halls have air-conditioning that makes a constant temperature of 20°C possible, so that no action is required to prevent temperature changes from affecting pitch. Reference material (1) Lotterrnoser W. and Braunmühl H.J.v., Zur Stimmtonfrage, Acustica 5* 92-97* 1955. (2) Meyer J., Stimmung von Klarinetten. Das Musikinstrument 8, 540-544, 1962. Mr. Défasses says that the words "en tirant” and "tirage” in the French text should be replaced by:- - "pincer” where it is a'matter of’ raising pitch and

- "lâcher" where it is a matter of lowering pitch. His reason is that the term "tirer", when applied to wind instruments, means’lowering the pitch by lengthening the column of air. CCC/ACV (7 0) il - 33 -

CHAPTER V

AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA DURING

NORMAL PERFORMANCE AFTER INITIAL TUNING AT AAO c/s

(Mr. Sackur)

Musical interpretation, like any other art form, is a living reality. The composer's score is turned into the listener's experience by a number of physical and psychological processes. The physical laws of music are laid down as strictly as can be desired at the present time. A tempered scale is accepted throughout the western world, and in that scale each note has a calculable frequency based on a standard which itself is a matter of arbitrary choice, as the history of the problem of concert pitch shows (l).

(At present the treble N norm is about AAO c/s). It is possible to construct musical instruments which reproduce these frequencies exactly. It might therefore be thought possible, with a written score with agreement on the frequency of treble A, to know exactly what the frequency of every . note would be. Fortunately for music lovers, this is not so at all. Music in which the notes were strictly in accordance with theory would be lifeless and therefore boring. In fact frequencies vary considerably as a result of the physical and psychological processes'involved in transmission (not to mention those involved in hearing which are rather outside the scope of this Chapter). The result of such fluctuations is that a note produced by a player or singer is hardly ever of a calculable frequency, even if there has been no technical shortcoming on the performer's part.

In this Chapter we should like to make a quick analysis of the various factors that cause fluctuations in pitch and give some idea of the range of such fluctuations.

The cause most commonly put forward, and the one that first spring^ to mind, is temperature. This factor is analysed in Chapter III. As we said above, under the tempered system each note has an established frequency, but even so it is often necessary to depart from the system and take account of the distortions

(l) Sackur. M., Standardisation of Concert Pitch, Council of Europe, Strasbourg,. I96Ö. ’ GE/iPT'Sk Y (: r . Sackur)

OBSERVATIONS

9. Mr. Defossez disputes this idea. introduced by the ear. It has been observed in particular 10. that for a piano to seem to be in tune the higher notes must be sharpened somewhat and the lower ones flattened (2). So a violinist^ for instance, who is.playing to a piano 11. accompaniement must play sharper in the higher registers in order to keep in tune with the piano. We are also familiar with the practice of some soloists of playing a bit sharp in order to stand out more clearly from the 12. orchestra; this often causes the orchestra to raise its pitch to "catch up". These two phenomena are bound up with the nature of the listening process (3)* Moreover, highly expressive or dramatic passages often give rise to involuntary variations in pitch. The means most commonly exployed by composers, crescendo and accelerando, are practically bound to cause a rise in pitch. In the case of dynamic effects the change in pitch is due to the very nature of the instruments; for instance, increased pressure of the bow on a violin string can cause the frequency of a 1 3* note to vary by 1 - 1.5$; and in the case of a flute, increased air pressure can raise frequency by 4$ (4). The increase in frequency caused by an accelerando is more instinctive being due to physiological and psychological factors.

It should not be thought that variations' in' pi beh--- harm the quality of the performance. These are nuances of 14. expression, like any other changes in the quality of the sound (volume, tempo, etc.). The only difference is that they are not stipulated by the composer, they are simply implied; their presence adds to the vitality of a performance (5).

(2) Martin D.W. Ward W.D., Subjective evaluation of musical scale temperament, Journal of the acoustical society of America 33, 582, 196I. (3) Winckel, F., Music, sound and sensation, a modern exposition, Dover, New York 1987 (4) Grützmacher M., Lottermoser W., Tonhöhenschwankungen, Akustische Zeitschrift, 5, 1, 1940’. (5) Loo C. van, On the standardisation of musical pitch, E.B.U.review, 17, 19^2 - j$6 -

According to Mr. Defossez, this statement applies only to some tuners and not to musicians, 11. Mr. Defossez feels that this occurs mainly when violinists play .without accompaniment.

12. Mr. Defossez asserts that this is not deliberate on their part, it is a shortcoming.

13- According to Mr. Defogsez, this statement is true of instrumentalists xrho cannot, like Mr. Rampai, play with their ears.

