Vol. 37, No. 2, February 2006

Contents

From the Editor 2 Wytze Brouwer

Using Computers to Evaluate Teachers’ Understanding of Physics Concepts 3 Ali R Rezaei

Science and Religion: A New Dialogue? 10 David Visser

Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric: A Centenary Overview 27 Wytze Brouwer

The Past and the Future of Elementary Science Curriculum in Alberta 37 Anita Kamal

Electricity 53 Frank Weichman

Approaches to Reciprocal Teaching in Science Education: A Questions-Based Approach 64 Dr Thelma Gunn and Dr Lance Grigg

Copyright © 2006 by The Alberta Teachers’ Association (ATA), 11010 142 Street NW, Edmonton T5N 2R1. Unless otherwise indi- cated in the text, reproduction of material in Alberta Science Education Journal (ASEJ) is authorized for classroom and profes- sional development use, provided that each copy contains full acknowledgement of the source and that no charge is made beyond the cost of reprinting. Any other reproduction in whole or in part without prior written consent of the Association is strictly prohib- ited. ASEJ is a publication of the Science Council of the ATA. Editor: Wytze Brouwer, Department of Secondary Education, Uni- versity of Alberta, 57 University Campus NW, Edmonton T6G 2G5. Editorial and production services: Document Production staff, ATA. Opinions of writers are not necessarily those of the Council or the ATA. Address all correspondence to the editor. ISSN 0701-1024 Individual copies of this journal can be ordered at the following prices: 1 to 4 copies, $7.50 each; 5 to 10 copies, $5.00 each; over 10 copies, $3.50 each. Please add 5 per cent shipping and handling and 7 per cent GST. Please contact Distribution at Barnett House to place your order. In Edmonton, dial (780) 447-9400, ext 321; toll free in Alberta, dial 1-800-232-7208, ext 321. ASEJ publishes scholarly work and strictly follows the “blind review” procedures and many other editorial policies described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1983). Thus ASEJ is a refereed journal similar to most other scholarly periodicals published in Canada and the United States. Personal information regarding any person named in this document is for the sole purpose of professional consultation between ­members of The Alberta Teachers’ Association.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006  From the Editor

In this issue we deal with a number of different issues: Ali Rezaei presents research on the introduction of two physics instruction software pack- ages (including Alberta’s modular approach to physics). A distressing finding of the research was the lack of conceptual understanding of physics among practising physics teachers. David Visser presents a summary of the current philosophical relationship between science and religion, and suggests that a more conciliatory dialogue is possible. Visser gives a number of interesting recommendations for science teachers for remaining sensitive to the needs of their students. Wytze Brouwer presents two fictional interviews with Albert Einstein and one with Mileva Maric, Einstein’s first wife. They give the general reader an overview of Einstein’s physics, his views of society, and Mileva’s view on their relationship as students and as a married couple. Anita Kamal presents an historical overview of science curriculum policy in Alberta from 1922 to the present. Frank Weichman introduces skiing and ski hills in an analogy of electrical currents and other electrical phenomena. Thelma Gunn and Lance Grigg present a question-based approach to science teaching to help students better process science textual materials. An easy-to-use template with examples is provided to focus student reading and enhance understanding. —Wytze Brouwer

 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Using Computers to Evaluate Teachers’ Understanding of Physics Concepts Ali R Rezaei

Introduction which they were presented.” Although FCI is a reliable test to evaluate teachers’ misconcep- The video A Private Universe, a production tion, many scientific conceptions can not be of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astro- easily evaluated with paper-and-pencil tests, physics, Science Education Department, Sci- such as FCI. As discussed later in this paper ence Media Group, was an eye opener for “The Inventive Model and MAP” could be used science education. In the video, interviews with to create interactive modules for evaluation of Harvard graduates revealed misconceptions teachers’ misconceptions in physics. Using about science among the best students in the such multimedia and/or Internet tools with so- United States. According to Mazur (1997), phisticated interactive simulations to investigate another eye-opener was the release of the force teachers’ misconceptions is considered to be concept inventory (FCI) developed by Heste- important and ultimately could be a third eye nes, Wells and Swackhamer (1992). He called opener in the area of science education. it an eye opener because he realized that stu- dents’ misconceptions could not be diagnosed with the conventional standard or teacher-made Theoretical Background tests, or even the problem-solving strategies he had used for many years while teaching at The Quality of Current Educational Harvard University. Research in science educa- Software tion has repeatedly shown that only certain The quality of educational software particu- types of questions can evaluate the ability of larly for the purpose of conceptual learning has students to resolve concepts from one another been the subject of so many studies since and apply them to real situations. However, the early 1980s. Komoski (1989) estimated that successful construction of conceptual tests is 1,500–2,400 new packages are published in rarely reported in the literature. the United States each year and that the pro- So far, FCI and a few other conceptual tests portion of good quality software is something have been used exclusively to evaluate stu- between 5 to 10 per cent. The United States dents’ misconceptions. However, misconcep- Department of Education reports that a signifi- tions are not limited to students; they are also cant proportion of computer software in schools common among teachers (Mestre 1994). For is obsolete by today’s standards. A survey of example, after a comprehensive study of 159 educational software companies reveals that science teachers’ misconceptions, Kruger, 67 per cent have no formal guidelines regarding Palacio and Summers (1992) concluded that the criteria used to guide software development “virtually none of the primary school teachers (Roth and Petty 1998). According to the litera- had a correct (in the Newtonian sense) view of ture, there are many reasons for the low qual- the instances involving forces and motion with ity of educational software, including the lack

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006  of a theoretical model for the instructional de- Theoretically, the inventive model has four sign. After reviewing hundreds of research phases. The first phase starts with a system- papers on instructional design and dozens of atic analysis of students’ preconceptions. Al- educational software, I have developed the though students’ preconceptions are unique inventive model as a theoretical framework for and private, most of them are similar and pub- science instruction and, particularly, for soft- lic. Therefore, in the instructional design of the ware development in science education inventive model, both kinds of preconceptions (Rezaei and Katz 1998, 2002, 2003). The in- are addressed. Simulations and videotaped ventive model was developed to pave the way experiments are developed based on the lit- from edutainment (or infotainment) toward high- erature on students’ common misconceptions. quality educational software. However, teachers also offer feedback based Even if teachers find good-quality software, on individual students’ answers to conceptual it is often difficult to integrate it into their lesson questions. The software based on this model plan. Some parts of the software do not match could either be used by the teacher in class as the goals and objectives of the course. The an instructional tool or by the students after modular approach to physics (MAP) has been class, individually or collaboratively. developed to overcome this difficulty. This ap- In the second phase, advance organizers or proach provides customized instruction for other cognitive strategies, such as concept teachers. Teachers usually prefer to make their maps and/or analogies, are used to activate own instruction rather than using someone students’ prior knowledge and bridge it to the else’s design. This online navigation and ar- new concepts to be learned (an earlier paper rangement tool provides modules instead of by Rezaei and Katz [1998] explains how these units of instruction, allowing teachers to select cognitive strategies are integrated into the in- the modules they want to use and arrange them ventive model). In both this second phase and how they want. All of the modules are designed in the last phase, students’ acceptable concepts based on my many years of experience and on are refined and reinforced through guided dis- research findings, including the inventive covery (Dykstra, Boyle and Monarch 1992). If model. In summary, although some high-qual- the majority of students have a deep miscon- ity educational software in physics exists, al- ception, the teacher will move to the third phase most none provide instruction based on the to rectify the misconception. However, if the users’ prior knowledge and misconceptions. students’ preconceptions are close enough to the scientific conceptions, the teacher will move directly to the fourth phase, in which students’ The Inventive Model conceptions are refined. The inventive model is a theoretical model The third phase includes different activities, for educational software development, as well such as having students as a conceptual-change model for improving • test their preconceptions through hands-on conceptual learning. Research findings consis- activities or computer-based simulations; tently show that students’ misconceptions are • compare their preconceptions with natural deeply seated and likely to remain after instruc- phenomena and related scientific theories, tion or resurface some weeks after students and identify any conflicts between their mis- have displayed some initial understanding conceptions and the scientific theories; or (Mazur 1997; Mestre 1994; Halloun and Heste- • work through a multiperspective demon­ nes 1985). Research also shows that instruc- stration and problem-solving situation to tional approaches that facilitate conceptual convince them that they need to replace their change are more effective than other ap- misconception with a new concept, or explore proaches that disregard students’ cognitive plausible alternatives by themselves or as structure (Mazur 1997). However, teachers and suggested by their classmates or the teach- educational software developers rarely build er, and choose the more convincing one. their instruction on a valid measure of students’ misconceptions. The instructional design used In the fourth phase, the teacher explains the in the inventive model is based on a longitudi- correct answer and demonstrates the advantages nal and systematic evaluation of students’ of the conceptions currently accepted by the misconceptions. science community through a multiperspective

 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 demonstration. The teacher may also help students actively interacted with the software students summarize what they have learned. during the whole program. The inventive The basic rationale of the inventive model model was effective in rectifying students’ mis- is that conceptual change does not simply oc- conceptions for more than 50 per cent of the cur when students see a conflict between their students. It should be noted that successful preconceptions and the scientific realities; reports of conceptual change are rare in the rather, students must test their preconceptions literature. and come to understand the advantages of I was surprised to observe some misconcep- scientific explanations. This will only happen if tions among teachers while they were preview- the teacher provides the required cognitive ing the CD-ROM and teaching their students. tools and a clear contrast between the student’s Although this experiment was not targeting conceptions and scientific conceptions through teachers, I asked several physics teachers to a variety of demonstrations. provide me with feedback about the software, Therefore, the key factor in the inventive and the misconceptions were observed during model is the multiperspective presentation. The the evaluation process. I decided to do more author believes that generalizations based on research to investigate teachers’ misconcep- a single experimental design could be mislead- tions in physics using MAP. ing. However, considerable time is required to probe students’ conceptions and present new concepts from different perspectives through a Modular Approach to Physics variety of demonstrations. An effective way of (MAP) dealing with time limitations in formal science classrooms and in many inquiry approaches is The MAP project is a multi-institution venture to use computers with the instruction and the funded by the government of Alberta and coor- inquiry processes. I have developed the multi- dinating the efforts of groups at six colleges and media physics CD-ROM, based on the inven- universities in Alberta, including King’s Univer- tive model, as a practical way of achieving this sity College, the University of Calgary and the goal. Videotaped or simulated science experi- University of Alberta, the three of which pro- ments were designed, developed and pre- duced the applets for MAP (Martin, Austen, sented based on longitudinal studies by teach- Brouwer, Wright and Laue 2001). [An applet is ers. Dozens of science experiments, animations, a small application or program, often written in sound clips, simulations, pictures, graphs, ta- Java, that runs in another program, such as a bles, concept maps, analogies, metaphors and web browser.] Two versions of the course are advance organizers are available in a multime- provided. One is pre-organized or sequential, dia program on the CD-ROM. and the other can be customized. Teachers and students can choose to follow-up the sequential version by customizing their own units. The Research on the Inventive Model online courses based on this model are avail- The inventive model was used in experimen- able at http://canu.ucalgary.ca and http://turing. tal research (Rezaei 2003). For the research, kingsu.ca/~map. 143 Grade 10–12 students from three high One purpose of the proposed project is to schools were randomly assigned to three compare the effectiveness of these two ver- groups. The inventive model was compared sions, the results of which could influence the with a radical constructivist approach and the future of online course development. MAP has conventional physics instruction. The inventive been used at the University of Calgary, the model group scored significantly higher than University of Alberta, King’s University College the radical constructive group on the concep- and the University of Athabasca. However, no tual post-test. The inventive model also led to empirical research on its effectiveness has yet greater conceptual change in students’ under- been reported. standing of Newton’s laws of motion. Finally, it The content of the MAP system is delivered was observed that 3 hours of working on the by an applet called CANU Navigator. CANU inventive model CD-ROM was as effective as (Content Arranging and Navigating Utility) is a 16 hours of conventional physics instruction. content manager that presents content and allows According to the qualitative analysis, most users to build their own instructional design.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006  The content is grouped into packages called • Test Yourself—Includes collections of ques- courses. For each concept there are five options: tions in either multiple-choice, numerical- • Get a Glimpse—Includes introductory mate- answer or fill-in-the-blank format. These ques- rial that draws attention to an important tions are based on the material in the other aspect of the concept to be studied, without items. The questions are conceptual, which being technical. The presentation might in- requires applying the concept to another volve a video or flash animation, or a picture situation. with some text. • Get Information—Includes textbook-like • Explain It—Includes lesson-like material that material that summarizes the important points. This material is not presented inter- explains the concept in an interactive man- actively. Get Information items are often ner, often with the aid of one or more interac- linked to other content items to provide quick tive applets. Some of the accompanying text access to relevant background information. has an audio track. These links are provided in the Related • Simulate It—Includes simulations to accom- Items panel in the MAP window. pany the Explain It items, but here they are made available directly instead of embedded in a lesson. This allows quick access to the Examples from the Tutorial simulations for in-class use. The simulations Example 1—This applet shows the motion of a also have a larger screen format than when block on an incline with or without friction. The used in the Explain It context. Detailed explan­ incline is either at rest or accelerating horizon- ations of the features of a simulation are tally. The user may change the slope, friction available under Help on the applet’s menu bar. and acceleration, and then click the play button to Some simulations have suggested activities observe the motion. The motion can be observed that can be carried out with the simulations. either from the Lab or the Ramp (incline) frame.

Figure 1: Simulation of Motion on an Incline with and without Friction

 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Example 2—This applet simulates the forces maximum possible score on the test was 26. in Fletcher’s Trolley, including string tension. The results of the descriptive analysis are Fletcher’s Trolley is a system of two blocks, given in Table 1. A paired sample t-test was one of them moving horizontally and one of used to compare the pretest and post-test. them vertically. The blocks are connected by a Although the t-test (t = 3.56) showed a signifi- string that is guided over a pulley. The applet cant increase in teacher’s performance on the lets users vary the mass of the blocks and test due to the instructional treatment, the the pulley. overall poor performance of the teachers on the pretest and post-test was shocking. In fact, 45 per cent of teachers failed the test (scored The Results of the Pilot Study below 60 per cent). Even after the workshop, on MAP about 33 per cent of teachers failed the post- A workshop using MAP was conducted with test. Only 10 per cent of the teachers showed 27 high school teachers from Calgary. Only four a coherent understanding (scored more than modules were tested: Friction, Elevator, Spring 90 per cent) of the physics concepts as mea- Scale and Collision. A 14-item questionnaire, sured by the pretest questionnaire. However, similar to FCI questions, was developed and after the workshop, about 30 per cent of teach- used in pretesting and post-testing. Each ques- ers showed a coherent understanding of tion was weighted one point, except question ­physics concepts as measured by the post-test four, which was weighted three points. The questionnaire.

