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BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD the editors A COMPANION TO A COMPANION TO Paul Christesen is Professor of Classics at A COMPANION TO sport and spectacle in greek and Dartmouth College, USA. He is the author sport and Spectacle in greek and sport and of Sport and Democracy in the Ancient and Modern Worlds (2012), Olympic Victor Lists and Ancient roman antiquity e l y k d n a n e s e t s i r h C BY D E T I D E Spectacle in Greek History (2007), and numerous articles Contributors to this volume: sport and Spectacle greek and and chapters on Greek historiography, ancient Greek history, and ancient sport. roman Winthrop Lindsay Adams, Gregory S. Aldrete, Carla M. Antonaccio, in greek and Donald G. Kyle is Professor and former Sinclair Bell, Giampiero Bevagna, Stephen Brunet, Michael J. Carter, O T N O I N A P M O C A antiquity Chair of History at the University of Texas at Paul Christesen, Hazel Dodge, Roger Dunkle, Chris Epplett, antiquity roman Arlington, USA. He is the author of Sport and Garrett G. Fagan, Donald G. Kyle, Andrew Lear, Hugh M. Lee, roman antiquity E D I T E D B Y Spectacle in the Ancient World (Wiley-Blackwell, paul christesen Rose MacLean, Kathryn Mammel, Christian Mann, Stephen G. Miller, and donald g. kyle 2007), Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (1998), Sarah C. Murray, Jenifer Neils, Nigel Nicholson, Thomas Heine Nielsen, Athletics in Ancient Athens (1987), and numerous EDITED BY Paul Christesen Zinon Papakonstantinou, David Alan Parnell, Timothy P. J. Perry, articles and chapters on ancient sport history. A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Werner Petermandl, H. W. Pleket, Sofie Remijsen, David Gilman Romano, and donald G. kyle Roman Antiquity presents a series of original Jeremy Rutter, Michael Scott, Jerry Toner, Zara Martirosova Torlone, essays that apply a sociohistorical perspective Steven L. Tuck, Ingomar Weiler, John Zaleski to myriad aspects of ancient sport and

spectacle. Featuring contributions from a 244+6 wide range of international scholars in various ALSO AVAILABLE IN THIS SERIES: disciplines, readings focus on the status and roles of participants, organizers, and spectators while addressing such themes as class, gender, ethnicity, religion, violence, and more. Introductory essays on the historiography of Greek and Roman sport are followed by specialized readings relating to Greek sports in specific locales such as Athens and Sparta. Subsequent readings relating to the Roman Empire focus on sport and spectacle in the city of Rome and in various Roman cities and provinces. Distinctions between “sport” and “spectacle” are examined and understanding sport and spectacle as part of a broader social canvas, rather than isolated activities, is emphasized. Offering a wealth of new insights, A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity represents an invaluable scholarly contribution to ancient sport studies.

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A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Ancient History A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall Published A Companion to Greek Rhetoric A Companion to the Roman Army Edited by Ian Worthington Edited by Paul Erdkamp A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Roman Republic Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Ryan K. Balot Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Ovid A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by Peter E. Knox Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Egbert Bakker Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Hellenistic Literature A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Horace A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Gregson Davis Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Beryl Rawson Edited by Liz James A Companion to Greek Mythology A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone Edited by Alan B. Lloyd A Companion to the Latin Language A Companion to Ancient Macedonia Edited by James Clackson Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington A Companion to Tacitus A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to Women in the Ancient World A Companion to Augustine Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon Edited by Mark Vessey A Companion to Sophocles A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Edited by Kirk Ormand Edited by Marcel van Ackeren A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient A Companion to Ancient Greek Government Near East Edited by Hans Beck Edited by Daniel Potts A Companion to the Neronian Age A Companion to Roman Love Elegy Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter Edited by Barbara K. Gold A Companion to Greek Art Literature and Culture Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos Published A Companion to Persius and Juvenal A Companion to Classical Receptions Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography Edited by Jane DeRose Evans Edited by John Marincola A Companion to Terence A Companion to Catullus Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to Roman Architecture A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek A Companion to Greek Religion and Roman Antiquity Edited by Daniel Ogden Edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity

Edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle This edition first published 2014 © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148–5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data A companion to sport and spectacle in Greek and Roman antiquity / edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle. pages cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) “A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., publication.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4443-3952-9 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-118-60996-5 – ISBN 978-1-118-61004-6 – ISBN 978-1-118-61005-3 (ePUB) – ISBN 978-1-118-61013-8 (Mb) – ISBN 978-1-118-61086-2 (ePDF) 1. Sports–Greece–History. 2. Sports–Rome–History. 3. Sports–Social aspects–Greece–History. 4. Sports–Social aspects–Rome–History. 5. Greece–Social life and customs. 6. Rome–Social life and customs. 7. Greece–Social conditions–To 146 B.C. 8. Rome–Social conditions. I. Christesen, Paul, 1966– II. Kyle, Donald G. GV21.C66 2013 796′.0938–dc23 2013029872 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Panathenaic prize amphora, ca. 530 bc, attributed to Euphiletos Painter. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1914. (14.130.12). Photo © 2013 The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. Cover design by Workhaus Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2014