1^* Mr. Defossez disputes this paragraph. Isaac Stern and A. Grumiaux play in tune and their pitch is never affected either by volume or by tempo. In addition to these variations there are others which are more or less instinctive: where the theoretical pitch of a note is modified by its harmonic or. melodic function. A vast amount of evidence oh this point is forthcoming from musicians ; here, we shall simply .quote the case of one of the most'famous, Pablo Casals, who, according to : i D. Alexanian has little taste for any seventh or leading • note that has not been shifted from its position in the tempered scale - where it is lifeless in its effect ' .... almost to the point towards which the harmony is taking it. That is what Casals calls expressive Intonation (6).

So the final outcome of all these phenomena together, and with them temperature, is that the frequency of the notes played by an orchestra during a performance does not remain stable: the general tendency is a rise in the average pitch, (x).

This variation in the average frequency has been the subject of repeated study and we are now in a position to assess it. But we should not forget -that' every orchestra behaves differently; what is more, in so far as variations of this kind have essentially musical origins their-extent will depend on the nature of the work under study. A work of fairly clear tonal character and with a limited dynamic range will be performed in a plainer style than a very expressive work with market contrasts.

Vie will take first a series -of. measurements carried out on a single work (7)» All the treble A*s in a performance of Brahms' Tragic Overture were recorded and the frequency of each measured. The instruments had been tuned to an average 440 c/s; the frequencies fell between 4^4 and 444 c/s giving a 2.5: range of variation.

(*) We also observe, from other experiments, in particular those done by Prof. Righini on temperature (see Chapter III) that musicians are more averse to lowering concert pitch than to raising it.

(6) Corrédor, J. Ma., Conversations avec P. Casals, Albin Michel, Paris 1955. (7) Lottermoser W., Braunmühl H.J.v., Beitrag zur Stimmtonfrage, Akustische Beihefte (Acustica), 5, 92, 1953* Mr. Delosses considers that the idea expressed in this paragraph reflects the only truth there is in the "attractive” power of Pythagorean pitch. Another series of measurements was done in 1968 by the Acoustical Laboratory of the 'Faculty' of' Sciences in .the. ■ . University of Paris and'by various broadcasting organisations (:i). The principle followed differed-slightly from the' one mentioned above. Frequency was measured in the case of harmonically stable notes only - tonics and dominants - and the frequency of the corresponding treble A was then calculated. The findings of this second experiment came very close to those of the first. The range of frequency variation depends on the work and orchestra in question and is between 7 and 10 c/s. The most important fact to emerge is that the average frequency of an orchestral performance is 2 or 3 c/s above the initial tuning frequency.(8) Having considered all possible factors affecting the frequency of the notes produced by an orchestra we find then that the range of variation is between 7 and 10 c/s (1 .6 - 2.3%) and that average pitch during performance is 2 - 3 c/s above the initial tuning frequency.

(8) Caciotti M., Righini P., Savelli V., Un instrument électronique pour 1 ’accord des grands orchestres, Annales des Télécommunications. Vol. 12 No. 10 (October 19&7). Cahiers d'acoustique. CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations CCC/ACV . ( 70 ) 11- - 41 -

CHAPTER Y BUSI GAL PERCEPT I OH ARD OHANC-ES IIT PITCH DURING PERFORMANCES (Professor Winckel)

Before we can discuss a standard of tuning frequency two questions have to he answered.

(1) How accurately does the ear perceive differences in frequency.during a musical performance, and what factors make for imprecise perception?

(2) How accurately can a series of notes he played or sung and'what factors make for precise intonation?

1, It is an acknowledged fact that the differences between two sinusoidal notes very close to each other in frequency can hest be detected if they oscillate four times per secopd (a question of amplitude modulation). Up to treble C (500 c/s) differences of 2 c/s (8 cents) can be heard? above that point the ability to differentiate falls off to 3.59^ of the frequency in question (1). With amplitude modulation of 12 per second ability to differentiate is halved.

But in-.practice constant notes hardly ever occur in music, even when indicated in the score, for in performance there is invariably a vibrato, which moreover is not strictly regular. CHAPTER V

OBSERVATIONS But at a vibrato frequency of' 7" por ■ second, the resultant variations (frequency swing) notably in the stringed instruments and the human voice, only slightly, affect the pitch of the note. It should also be noted that all "events" in music are of short duration: as information theory indicates, something new is happening all the time. So all the psycho-acoustical measurements so far taken by means of sinusoidal notes and constant sounds are of purely theoretical significance. Thus the ear is even less sensitive to the pitch of musical sounds . than the above figures.would suggest. In the case of very 16. short impulses, e.g. 0,5 seconds in length, perception of pitch is one third as accurate as in the case of a constant note (2).

Here we should briefly mention the fact that perception of pitch is, according to the most recent research, a very complex matter; the note heard is certainly not always identical with the fundamental of the sound played, neither is it comparable with the pitch of a sinusoidal note as perceived. The operative factor is the "period" pitch, (Schouten) which is derived from the envelope of the spectrum (2) and which its discoverer, also calls the "Residuum" (3). We discuss below some points concerning this phenomenon, though we cannot here treat the theory as a whole.