Figure 2: Simulation of Fletcher Trolley

Table 1: Teacher’s Score on Pretest and Post-test

N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Pretest 27 8.75 23.50 15.8426 4.03718 Post-test 24 9.50 23.75 17.2500 4.08537

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006  Example 3—This applet shows projectile mo- any moment by an energy column. The user tion in a uniform gravitational force field (force may change the mass, the angle of projection field of constant magnitude and direction near or the force of gravity, and observe the motion. the surface of the earth). The projectile’s ki- The simulation also shows the kinetic and po- netic and potential energies are represented at tential energy at any moment.

Figure 3: Simulation of Projectile Motion

Conclusion a moving car and observe the displacement and velocity of the car at any moment. However, Currently, MAP can not record students’ the current version of MAP does not let the user interactions with the online software. However, or the researchers evaluate the users’ concep- a detailed analysis of teachers’ interactions with tual understanding of this concept. An important the computer (such as keeping track of which improvement will be having the applets record the items are chosen, which buttons are clicked user’s mouse movements while they are finding and the amount of time spent on a question) answers to practical questions. For instance, could be an invaluable source of information the user might be asked to change the accel- on teachers’ cognitive processes. eration of the car as it moves to follow a given For example, the applet on Instantaneous path or a given time-versus-velocity curve. The Acceleration lets the user investigate the rela- program should be able to not only save the tionship between the position, velocity and users final response but also record the user’s acceleration vectors in a motion that can be interactions as they work with MAP. This kind of controlled through the acceleration vector. The interactive evaluation, which has been tested user can click on the acceleration dial to set the successfully in the inventive model, is almost magnitude and direction of the acceleration of impossible in traditional paper-and-pencil tests

 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 and even conceptual tests, such as FCI. Using teachers. Although both software have been such interactive evaluation would reveal even developed for teaching, they can be used as a more-deeply seated misconceptions among means to evaluate teachers’ misconceptions. students and teachers. Regarding the literature in conceptual phys- ics instruction, as well as the above reports on References the inventive model and MAP, the following Dykstra, D I, C F Boyle and I A Monarch. 1992. conclusions could be made: “Studying Conceptual Change in Learning Phys- 1. Only certain types of questions can be used ics,” Science Education 76: 615–52. to evaluate the ability of students to resolve Halloun, I A and D Hestenes. 1985. “Common Sense concepts from one another and to apply Concepts About Motion,” American Journal of them to real situations. Physics 53, no 11: 1056–65. 2. Many scientific conceptions could not be eas- Hestenes, D, M Wells and G Swackhamer. 1992. ily evaluated with paper-and-pencil tests. “Force Concept Inventory.” The Physics Teacher 3. Using multimedia and/or Internet tools with 30: 141–53. sophisticated interactive simulations to in- Komoski, K. 1989. The Quest for Quality Software: vestigate students’ misconceptions is impor- Information Technologies in Education. Paris, tant and could be a third eye-opener in France: Center for Educational Research and Information. science education. 4. Misconceptions are not limited to students. Kruger, C, D Palacio and M Summers. 1992. “Surveys of English Primary Teachers’ Conceptions of According to the above observations, they Force, Energy and Materials.” Science Education are also common among teachers. 76, no 4: 339–51. 5. In the first pilot study, several misconceptions Laue, H J. 2005. “Software Support For Learning are observed among teachers while they and Teaching Physics.” Physics in Canada 61, were interacting with the physics software. no 2 (March/April). 6. In the second pilot study, only 10 per cent of Martin B E, D J Austen, W Brouwer, P W Wright and the teachers showed a coherent understand- H J Laue. 2001. Designing Applets that Foster ing (scored more than 90 per cent) of the Constructivist Teaching and Learning. Paper physics concepts as measured by the pre- published in proceedings of Fifth International test questionnaire. Conference on Computer Based Learning in Sci- ence at the Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Both the number of teachers examined in Republic, July 7–12. the above pilot studies and the scope of the survey was extremely limited. Furthermore, Mazur, E. 1997. Peer Instruction: A User’s Manual. NJ: Prentice Hall Series in Educational Innova- both studies have been conducted in Canada. tion, Upper Saddle River. Although some university physics instructors in Canada are using MAP, no data is available on Mestre, J P. 1994. Cognitive Aspects of Learning and Teaching Science. Washington, DC: National the number of American teachers using MAP. Science Foundation Publication. A comprehensive study needs to be done on a larger sample, with more controls and in a Rezaei, A R and L Katz. 1998. “A Cognitive Model for Conceptual Change in Science Instruction,” larger scope of physics content. Furthermore, Journal of Educational Computing Research 19, many scientific conceptions could not be eas- no 2: 153–72. ily evaluated with paper-and-pencil tests, such ———. 2002. “Using Computer Assisted Instruction as FCI. Therefore, a detailed analysis of teach- to Compare the Inventive Model and the Radical ers’ interactions with computers is needed to Constructivist Approach to Teaching Physics,” investigate teachers’ understanding of physics Journal of Science Education and Technology 11, concepts. no 4: 367–80. Either the physics CD-ROM or the online ———. 2003. “An Integrative Approach to Collab- MAP could be used to investigate teachers’ orative Electronic Learning,” Journal of Computers misconceptions. The CD-ROM version is limited in Mathematics and Science Teaching 22, no 1: to Newton’s laws of motion and could be used by 67–83. teachers who do not have access to the Inter- Roth, S K and B A Petty. 1988. “Educational Software: net. The online MAP system is a comprehen- Why Are Teachers Dissatisfied?” Educational sive advanced physics course for high school Considerations 15, no 2: 24–26.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006  Science and Religion: A New Dialogue? David Visser

For many years, the relationship between developed a four-part typology for relating sci- science and religion has been characterized by ence and religion, which he has named Conflict, much conflict—especially the last couple of Independence, Dialogue and Integration. This centuries with the development of modern sci- article explores these four categories and hope- ence. The assumption has been that as we fully sheds some insight on their usefulness develop a rational scientific understanding of and applicability. As we shall soon discover, our world, the irrational beliefs that mark our Barbour himself strongly disagrees with the religious understandings will gradually and Conflict thesis and sees some limited useful- naturally disappear. It has thus seemed war- ness in the Independence position. He does ranted to some that the following dichotomies see a natural progression to the Dialogue and exist: science versus religion, rational knowl- Integration modes for those who seek an ap- edge versus irrational belief, objective facts proach that neither deifies science nor deni- versus subjective faith and so on. grates religion but rather takes seriously what Lately, however, the credibility of the conflict both have to say about our world and our place thesis between science and religion is chal- in it. lenged by scholars studying the issue from a But does Barbour’s approach demonstrate variety of perspectives. These include scientists significant progress in the understanding of who are taking a deep interest in theological science and religion as two bodies of knowl- matters and theologians who are becoming edge that have significant things to say to one aware of the implications of scientific develop- another? Or does it represent the idiosyncratic ments for religious beliefs. Members of the two views of those who desperately seek a rap- groups often work collaboratively and are pro- prochement of these two fields at any cost? ducing a rather large amount of work dedicated These are some of the questions that will be to uncovering and developing a fruitful relation- looked at in this article. In addition, the views ship between scientific and religious thought. of other scholars, many of whom support Some historians (Numbers 1992; and Lindberg Barbour’s methodology but also some who are and Numbers 2003) and sociologists (Stahl, critical of his ideas, will be brought to bear on Campbell, Petry and Diver 2002) are also work- these issues. Finally, some of the implications ing hard to shed light on the complex relation- that this discussion may have for science teach- ship between science and religion. ers and science education in general will be One of the most productive and influential presented. members of this rather new field is Ian Barbour. Some of his best-known works include Religion in an Age of Science (1990), which was re- Conflict cently updated as Religion and Science: His- Two works were influential in promoting the torical and Contemporary Issues (1997) and Conflict thesis in the latter part of the 19th When Science Meets Religion (2000). He has century: J W Draper’s History of the Conflict

10 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Between Religion and Science (1874) and A D also critically analyzes the literary style of the White’s A History of the Warfare of Science with text (something the biblical literalists are loath Theology in Christendom (1896). Historians to do). In short, he applies some thoughtful such as Welch have recently challenged the hermeneutics to distill the main message and assumptions and motivations of these earlier reminds us that authors. Welch points out that “both books turn in our scientific world it is easy to forget out to be bitter attacks on institutional Christian- that there are ways of telling the truth other ity much more than serious discussions of than algebraic formulae or Western-style substantive issues” (1996, 29–30, emphasis in history . . . some of the most important and the original). Nonetheless, these works con- meaningful things in our lives are best tinue to be cited by authors such as Mahner shared using metaphor and poetic image. and Bunge (1996), who are determined to (2003, 3) promote the idea that science and religion are irreconcilable. Watts contends from his literary analysis that “unless we have a previous agenda” (a desire Biblical Literalism to construct a modern scientific worldview from The question of how to interpret scripture is an ancient cosmology), it is unwise to read an an old and vexing issue. In the Christian tradi- actual historical account in Genesis 1 (2002, 4). tion, there has been a renewed emphasis on Through his comparison with other creation literal interpretations of the Bible, even of the accounts of other civilizations, he argues that, creation accounts in early Genesis. This devel- for a band of Hebrews who had recently es- opment in the 20th century has complex cul- caped slavery in Egypt, “Might it not be that tural roots and has gained an impressive Genesis 1 was written with a particular concern foothold in parts of North America. Historian to declare that it was Israel’s god . . . who was Ronald Numbers has documented this move- alone responsible for the good and perfect ment in his book The Creationists (1992) and order of creation?” (2002, 9). One of Watts’ describes how it has led to what is known as main points is that one can miss important “scientific creationism,” something that Bar- theological truths from the text by overempha- bour describes (in a rare use of strong lan- sizing its literal nature. guage) as “a threat to both religious and scien- Lately some anti-evolutionary groups such tific freedom” (1992, 16). One of the hallmarks as the intelligent design movement have been of this “science” is the claim to complete histo- edging away from a literal approach to scrip- ricity for the six-day creation story in Genesis 1, ture. This has caused some infighting and which obviously leads to a distinctly anti- consternation in the creationist camp and led ­evolutionary line of thinking. In the blunt words to even more eccentric scholarship on the is- of founder Henry Morris, “Satan himself is the sue. Robert Pennock has documented these originator of the concept of evolution” (cited in events in his book The Tower of Babel (1999). Morris 1994, 5). He claims that all the disagreement that has The interpretation of Genesis 1 remains an resulted over issues of interpretation should important—and controversial—issue for many give us “sufficient reason to doubt whether Christian scholars. According to theologian revelation could possibly supply the purported Rikki Watts, unified basis for such a science. Broaden one’s view to observe battlegrounds of theological On one level, how one reads Genesis 1 has disputes among competing religious traditions in some circles become a litmus test of and even angelic scientists would fear to tread Christian orthodoxy, whether conservative there” (1999, 204). or liberal. Hold the “wrong” view and one is either a dupe of secular critical theory or a Scientific Materialism troglodyte literalist . . . On another level, the Barbour contends that scientific materialists importance of stories of origins cannot be mainly hold two beliefs: “(1) the scientific overestimated. They define us. (2002, 1) method is the only reliable path to knowledge; Watts does an impressive job looking at the (2) matter (or matter and energy) is the funda- cultural context of the ancient Hebrews for mental reality in the universe” (1997, 78). The whom Genesis 1 was originally written and he first belief demonstrates a conviction in the

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 11 epistemological supremacy of science. Accord- he says that the “principle that is opposite to ing to educational theorist William Cobern, the reduction—and, when necessary, its sufficient significant problem with this view is answer—is God’s love for all things, for each the claim that empirical science can be an thing for its own sake and not for its category” autonomous, self-sustaining generator and (2000, 103). guarantor of knowledge that has no need of Barbour points out the three variants of re- any extra-scientificsynthesis (that might be ductionism: methodological, epistemological a meta-narrative, metaphysic, or worldview), and ontological (1997, 230–33). He describes which weaves science into the human methodological reductionism as a “useful re- community’s sense of meaningfulness, mo- search strategy . . . [that] may be accepted . . . rality, and purpose. (2000, 231, emphasis in as long as it does not lead to the neglect of the original) research programs at a variety of levels, from molecules to ecosystems” (1997, 231). Episte- In commenting further, he adds: “All forms mological reductionism can be roughly de- of knowledge including empirically demon- scribed as the “everything is physics” approach. strated knowledge require some form of foun- Barbour shows through several examples the dation that is itself not empirically demonstrable significant limitations of this view (1997, 231– in any nontautological fashion” (2002, 234). The 32). Finally, ontological reductionism is the scientific materialists don’t seem to realize that metaphysical underpinning of scientific mate- the institutions of science have come under rialism. This is the aforementioned assertion significant scrutiny in the latter part of the twen- that “matter is the fundamental reality in the tieth century. The rejection of logical positivism universe” (1997, 78). This last view is clearly by many scientists and philosophers as a cred- anathema to religious or spiritual concerns, but ible epistemological account of how we obtain it is important to point out again that it is not scientific knowledge (although positivistic think- scientifically justifiable in any way. ing lingers on) was a significant event. Accord- To sum up, Barbour’s view on the Conflict ing to Ian Hacking, “philosophers long made a position is that mummy of science. When they finally unwrapped both scientific materialists and biblical literal- the cadaver and saw the remnants of an his- ists have failed to recognize significant torical process of becoming and discovering, distinctions between scientific and religious they created for themselves a crisis of rational- assertions. The scientific materialists have ity. That happened around 1960” (1983, 1). promoted a particular philosophical commit- The second belief is a metaphysical position ment as if it were a scientific conclusion, and (not provable by science) that hints at the re- the biblical literalists have promoted a pre- ductionistic thinking that often goes hand in scientific cosmology as if it were an essential hand with scientific materialism. Many scholars part of religious faith. (2000, 36) have pointed out (Barbour included) that a re- ductionist science is no friend of religion or Furthermore, Barbour contends that “both spirituality of any kind. Gregg Easterbrook sides err in assuming that evolutionary theory contends that this outlook tends to displace is inherently atheistic, and thereby perpetuate “belief in anything beyond genes, machines, the false dilemma of having to choose between and the vibration of atoms. Many have waited, science and religion. The whole controversy expectantly or even impatiently, for the moment reflects the shortcomings of fragmented and when science fully refutes obsolete conceptions specialized higher education” (1997, 84, em- of meaning and purpose” (1998, 24). He ex- phasis added). presses the danger in embracing a philosophy Thus the Conflict position is seen as basi- where those who enjoy privileged positions in cally a “dead-end street” by Barbour and many society blame “only a callous universe—not lack of his colleagues. It can be concluded that in of action by persons in privileged positions—for order to harmonize science and religion (if that the needs of the less fortunate . . . If it’s all be one’s desire), and see any progress in relat- pointless anyway then why not enjoy your ing the two disciplines, one would need to re- ironic airs, your capital gains, and your informa- linquish either of the extreme positions described tion-age sinecure?” (1998, 29). Essayist Wen- in this section and seek a more realistic expec- dell Berry puts it plainly and beautifully when tation of what scientific or religious knowledge