0002020742.INDD 4 9/19/2013 7:06:46 PM Contents

List of Figures ix List of Maps and Plans xiii Notes on Contributors xv Acknowledgments xxi

General Introduction 1 Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle

Section I Greece 17

Part I the Background 19 1 Greek Athletic Competitions: The Ancient Olympics and More 21 Donald G. Kyle 2 Sport in the Aegean Bronze Age 36 Jeremy Rutter 3 Sport in the Early Iron Age and Homeric Epic 53 Timothy P. J. Perry 4 Representations of Sport in Greek Literature 68 Nigel Nicholson 5 Picturing Victory: Representations of Sport in Greek Art 81 Jenifer Neils 6 Inscriptions as Evidence for Greek Sport 98 H. W. Pleket 7 Recent Trends in the Study of Greek Sport 112 Ingomar Weiler vi Contents

Part II Places 131 8 Panhellenic Athletics at Olympia 133 Thomas Heine Nielsen 9 Sport and Society in Sparta 146 Paul Christesen 10 Sport, Society, and Politics in Athens 159 Donald G. Kyle 11 Athletic Festivals in the Northern Peloponnese and Central Greece 176 David Gilman Romano 12 Sport and Society in the Greek West 192 Carla M. Antonaccio

Part III people, Settings, Ideas 209 13 Sport and Democratization in Ancient Greece (with an Excursus on Athletic Nudity) 211 Paul Christesen 14 Growing Up with Greek Sport: Education and Athletics 236 Werner Petermandl 15 Eros and Greek Sport 246 Andrew Lear 16 Greek Female Sport: Rites, Running, and Racing 258 Donald G. Kyle 17 People on the Fringes of Greek Sport 276 Christian Mann 18 The Greek Stadium as a Reflection of a Changing Society 287 Stephen G. Miller 19 The Social Life of Greek Athletic Facilities (other than Stadia) 295 Michael Scott 20 The Role of Religion in Greek Sport 309 Sarah C. Murray 21 Ancient Critics of Greek Sport 320 Zinon Papakonstantinou 22 Sport, Spectacle, and Society in Ancient Macedonia 332 Winthrop Lindsay Adams Contents vii

Part IV later Greek Sport and Spectacle 347 23 Greek Sport in Egypt: Status Symbol and Lifestyle 349 Sofie Remijsen 24 Sport in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor 364 H. W. Pleket

Section II Rome 377

Part I the Background 379 25 Overview of Roman Spectacle 381 Roger Dunkle 26 Etruscan Sport 395 Giampiero Bevagna 27 Writing Arenas: Roman Authors and Their Games 412 Zara Martirosova Torlone 28 Representations of Spectacle and Sport in Roman Art 422 Steven L. Tuck 29 Material Evidence for Roman Spectacle and Sport 438 Gregory S. Aldrete 30 Trends in the Study of Roman Spectacle and Sport 451 Jerry Toner

Part II Spectacles and Sport in Rome 463 31 Gladiatorial Combat as Alluring Spectacle 465 Garrett G. Fagan 32 Women with Swords: Female Gladiators in the Roman World 478 Stephen Brunet 33 Roman Chariot Racing: Charioteers, Factions, Spectators 492 Sinclair Bell 34 Roman Beast Hunts 505 Chris Epplett 35 Spectacular Executions in the Roman World 520 Chris Epplett 36 Greek Sports in Rome 533 Hugh M. Lee viii Contents

Part III people, Settings, Ideas 543 37 Amphitheaters in the Roman World 545 Hazel Dodge 38 Venues for Spectacle and Sport (other than Amphitheaters) in the Roman World 561 Hazel Dodge 39 People on the Margins of Roman Spectacle 578 Rose MacLean 40 Religion and Roman Spectacle 590 John Zaleski 41 Ancient Critics of Roman Spectacle and Sport 603 Kathryn Mammel

Part IV later Roman Spectacle and Sport 617 42 Romanization through Spectacle in the Greek East 619 Michael J. Carter 43 Spectacle and Sport in Constantinople in the Sixth Century ce 633 David Alan Parnell

