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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Informal Diplomacy and Rome From the First Macedonian War to the Assassination of Ti. Gracchus Masayuki Ito Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2015 Declaration I confirm that this thesis presented for the degree of PhD has been composed entirely by myself. I also declare that it contains solely the result of my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Masayuki Ito i Abstract This study examines the influence of Rome’s diplomatic management in channels apart from official ones and open contacts among states, on her expansion and Republic from the 200s to 133 BCE. In this thesis such involvement in foreign affairs is called informal diplomacy. This terminology was not used by the Romans directly but is useful in showing the following. In the period of Rome’s advance into the Greek world, she approached not only foreign states but also individuals, while individual Romans also increasingly participated in such contacts independently. These acts sometimes took place openly and/or while using formal diplomatic exchanges and sometimes informally and secretly. The aim of the Romans concerned was to win over the people approached and their fellow citizens, and international public opinion, and these approaches were developed in parallel to official negotiations among states. This diplomacy enabled Rome to manage foreign affairs flexibly and contributed to her increasing the dependence of foreign states and individuals on her, in particular those in the Greek world. This thesis also argues that informal diplomacy caused struggles among the Romans symbolised by the violence that occurred in the tribunate of Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. This situation originated from the ill-defined relationship between informal diplomacy, legality, and the collective leadership of the senators. As informal diplomacy became more common among the Romans, the users individually rose among the leading Romans. This tendency undermined the dignity of the Senate, but this organ had no method to control it. Consideration of legitimacy of using informal diplomacy had been tacitly avoided by the Romans because of its ad hoc utility, and the Senate had not necessarily ii been the sole decision-maker in the Republic. Its leadership could be legitimately denied by the users of informal diplomacy if they had some authority and were supported by the people in and beyond Rome. All the Senate could do in order to maintain its dignity was to attempt to control them with political tactics and violence. This was a foretaste of the conflict that was to occur in the final century of the Republic. Through demonstrating these advantages and disadvantages of informal diplomacy to Rome, I show this diplomatic concept is a valuable and fruitful one to employ in the study of Rome during the period of remarkable expansion and afterwards. iii Acknowledgements I have been interested in the contacts of the Romans with outsiders who had different languages, cultures, and ideas, not only at a state level but also on a more personal one, since I wrote my graduation thesis at the University of Tokyo. As a postgraduate, I have searched after the way of considering the stage of Roman diplomacy in which such official and unofficial interchanges interlaced, comprehensively, and found an answer, here, at the University of Edinburgh. The following discussion is the results. I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to Andrew Erskine, my first supervisor. The concept of informal diplomacy, the key topic of this study, is clearly the product of a great many discussions with him. I will always appreciate his strong and steady support for my development since I came to this country in 2011. Furthermore, I would like to express my thanks to Ulrike Roth, Dominic Berry, and Benjamin Gray, my secondary supervisors, John Holton, my reviewer, and Alex Imrie, my proofreader. They provided me with a good deal of suggestion about my discussion and manuscript as my seniors and friends. I am also grateful to David Lewis and Shane Wallace, who readily undertook the role of the examiners to this thesis. Their reviews improved my argument and dissertation further. My final thanks should be addressed to my parents and grandparents in my country. Their constant cheer often encouraged me under a foreign sky. I would like to offer my sincere thanks to them again. iv Table of Contents Abbreviations vii Introduction 1. Informal Diplomacy and the Aim of this Study 1 2. Diplomacy of Rome and the Hellenistic States 6 3. The Sources 10 4. The Plan of Discussion 16 1. Informal Diplomacy and the Custom of Gift-Giving Introduction 22 1. Gifts and the