. 2, The impurity of intonation in musical practice is 17. alarmingly .high. Figures very close to Pythagorean pitch which are quoted for stringed instruments or to natural pitch which are quoted for singers, refer to outstanding musicians with years of professional practice. In orchestral practice 1 6 , Mr. Defossez finds this a very doubtful statement.

1 7 . In this connection Mr. Defossez thinks that: $a) the ’’figures very close to Pythagorean pitch" to which Mr, Wineke1 refers, represent very great differences for the .musician.

(b) If Mr. Winckel is drawing a distinction between "natural pitch" and "Pythagorean pitch", his theory is disputable, since a singer can perfectly well use the Pythagorean scale, just as a violinist or clarinettist can.

(c) Che need not be an outstanding musician to attach particularly great importance to such small differences; it is enough to be sensitive to Pythagorean pitch. many instruments exceed ' the figure of 8/ which is the ear’s limit of perception* but this is not noticed for the reasons giver, under 1. Impurity of intonation is particularly high in sung staccato notes, but because of their short duration is 18.' not noticed by the ear. Examples with figures are available (4) (5). Moreover, a number of instruments, especially wind instruments with side holes, are made with only limited precision in the frequencies of the individual notes,.: Thus individuali notes on the clarinet can be" out of tune by 4 0 though the player can compensate for this to a certain extent by over- or under-blowing (6).

Another form of impure intonation results from the actual tuning system used in music. This is not the tempered system as generally supposed. It is not just that string players unconsciously come close-to Pythagorean or natural pitch; the ■ intervals used in tuning keyboard instruments are extended, by about 3 cents per octave over tempered pitch, making a semi­ tone 12/27^035. Thus a scale on an instrument tuned in this way .tends towards- natural pitch (5-). -It is^ known that, with this method of tuning'we obtain the syntonic comma 81/80 when passing from one key to another; this-,- represents about 5 c/s in the octave above middle 0» Taking intervals of a fifth as our basis- we find that, if we-move, from A = 440 c/s 19. into a-'higher fifth, that A drops-by one syntonic ■ comma to 434.6 c/s whereas if we move to a lower fifth it rises to 445*5 c/s. 1 8. Mr. Defossez disagrees with this sentence.

I

19« Mr. Defossez also disagrees with this sentence. nfi.'i /., r n r •' '“ O *\ 1 " y L- O / li hW ^ I ^ / J~ J- Chapter V (Winckel)

The same is true of any note considered. This was observed by Max Planck (7) in a musical example.

We can now see that, even with playing that is careful and sounds correct in the natural tuning that"'iscustomary nowadays, frequent modulation entails fairly drastic deviations .upwards or downwards from standard pitch. In Planck’s example . the range was from 413.5 to 468,2 c/s for treble A, and the 20. writer has been able to confirm this by singing the example himself.

Thus, as may also be observed in the case of choirs, 21 * pitch can shift considerably by the end of a piece, although 22. this need not necessarily be detrimental to the music provided » certain limits are not exceeded. Strict observance of tuning pitch throughout a piece of 2^ music would therefore, as H. Meine1 has pointed out, put • performers under constraint and thwart their natural tendency to follow, their ears in' the direction of pure pitch, • The ■ recommendation of the London Conference of 1939 that the pitch of 440 c/s for treble A should be adhered to as closely as possible in musical performances was therefore modified in the London recommendation of 1953, a fixed pitch for treble A being stipulated only for initial tuning, not for the whole performance.

If we view it from this angle there is no need to feel alarm at the example of the opening and closing tuning note measurements for a performance of Brahms’s. "Tragic Overture" as reported by the writer at a meeting of the Working Party on the Standardisation of Concert Pitch in Florence: (8) for. at the end of the piece no instrument was more than 4 c/s out.. (The possible effect of warming up was not taken into account). 20. Mr. Defossez thinks this sentence may have been distorted in translation, for he does not understand its precise meaning.'

21. M r Defòssez wonders whether the French version of this sentence should read "hauteur des notes" instead of "valeur des notes".

22. -In M r ."Defossez’s view, this does happen in some choirs but ±s not acceptable, for if the choir finishes a semi-tone lower this is tantamount to singing out of tune.

2 3. Mr. Defossez points out that performers’ "natural tendency to follow their ears" is no .more than observance of the laws of attraction :

- of the Pythagorean scale

- of the influence of our tonal system (by which any sensitive musician today ‘is affected). This is no justification however for disregarding pitch. Diagrams are available on how length of note, timbre, etc., affect perception of pitch 'and on the variations revealed in the intonation of the timing frequency in the course of an orchestral concert (4).