12 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 can provide. Barbour suggests that a helpful At the other end of the Kantian spectrum move might be to emphasize the distinctiveness we find the logical positivists of the early in each discipline and keep them well apart—in 20th century who put their “faith” in empirical other words, move to the Independence posi- facts and the rational, logical conclusions that tion in his typology. they produce. For them, the subjective, reli- gious sides to our natures can be ignored ­because they lack any conceptual clarity or Independence empirical data to back up their truth claims. Viewing science and religion as indepen- What they do have in common with the exis- dent entities represents more than the prag- tentialists, however, is the view that science matic interests of conflict avoidance, according and religion deal with very different realms and to Barbour. The “separation into watertight are best kept apart. compartments is [also] motivated . . . by the One does not have to go to the extremes of desire to be faithful to the distinctive character the positivists or the existentialists, however, to of each area of life and thought” (1997, 84). appreciate the Independence argument. It can He points to the differing methods, languages be clearly demonstrated that the languages and purposes of science and religion as argu- used by scientific and religious endeavours ments to support this move (1997, 84–89). often serve entirely different functions (Bar- Many scholars trace the Independence thesis bour 1997, 87–89). It also seems reasonable back to the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who to assert that “the goal of science is to under- argued (among other things) that science stand lawful relations among natural phenom- and religion involve different forms of knowl- ena, while that of religion is to follow a way of edge. Barbour claims that the “ghost of Kant life within a larger framework of meaning” still hovers over those who say that science (2000, 52). Science essentially deals with how deals with facts and religion deals with values” questions and religion delve into the meta- (1997, 47). physical realm to tackle the why questions. It can The theology behind Protestant neo-ortho- therefore be argued that science and religion may doxy emphasizes divine revelation without an exist in a complementary relationship rather adherence to biblical literalism. In this line of than in conflict. This approach is also a good thinking, one needs to separate the important political solution because it promotes peace biblical messages from the incidental and often between the two camps and is thus favoured ancient science in which these messages are by many scientists and nonscientists alike. often contained. The results of scientific theoriz- But Barbour is not satisfied with the Inde- ing are not viewed as being important to one’s pendence position. To those in religious tradi- faith (Barbour 1997, 85). Consider the words tions who would ignore scientific findings, he of evangelist Billy Graham (1964): would argue that “a way of life presupposes beliefs about the nature of reality and cannot I don’t think that there’s any conflict at all be sustained if those beliefs are no longer cred- between science today and the Scriptures. ible” (2000, 37). Philosopher Nicholas Wolter- The Bible is not a book of science. The Bible storff is also critical of scientists who do not is a book of redemption. . . . I believe that allow any of their religiosity to affect their work God created man, and whether it came by or theorizing. His view is that religious people an evolutionary process . . . or not, does not who believe science “is and always will be all change the fact that God did create man. right just as it is . . . are brothers beneath the Existentialists such as SØren Kierkegaard skin with the logical positivists” (1984, 24). In go even farther in denying the importance of a this sense, rather than a complementary rela- “rational” science and instead focus on the tionship developing between science and reli- personal and experiential side of our existence gion, a decidedly compartmentalized approach almost exclusively. In Kierkegaard’s opinion, becomes all too easily the norm. This is likely “the attempt to describe a world that could be the strategy used by many of the approxi- known with objective certainty was not a move- mately 40 per cent of scientists in Larson and ment of faith. So he became history’s most Witham’s famous study (1997, 435–36) who ardent apologist for subjectivity as truth” (Austin professed a belief in a personal God capable 2000, 155). of answering prayer.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 13 This position may only survive careful scru- move a little beyond the Independence position tiny, however, by “not posing awkward ques- to what Barbour would call the Dialogue tions,” according to Mano Singham (2000a, ­category. 427). To those practicing the “epistemological Gould’s position is perhaps not surprising, dichotomy” (Barbour 1990, 11) of always sepa- given the public opposition between his views rating natural laws from spiritual laws, it be- and those of the scientific creationists, an ongo- comes difficult to explain how God acts in a ing conflict throughout his career that no doubt world that shows no evidence of having its played a role in his becoming an apologist for natural patterns interrupted. This is just one of keeping science and religion respectfully apart. the problems faced by those who hold to a His testimony also played a part in the famous forced dichotomy between the natural world Arkansas trial (McLean v Arkansas 1982) that, and a supernatural realm, and the related view in the eyes of many, set out a clear demarcation that our scientific and religious spheres can point between science and religion. In this case, always be kept separate. Wolterstorff’s com- Judge Overton set out the criteria for what the plaint is that scientists who regularly adopt this essential elements of a practice must be (based posture lack an understanding of key theo- also largely on philosopher Michael Ruse’s logical and philosophical issues (1984, 108) testimony) in order to be “scientific” in the eyes and thus have difficulty relating the two worlds of the law (and thus permissible to be taught in of science and religion. the public science classroom). The essential Nevertheless, the Independence position elements are: represents an important step forward from the 1. It is guided by natural law Conflict position. Barbour points out one of the 2. It has to be explanatory by reference to scholars that produced important work in this natural law area: Steven Jay Gould (Barbour 2000, 99– 3. It is testable against the empirical world 100). In his book Rocks of Ages (2001a), Gould 4. Its conclusions are tentative, ie, are not the argues that science and religion belong to dif- final word ferent magisteria (a term he uses for “domain 5. It is falsifiable (Pennock 1999, 5) of authority in teaching”). He calls this strategy his NOMA principle, which stands for “non- Overton’s opinions, however, do not make overlapping magisteria” (2001a, 5). In a now this position a completely open-and-shut case, familiar move, he claims the and a number of philosophers of science have since objected to these criteria. They point out magisterium of science covers the empirical that the word “law” is a problematic term for the realm: what the universe is made of (fact) regular processes that we see in nature for a and why does it work this way (theory). The variety of reasons. Philip Quinn also indicates magisterium of religion extends over ques- that if the second criterion were necessary, then tions of ultimate meaning and moral value. evolutionary theory would have been consid- The two magisteria do not overlap, nor do ered “unscientific” until the science of genetics they encompass all inquiry . . . To cite the and heredity was discovered (1984, 42). Fur- old clichés, science gets the ages of the thermore, many creationist predictions (to rocks, and religion the rock of ages; science which the legislation was initially directed) are studies how the heavens go, religion how to in fact testable and have been falsified by con- go to heaven. (2001a, 6) siderable evidence gathering (1984, 44). Gould grants the two realms equal status, Barbour’s own assessment of the Indepen- so long as the boundaries between them are dence position is as follows: respected. He does admit, though, in a seem- If science and religion were totally independent, ingly contradictory manner, that the “two mag- the possibility of conflict would be avoided, isteria bump right up against each other, inter- but the possibility of constructive dialogue digitating in wondrously complex ways along and mutual enrichment would also be ruled their joint border . . . the sorting of legitimate out. We do not experience life as neatly di- domains can become quite complex and diffi- vided into separate compartments; we ex- cult” (2001b, 742). Thus Gould is willing to perience it in wholeness and interconnected- admit the difficulties in keeping science and ness before we develop particular disciplines religion completely separate and appears to to study different aspects of it. (1997, 89)

14 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Despite this view, it is probably wise for of us. Although our knowledge accumulation scientists with limited theological training and about the world may be inherently progressive, theologians with limited scientific training to we will never achieve a perfect understanding. maintain an Independence position in Barbour’s This idea resonates well with the notion that typology. Much conflict results from those neither science nor religion possesses a “god’s- whose perceptions of a particular field are re- eye view” of our world. In Polkinghornes’s duced essentially to a caricature and who over­ opinion, “No naïve objectivity is involved in ei- generalize and conflate key understandings. ther discipline; both science and theology speak of entities not directly observable by us” (1996, 14). Barbour advocates a Dialogue critical realism holding that both communities One can roughly view the Dialogue model make cognitive claims about realities beyond as science and religion talking to each other. the human world. We cannot remain content Obviously many atheistic or agnostic scientists with a plurality of unrelated languages if they do not see the need for any dialogue because are languages about the same world. If we they believe that religion does not have any- seek a coherent interpretation of all experi- thing important or relevant to say to scientists. ence, we cannot avoid the search for a unified Scientist/theologian John Polkinghorne’s view, world view. (1997, 89, emphasis added) however, is that Clearly, Barbour’s advocacy of Dialogue is science and religion have things to say to also motivated by a desire for a holistic account each other. My own characterization of that of our human experience. Polkinghorne also mutual conversation would be that religion offers the following: “As a passionate believer must listen to what science has to tell it about in the ultimate integrity and unity of all knowl- the nature and history of the physical world, edge, I wish to extend my [critical] realist stance and that religion can offer science a deeper beyond science to encompass, among many and more comprehensive account of reality other fields of inquiry, theological reflection on within which the latter’s search for under- our encounter with the divine” (1998, 110). standing can find an intellectually comfort- Barbour warns, however, that it is too easy able home. (1996, 5–6) in this debate to “dwell on similarities and pass Many scholars in this debate do not see this over differences. Although science is indeed a move as being harmful to science. In fact, it more theory-laden enterprise than the positiv- could actually be beneficial. According to phi- ists had recognized, it is clearly more objective losopher Mary Midgley, “We do not need to than religion” (1997, 95). There is also the esteem science less. What we need is to es- problem of many different religious viewpoints teem it in the right way. Especially we need to (1997, 151–61). Additionally, one can point to stop isolating it artificially from the rest of our progress in our scientific understanding of the mental life” (1992, 37). In other words, allowing natural world more readily than can be done in science to have epistemological supremacy our religious understanding. Still, examples of over other areas of inquiry, such as religion, progress in religion do exist; Austin cites the presents a poor picture of science’s role in our following as evidence for this assertion: “People lives. The recognition of the nonfoundational used to justify slavery, genocide, racism, sex- character of science is thus vital to recognizing ism, and nationalism on religious grounds to a that science may be more subjective and reli- greater extent than they do today” (2000, 169). gion may be more objective (Barbour 1997, 93) than first thought. This is a key understanding Methodological Parallels that must be in place before science and reli- One way to begin the Dialogue is to compare gion can have a conversation as equal part- the methodologies of science and religion, ners. looking for commonalities. In spite of the inher- In the light of this epistemological openness, ent problems posed above, there is value in many scholars such as Barbour have defended this activity, according to Barbour. He argues a philosophical commitment to critical realism. that this process is “likely to encourage atten- In this view, our theories will always give us a par­ tion to substantive issues” (1997, 95). In the tial picture of a reality that exists independently view of Polkinghorne, this would involve a

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 15 “methodological and philosophical revaluation more ecumenical and religiously tolerant than of science, rejecting the poverty of positivism ever before (Kung and Tracy 1989, 439–52). and drawing out science’s kinship with other Kuhn has been criticized for presenting a forms of rational enquiry” (1998, 77). In the model of theory selection in science that seems spirit of critical realism, he suggests the follow- to emphasize irrational factors over rational ing criteria as being common to both science ones. Barbour, however, argues that selection and religion: criteria do exist and can also be applied to the 1. Knowledge gathering is usually done little assessment of religious beliefs with only slight by little. modifications. These criteria are: 2. Methodologies are uncertain. 1. Agreement with Data—Does the theory (be- 3. The relationship between experiment and lief) faithfully represent the data (personal theory is complex (in theology it is the rela- experiences and scriptural interpretations) tionship between belief and understanding). that is available (considering that theories 4. Epistemologies are not universal. are often underdetermined by the data)? 5. The social factor plays a large role. 2. Coherence—Is the theory (belief) conceptu- 6. It is based on experience. (1998, 104–24) ally connected and supported by other Barbour is influenced by the ideas pre- theories (beliefs)? sented in Thomas Kuhn’s book, The Structure 3. Scope—Is the theory (belief) comprehensive of Scientific Revolutions. He sees strong paral- and widely applicable? Does it unify previ- lels between science and religion through the ously separate domains of knowledge? interpretive lens of a Kuhnian paradigm, which 4. Fertility—Does the theory (belief) contribute he defines as a “cluster of conceptual, meta- to a fruitful and successful research pro- physical, and methodological presuppositions gram? In the case of religion, is it inspira- embodied in a tradition of scientific work” (1997, tional, enlightening and capable of effecting 93). Religious communities can also be thought personal transformation? (1997, 109–13) of as sharing a common paradigm where Kuhn’s ideas about theory development the interpretation of the data (such as reli- have also been criticized for emphasizing dis- gious experience and historical events) is continuity over continuity. This is one of the even more paradigm-dependent than in the reasons Nancey Murphy prefers the ideas of case of science. There is a greater use of Imre Lakatos in relating science to religion over ad hoc assumptions to reconcile apparent Kuhn’s model. She argues that certain religious anomalies, so religious paradigms are even doctrines can be seen as Lakatosian research more resistant to falsification. (1997, 93–94) programs that can be surrounded by a protec- Kuhn’s argument that paradigm choice is tive belt of peripheral beliefs that can be ad- affected by more than purely rational factors justed from time to time (Murphy 1990, 184–88). seems particularly apt in the case of religion. Despite this protection, the research program Barbour also points out that successful para- can be set aside if it proves to be degenerative digms lead to periods of “normal” research in rather than progressive. Since competing pro- both science and religion, and that more “revo- grams can coexist at the same time, there is lutionary” thinking appears in periods of crisis no radical paradigm shift, as Kuhn envisions. in both disciplines (1997, 125–30). Of course The data for theological research programs the determination of whether a change in think- could come from scriptural interpretations and ing is substantial enough to warrant consider- the practical experiences of the religious com- ation as a new paradigm is a matter of consid- munity (1990, 188). erable debate. Nevertheless, Catholic Murphy is also influenced by the ideas of theologian Hans Kung has identified five major Willard Quine, who developed a holistic view paradigm shifts in Christian thinking through of knowledge that pictures our understandings history: Greek Alexandrian, Latin Augustinian, of the world as connected in a web of beliefs Medieval Thomistic, Reformation and Modern- (Murphy 1996a, 107). As a philosopher of reli- Critical (cited in Barbour 1997, 129). In fact, gion, she is anxious to see “where theology fits Kung argues that in response to a current “cri- in the web of beliefs, and how it is interwoven sis” in theology and culture, we may be on the with scientific beliefs” (1996a, 112). It is under- cusp of a new religious paradigm—one that is stood that beliefs near the centre of the web