Mechanism 23 2. Gift-Giving and the Further Approach to Informal Diplomacy 31 Conclusion 45 2. Informal Diplomacy and the Eastern Greeks Introduction 47 1. Greece on the Eve of the First Macedonian War 48 2. Philippos and the Aitolian Hawks 60 1) Philippos’ Relations with Rome and Hannibal 61 2) The Aitolian Hawks against Macedonia and Rome 64 3. The Mediation and Rome’s Failure 80 Conclusion 96 3. The Second Macedonian War and Roman Informal Diplomacy Introduction 98 1. The Roman Hawks against Macedonia 99 2. Rhodes and Pergamon in 201 and Informal Diplomacy 109 3. The Roman Hawks and Informal Diplomacy 124 Conclusion 146 4. The Emergence of Informal Diplomacy among Individual Romans Introduction 148 1. T. Quinctius Flamininus from 193 to 191 149 1) Flamininus’ Participation in Diplomacy and its Limitations 150 2) Flamininus and the Political Groups of Rome 165 2. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus after the Second Punic War 177 1) Africanus’ Diplomatic Actions at Rome 179 2) Africanus’ Diplomatic Actions in the Campaign of Asiaticus 183 Conclusion 196 v 5. Informal Diplomacy and Political Tension Introduction 199 1. Informal Diplomacy by Roman Individuals 201 2. Informal Diplomacy and Greek Individuals 217 3. Informal Diplomacy and Tensions among the Romans 227 Conclusion 249 6. Informal Diplomacy and the Crisis of the Republic in 133 Introduction 251 1. Informal Diplomacy, the Senate, and Roman Individuals 253 2. The Tribuni Plebis in Foreign Affairs 273 3. Informal Diplomacy and the Violence of 133 282 Conclusion 300 7. Was Informal Diplomacy New? Introduction 303 1. Gifts from Outsiders 304 2. Rome and Informal Diplomacy from 264 to 210 311 3. The Date of Rome’s Encounter with Informal Diplomacy 321 Conclusion 329 Conclusion 331 Bibliography 336 vi Abbreviations 1. Ancient Authors and Works App. Appianos. BC Bellum Civile. Hann. Hannibalica. Hisp. Hispanica. Illy. Illyrica. Mac. Macedonica. Mithr. Mithridatica. Pun. Punica. Sam. Samnitica. Syr. Syrica. Aristot. Aristoteles. AP Athenaion Politeia. Athen. Athenaios. Cic. Cicero. Acad. Academica. Amic. De Amicitia. Brut. Brutus. Cael. Oratio pro M. Caelio. Cat. Orationes in Catilinam. Deiot. Oratio pro Rege Deiotaro. Div. De Divinatione. Dom. Oratio de Domo Sua. Inv.Rhet. De Inventione Rhetorica. Leg. De Legibus. Mur. Oratio pro L. Murena. Off. De Officiis. Or. De Oratore. Phil. Orationes Philippicae. Sen. De Senectute. Verr. Orationes Verrinae. Diod. Diodoros Sikeliotes. Dion.Hal. Dionysios of Halikarnassos RA Roman Antiquities. vii Eutrop. Eutropius. Flor. Florus. Frontin. Frontinus. Strat. Strategemata. Gell. Gellius. Joseph. Josephus. AJ Antiquitates Judaeorum. Just. Justinus. Liv. Livius, Ab Urbe Condita Libri. Oxy. Epitome found at Oxyrrhyncus. Per. T. Livi ab Urbe Condita Periochae. Macrob. Macrobius. Sat. Saturnalia. Oros. Orosius. Paus. Pausanias. Plin. Plinius the Elder. NH Naturalis Historia. Plut. Plutarchos. Aem. Aemilius. Arat. Aratos. Alex. Alexandros. Cam. Camillus. Cato Mai. Cato Maior. CGrac. C. Gracchus. Flam. Flamininus. Marc. Marcellus. Mor. Moralia. Philop. Philopoimen. Pomp. Pompeius. Pyrrh. Pyrrhos. TGrac. Ti. Gracchus. Polyai. Polyainos. Strat. Strategemata. Polyb. Polybios. Porph. Porphyrios. Str. Strabon. viii Suet. Suetonius. Tib. Tiberius. Thuk. Thukydides. Val.Max. Valerius Maximus. Vell. Velleius Paterculus. Verg. Vergilius. Aen. Aeneis. [Vict.] Pseudo Aurelius Victor. Vir.Ill. De Viris Illustribus. Xen. Xenophon. Hell. Hellenica. Mem. Memorabilia. Zonar. Zonaras. ix 2. Works of Reference ABSA Annual of the British School at Athens. AJAH American Journal of Ancient History. AJAH NS American Journal of Ancient History. New Series. AJPh American Journal of Philology. ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Walbank, F. W., A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie, and A. Drummond, (eds.) 1989. The Cambridge CAH VII.2² Ancient History. Volume VII. Part 2. The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C (second edition). Cambridge. Astin, A. E., F. W. Walbank, M. W. Frederiksen, and R. M. Ogilvie, (eds.) 1989. The Cambridge Ancient History. CAH VIII² Volume VIII. Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 BC (second edition). Cambridge. Lefévre, F., D. Laroche, and O. Masson, (eds.) 2002. CID IV Corpus des Inscriptions de Delphes, vol.4. Documents Amphictioniques. Paris. CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 1863- CPh Classical Philology. CQ Classical Quarterly. EA Epigraphica Anatolica. FD III Fouilles de Delphes, III. Épigraphie. 1929- FGH Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. 1923- GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Guarducci, M., (ed.) 1935-50. Inscriptiones Creticae.
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