Bibliography

(1) . Zwicker, E. und R. Peldkeller, Das Ohr als...... Dachrichtenempfänger, Stuttgart 1967. (2)' Y/alliser, .K., -Zur .Unte'rschiedsschwelle -der Periodentonhöhe , Acustica 21, 329-336,' 1969. (3) Schouten, J.F.,, The Residue, a Dew Component in Subjective Sound Analysis, Pr.oc. .Ned. Akad. \7etenseh'43, 356, 1940.

(4) Y/inckel, P., Music, Sound and Sensation. Dover PUbl. . .Dew'York, 1967. Edition allemandes Phänomene des ,, musikalischen Hörens. Yer.lag Hans Schneider, Tutzing b/MUnehen

(5) Meinel, H., Uber den Dormstimmton, Wissenschaftl, Annalen. 5,' 1-15,, 1956. (6) Meyer, J.,' Uber die Stimmung von Klarinetten. Das ■ Musikinstrument 11, 540-544, 1962 *

(7) Planck, M., Die natürliche Stimmung in der modernen Vokalmusik. Vierteljahresschrift der Musikwissenschaft, Leipzig 1893, S. 418-440.

(8) Lottermoser, V/, und *T. v. Braunmuhl, Zur Stimmtonfrage. Acustica _5, 92-97, 1955. 50 - CCC/ACV (7 0) 11 Observations CHAPTER VI

TUNING METHODS (M. Sackur)

Every cohcert-goer is familiar with that rather solemn moment when hall and platform fall silent and the rather thin, penetrating sound of the oboe is heard - a single note taken up by the orchestra, resulting in the characteristic buzz and the subdued crescendo of tuning,' This ritual, despite its apparent unchanging simplicity, fulfils a .very important purpose : tuning is not simply a matter of adopting a frequency, it is also the act whereby the musicians become aware of each other. The orchestra thereby becomes an ’’instrument”, in the same way as the violinist tunes his violin before playing.

Technically, too, tuning is a'delicate operation and raises a certain number of questions. Why is it the oboe that sounds the A? Is it the best possible choice? Could any improvement be made in this apparently very natural procedure? Can modern technology be of any help to musicians?

We should first note that, even after very careful tuning, the A as produced by the various instruments of the orchestra can vary by 2 or 7 c/s above or below tuning frequency, (l). We should also observe that when a piano has to play with an orchestra, it will be best to tune the piano to the orchestra’s average frequency, i.e. slightly above tuning frequency (see Chapter V).

So, to return to the questions raised above, the oboe appears to have been chosen for its tone and not, as is sometimes supposed because it is an instrument with "fixed notes". It produces a large number of harmonics, and it has been observed that musicians tune more easily to a note accompanied by harmonics than to a pure note (2) (3)» Furthermore, in the case of a note with

(1) Lottermoser W., Braunmühl, H.J.v., Beitrag zur Stimmtonfrage, Akustische Beihefte (Acustica), 92, 1953« (2) Tiby 0., Barone A., Note e rilievi sulla frequenza del LA3, Tipographia del Senato, Rome 19^-1«

(3) Caciotti M., Righini P., Savelli V., Un instrument électronique pour l ’accord des grands orchestres, Annales des Télécommunications, Vol 12 No. 10 (October 1957) cahiers d ’acoustique. CHAPTER VI

OBSERVATIONS

24. In Mr. Defossez^s view, it is up to the orchestra to tune carefully to the A of the piano.

25.'-. - Mr . .Défòssèz . states that "since the A of the oboe is never stable, musicians prefer it, for they are more easily able to interpret it according to the deficiencies of their ears". harmonies the pitch subjectively.heard..remains more stable through fluctuations in volume than in the case of a pure note (4). In addition, the oboe has a very distinctive tone and can easily be heard against background noise, -even..when played softly. The main objection to the oboe as a reference instrument is that with the same use of the fingers it is possible to vary a note by 4 c/s by means of the lips and breath. The position of the reed can also be brought into play. These- disadvantages are however overcome to some extent by sense of pitch of professional musicians.

In viexv of these possible variations in the oboe it might be thought better to tune the orchestra to the violin.' But the violin has no fixed notes to which to refer, so that we must either rely solely on the violinist's- ear or have his instrument tuned in advance to some fixed-note instrument'. Tuning the violin to the oboe, as has been suggested (5), only increases our diffi-culties. At La Scala, Milan, the violin, is tuned to a tuning-fork and then the orchestra to the violinj this method is satisfactory from the point of view of stability(6)

This suggests a possible initial use for note-producing apparatus (tuning-forks, tuning blades or electronic equipment): it could provide a reference note which a musician could tune, to and then pass on to the orchestrai It might be preferable psychologically for the-orchestra to tune to a musical instrument. Instead of using a note-producer this could be done with a stroboscope, which allqws tuning to be checked visually (instrument manu facturer es normally use this-method)-.'- A similar device, a stroboscope is employed at the Theatre Royal de la Monnaie,- Brussels, where it is available for the use of those musicians who so desire (6),