16 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 are more secure from revision than those near are moving out of the Dialogue mode and into the edge. Thus it is advantageous to pursue as an Integration mode, according to Barbour many connections as possible between science (1997, 92–93). But it is possible that a mutual and religion to strengthen the web. In fact, dialogue may expose false beliefs and unwar- Murphy makes the strong claim that “theology ranted scientific assumptions. differs only in degree from science—[though] Certainly the philosophical assumptions of science can be confirmed by data that are more the scientific materialists mentioned earlier in precise than the data supporting theology” this article can be challenged in this manner. (1996b, 151). And in a move that pushes her The success of modern Western science has in the direction of Integration, she points out led some of these people to believe that science that each “theological belief is tied to a number will be able to purchase our salvation and that of other beliefs—some theological, some ex- science alone produces meaningful knowledge periential, and (ideally) some scientific. When (a view sometimes referred to as scientism). one support is lost, or when an inconsistency But Polkinghorne argues that science has arises, there will always be a number of ways “purchased its success by the modesty of its to revise and repair the web” (1996a, 119). exploratory and explanatory ambitions” (1996, In spite of all these comparisons, Barbour 3). There is also a distinct problem when sci- admits that these methodological discussions entists produce popular books for consumption can become rather abstract and therefore “of by nonscientists. The difference between sci- more interest to philosophers of science and phil­ ence as it is practiced and science as it is osophers of religion than to scientists or theolo- portrayed in some of this literature is often strik- gians and religious believers” (1997, 95). He also ing. These works often contain unsubstantiated acknowledges that there are some features of metaphysical pronouncements that an unsus- religious practice that are seemingly absent in pecting reader might assume are supported by science: “the role of story and ritual; the non- credible scientific data. cognitive functions of religious models in evok- Midgley is critical of some of these eccentric ing attitudes and encouraging personal trans- metaphysical speculations in her book Science formation; the type of personal involvement as Salvation. In her opinion, “Recent attempts characteristic of religious faith; and the idea of to make traditional materialism consistent have revelation in historical events” (1997, 136). . . . often resulted in making it romantic, super- Nevertheless, there are gains in pursuing this dis­ stitious and irrationalistic” (1992, 15). Stahl, cussion. Wesley Wildman (1996, 53) puts it best: Campbell, Petry and Diver arrive at the same ironic conclusion when they assert that “a great Building methodological bridges between part of the myth of science that scientists fail to science and theology amounts to trying to recognize, or perhaps fail to acknowledge, is figure out how it can be that the same human that in their efforts to escape from metaphysics beings, using the same rational capacity in they are entrenching themselves as firmly in the same existential context, can engage in speculative dogma as any religion ever has” activities that, on the face of things, appear (2002, 28). Thus we have an argument that to be so different. It is an attempt to under- there is a certain religious element in science stand the unity of our own rationality. that somewhat mirrors the discussion of the scientific side of religion earlier in this section. Presuppositions and Limit Questions In fact, Stahl, Campbell, Petry and Driver have Science and religion can perhaps strength- organized their entire book Webs of Reality en each other by challenging and maybe even based on this premise. They take a critical look correcting the presuppositions of the other at science through the interpretive framework domain. In the words of Pope John Paul II: that Max Weber’s categories of religious “Science can purify religion from error and thought provide. These are: soteriology (ideas superstition; religion can purify science from about salvation), saintliness, magical causa- idolatry and false absolutes. Each can draw the tion, theodicy (ideas about suffering and death) other into a wider world, a world in which both and mystery (2002, ix–xii). The result is a strong can flourish” (cited in Barbour 2000, 17). If this argument for a religious side to scientific en- process results in a reformulation of either deavours that is often implicit but in some scientific theories or religious beliefs, then we cases even rather explicit.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 17 Barbour defines limit questions as “onto- the nature of science and religion are while logical questions raised by the scientific enter- acknowledging that nice, neat boundaries be- prise as a whole but not answered by the tween these two fields of inquiry simply do not methods of science” (1997, 90). In his opinion, exist. As Langdon Gilkey once said, “Not all that “Religious traditions can suggest possible an- we know is science, lest there be no possibility swers to these questions . . . without violating of science” (cited in Polkinghorne 1996, 4). the integrity of science” (2000, 52). Teleological Other scholars with a more integrative philoso- questions (regarding meaning and purpose) phy argue that some reformulation of key ideas such as “Why does the world exist in the first in these fields is necessary in light of these place?” have an implicitly religious nature to discussions. The next category of Integration them. Many theologians would contend that the investigates some of this exciting work. rationality of our universe reflects the rational- ity of its Creator. Integration What may be a more meaningful approach to Dialogue for the average person may occur The degree of Integration between science in the ethics of scientific advances. A recent and religion that one is comfortable with is study by Moore, Jensen, Hsu and Hatch in the clearly affected by the other three positions. United States shows that Americans “have For those adhering to a Conflict modality, no serious concerns about science-related issues” amount of integration is desirable unless one and their views on these issues are “strongly of the disciplines can be subsumed into the influenced by religion” (2003, 85). Gaon and other. Scholars that prefer the Independence Norris argue “critical assessment of science is position would like to see science and religion possible for non-experts because at the basis remain distinct. The Dialogue category holds a of science is a set of norms, beliefs and values range of positions that is somewhat dependent that are contestable by non-scientists” (2001, on the degree of commonality that one sees 187). It thus seems possible and perhaps nec- between the two fields of inquiry. For someone essary that nonscientists begin critiquing work- like Nancey Murphy, who sees a high degree ing scientists on the implications and purposes of similarity between scientific and theological of their work rather than the actual substance development, a great deal of integration is not of it. Freeman Dyson (1993) and James Brown only possible but also desirable. Others are not (2001) are both concerned that science no so sure or are concerned, like Wolterstorff that longer functions for all people; it is becoming in matters under dispute, “religion [always] has rather undemocratic in their view. Religious to give” (1996a, 103). There are also those insights that incorporate ideas of justice and whose categories cannot be pinned down to any equality would be of assistance in correcting of these four categories and whose allegiances this trend. In a manner that blends ethical con- depend rather on the context of each situation cerns and limit questions, Holmes Rolston (there will be more on this in the next section). believes that Scholars in the Integration position essen- tially seek to answer the difficult question: “How science does need religion to keep science can we think and act scientifically and theo- humane, not only in the pragmatic sense but logically, critically and worshipfully, technologi- in the principled and deeply metaphysical cally and ethically at the same time?” (Wildman sense of keeping science meaningful . . . 1996, 42). Polkinghorne rightfully points out that religion pushes science toward questions of one of the key issues is “the extent to which ultimacy, as well as of value, and it can keep taking science seriously requires us to modify science from being blinkered, or . . . religion orthodox belief” (1996, 25). He typifies his own can keep science deep. (1996, 81) position as one of consonance (science tends It seems obvious that scholars who promote to constrain and restrict theological thought, but Dialogue between science and religion are in a mutually interactive and consistent way). anxious to show that the relationship between He also describes Barbour’s position as one of the two disciplines can be a mutually enriching assimilation (a more substantial merging of the one without significantly effecting the unique two disciplines that may put the autonomy of quality of each field. In fact, the work described theology at risk) (Wildman 1996, 6–7; 81–84). above is useful in helping one understand what Barbour seems to concur with this assessment

18 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 because he believes that a more systematic (Barbour 1997, 99). This is a good example of integration between theological content and the type of reformulation that Barbour sees as scientific content is indeed possible and desir- indicative of the Integration position. able (1997, 98). As the discussion becomes For those with religious inclinations, the more abstract, however, a noticeable move design argument will always be an attractive away from religion to theology, and thus the one. It has recently received a significant boost applicability to the average believer comes in from the cosmological arena with many scien- doubt. Nevertheless, Barbour sees three dis- tists pointing to a seemingly “fine-tuned” uni- tinct examples of integration: natural theology, verse. Polkinghorne is one of those arguing for theology of nature and a systematic synthesis. a new and cautious approach using the an- thropic principle, while being critical of the Natural Theology “old-style natural theology” of Paley (Polking- This position is usually referred to as the horne 1998, 10–11). According to Polkinghorne, design argument. In this view, God’s existence “the endowment of matter with anthropic po- can be deduced (even proved, according to tentiality has no human analogy. It is a creative some) by appealing to examples of apparent act of a specially divine character” (1998, 11). design in nature that have been scientifically To those who might argue that this constitutes discovered. These arguments are quite old and a proof of God, he asserts that this “theistic perhaps reached their most influential point in conclusion is not logically coercive, but it can the writings of William Paley in the early 19th claim serious consideration as an intellectually century. He was the proponent of the famous satisfying understanding of what would other- “watchmaker” argument that posited examples wise be unintelligible good fortune” (1998, 10, of intricate design in nature, such as the eye, emphasis added). as evidence of a designer who must have cre- Interestingly, the “old-style natural theology” ated them (Barbour 2000, 28–29). The criti- is being reintroduced through a group that calls cisms of this approach are also old: Scottish themselves intelligent design theorists. They philosopher David Hume argued that what ap- believe that evolutionary processes are inca- pears to be design imposed by an external pable of producing the kind of biological diver- entity could really be a manifestation of natural sity and complexity that we see in nature and processes that are innate to an organism. Thus thus God has created discontinuously through- the argument of design could really be an argu- out the development of life on this planet. ment from ignorance. He also indicated that Scientists have criticized this position for not evidence of design does not necessarily point faithfully portraying a robust understanding of to the theistic vision of God (Barbour 2000, 28). evolutionary processes, and theologians have The exaltation of design in nature has also criticized it for being another version of the been criticized by modern scholars in light of god-of-the-gaps argument (Barbour 2000, our knowledge of the extensive cosmological, 96–99). In the words of Charles Coulson: geological and biological evolution of our world. “When we come to the scientifically unknown, It is difficult to scientifically conclude that the our correct policy is not to rejoice because we purposive nature of God’s design was to bring have found God; it is to become better scien- about humanity when our presence on this tists” (cited in Brush 2000, 120). planet has only been a small fragment of its entire history. Science writer Timothy Ferris Theology of Nature calls this view “woefully anthropocentric” (1997, In the words of Barbour, this position “starts 305). Biologists also point out that what might from a religious tradition based on religious be considered examples of design in organisms experience and historical revelation. But it holds may simply be the results of random evolution- that some traditional doctrines need to be re- ary processes. Many religious scholars have formulated in the light of current science” (1997, responded by arguing that design is “not in the 100). We saw how this occurred to the design particular structures of individual organisms but argument in the last section, even though one in the properties of matter and the laws of na- might not assign doctrinal status to that idea. ture through which the evolutionary processes Scientific findings and theories have particular could produce such organisms. It is in the design relevance to doctrines related to creation, human of the total process that God’s wisdom is evident” nature and God’s role in this world, according

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 19 to Barbour and many of his colleagues. Polk- necessary byproducts of a noncoercive creative inghorne points out one example of a doctrine process that aims at the development of free that has been modified for some time: the doc- and intelligent beings” (Murphy 1996a, 169). trine of the Fall, or original sin. He believes that A related issue that scientific advances have an “Augustinian notion of decay from an original shed light on is the understanding of human paradisal state, brought about by a single di- nature. The body/soul dualism that has been sastrous ancestral act, is one that cannot be an important component of some religious made consonant with what we know about the traditions apparently needs adjustment due to history of the Earth” (1996, 83). developments in the neurosciences that show The potential for controversy is, of course, the seat of human consciousness to be the great in this type of endeavour, and thus Bar- physical human brain. In this case, biblical bour cautions against using speculative theo- scholarship has supported this movement by ries and advises using well-established science showing that the body/soul notion is largely an (1997, 101). Rolston opines that the “religion extrabiblical import into theology. It is Austin’s that is married to science today is a widow to- opinion that “Plato’s dualistic understanding of morrow, while the religion that is divorced from humans as body and soul, imported to a stub- science today leaves no offspring tomorrow” born place in Christian theology by Augustine, (1996, 64). But even the use of reasonably and made more intransigent by Descartes’ well-established scientific theories is no guar- wedding of it to a modern scientific worldview, antee of harmony because the ongoing cre- is being whittled away” (2000, 136). As in the ation-versus-evolution debate amply attests. previous paragraph, theories abound regarding Also, the speculative nature of certain Integra- the “true” nature of humanity, but Barbour offers tion theories at times seems to challenge the the final comment: “I believe that both recent credibility of overlapping the domains of science theology and recent science support a view of and religion. the person as a multilevel psychosomatic unity One of the areas where scientific and theo- who is at the same time a biological organism logical concerns overlap is in the question of and a responsible self” (2000, 149). God’s action in a world of seemingly regular Stahl, Campbell, Petry and Diver are critical natural processes. Barbour devotes a whole of some of the integrative practices in the the- chapter to this issue in his most recent work ology of nature. It is their opinion that if “we see (2000). Hovering constantly in the background science as its content, religion can never be of this debate is the awareness of pain and more than added on, and its legitimacy will suffering in a world that God is believed to be always be suspect. Science will always be the actively involved in. In traditional theories going active partner in the dialogue, and religion can back to Thomas Aquinas, God is believed to be do little more than listen” (2002, 68). They see the primary cause of events and science stud- that science needs to be perceived as what ies the secondary causes in nature that are on scientists do rather than a body of certifiable an entirely different level (Barbour 2000, truths that most non-experts simply have to 159–60). Van Till defends this view by asserting accept at face value. In this scenario, religious that “God’s creative action, operating at a level insights can be implemented “before the dust different from creaturely action, undergirds all settles” (especially in ethical matters) and thus that occurs” (2001, 161, emphasis in the origi- contribute in a more significant way. The payoff nal). Noting that this argument still does not for Stahl, Campbell, Petry and Diver is that explain the “causal joint” connecting God di- when viewed this way, “science becomes less rectly to creation, Polkinghorne suggests that of an abstraction, and scientists cease being God’s action may consist of an input of “active mythic heroes. Instead, when science becomes information” into potentially chaotic and com- the practice of real people, we have a much plex systems in nature (Barbour 2000, 166–67). more solid basis for partnership and dialogue” In this manner, God can exert an influence (2002, 68). without interfering in natural causation. Murphy Wolterstorff echoes some of these concerns sees God as radically self-limiting His own in his book Reason within the Bounds of Reli- power to allow for human free will. This position gion. He also sees no reason why religious also contains a response to questions of theodicy insights should be left out of scientific theoriz- by suggesting that “suffering and disorder are ing, only to be incorporated in the final analysis.