Index 646 Figures

1.1 Panathenaic prize amphora showing events from the pentathlon, attributed to the Euphiletos Painter, c.530–520 bce, British Museum 1842, 0314.1, © Trustees of the British Museum 28 2.1 Restored line drawing of the Boxer Rhyton, c.1550–1500 bce, from R. Koehl, Aegean Bronze Age Rhyta, frontispiece, image courtesy of INSTAP Academic Press. Used with permission of R. Koehl 42 3.1 Athenian amphora possibly depicting a chariot race, c.700 bce, British Museum 1936, 1017.1, © Trustees of the British Museum 55 5.1 Athenian krater showing torch race victor, attributed to the Nikias Painter, c.420 bce, British Museum 1898, 0716.6, © Trustees of the British Museum 82 5.2 Athenian cup showing boxers and trainer, attributed to Douris, c.480 bce, British Museum 1867, 0508.1060, © Trustees of the British Museum 85 5.3 Athenian cup showing boxer/pentathlete, attributed to the Epidromos Painter, c.500 bce, Hood Museum of Art C.970.35, Dartmouth College, gift of Mr and Mrs Ray Winfield Smith, Class of 1918 86 5.4 Athenian chous showing two athletes with a younger slave, attributed to the Achilles Painter, c.440 bce, Basel, Antikenmuseum und Sammlung Ludwig BS 485 86 5.5a–b Panathenaic prize amphora showing Athena and wrestling contest, attributed to the Berlin Painter, c.480 bce, Hood Museum of Art C.959.53, Dartmouth College, gift of Mr and Mrs Ray Winfield Smith, Class of 1918 89 5.6a–b Silver stater minted by the city of Aspendos showing wrestlers and youth aiming slingshot, c.350 bce, Hood Museum of Art 990.24.27095, Dartmouth College, Gift of the Class of 1962 90 5.7 Drawing of an athletic victor holding branches and fillets, from an Athenian amphora attributed to Douris, c.480 bce, St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum B.5576, from Compte Rendu de la Commission Impériale Archéologique 1874, pl. 7 91 x Figures

5.8 Marble statue of a boy athlete (the “Westmacott Athlete”), Roman copy of Greek original by Polykleitos of Argos from c.440 bce, British Museum 1857,0807.1, © Trustees of the British Museum 92 5.9 Bronze head of a boxer found at Olympia, c.330–320 bce, Athens National Museum Bronze 6439. Photograph by Sharon Mollerus. Used with permission 93 10.1 Marble relief found in the Athenian Agora showing apobates race, fourth century bce, Agora Museum S399. Photograph by Steven Bach. Used with permission 164 12.1 Family tree of the Deinomenids and Emmenids 198 12.2a Bronze statue of a charioteer found at Delphi (the “Delphi Charioteer”), c.475 bce, Delphi Archaeological Museum Inv. Nos. 3484, 3520, 3540. Photograph by Raminus Falcon. Used with permission 199 12.2b Marble statue of a charioteer found at Motya in Sicily (the “Motya Charioteer”), c.480–450 bce, Museo Joseph Whitaker, Motya, San Pantaleo, Italy. Photograph by Carole King. Used with permission 199 15.1 Athenian skyphos showing a courtship scene, attributed to the Lewis Painter, c.460 bce, Copyright © Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology and the Regents of the University of California Catalog No. 8-4581 251 15.2 Athenian kylix showing courtship scene, attributed to Douris, c.480–470 bce, © 2013 Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence 252 16.1 Bronze figurine, possibly made in Sparta, of a female runner or dancer, found at Prizren in Serbia, c.520–500 bce, British Museum 1876.5–10.1 (Bronze 208), © Trustees of the British Museum 265 18.1 View of the Nemea stadium (c.330–320 bce) from the southeast with the starting line and tunnel entrance leading west to the apodyterion. Photograph by Stephen Miller. Used with permission 288 18.2 Drawing of the starting line with toe grooves and reconstructed hysplex mechanism at Nemea, from S. Miller, Excavations at Nemea II: The Early Hellenistic Stadium (2001), fig. 91. Used with permission 289 18.3 The vaulted entrance to the Nemea stadium, c.320 bce, with the track at the far end. Photograph by Stephen Miller. Used with permission 291 18.4 Drawing of a cutaway restoration of the apodyterion at Nemea, from S. Miller, The Ancient Stadium at Nemea: A Self-Guided Tour (1994), p. 7. Used with permission 292 25.1 Reconstruction of the Circus Maximus in Rome, based on B. Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (1921), p. 105 385 25.2 Mosaic from a Roman villa at Bad Kreuznach, Germany, showing gladiatorial combat between a thraex and murmillo, third century ce. Photograph by Michael Eckrich-Neubauer. Used with permission 387 26.1 Wall painting from the Tomb of the Augurs at Tarquinia, showing wrestlers and the “Phersu Game,” c.540–530 bce. Photograph by Romualdo Moscioni (24 133), American Academy in Rome, Photographic Archive 398 Figures xi