(4) Winckèl.FÌ, Music,'sound'and sensation,'a modern ^exposition Dover, New York 19^7 •* ' •' -----

(5 ) Munch Ci, Je suis chef d 1 orchestré, Editions du - . - Conquistador, Paris 1954".5 "

(6) Sackur M 1,, 'Standardisation ~ of Concert Pitch, Council of Europe, S tr asb our g, ’ 19'6'8 » CCC/ACV (70) Observations But for the sake of greater precision we may wish to do without the musical instrument and tune the orchestra directly to a note producer. Berlioz suggested abandoning the oboe and flute as tuning instruments and urged that orchestras should tune to an organ pipe permanently available in the players' room (7)« Nowadays a good many orchestras tune directly to electronic equipment: the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the RAI orchestra, Turin, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra and others. The difficulties involved in adopting this method, while they can be overcome, are nevertheless considerable. They are mainly due to the fact that aural perception of pitch is affected by the timbre of the sound in question and it takes some time to get all the players used to the timbre of the apparatus employed. Efforts have in fact been made with varying degrees of success, to make this resemble the timbre of the oboe.

The advantage of this method is that a note of unvarying and unquestionable pitch is given to the orchestra at first hand and that the pitch of the tuning note can easily be related to temperature, which many musicians consider essential.

To conclude it is now possible to stabalise initial tuning frequency with the aid of modern electronics (8). In any case it would appear desirable to abandon sole use of the oboe for sounding the A, and the choice then seems to be between two methods: tuning to an instrument which itself has been tuned to or checked against it, a note-producer, tuning to the note- producer. Orchestras should be allowed-to choose between these two methods'.

(7 ) Revue et Gazette musicale de Paris, I8 5 8. (8) Leipp E . ’, Agostini F., Castelleng-o M., A new electronic pitch at'the "Opera de Paris" Bulletin d u 'grouped 'acoustique musicale, Faculté des Sciences" Paris No'. 40, Février 1969« CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations CHAPTER VI

TUNING- METHODS (Professor E. Vincke1)

Ho completely satisfactory way of providing a standard tuning note has yet been found.

(1) The tuning fork is not much favoured owing to the rapid fading of the note, though it has' good temperature stability (frequency drift 1; 9,000 per 1°C).

(2) The oboe is subject to the influence of the player through wind pressure and has a rather high temperature coefficient It is still the method most commonly used by orchestras because its tone stands out clearly from all the other instruments. This is because of the harmonics it produces, especially in the region of 3,000 c/s.

(3) Electronic tuning apparatus is independent of any player? it is practically unaffected by temperature and so is to be preferred to all mechanical oscillators. Nevertheless it has not as yet been introduced by many orchestras, because the inflexible note which it produces, even when given an oboe-like tone, ceases to register on the ear after a few seconds. Their great stability is due to the fact that the oscillations are produced on the self-excitation principle by means of a falling characteristic curve; mechanical self-excitation oscillators involving blowirig or bowing are less stable (1). though'thoir variability is a permanent stimulus to the ear, one which is strengthened if on the note there is superimposed a vibrato which is not strictly regular either. CHAPTER VI

OBSERVATIONS Electronic tuning apparatus consists in the main of an oscillator with amplifier and loudspea.kers. The oscillator may be an electric tuning fork or a simple electrical circuit. By pressing a button a frequency can be increased or reduced from 440 c/s in stages of one or two c/s (e,g. within a range of 4^0-450 c/s) and can be permanently turned to another position. The sinusoidal note can also be changed to an oboe-like sound by means of a rectifying circuit (2).

In the event of a temperature in the concert hall different from the tuning standard of 20°C, another tuning frequency can be set in accordance with a correction curve, e.g. 439 c/s if the temperature is 19°C. Changes in frequency are proportionate to temperature changes. The equipment is produced (inter alia by Wandel and Geltermann, Reutlingen, Germany) in the form of a small portable case and can be connected up to all the rooms used by the orchestral players.

In order to counteract the above-mentioned disadvantage of an unvarying note and to obtain a closer approximation to the more satisfactory oboe tone, in 1959 the writer proposed and developed an additional modulation of the tuning note in . the form of a vibrate. EMT tuning apparatus thus adapted was judged, after a long test-period with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, to be a great improvement. This modulator consists of an RC bridge circuit in which ^ a motor-driven variable condensor periodically causes phase shifts in the transmitter voltage. CCC/ACV (7 0) Observât!ons The frequency swing (vibrate amplitude) can be controlled iSO that the vibrate does not impede exact perception of the frequency; alternatively it can be eliminated. A 5/ frequency swing is just auidible. The vibrate is set at a rate of 6-7 per second, in line with the vibrate used by the human voice and string instruments, for in that crucial range the ear experiences it as a variation not in frequency but in intensity (amplitude modulation) and so there is minimum disturbance of perception of pitch (3).