20 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 This is because he views the theory-selection nor religion should be equated with a meta- process as involving not only data and theory physical system. There are dangers if either but also what he calls control beliefs—ideas scientific or religious ideas are distorted to fit a about what kind of theories are acceptable preconceived synthesis that claims to encom- (1984, 63–70). In light of the Kuhnian notion pass all reality” (2000, 37). Nevertheless, relin- that theories are often underdetermined by the quishing the idea of a deterministic God who data, Wolterstorff argues that controls events and has prior knowledge of the Christian scholar ought to allow the everything that happens seems to invite a move belief-content of his authentic Christian com- toward process theology. mitment to function as control within his devising and weighing of theories. For he Criticisms of Barbour’s like everyone else ought to seek consis- tency, wholeness, and integrity in the body Typology of his beliefs and commitments. (1984, 76) One of the criticisms of Barbour’s approach This may seem to be an argument for giving is his determination to place people in one of religion the upper hand, but he later adds that his four categories. In a sense, Barbour might “such activities will forever bear within them the be accused of being a “compulsive categorizer!” potential for inducing, and for justifiably induc- He does admit, however, that his “attempts to ing, revisions in our views as to what constitutes categorize may itself reflect a Western bias” authentic commitment, and thus, revisions in (2000, 6). In many cases, his choices for who our actual commitment” (1984, 91–2, emphasis belongs in each category seems to make in the original). He thus envisions a rather dia- sense, but consider the following argumentation lectical process occurring between science and he uses to categorize Willem Drees: religion. Drees’s religious naturalism does not conflict with science (indeed it is closely related to Systematic Synthesis science), but it does conflict with (or remain According to Barbour, a “more systematic agnostic about) most of “the heritage of re- integration can occur if both science and reli- ligious traditions” on which he wishes to gion contribute to a coherent worldview elabo- build. . . . But Drees is not agnostic about rated in a comprehensive metaphysics” (2000, naturalism, which he defends as a meta- 34). The most common manifestation of this is physical position rather than simply as a process theology, which is based on the ideas philosophy that might be functional to human of Alfred North Whitehead. In this view, God life. With some reluctance, then, I would transcends nature and yet is immanent in all have to classify him . . . under the heading events in a manner that never determines the of Conflict. (2000, 159) actual outcome. God is thus not viewed as an omnipotent being but rather a persuasive one, Barbour’s approach also seems to suggest a move that partially resolves some of the is- a natural progression from Conflict through sues regarding divine action and the presence Independence that finally leads to a Dialogue of pain and suffering in our world (Barbour or Integration stance. This notion has been 2000, 34–36). challenged and criticized by Brooke and Cantor This position has many critics. Polkinghorne (1998). They claim it is basically an essentialist argues that in “reacting against a God seen as thesis and represents a distinctly ahistorical a dominating Cosmic Tyrant, process theolo- way of looking at the science–religion relation- gians appear to have settled for a Marginal ship. They consider the case of St George Persuader . . . [who] is too much in thrall to his Jackson Mivart: creation to be the Ground of hope” (1996, 33). He perceived conflict between the Darwin- He is also critical of this line of thinking on ians’ overstated commitment to natural se- scientific grounds (1996, 28–29). Denis Lamou- lection and his understanding of the human reux believes that, although process theology condition in which mental and moral attri- may be “intellectually titillating for intellectuals,” butes were important but could not be ex- it is decidedly “irrelevant in [the] pews” (2004, 49). plained by natural selection. Likewise he Barbour himself asserts that “neither science used an independence strategy when

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 21 ­arguing that the Galileo affair should teach ­probably true: Not everyone can be right but it us that science is for scientists and theology is possible for everyone to be wrong. The fol- for theologians. . . . Yet he also conceived a lowing statement by Barbour exemplifies this form of dialogue when arguing that both ­approach: science and religion are rational activities; All models are limited and partial, and none he insisted that neither scientists nor theo- gives a complete or adequate picture of logians should forsake their critical faculties. reality. The world is diverse, and differing Finally, much of his own research was em- aspects of it may be better represented by powered by specific integrationist strategies. one model than another. . . . The pursuit of Thus he perceived the world framed by the coherence must not lead us to neglect such divine architect and he directed his research differences. In addition, the use of diverse to elucidating archetypes. (1998, 276) models can keep us from the idolatry that Brooke and Cantor go on to argue that occurs when we take any one model . . . too Barbour’s approach does not capture the dy- literally. (2000, 180) namic and complex nature of one’s understand- ings of science and religion. They maintain that Ironically, this assertion also applies, of “in opposition to the essentialist program . . . course, to Barbour’s own typology. Elsewhere the individual must be treated as an active he defends a “multileveled view of reality in agent who deploys different strategies cre- which differing (epistemological) levels of atively” (1998, 276). Stahl, Campbell, Petry and analysis are taken to refer to differing (onto- Diver offer the following: “Barbour presents us logical) levels of events and processes in the with boundaries but does not let us watch how world” (2000, 109). Thus a certain amount of those boundaries were constructed. But unless epistemological and ontological pluralism is we understand the dynamics and trajectories required before science and religion can offer of a debate, we cannot fully comprehend it” mutually consistent accounts of our world. Alan (2002, 6). Padgett argues that classical realism is rather naïve and lacks an appropriate amount of humil- ity, while antirealism is too anthropocentric in Can “Progress” Be Claimed? asserting that humans can construct their own It would be tempting to simply see progress reality (2002, 187). Neither position is consistent in this debate in the movement away from the with theistic religious beliefs or science. Padgett claim that science and religion are irreconcil- goes on to claim that our version of realism able. In fact, Barbour’s typology has been tre- should be dialectical; it will only be through seri- mendously important in recognizing that cred- ous debate and the highlighting of differences ible and viable intellectual positions exist other that significant progress in relating science and than Conflict, regardless of the sometimes religion will take place (2002, 184–91). abstract nature of the debate. The fact that scientists and theologians see this as a fruitful field and sometimes work together in exploring Educational Implications it is evidence of progress. As examples of What is certainly being argued for here is “bridge-building” are becoming more common, a tolerant and humble attitude from scientists even some agnostic scientists are exploring the and science educators alike. One could defi- implications of religious thinking for scientific nitely teach science without recognizing the endeavours. Steven Jay Gould tells of an inter- importance of other ways of knowing, such as esting incident where he, a Jewish agnostic, religious insights, but that would inevitably tried to reassure some Catholic priests that leave a rather narrow conception of science. evolution could be consistent with their religious It has often been argued, however, that the beliefs (2001b, 738). Independence position protects science teach- The defence of critical realism by Barbour ers from interference from creationists, among and his colleagues is also a key component of others, and that a narrowly bounded view a rapprochement between science and religion. of science is simply the best political and There is certainly irony contained in the conten- practical solution. The National Academy of tion that progress can be marked by what one Sciences released the following statement in does not know. The old saw, however, is 1981: “Religion and science are mutually

22 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 ­exclusive realms of human thought whose culture) takes on the character of the ‘lives of presentation in the same context leads to saints’ and the science itself the ‘aura of cate- misunderstanding of both scientific theory and chism’” (2004, 546). religious belief.” Cobern and some of his colleagues are argu- But is a type of religious orientation already ing for a more holistic science education. More being implemented in science education? The and more educators are acknowledging that most common complaint from many religious “this whole contains the social, humanistic, people is that science education is unduly aesthetic, and spiritual elements constituting a influenced by scientific materialism. This ar­ subjectively personal relationship between a gument was significantly reinforced by the passionate, dependent, and intuitive self and explicitly materialistic statement from the Na- others” (Kozoll and Osborne 2004, 174, em- tional Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) phasis added). Warren Nord claims: “One in 1995: purpose of a liberal education is to put students The diversity of life on earth is the outcome in a position to make ‘all things considered’ of evolution: an unsupervised, impersonal, judgements, rather than to accept uncritically unpredictable, and natural process of tem- the conventional wisdom of any discipline, sci- poral descent with genetic modification that ence included” (1999, 33). Critical thinking is is affected by natural selection, chance, part of the dialectical process in the dialogue historical contingencies, and changing en- between science and religion. vironments. (quoted in Cobern 2000, 239, There is also the possibility that opening up emphasis added) science to a wider view will facilitate concep- tual change. Cobern argues that “conceptual The NABT later dropped the italicized words change should become more plausible for after being made aware of the religious nature students when they have been invited to a of the statement. Since then, NABT member discourse on what are the important questions Eugenie Scott has been beating the Indepen- of life . . . and what does science have to con- dence drum and even speaking to many reli- tribute to the common human quest for a gious groups on the merits of distinguishing meaningful life (1996, 579). Elsewhere he between methodological naturalism (“normal” points out that “one should not assume an scientific research) and philosophical natural- authoritarian stance and discount student ism (the metaphysical view of scientific mate- knowledge and belief. Rather, teachers should rialism), but in some ways the damage was promote discussions about the reasons one already done. This blunder was unfortunate has for believing and thinking the things that because it convinced many religious people one does” (Cobern 2000, 237). A sensitive that science teaching in the public schools is teacher can conduct such discussions in a overtly tainted by the views of scientific mate- climate of mutual respect and tolerance with rialism and that evolutionary theory really is the help of some excellent pedagogical advice atheistic in nature. from Oulton, Dillon and Grace (2004). They The concern that something akin to sci- believe that approaches to class discussions entism is being taught in our schools has re- should do the following: ceived support from educational theorists like William Cobern. He refers to it as the “myth of 1. Focus on the nature of controversy and school science. The myth is a scientistic view controversial issues; that is, that people roughly embracing classical realism, philo- disagree and have different worldviews, sophical materialism, strict objectivity, and hy- value and limitations of science, political pothetico-deductive method” (2000, 233, em- understanding, power, and so on. phasis in the original). Each of these themes 2. Motivate pupils to recognize the notion that comes under serious challenge from a modern a person’s stance on an issue will be af- philosophical understanding of science. Olson fected by their worldview. and Lang refer to scientism as the “weed well 3. Emphasize the importance of teachers and fertilized in the garden of science education” learners reflecting critically on their own (2004, 545). To them, part of the problem is that stance and recognize the need to avoid the “the very image in textbooks of scientists at prejudice that comes from a lack of critical work (often detached from history and from reflection.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 23 4. Give people the skills and abilities to iden- Understanding the fallibility of our own convic- tify bias for themselves, encouraging them tions should help us appreciate Cobern’s sec- to take a critical stance toward claims of ond point: neutrality, a lack of bias and a balanced 2. There is no single set of presuppositions that view. adequately describes all of science. Science 5. Promote open-mindedness, a thirst for more can be—and is—supported from a number information and more sources of information of presuppositional bases. (2000, 238) and a willingness to change one’s view as appropriate, and avoid strategies that en- Cobern advises that, instead of worrying courage pupils to actually make up their about placing boundaries around science, minds on an issue too hastily. “good science instruction should help students 6. Motivate teachers, as much as possible, to see the variation under the umbrella we gener- share their views with pupils and make ex- ally call science” (2000, 238). Science is a plicit the way in which they arrive at their complex affair inextricably linked to the realm own stance on an issue. (2004, 420) of human affairs with different disciplines and traditions. There may even be some peda- Of these recommendations, the last one is gogical shrewdness in acknowledging other certainly the most controversial because of the paths to knowledge beside science. As Sherry teacher’s position of authority in the classroom. Southerland claims, Oulton, Dillon and Grace argue that this is mitigated by teachers’ frank acknowledgement The goal of such instruction [for conceptual of their own biases and presuppositions. They change] is not to change students’ religious also point out that “perfect balance is probably beliefs or persuade them to accept evolu- impossible to achieve. Teachers have to make tionary theory (although we must acknowl- subjective judgements about what information edge that both sophisticated epistemological to present, and differing views may not be eas- beliefs and dispositions do have a strong ily accessible” (2004, 416). In some cases, bearing on a learner’s acceptance of evolu- teachers may need to present a more neutral tion). Instead, the goal of such instruction is position in certain dichotomies (creation versus to help students understand how science evolution, for example) to give students an- does not provide the only answers important other “schematization” that may “bear fruit” in their lives. This, in turn, decreases poten- when conflicts arise. In other cases, it might be tial aversion to concepts and may help to worthwhile to have students argue a point of avoid the negative emotions that can impede view opposite their own and have the teacher instruction related to evolution, allowing for remain neutral. intentional level constructs to be invoked. Cobern also recommends that teachers (2003, 28) remember the following points: But even with a tolerant view of epistemo- logical variations, we still recognize Cobern’s 1. All epistemologies are grounded worldview third point: presuppositions. (2000, 237) We need to remember as teachers that 3. Although presuppositions are under­ “people simply do not hold beliefs for no reason. determined, they can be rational and their It is not helpful to suggest that blind belief is relative merits are certainly debatable. belief merely supported by appeals to author- (Cobern 2000, 239) ity since all of us make use of authority” (2004, Cobern claims that “pluralism in episte- 234). Because it is generally the religious mology is a fact of life. . . . On the other hand, worldviews that cause the most problems for the fact of pluralism does not imply that all students, it would be helpful for preservice members of this plurality are equal” (2000, 239). teachers to take a course in science and reli- Recently, Richard Reed also challenged the gion as part of their teacher training. This would notion that a careful separation of method- help teachers understand where some views ological naturalism and philosophical natural- (such as anti-evolutionism) originate and pos- ism guarantees religious neutrality when he sibly help them discover their own “baggage” claimed that, “according to science, there are as well. This would hopefully inspire humility some things it is likely that God did not do. . . . about our own tentatively held knowledge. What science says [however] does not rule