26.2a Drawing of the paintings on the rear wall of the Tomb of Chariots at Tarquinia showing athletic contests and spectators, c.500–490 bce, based on O. Stackelberg and A. Kestner, Unedierte Gräber von Corneto (1830), pl. 2 400 26.2b Detailed drawing of the painting in the upper left corner of the rear wall of the Tomb of Chariots at Tarquinia showing spectators and boxers, c.500–490 bce. German Archaeological Institute Rome (Schwanke, Neg. D-DAI-ROM 79.943 and 79.989) 400 28.1 Wall painting of gladiators from the Tomb of Vestorius Priscus at Pompeii, 76 ce. Photograph by Steven Tuck. Used with permission 426 28.2 Mosaic from the Porta Marina Baths in Ostia showing athletes, second century ce. Photograph by Steven Tuck. Used with permission 428 28.3 Front panel from a marble sarcophagus for a child, showing chariot race with Erotes as charioteers, c.190–220 ce, Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Missouri (83.65): Silver anniversary gift of the UMC Development Fund Board and the Boone County Community Trust 429 28.4 Marble relief from the amphitheater at Capua showing reenactment of the Calydonian boar hunt, second century ce. Photograph by Steven Tuck. Used with permission 430 29.1 Bronze gladiator’s helmet from Pompeii, first century ce, British Museum GR 1946.5–14.1, © Trustees of the British Museum 439 29.2 Roman clay lamp from London (made in Gaul or Britain), showing gladiatorial combat, first century ce, British Museum P&EE 1856.7–1.336, © Trustees of the British Museum 446 31.1 Mosaic from Zliten, Libya showing a fallen gladiator appealing for missio while a referee restrains his opponent, third century ce, © Gilles Mermet/ Art Resource, NY 469 31.2 Mosaic from Zliten, Libya showing an injured gladiator appealing for missio, third century ce, © Gilles Mermet/Art Resource, NY 470 32.1 Marble relief from Halicarnassos showing female gladiators, first to second century ce, British Museum GR 1847.4-24.19, © Trustees of the British Museum 481 33.1 Bronze statuette of an African child charioteer (discovered in Altrier), second century ce, Musée national d’histoire et d’art Luxembourg, inv. n. 2004–15/1750, © MHNA Luxembourg/T. Lucas. 497 33.2 Marble funerary altar of T. Flavius Abascantus, 95 or 98 ce, Palazzo Ducale (Museo Lapidario), Urbino, inv. no. 41117, © Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici delle Marche 501 34.1 Lower register of ivory diptych made for Anastasius showing venatio, 517 ce (formerly in Berlin, now lost). Photograph from J. Helbig, L’Art Mosan (1906), pl. 4 516 35.1 Part of a mosaic from El-Djem, Tunisia showing damnatio ad bestias, c.180 ce. Photograph by Erron Silverstein. Used with permission 524 37.1 The amphitheater at Pompeii, c.70 bce. Photograph by Roger B. Ulrich. Used with permission 546 37.2 The amphitheater at Saintes, France (ancient Mediolanum Santonum), c.40 ce. Photograph by Myrabella. Used with permission 550 xii Figures

37.3 The interior of the Colosseum in Rome, c.75 ce. Photograph by Kacan. Used with permission 552 38.1 The circus at Caesarea Maritima in modern-day Israel, c.20 bce. Photograph by Odemars. Used with permission 565 38.2 The stadium at Aphrodisias in modern-day Turkey, late first century ce. Photograph by D. Enrico di Palma. Used with permission 568 38.3 The South Theater at Gerasa in modern-day Jordan, originally constructed in late first century ce. Photograph by Diego Delso. Used with permission 573 42.1 Mosaic from Smirat, Tunisia showing beast hunt and sponsor (Magerius), c.250 ce. Photograph by Vanni/Art Resource, NY 624 Maps and Plans

0.1 Some major sites associated with Greek and Roman sport and spectacle 5 1.1 Sites of the periodos games 24 1.2 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 1 32 2.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 2 37 3.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 3 57 6.1a–b Key sites mentioned in Chapter 6 101 8.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 8 134 8.2 Plan of the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia and surrounding areas 139 9.1 Plan of ancient Sparta 149 10.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 10 161 11.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 11 177 11.2 Plan of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and surrounding areas 178 11.3 Plan of the sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia and surrounding areas 182 11.4 Plan of the sanctuary of Zeus at Nemea and surrounding areas 184 11.5 Plan of the sanctuary of Zeus at Mt Lykaion and surrounding areas 186 12.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 12 193 13.1 Map of Laconia and Messenia 215 14.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 14 237 16.1a–b Key sites mentioned in Chapter 16 260 18.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 18 288 19.1 Plan of the gymnasion at Delphi 298 22.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 22 334 23.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 23 350 24.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 24 366 24.2 Key regions mentioned in Chapter 24 367 25.1 Plan of ancient Rome showing major spectacle sites 384 26.1 Key sites mentioned in Chapter 26 398