Electrically-produced tuning notes should then be provided with frequency modulation over about 7 c/s adjustable to a point at which the frequency swing can no longer be perceived.

We should mention in passing that electronic apparatus can, without great expense, be so arranged as to reproduce any note in the diatonic scale and thus can be used for tuning pianos and organs. Notes can be tuned separately to whatever tuning system may be required, e.g. to piano pitch with extended intervals.

The notes of the diatonic scale can also be shown stroboscopically to a high degree of accuracy, e.g. on a panel with a light flashing at the frequency of the instrumental note being measured, the seven notes of the scale being represented on seven rotating stroboscope disc-s.- Such apparatus has been widely introduced in the USA (4), In this age of digital electronics it is an obvious move to produce or indicate digitally the frequencies of the diatonic scale. Our own method is to use a calibrated, adjustable generator CCC/ACV (70) Observations to make a comparison at zero beat with the note to be measured which is picked up through a microphone; the frequency thus obtained is either shown on an electronic meter or printed. Any generator produced by an electronics firm can be used provided the prospectus states an accuracy of 1% and a temperature coefficient of - 0.1$ per degree C. It is even simpler to use a microphone and amplifier to feed a tuning note produced by an instrument directly into a frequency meter; given 0.01$ accuracy this can be taken as the tuning standard and frequencies read directly from it.

In a Dutch model frequencies corresponding to the notes of the scale are taken from a very high frequency pulse generator by means of frequency division (5). 0 .05$ accuracy is observed and so a scale at correct pitch can be obtained. According to ISO Recommendation R l6 of 1955 accuracy within -0.5 c/s is all that is required for the tuning note. ' This requirement is easily fulfilled by any electronic note-producer.

It should also be noted that the tuning fork is not alone in being unsuited to frequency measurement because of the quick fading of its note; this is also true of a class of musical instruments, e.g. the piano and the harp. A note recorded on an electric pickup can be prolonged by means of a feedback amplifier, as in the equipment we last mentioned; in this way the tuning-fork becomes useful. A further refinement is room temperature compensation, by which every degree centrigrade of temperature change effects an inverse adjustment on the indicator scale of the c/s value CCC/ACV (70) 11 Observations * of the note to be measured. If, for instance, we have a room temperature of about j58°C, raising the pitch to 450 c/s, which is what the ear will hear - the effect of the compensation will be to show 440 c/s on the scale. This is easier for the musician than having to read off the actual frequency and also the temperature and then adjust to 440 c/s. Equipment of this kind is at present in use in the Paris Opera House (6), Finally, we must mention an electrical tuning-note generator introduced in Italian broadcasting stations. It gives six different sounds, of varying tone and intensity at 440 c/s (7). Experience of its use with orchestras shows that for stringed instruments a chord consisting of tenor A, D and treble A is preferred, and for wind instruments a chord 26. of tenor F, B flat and treble F or the D minor and B flat major triads. With this generator it is possible to choose any tuning note or the combinations mentioned.

Electronic tuning has another advantage. When notes get softer, especially very high and very low ones, the ear hears 2 7. them slightly flatter. This means that the tuning note (oboe or generator) sounds flatter the further away it is. The diagram of a laboratory experiment (8) shows that with a tuning note at 440 c/s the pitch as heard drops by about 1% per 20 db. The writer once observed this in practice at the beginning of a violin concerto when the soloist tuned his instrument while ■ standing by the half-open stage door about 10 metres away from the oboe in the concert hall; when he took up his own position on the platform - close to the oboe - he had to return, for only then did he notice that he had turned flat. With electronic

! 26. fin, Defossez would like further explanation on this paragraph.

2 7. Mr. Defossez disagrees with this sentence and asserts that the pitch of a sound can be altered neither by intensity nor by distance. equipment loudspeakers can be installed wherever tuning is done, thus giving an even volume everywhere.

This short survey shows that every aspect of the problem of an accurate tuning note can be satisfactorily solved with electronic equipment. Orchestras should therefore abandon the use of mechanical instrumental checks.

Reference Material (1) Cremer, L., Selbsterregte Schwingungen von Orgelpfeifen. Acustica 19* 143-153, 19^7,-68» ....