24 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 out the possibility of God—it does not imply References [either] materialism or atheism” (2002, 22, emphasis added). It is important to note that Austin, D B. 2000. The End of Certainty and the teaching something like evolution fully and Beginning of Faith. Macon, Ga: Smyth and Helwys. ­accurately can be significantly different than Barbour, I G. 1990. Religion in an Age of Science. teaching it dogmatically. This leads to the San Francisco, Calif: Harper. fourth point: ———. 1997. Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues. San Francisco, Calif: Harper. 4. The science curriculum should not antago- ———. 2000. When Science Meets Religion. San nize needed allies by insisting on presup- Francisco, Calif: Harper. positional purity. (Cobern 2000, 240) Berry, W. 2000. Life Is a Miracle. Washington, DC: Presuppositional purity in science is a Counterpoint. rather elusive goal, and if we come to a point Brooke, J and G Cantor. 1998. Reconstructing Na- in our careers where we think that we have ture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. attained it, we could end up teaching in the Brown, J R. 2001. Who Rules in Science? Cam- manner Mano Singham portrays in the following bridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. statement: Brush, S. 2000. “Postmodernism Versus Science We who teach introductory physics have to Versus Fundamentalism: An Essay Review.” acknowledge, if we are honest with our- ­Science Education 84, no 1: 114–22. selves, that our teaching methods are pri- Cobern, W W. 1996. “Worldview Theory and Con- marily those of propaganda. We appeal— ceptual Change in Science Education.” Science without demonstration—to evidence that Education 80, no 5: 579–610. supports our position. . . . All of this is de- ———. 2000. “The Nature of Science and the Role signed to demonstrate the inevitability of the of Knowledge and Belief.” Science and Education ideas we currently hold, so that if students 9: 219–46. reject what we say, they are declaring them- Dyson, F J. 1993. “Science in Trouble.” American selves to be unreasoning and illogical, un- Scholar 62, no 4: 513–25. worthy of being considered as modern, Easterbrook, G. 1998. “Science Sees the Light: The thinking people. (2000b, 54) Rediscovery of Higher Meaning.” New Republic 219, no 15: 24–29. In conclusion, it is fair to state that this is a Ferris, T. 1997. The Whole Shebang. New York, NY: tall order for science educators. This vision Touchstone. requires that teachers be philosophically so- phisticated and religiously astute. But the re- Gaon, S and S P Norris. 2001. “The Undecidable Grounds of Scientific Expertise: Science Education and ward of having an improved view of how sci- the Limits of Intellectual Independence.” Journal ence operates in our lives is worth the effort. of Philosophy of Education 35, no 2: 187–201. The final words are from Cobern: Gould, S J. 2001a. Rocks of Ages. London: Jonathan Acknowledging in the science classroom that Cape. all knowledge systems are grounded in ———. 2001b. “Nonoverlapping Magisteria.” In Intelligent presuppositions would re-introduce a valu- Design Creationism and its Critics, ed by R T able discussion on the nature and meaning Pennock, pp 737–50. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. of science knowledge itself. It would force Graham, B. “Doubts and Certainties: Interview with more instructional time on the nature of David Frost.” BBC-2, 1964. knowledge, reasoning, evidence, and com- Hacking, I. 1983. Representing and Intervening: In- mitments. This cannot be done, however, troductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Sci- without acknowledging students’ other be- ence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. liefs and other beliefs held by scientists and Kozoll, R H and M D Osborne. 2004. “Finding Mean- science teachers. Rather than fearing such ing in Science: Lifeworld, Identity, and Self.” a situation as an unpalatable intrusion on Science Education 88, no 2: 157–81. the science classroom, it should be wel- Kung, H and D Tracy, eds. 1989. Paradigm Change comed as an opportunity to discuss how in Theology. New York, NY: Crossroad. reason operates in different disciplines and Lamoureux, D O. 2004. Science and Religion Class in different areas of life. (2000, 241, empha- Notes: 2004–2005. Edmonton, Alta: University of sis in the original) Alberta.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 25 Larson, E J and L Witham. 1997. “Scientists Are Still J T Cushing, C F Delaney and G M Gutting, Keeping the Faith.” Nature 386: 435–36. pp 32–53. Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Lindberg, D C and R L Numbers, eds. 2003. When Dame Press. Science and Christianity Meet. Chicago, Ill: Uni- Reed, R. 2002. “What Science Can and Cannot Say: versity of Chicago Press. The Problems with Methodological Naturalism.” Mahner, M and M Bunge. 1996. “Is Religious Educa- Reports of the National Center for Science Educa- tion Compatible with Science Education?” Sci- tion 22: 18–22. ence and Education 5: 101–23. Rolston, H. 1996. “Science, Religion, and the Future.” Midgley, M. 1992. Science as Salvation. London: In Religion and Science: History, Method, Dia- Routledge. logue, ed by W M Richardson and W J Wildman, pp 61–82. New York, NY: Routledge. Moore, R, M Jensen, L Hsu and J Hatch. 2003. “Les- sons of History: Ethics and the Public’s Views of Singham, M. 2000a. “The Science and Religion Science and Society.” American Biology Teacher Wars.” Phi Delta Kappan 81, no 6: 425–32. 65, no 2: 85–89. ———. 2000b. “Teaching and Propaganda.” Physics Morris, J D. 1994. The Young Earth. Colorado Today 53, no 6: 54–55. Springs, Colo: Creation-Life Publishers. Southerland, S. 2003. “Negotiating the Standoff: Murphy, N. 1990. Theology in the Age of Scientific NOS as a Vehicle for Conceptual Change?” Paper Reasoning. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. presented at the National Association for Research Murphy, N. 1996a. “Postmodern Apologetics: Or Why in Science Teaching, Philadelphia, Pa, March 2003. Theologians Must Pay Attention to Science.” In Stahl, W A, R A Campbell, Y Petry and G Diver. 2002. Religion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue, Webs of Reality. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers ed by W M Richardson and W J Wildman, University Press. pp 105–20. New York, NY: Routledge. Van Till, H J. 2001. “When Faith and Reason Coop- ———. 1996b. “On the Nature of Theology.” In Reli- erate.” In Intelligent Design Creationism and its gion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue, ed Critics, ed by R T Pennock, pp 147–64. Cam- by W M Richardson and W J Wildman, pp 151–60. bridge, Mass: MIT Press. New York, NY: Routledge. Van Till, H J, D A Young and C Menninga. 1988. Sci- National Academy of Sciences. 1984. “Science and ence Held Hostage: What’s Wrong with Creation Creationism: A View from the National Academy Science and Evolutionism. Downers Grove, Ill. of Sciences.” National Academy Press, Washing- InterVarsity Press. ton, DC. Welch, C. 1996. “Dispelling Some Myths About the Nord, W A. 1999. “Science, Religion, and Education.” Split Between Theology and Science in the Nine- Phi Delta Kappan 81, no 1: 28–33. teenth Century.” In Religion and Science: History, Numbers, R L. 1992. The Creationists: The Evolution Method, Dialogue, ed by W M Richardson and of Scientific Creationism. Berkeley, Calif: Univer- W J Wildman, pp 29–40. New York, NY: Routledge. sity of California Press. Watts, R E. 2002. Making Sense of Genesis 1. Olson, J and M Lang. 2004. “Science and Technol- American Scientific Affiliation (ASA) website. ogy and the Didactics of Citizenship.” Journal of www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Bible-Science/6- Curriculum Studies 36, no 5: 543–53. 02Watts.html (accessed October 28, 2004). Oulton, C, J Dillon and M M Grace. 2004. “Recon- Wildman, W J. 1996. “The Quest for Harmony: An ceptualizing the Teaching of Controversial Is- Interpretation of Contemporary Theology and sues.” International Journal of Science Education Science.” In Religion and Science: History, 26, no 4: 411–23. Method, Dialogue, ed by W M Richardson and W J Wildman, pp 41–60. New York, NY: Routledge. Padgett, A G. 2002. “Dialectical Realism in Theology and Science.” Perspectives on Science and Wolterstorff, N. 1984. Reason within the Bounds of Christian Faith 54, no 3: 184–92. Religion (2nd ed). Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans. Pennock, R T. 1999. Tower of Babel. Cambridge, Wolterstorff, N. 1996a. “Theology and Science: Mass: MIT Press. Listening to Each Other.” In Religion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue, ed by W M Richardson Polkinghorne, J. 1996. Scientists as Theologians. and W J Wildman, pp 95–104. New York, NY: London: SPCK. Routledge. ———. 1998. Belief in God in an Age of Science. ———. 1996b. “Entitled Christian Belief.” In Religion New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. and Science: History, Method, Dialogue, ed by W Quinn, P L. 1984. “The Philosopher of Science as M Richardson and W J Wildman, pp 145–50. New Expert Witness.” In Science and Reality, ed by York, NY: Routledge.

26 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric: A Centenary Overview Wytze Brouwer

The United Nations General Assembly offi- about his research, as well as his views on cially designated 2005 the World Year of Phys- society, nuclear disarmament and the need for ics. Exactly 100 years ago, Albert Einstein international laws and institutions. In recent published his groundbreaking papers on years, many of Einstein’s nonscientific papers Brownian motion, the photoelectric effect and have come to light, including thousands of let- the special theory of relativity. Each of these ters of correspondence. Among these is a set papers was influential on the development of of letters between Einstein and his first wife, physics and on people’s understanding of na- Mileva Maric. Mileva and Albert both had ture. In 1905, surprisingly, many scientists were dreams of being scientists and of being involved still not convinced of the existence of atoms, in science together for the rest of their lives. even though Dalton’s model was already almost The fictitious interview with Mileva throws some 100 years old. The leading chemist of the time, light on how those dreams ended, leaving Mi- Wilhelm Ostwald, did not believe that atoms leva with poor health and bitter memories, along were more than a mathematical fiction until he with the responsibility of looking after their two read Einstein’s paper on Brownian motion. sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. The quantum nature of energy had been suggested by Max Planck in 1900 to explain Albert Einstein: the energy carried by radiation, but Planck was not yet convinced that quantum processes His Scientific Work existed in nature. Was it just a trick to make Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany, calculation easier? Einstein’s paper on the on March 14, 1879, and died in Princeton, New photoelectric effect helped convince scientists Jersey, on April 18, 1955. He is probably the that quantum processes are everywhere, and only 20th-century physicist that could be com- real. The paper won Einstein the Nobel Prize pared to Isaac Newton in intellectual stature. in 1921 after previously being recommended Although he won a Nobel Prize in physics in for the Nobel Prize for this and for his special 1921 for the photoelectric effect, he could have theory of relativity every year but two since won it for special relativity, general relativity or 1910. a host of other topics. In fact, Einstein had been His most famous paper, “On the Electrody- nominated 10 times before he was finally namics of Moving Bodies,” fundamentally awarded the prize. Every area of physics has changed people’s view of the universe and been influenced by Einstein. provided the nuclear age with its fundamental As his life progressed, he became more and reason for success: E = mc2 more involved in politics. When 92 leading Ger- In the following three fictitious interviews, I will man scientists signed a manifesto pledging present an overview of Einstein’s own thinking their support for the German war effort in 1915,

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 27 Einstein helped circulate another petition urging It is a very grave mistake to think that this enjoy- scientists to help bring a peaceful end to the ment of seeing and searching can be promoted war. The last official act of his life was to sign, by coercion and a sense of duty” (Bernstein in 1955, what was to become known as the 1973, 69). Einstein–Russell Manifesto, urging nuclear Teacher: How would you revolutionize schools disarmament and renouncing war as a means to make sure creativity and intellectual develop- of settling international conflicts. ment are not stifled? The fictional interviews with Einstein are conducted from the point of view of a high Einstein: It is relatively simple to keep schools free from coercion and fear. “Give in to the school teacher who wants to present physics power of the teacher the fewest possible coer- to his students in a somewhat broader social cive measures, so that the only source of the context than was common in the 1950s. pupil’s respect for the teacher is the human Teacher: Professor Einstein, Jeremy Bernstein and intellectual qualities of the latter” (Einstein states in his biography of you that there was no 1954, 69). precedent in your family history for any scien- Teacher: Dr Einstein, rumour has it that you tific or intellectual achievement (Bernstein were expelled from the gymnasium as “a bad 1973, 19). influence on other students.” Einstein: I think that is a bit unkind to my par- Einstein: That is correct. My parents had ents and relatives. My father owned an electri- moved to Milan in 1894. I was very lonely and cal shop until 1894 and although he was a somewhat rebellious, and asking too many rather unsuccessful inventor, it shows an intel- questions in school. It’s just as well that I left lectual attitude at a time when creativity cer- Germany at that time and applied for entrance tainly was not encouraged. My mother, on the to the Zurich Polytechnic Institute. other hand, was musical, and music and math- ematics often go hand in hand, as Pythagoras Teacher: Did you actually fail your mathemat- would say. ics entrance exam? Teacher: Were you interested in science when Einstein: No, no. That’s a rumour that seems you were young? to have gotten about somehow. I did well in mathematics and physics but rather poorly in Einstein: Nothing in my early formal education languages and biology, and also history. inclined me toward science, but I remember Fortunately, I was referred to a school in three incidents from my early life that had a Aarau, Switzerland, which was progressive. great influence on me. I remember receiving a The school even had science laboratories compass from my father on my fifth birthday. I and allowed students freedom for individual spent many days playing with that compass ­experimentation. and magnets. Also, I received a book on Eu- clid’s geometry from my uncle Jacob on my Teacher: Tell us about your experiences at the Polytechnic Institute. eleventh birthday. I spent many hours reading this book and working through the theorems. Einstein: There is not really much to tell. I was And when I was 12, one of our Thursday eve- unhappy with the system of lectures and ning dinner guests, Max Talmey, brought me a courses at the Polytechnic Institute. If it had not book on popular science, which I also enjoyed been for Marcel Grossmann, who was a me- greatly. ticulous note taker, I might never have passed the course exams. In fact, one of my teachers Teacher: Did you enjoy school in your early was Hermann Minkowski, who wrote some years? beautiful papers on special relativity 10 years Einstein: No. In fact, I hated school. The teach- later. He was quite surprised that the initial work ers at the Catholic school and the gymnasium was done by “that same Einstein that was in were like staff sergeants, discouraging creativ- my class. He was always such a lazy dog” ity and emphasizing drillwork. I remember re- (Hoffmann 1972, 84). The experience at the marking later in a public speech I once gave: Polytechnic Institute had such a deleterious “It is, in fact, nothing short of a miracle that the effect on me that I found the consideration of modern methods of instruction have not yet any scientific problems distasteful to me for an entirely strangled the holy curiosity of inquiry. . . . entire year.

28 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Teacher: Did you consider teaching at a uni- Teacher: So, 1905 was, in essence, a good versity as a possible career at that time? year for you. Einstein: Yes, I did, but first I needed my PhD. Einstein: Yes, I suppose it was. Three of the That meant that a professor had to take me papers I published that year—on Brownian on as an assistant, but no one wanted me. motion, the photo-electric effect and the elec- My father even wrote a letter to the famous trodynamics of moving bodies—certainly had Professor Ostwald, but to no avail. So I took some influence on physics. some short-term teaching positions until the Teacher: Is it true that when you were 16 years father of my good friend Marcel Grossmann old you thought about what a light wave would obtained a position for me at the Berne patent look like if you were moving beside it at the office. same speed? I ask this because my 16-year-old Teacher: It must have been difficult for you to high school physics students often ask difficult work at the patent office and to work on physics and strange questions that I cannot even begin in your spare time. to answer. Einstein: Actually, the work at the patent office Einstein: I think every successful scientist, was quite interesting. It required the kind of despite his intensive training, must keep the puzzle solving that stimulates one’s intellec- relatively unspoiled, naïve outlook of the tual powers. In some ways, the six years I spent 16‑year-old, who is not afraid to ask embar- at the patent office were among the happiest rassing questions that the science of his day of my life—I had a regular job and eight hours does not consider important anymore. My ques- of leisure a day, plus a Sunday, all of which tions about light waves probably indicated some could be devoted to physics. concern of mine about space and time that Teacher: In Berne you met frequently with required considerable time and effort to bring Maurice Solovine and Konrad Habicht in what to fruition. you called the Olympia Academy to discuss Teacher: Was it the result of the Michelson– philosophy and literature. Was that useful to Morley experiments that led to your theory of you? special relativity? Einstein: The physics curriculum at the univer- Einstein: Much has been written about that sities is probably far too narrow. Many of the question (Holton 1969, 133–97), but my mem- fundamental questions of philosophy have to ory is probably not a reliable guide anymore do with the nature of being; with space, time (Ogawa 1979, 73–81). Certainly the Michelson and matter; and with ways of knowing about result influenced my work indirectly through the nature. Every scientist or science teacher papers of Lorentz and Poincare. However, I should be familiar with these concepts, which have always felt that the main influence that have a great influence on science. Moreover, paper had on me was philosophical. In the it gave us a chance to bounce our ideas off special relativity paper, I reflect on the effects each other, a necessary exercise in what was, of a magnetic field on a conductor (Einstein intellectually, a somewhat lonely place. 1905, 891). As you are aware, moving a mag- Teacher: Was the relativity paper in 1905 your net past a conductor sets up an electric field first published paper? that acts on the charges to set up a current. Einstein: No, I worked on several topics during Moving the conductor through the field of the those years. I published some papers on cap- magnet exerts a Lorentz force on the charges, illarity, kinetic theory, thermodynamics and and a current of the same magnitude results. other topics in the Annalen Der Physik. How- The effects are identical—should the causes ever, my PhD thesis on “A New Determination be different? If the cause is the same in both of Molecular Dimensions,” in which, among cases, then only the relative motion of the other things, I calculated the probable size of magnet and the conductor is a physically mean- a sugar molecule, was rejected in 1903. My first ingful quantity. Hence the axiom that the laws thesis had been rejected in 1901. I almost of physics must be valid in all reference frames decided to forget about the PhD, but I resubmit- that are moving with constant velocity with re- ted this latter thesis in 1905 with one sentence spect to each other follows from philosophical added, and it was finally accepted. considerations.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 29 Teacher: Did your life change suddenly after Teacher: In our interview tomorrow, I would like your fundamental papers in 1905? to talk more about your views on war and peace. Einstein: You can get some indication of the My last question today relates to the research influence of my work from the fact that when I you were working on in your latter years. Is it applied for a position as privatdozent at the true that most physicists felt that your quest for University of Berne in 1907, I included a copy a unified field theory was a waste of time? of my special relativity paper. My application Einstein: My dear friend, there are fashions in for the position was refused and the paper re- physics that come and go as the clothing fash- turned with the comment “Incomprehensible!” ions do. With people like Hermann Weyl and I learned later that Wilhelm Wien, Max Planck others, I pursued the unification of electromag- and a professor Witkowski from Krakow were netic and gravitational forces and tried to incor- impressed by the paper. However, it wasn’t porate them into the geometric structure of until 1909 that I finally got an academic position spacetime. Most physicists had other more- at the University of Zurich. I remember notifying necessary problems to solve, but I have no Mr Haller, the director of the patent office, of doubt that a future generation of physicists will my resignation and of my appointment in Zur- return to the problem of the unification of the ich. Mr Haller said, “Now, now, Mr Einstein, basic interactions of nature. don’t play any more of your silly jokes. Nobody would believe such nonsense.” References Teacher: So the year of your first academic position coincided with the year of your first Bernstein, J. 1973. Einstein. London: Fontana. honorary doctorate at the University of Geneva. Einstein, A. 1905. “On the Electrodynamics of Moving In 1913, you were offered an academic position Bodies.” Annalen Der Physik. 17: 891. at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. ———. 1954. Ideas and Opinions. Pinebrook, NJ: Dell. Einstein: Yes, in the summer of 1913, Max Planck and Walther Nernst came to see me in Hoffmann, B. 1972. Albert Einstein: Creator and Zurich and offered me an attractive position in Rebel. New York: Viking. Berlin plus election to the Royal Prussian Acad- Holton, G. 1969. “Einstein, Michelson and the emy of Sciences (Hoffmann 1972, 100). It al- ‘Crucial’ Experiment.” Isis 60: 133–97. lowed me to work with the best physicist in the Ogawa, T. 1979. “Japanese Evidence for Einstein’s world at that time. In the flattering recommenda- Knowledge of the Michelson–Morley Experiment.” tion written by Planck and some others, they Japanese Studies in the History of Science 18: suggested that I “should not be judged too 73–81. severely for occasionally losing sight of [my] objectives in [my] logical reasoning as is the Albert Einstein: Humanitarian case in [my] theory of light quanta” (Hoffmann 1972, 94). The next day at 11 in the morning, our phys- Teacher: Was it in Berlin that you worked pri- ics teacher arrives at Einstein’s house and is marily on the general theory of relativity? escorted to Einstein’s study. Although Einstein is not supposed to smoke, he is enjoying a pipe, Einstein: I had already started working on the and Ms Dukas brings them both a cup of coffee. equivalence between gravitation and accelerat- The teacher fiddles with his tape recorder, takes ing frames of reference in Zurich and Prague. a pad of paper from his briefcase and questions In fact, in 1912, I predicted a value for the bend- Einstein again. ing of light past the sun that was half the value I predicted in 1916. My good friend Freundlich Teacher: Professor Einstein, last night as I was led a 1914 expedition to the Ukraine to measure typing up our interview from yesterday, it struck the deflection of light in a total eclipse. Because me that I had forgotten a couple of questions of the war, Freundlich became a prisoner of war that might be important to my colleagues. Do instead. Fortunately, with the great assistance you mind if I ask you a few more questions of David Hilbert, I completed the general theo- about physics? ry in 1916, and Eddington’s expedition of 1919 Einstein: I don’t mind at all, although I have a fully bore out the new prediction of the deflec- suspicion as to what type of question might pop tion of starlight. into your head late at night.

30 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Teacher: The first question has to do with the Although strict objectivity and causality fail us cosmological term you introduced to modify the in quantum mechanics, I believe the last word gravitational field equations, which you devel- has not been spoken. oped in 1915, in order to derive from them a “May the spirit of Newton give us the power static universe solution. to restore unison between physical reality and Einstein: Ah, yes. Everyone of my biographers the profoundest characteristic of Newton’s has pointed out that I should have been satis- teaching—strict causality” (Pais 1982, 15, em- fied with the original field equations, which phasis added). appear to predict universes that are expanding Teacher: You refer to yourself as a realist, or contracting rather than remaining static, as Professor Einstein. That surprises me. I would the evidence in 1917 appeared to suggest. have thought the term idealist would describe When Friedmann’s expanding universe solu- you more accurately. tions were found to fit well with Professor Einstein: In actuality, philosophers of science Hubble’s observations, I decided that the whole often consider physicists as unscrupulous op- business of the cosmological term was a mis- portunists. A physicist is a realist with respect take and I refused to have anything to do with to the external world, but he is also an idealist it after that time (Pais 1982; Bernstein 1973, in how he considers concepts and theories to 128–30). be the free inventions of the human spirit. He And your other embarrassing question? is also a positivist in how he considers that his Teacher: It has to do with quantum mechanics. concepts and theories are only justified to the Is it true that you have not accepted the current extent to which they correspond to sensory view of physicists that the basic laws of physics experience, and he is perhaps even a Platonist are probabilistic, not deterministic? or Pythagorean in how he considers elegance and logical simplicity to be indispensable tools Einstein: Quantum mechanics has been a of his research (Pais 1982, 13). fruitful theory, and in 1927 I was already con- vinced that quantum mechanics undoubtedly Teacher: Well, that takes care of my questions contained part of the ultimate truth (Pais 1982, on your views of science and of nature. 448). Yet it seemed to me that a theory should Your work has had a great influence on do more than just give energy level transition society as a whole. Have you ever wondered probabilities for electrons in an atom; it should if it was worthwhile, given the technological describe the electron orbits in the atom or in implications of your work? cloud chambers. Einstein: I have occasionally expressed myself Initially, I attempted to show that quantum as wishing I had been a cobbler instead of a mechanics was inconsistent and that the un- physicist, now that I know the uses to which certainty principle could be circumvented. physics and physicists were put, but such feel- However, all of these attempts failed. Finally, ings have never lasted very long. To find a with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, we thought that lets us penetrate a little deeper into designed an experiment that at least showed the eternal mystery of nature, and to have ex- that certain properties of atoms had an objec- perienced the recognition, sympathy, and help tive existence even prior to the measurement of the best minds of his time, is almost more of these properties, and that quantum mechan- happiness than a man can bear (Hoffmann ics is therefore incomplete. I believe that the 1972, 253). wave function, therefore, does not describe a Teacher: Do you think that you developed the state that is a single system; it relates rather to theoretical groundwork for the atomic bomb? many systems, in the sense of statistical me- chanics (Einstein 1954, 308–09). Einstein: First of all, it is never easy to foresee the ultimate consequences of one’s research. Teacher: Clearly your mistrust of quantum Second, any scientific accomplishment inevi- mechanics must have something to do with tably contains consequences for good and evil. your vision of reality. Unfortunately, it sometimes seems as if “all our Einstein: I think that every physicist must be a technological progress—our very civiliza- realist in so far as he or she seeks to describe tion—is like an axe in the hand of a pathological a world independent of the acts of perception. criminal” (Dukas and Hoffmann 1979, 88). We

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 31 have not learned the moral lessons that help Einstein: Is it really a sign of unpardonable us cope with our modern technology. naiveté to suggest that those in power should decide that future conflicts must be settled by Teacher: You were a pacifist most of your life, constitutional means, rather than by the sense- yet you did, together with Dr Leo Szilard, send less sacrifice of great numbers of lives (Ferris a letter to President Roosevelt, warning him of 1983)? the possibility that Germany might develop an atomic bomb, and that the United States should Teacher: But are you afraid of the absolute set up a research program to develop the atom power that a world government could yield? bomb before the Germans. Einstein: Such a world parliament should con- Einstein: Actually, Eugene Wigner and Szilard sist of representatives elected from all parts of came to see me while I was vacationing on the world, and its power should be restricted Long Island—I think Edward Teller also came by constitutional means. Because it will be the once—and we drafted a letter urging quick ac- only organization with an international army, tion from the administration (Hoffmann 1972, there will be some danger of the abuse of this 205–06). power. But I fear even more the coming of Early in the 1930s, I made a decision that another war that could annihilate humanity. military resistance was necessary to save Eu- Teacher: Professor Einstein, if you were to look rope, and perhaps the world, from a barbarous, back over your life, what would you choose as totalitarian Germany. As I wrote to some con- the most important thing you have done for scientious objectors in Belgium: “I hope most humanity? sincerely that the time will once more come Einstein: My dear friend, you ask the impos- when refusal of military service will again be sible! In my life I have been able to think a little an effective method of serving the cause of bit about the secrets of nature and I have been progress” (Bernstein 1973, 181; Hoffmann honoured out of all proportion to my accom- 1972, 170). plishments. I have lived in a time that is distin- Szilard came to see me again in March 1945 guished by wonderful achievements in the fields and we urged President Roosevelt not to use of scientific understanding and the technical the atomic bomb against a civilian target in implications of these insights. But humanity Japan. However, it is doubtful that President must realize that knowledge and skills alone Roosevelt ever saw the letter. cannot lead it to a happy and dignified life. Teacher: Since then, you’ve always argued for Humanity needs to learn to place the proclaim- nuclear disarmament and international control ers of high moral standards and values above of atomic energy. the discoverers of objective truth. What these Einstein: Yes, I’ve been quite distressed by the blessed men have given us, we must guard and current paranoia in the United States. It almost try to keep alive with all our strength if human- seems that, having defeated the Germans, the ity is not to lose its dignity, the security of its Americans are intent on taking their place existence and its joy in living (Dukas and Hoff- (Bernstein 1973, 183). They are suffering under mann 1979, 70–71). the dangerous illusion that censorship and secrecy can prevent knowledge about nuclear References weapons from spreading to other nations. The Bernstein, J. 1973. Einstein. London: Fontana. only real secret was already revealed at Hiro- Dukas, H and B Hoffmann. 1979. Albert Einstein: shima. Once it is shown that nuclear weapons The Human Side. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni- can be made, it is only a matter of time before versity Press. other nations follow. The only hope we have in Einstein, A. 1954. Ideas and Opinions. Pinebrook, the nuclear age is to form an international sys- NJ: Dell. tem of government that will resolve future Ferris, T. 1983. “The Other Einstein.” Science 83 conflicts by international law. (October): 34–41. Teacher: Isn’t it impractical to expect nations Hoffmann, B. 1972. Albert Einstein: Creator and to give up their right to settle differences by war Rebel. New York: Viking. and allow a world parliament to resolve disputes Pais, A. 1982. The Science and the Life of Albert for them? Einstein. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