(2) Sommer, J., Elektron. Stimmgerät beim Stimmen von Instrumenten. Das Musikinstrument, sept. 1 9 6 5 * (3) Winckel, F., Music, Sound and Sensation. Dover Pubi., New York, I9 6 7. (4) Young, R.W., Theory of the Chromatique Stroboscope. J. Acoust. Soc. 10, 112-118, 19?8. (5) Gossel, D., Digitale Erzeugung musikalischer Intervalle.. Philips Techn, Rdsch. 25, 423-429, 1963-64. (6) Leipp, E. und Castellenge, M., Le Diapason Electronique de l'Opéra de Paris. GAM-Bulletin No. 40, Faculté des Sciences, Paris. (7) Caciotti, M., Righini und Savelli, Instrument électronique pour l'accord des grands orchestres. Annales des Télécommunications 12, 367-370, 1957» (8) Walliser, Spreizung von empfundenen Intervallen bei Sinustöhen, Frequenz 2 3, 139-142, 1 9 6 9 . CGC/ACV (70) Observations Observations on Chapter VI as a whole

Mr, Sasso (Europiano) draws the Working Party’s attention to the great difficulties which are already apparent. He reminds them that it is almost universal practice to tune the concert piano to 44o/44l c/s (442 l).

All concert tuners desire a definite standard adopted for a stable A around 44o c/s, and would like concert halls to be air-conditioned.

There is disagreement on this subject between tuners and some leading conductors :

Replying to a questionnaire from Europiano, the major piano manufacturers (Steinway, Bechstein, Schimmel, Grotrian-Steinweg, Bltfthner) said that they built their instruments for optimum sound at 440 c/s (+ l).

On the other hand Mr, von Karajan required a pitch of 445 c/s for a concert for three pianos in Hamburg and the next day Mr. Fischer-Dieskau refused to sing at such a high pitch,

A survey conducted among tuners in the USA, Israel and Berlin showed that some conductors, like Mr. von Karajan, Leonard Bernstein or Ormandy, insist on a. pitch of 445 c/s. Observations on Chapters III, V and VI as a. whole

MM. Ugo Leone, Pietro Righini and Alberto Leone:

"In view of the close connection between these two chapters and the fact that they are written by the same experts, we felt it was advisable to combine our observations in a single text.

We share the author(s views as a whole and would like to emphasise :

(1) The clear distinction which exists between initial tuning - which remains the essential factor on which constant pitch depends - and what occurs or may occur during performance;

(2 ) The fact that air conditioning for all theatres and concert halls, desirable though it is, cannoc be achieved overnight; however, the effect of variations in temperature should not be over-estimated, since extensive experiments have shown that the musician often remedies this state of affairs in quite spectacular fashion: once again, it is on the musician's training that we must rely, while at the same time creating increasingly favourable performance conditions for him;

(3) The freedom which the performer must have at any moment to adopt the Pythagorean, Zarlinian or any other scale which he finds best suited to the artistic message; this freedom must never be restricted by immutable rules constraining a musician, for example, always to play a treble A in the same way (take the case of this note considered as suitable for resolution into the key of B flat). The need for musicians to tune as frequently as performance allows - perhaps even in the intervals during a concert ~ to treble A at 440 c/s,..in order to counter the undeniable tendency to raise the pitchj

The fact that, in our opinion, only two systems can be considered satisfactory where an orchestra’s tuning is concerned:

(a) Tuning to an instrument (preferably the first violin) itself previously'tuned to a standard of guaranteed accuracy or,

(b) Tuning of the orchestra directly to a sufficiently clear and distinct signal'. CHAPTER VII

APPLICATION OF THE CONVENTION: - • TECHNICAL CONTROL AND ASSISTANCE

(Mr, Leone, 'Prof. Righini) ;

Laws and.'regulations are inextricably bound up with the idea of control; they are inconceivable - or at least their enforcement is - without certain further measures'which may be coercive in nature. Thus, in the case of the Convention for the Standardisation of Concert Pitch, it is- necessary to create the legislation together with-the technical instruments needed to ensure that it is correctly and efficiently applied.

We must also take account of the almost unhealthy, though abundantly justified, sensitivity of artists to this highly delicate aspect of the question. A violently negative reaction on their part to inadequate or inappropriate measures 'could • bring about a rupture and deprive the Council of Europe of the co-operation which is vital to its project. In choosing our means, therefore, we must bear in mind the need for supervising, and what its natural limits will be.

A skeleton organisation at national level could be created by setting up a central office, as was done for instance in Italy in 1887 and 1936, to certify the standards of tuning instruments in current use, to carry out or co-ordinate the requisite checks and above all to give valuable technical assistance with implementation of the act or the order giving effect to the Convention nationally.

It is this last more modern conception that needs to be stressed where international action is concerned.

As soon as the Convention comes into force an international advisory committee of five members could be set up to meet perhaps twice a year, at the Council of Europe in Strasbourg or 2 8. at any other place, at the invitation of a government; it would keep a close watch on the application of the Convention by the Contracting States, give opinions or make recommendations on specific matters, appoint experts to assist the various

t CHAPTER VII

OBSERVATIONS

Mr. Defossez shares this view but points out that musicians and acoustic experts do not use the same terminology and do not have the same view of pitch. governments in implementing the Convention or certain aspects of it, examine the experts' reports and study ways of improving the system.

The cost of such a body would’ be very low, for the administrative work could be done by the Council of Europe as part of its normal activities and each government would contribute towards any laboratory work or information service required.

At that stage permanent assistance by other institutions could prove very valuable. An important role could be played by national and international broadcasting organisations: EBU, the International Music Council (part of UNESCO) and the International Federation of Musicians. Europiano, the International Standard Organisation and associations of instrument manufacturers, etc., might provide valuable help on an ad hoc basis as required.

On the technical side too, we should remember that standardisation would soon come to nothing unless there were adequate supervision.

With present-day techniques it is possible to build highly stabilised frequency producers which, like quartz oscillators, have a tolerance below the differential pitch threshold of even the most sensitive ear. It is also possible to produce standard instruments which are perfectly immune to temperature variation, Such instruments should be kept by competent responsible institutes so that other similar instruments can be certified as conforming to the standard for possible checking purposes.

Reference instruments for everyday purposes need not be very accurate. Instruments sensitive to the very slightest changes in frequency should therefore be ruled out, e.g. cathoderay oscillographs and certain electronic frequency meters. Provided its frequency is sufficiently immune to external influences, including temperature, an old-fashioned compensated steel tuning-fork is quite adequate for tuning any musical instrument.

One must not lose sight of practical matters and give theorists a completely free hand. The only shortcoming.of tuning forks is that a rub from a file 'is enough to put them out of tune. But. the answer lies in the musical education of artists' and there should in any case be regular checks. CCC/ACV (70) Observations' Instrumental ensemble could* after individual tuning* check against an electrical or electronic reference instrument which simulated the tone of a musical instrument. In this case* if it was desired to avoid placing responsibility on the first violin or any other member* it would be better to use a selected chord rather than an isolated note.

Now to the most difficult part of the problem* supervision.

It is not a matter of checking a stable* well-defined situation simply by taking measurements* but of assessing a potentially fluctuating one. Thus any figure taken out of context will be hazardous* to say the least; only overall or average statistics will give a true picture of any given situation.

Checks on whether a standardised pitch is being observed must be carried out discreetly but constantly* conspicuous methods which might affect the player's mood being avoided. Such checks should always be on the intonation of the orchestra as a whole* not on that of any individual instrument.

The checks should be carried out live during rehearsals or performances - the sound* taken in via a microphone* should be fed into a graded frequency meter. The choice of passage is particularly important and there is no need to concentrate on treble A alone. By taking two octaves between 220 and 880 c/s and analysing them with filters suitable for the study of fairly narrow bands* one can be certain of reliable and broadly satisfactory results. Properly controlled checks on recordings are also of considerable value. Material thus obtained and any other necessary data will constitute a valuable source-of information for the future. In order to obtain a complete picture checks should cover instrument manufacturers and piano tuners.

Regular publication of official results will* taken all in all* undoubtedly be beneficial. 29° Mr. Defossez accepts this idea but would like further explanation,

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30« Mr. Defossez is sceptical as to the results of such a method.

31. Having had 15 years' experience in this field, Mr. Defossez asserts that ’’the pitch of a recording is badly distorted in the course of transfer on to gramophone records”.

32. In this connection, Mr. Defossez quotes the measures taken by the Belgian Ministers of Culture. General observations

M r . Sackur finds this study lacking in "precise indications as to the actual procedures to be used to bring orchestras from where they are at present to the point where one would like them to be, Definition of such measures is a yardstick of the credibility of action undertaken,"

Mr. Geiseler considers that a more concise text should be drafted on the basis of this study for the practical information of musicians; it might also serve as an outline for a version for wider distribution. He suggests that this question be examined at the meeting in Toledo.

Mr. Sasso raises other problems which he feels are interesting:

(a) making the hitherto relatively uninformed general public more aware of the Council of Europe's work;

(b) establishing contact with representatives of the "rising pitch theory";

(c) studying the reasons for which some performers play at an increasingly high pitch. (Mr. Sasso quotes the examples of American jazz* which adopts a pitch of ^50 c/s, of world famous conductors who also favour a very high pitch and of Japanese piano manufacturers who tune their pianos very high, which creates difficulties for some pianists even though others are in agreement with this practice.) Mr. Riviere fully supports the opinion expressed in this study by-Mr, Winckel.

MM. Ugo Leone, Pietro Righini and Alberto Leone

"In conclusion to our few remaries, we would suggest that the consolidated document should bring out, perhaps in the introductory chapter, the fact that the problem of standardising concert pitch, despite its undeniable complexity, is by no means Insoluble if one relies on artistic sensitivity and the training of musicians and especially if one avoids futile efforts to achieve a perfect solution; for, firstly, intelligent and flexible application of the Convention can