32 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Mileva Maric and Albert receiving a four-page letter from Albert in ­October of 1897. Einstein: Unfulfilled Dreams Teacher: But you did return to Zurich later that Mileva Maric was born just before Christmas year. 1875, in Kac, Serbia, which was then part of Mileva: Yes, even though I enjoyed my stay in Hungary but later belonged to Yugoslavia. She Heidelberg initially, especially the physics lec- was an intelligent child but not strong physi- tures of Professor Lenard. But Albert kept writ- cally. She had a limp that caused her to be ing to me, wanting me to return to Zurich. I fi- teased as a child. nally decided to return to the Polytechnic Mileva’s father, Milos, was especially sup- Institute in April of 1898, and Albert lent me his portive of Mileva and managed to get her notebooks and those of Marcel Grossmann and admitted to the Royal Classical High School helped me catch up in my studies. (for boys only), which focused on the physical ­sciences. Teacher: Did your romance with Einstein prog- Mileva graduated with highest honours. She ress during that year? desperately wanted to continue her studies but Mileva: Yes, I suppose it did. Our goals in life, few universities at that time admitted girls. The our interests and even our emotions were so University of Zurich had admitted women stu- similar that we enjoyed each other’s company dents since 1865, so Mileva went to Switzerland a lot. I remember Albert writing to me once when and finished the Swiss-equivalent of high he was visiting his parents—he said he had school by 1896. She entered the faculty of described me to his family and they teased him medicine, but after one term she switched to quite a bit. the Zurich Polytechnic University to study Teacher: Did Albert’s family object to your mathematics and physics. Her goal was to at ­relationship? least become a high school physics teacher. There were six students in her class, the young- Mileva: Yes, that became evident much later est was a 17-year-old German student named when they realized how serious Albert was Albert Einstein. about me. When his mother objected so strongly that I became discouraged, Albert Teacher: Mileva, how would you describe your wrote to me: “Have courage little witch. I can first meetings with Albert? hardly wait to be able to hug you and squeeze Mileva: During the first year, the six of us were you and live with you again” (Renn and Schul- in many in classes and labs together and I mann 1992, Letter 17). He would comfort me quickly saw that Albert had a deep interest in by promising that we would have a gypsy basic physics. He would sometimes be impa- household in which we would both pursue phys- tient with the slow pace of lectures, but we both ics problems together. enjoyed Professor Weber’s classes immense- Teacher: Did you work on physics research ly. We also discovered that we shared an inter- together? est in music, and he sometimes accompanied my piano playing on the violin. We also went Mileva: That is a hard question to answer. My on some hikes together with other students. own feelings have gone back and forth on that However, I decided to leave Zurich after one issue. As long as Albert was happy and a mem- year to continue my studies in Heidelberg. ber of our family, I was so proud of his achieve- Teacher: Why did you leave Zurich? ments and not jealous, but when he began to distance himself from me and the children, it Mileva: I’m not really sure of the reasons. I went began to feel as if Albert had gotten the pearl home to visit my family during the summer and from the oyster and I was left with the shell, as I remember telling my parents about this inter- I wrote to my good friend Helena Savic in 1910. esting young student. My father gave me some tobacco to give to Albert, but since I was in Teacher: But isn’t it true that Albert himself re- Heidelberg, I couldn’t give it to him personally. ferred to the work on relativity as “our work”? But I had no time for romance. I remember Mileva: At various times he did refer to our work writing that there was no point in falling in love, together. For example, in 1901, when Albert given the state of the world at that time (Renn was away visiting Michel Besso in Milan, he and Schulmann 1992, Letter 1). I do remember wrote: “I’ll be so happy and proud when we are

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 33 together and can bring our work on relative thought she would recover, she died later in motion to a successful conclusion. When I see 1903. I often wondered if I could have looked other people, I can really appreciate how spe- after Lieserl better, or if I should have taken her cial you are” (Renn and Schulmann 1992, with me immediately to Switzerland, but we Letter 25). On the other hand, even when we could not yet afford to get married, and we didn’t had just gotten to know each other in 1899, have a suitable home. Albert was already convinced that electrody- Teacher: You and Albert did get married in namics had to be presented in a simpler way 1903. Was it still a difficult time for you? than it was in the old textbooks (Renn and Schulmann 1992, Letter 1). Mileva: No, Albert had just gotten a permanent job as a patent analyst in Bern and his father, Teacher: But you and Albert had extensive on his deathbed, had finally given Albert his discussions about electrodynamics and other blessing to get married. It was a wonderful time physics problems, correct? for both of us. I remember writing Helena Mileva: What made those days so wonderful Savic, that I was, if possible, even more at- is that Albert loved to discuss physics problems tached to my dear treasure than I was in our with me and with his other friends. In almost Zurich days (Popovic 2003, 83). I looked for- every letter, after a few brief endearments he ward eagerly to his daily return from the patent would write about the progress he was making office, and it was a pleasure to see him work on these problems. In one letter, written around hard at his physics research in the evening. 1901, he wrote that he was appointing me his And from time to time he asked me to check dear little scientist, and even after we were his mathematics because he was often in such married he told a friend that he needed me a hurry that he would make some simple errors. because I solved all the mathematical problems We often met with friends on the weekends and for him. In those days, my own dreams of being accompanied each other musically. a scientist and working with Albert had not yet Teacher: Was Albert as happy as you? disappeared. Mileva: Oh, yes. Albert even added a postscript Teacher: Is there a time when you felt that you to one of my letters to Helena and wrote: “Well, would not achieve your youthful dreams of now I am a married man, and am living a very becoming a scientist? pleasant, cozy life with my wife. She takes Mileva: That again is a difficult question to excellent care of everything, cooks well, and is answer. I failed my final examinations twice in always cheerful.” 1901, the last time three months before our Teacher: The year 1905 has always been re- baby girl Lieserl was born. It goes to show that garded as Einstein’s miracle year. Was it a great being a woman could be a serious handicap to year for you, too? a career in science; we are biologically pre- Mileva: Oh, yes. I remember feeling proud of vented from devoting as much time as men to Albert, that all of his papers were accepted. scientific studies. Other factors included being However, it still took several years before the unhappy about Albert’s parents’ disapproval of world seemed to take notice of them. I remem- our relationship, and neither of us finding a ber Albert being excited when Professor Planck suitable position for several years. sent one of his students to the patent office in Teacher: Did you and Albert decide to give Bern to talk to “this young Einstein.” I do re- Lieserl up for adoption? member writing to Helena, however, that when I was sitting in our little apartment in Bern, I Mileva: That’s what people assumed, but it often used to dream of “sitting in Zurich in a wasn’t true. We left Lieserl with my parents for certain room and am living my most wonderful the first year. Even Albert was quite excited days” (Popovic 2003, 89). about having a daughter. He wrote to me when I was with my parents that he didn’t want to give Teacher: I notice in your letters to Helena that Lieserl up and asked me if my father could ar- around 1909 you begin to exclusively refer to range for Lieserl to be with us in Switzerland Albert as “my husband.” (Renn and Schulmann 1992, Letter 45). Unfor- Mileva: I hadn’t noticed that. I just remember tunately, Lieserl developed scarlet fever when still being happy with my two children, Albert she was about a year old and, although we and Eduard. They were both wonderful boys,

34 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 bright and talented—except that Eduard (Tete) the boys were going so far away. He had made was often sick and we had to be careful with it clear that he could not live in the same house him. My husband, I mean Albert, was extreme- as me unless I gave him complete freedom. ly busy and becoming quite famous. I remem- Teacher: Did Albert ask you for a divorce ber writing to Helena that I was happy for his ­immediately? success, but I hoped and wished that fame would not have a harmful effect on his human- Mileva: No, he assured me that he did not want ity (Popovic 2003, 98). [Note: Tete was born in a divorce and that he had no interest in marry- 1910] ing anyone else. But his family put lots of pres- sure on him to marry Elsa, so he did ask me Teacher: There are stories of Albert enjoying for a divorce a few years later. I refused, and the company of other women. Did you find that he seemed quite content with my refusal. They his interest in other women hurt your were difficult years for me and the children. Tete ­marriage? and I were often sick and because of the war Mileva: I don’t really want to talk about that. we did not get much money from Germany. I For the first six or seven years of our marriage, had to do a lot of tutoring when I could, to make Albert seemed quite happy with his family life. ends meet. I was also happy, even though my dreams of a Teacher: You eventually divorced Albert in student life had faded away, and my time taken 1919. up by caring for my family. I did feel jealous when my husband’s fame made other women Mileva: Yes. After the war ended, Albert’s fam- idolize him and flirt with him. Men are such ily continued pressuring him to marry—to regu- weaklings at those times. But in 1912, Albert larize the relationship with Elsa so that it would visited Berlin to meet with Max Planck and the be easier for Elsa’s daughters to find husbands. other physicists, and he also met his cousin I was tired of fighting at that time, and it wasn’t Elsa again. She was divorced already, and it good for the boys to have these tensions con- didn’t take me long to notice that she was tinue, so I finally agreed. strongly attracted to him, and she kept writing Teacher: Is it true that Einstein promised you to him. Albert once wrote to her to tell her to the proceeds from the Nobel Prize if and when stop writing, but she started again after a year. he ever won it? If we had stayed in Zurich, I think we could have Mileva: Yes. He had been recommended for a remained a happy family. Nobel Prize before and it was only a matter of Teacher: Why did Albert move from Zurich to time before he would win one. I agreed because Berlin? it would give me, Tete and Albert (as our son Mileva: Ach, we first moved from Zurich to Hans Albert was usually called) some security Prague and spent a year there. It was not a in difficult times. happy time for me because Germans in Prague Teacher: This has been interpreted by some looked down on Slavic people. I was very biographers as an admission by Albert that you happy that we moved back to Zurich after one made great contributions to his 1905 work on year. But then Planck and Nernst visited Albert relativity and other subjects. and offered him a high position in Berlin, where Mileva: I don’t think Einstein intended people Elsa was and the rest of Albert’s family. We to make that interpretation. I did help with the moved to Berlin, but it was quickly obvious that mathematics at times, and we did have wonder- our marriage was at an end. Albert spent half ful discussions about the topics, but I never did his time at Elsa’s, and I finally decided that I physics of the level of the Nobel Prize. I think could not be happy in Berlin and took the boys Einstein wanted his boys to have a secure fu- back to Zurich. ture and did not want to have to worry about Teacher: Was it hard for Albert to part from the sending us money from year to year. He had a boys and from you? high-enough salary in Berlin at that time, so he Mileva: I remember standing at the train, and and his cousin did not have to worry about all four of us were crying. I remember thinking, money either. “Why is this happening to us? Why can’t we be Teacher: Do you think that Einstein and Elsa happy together?” But Albert mostly cried because had a happy marriage?

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 35 Mileva: No. I think Elsa was often unhappy. References Einstein kept having affairs and didn’t even try to hide them. I wrote to Helene Savic sometime Popovic, M. 2003. In Albert’s Shadow: The Life in the early 1920s that I no longer had any feel- and Letters of Mileva Maric, Einstein’s First ings for Albert Einstein. In some ways, relations Wife. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University between us got even more cordial for several Press. years around this time when Einstein came to Renn, J, and R Schulmann, eds. 1992. Albert visit the boys or take them on hikes. But our lives ­Einstein and Mileva Maric: The Love Letters. became more separated, and after he emigrated Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. to the United States we never saw him again.

36 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 The Past and the Future of Elementary Science Curriculum in Alberta Anita Kamal

Introduction dates and outline maps of Europe . . . con- cerns relating to the liberal vis-à-vis the Once it is accepted that we will educate our practical in the curriculum, and indeed to the children and that this responsibility should be very meaning of these terms, and to the assumed by society as a whole, the question socializing vis-à-vis the educating role of arises: who decides what to include in the cur- schools, [have] engaged policy-makers for riculum? Of course this task has been delegat- more than a century. Throughout that period, ed to experts from all disciplines, not only the the basic structure of schooling, curricula discipline of education. But in final analysis, in and teaching [have] remained remarkably a democratic society, it is us—the parents and stable. the older generation—who come to this task As I dig through all things curricular, I am politically, determined to do the best for our astonished at how Pratt’s words are constant- children, bringing our predispositions and, dare ly reaffirmed. This paper is my exploration of I say, prejudices (of which we may be com- the elementary science curriculum in Alberta, pletely unaware) into our decisions. Pratt, and I hope to develop it further. I was intrigued quoted in Tomkins (1986, 441), sums this up and took a closer look at this field after teaching as follows: elementary science for more than five years in In a process that [is] essentially political, the late 1990s. At the same time, I was also rational, arguments for change [are] of little teaching biology at the junior high and high avail. This suggest[s] that curriculum ques- school levels, which threw my dilemmas more tions [have] some kind of deep psychic sharply into focus. Coming from a secondary significance. A possible explanation [is] that science background, I found the elementary people who [feel] that they had been rela- science curriculum a challenge—incoherent, tively successful in life, the middle-class who fractured and without a holistic structure. [are] the most vocal critics of the schools, Curriculum, and the various disciplines and ascribe their success in part to their educa- social factors that influence its development, tion. Accordingly they [seek] an education is, of course, a large and complex area of re- for their children as similar as possible to search. Historic and contemporary political and what they experienced a generation earlier. economic forces, evolutions in developmental Support for curriculum change would sug- psychology, behavioral sciences and curriculum gest that their own schooling had in some theory, as well as teacher training, have been sense been deficient. Hence their continued and continue to be the major influences affect- devotion to fractions and Euclidean theo- ing changes. These factors interdigitate, affect- rems, Shakespeare learned by rote, predicates ing societal responses, which are reflected in and subordinate clauses, lists of historical educational curricula. Likewise, curriculum affects

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 37 pedagogic practice, and evaluation and assess- preoccupied with the flood of homesteaders ment philosophies and practices. Such a sweep and the rapid growth of towns and cities, were is too broad for the scope of this paper. Here I not concerned with an education system that survey the trends that have emerged in the seemed satisfactory (Tkach 1977, 176). Nev- elementary science curriculum in Alberta since ertheless, a “belief that existing programs failed the early 1920s and identify and discuss as- to give pupils a practical understanding . . . and pects of this curriculum that I believe need to the conviction that the quality of instructions . . . be addressed and recontextualized. Such a was sub-standard” led to demands for change historical re-evaluation may give direction for (Tkach 1977, 483). However, the committee drawn the future development of this curriculum so up in 1910 to survey the curriculum, only recom- that it is more in line with current philosophical mended revisions to the organization of schools and epistemological thinking in the field of sci- rather than changes to the curriculum itself. ence education (Roth et al 2001, introduction). Canada was, as is today, influenced by To understand the directives that currently American and British educational theories. By shape the elementary science curriculum in 1915, the American term progressive education Alberta, we must continually remind ourselves was heard and discussed in education circles, of the various pressures, especially American especially in western Canada. The same ideas and British, that have historically influenced and under the title of new education were also com- continue to influence developments in Cana- ing to define education in Britain. Peter Sandi- dian curricula (Tomkins 1986). ford, critiquing the traditionalist curriculum I believe that the elementary science cur- across Canada in 1915, found a curriculum “[of] riculum needs serious revision. In considering remarkable uniformity,” “seldom suggestive,” the possibilities for these changes, I ask the “almost invariably prescriptive” and “frequently following: restrictive.” Rarely was the curriculum “fitted to 1. What was the elementary science curriculum local conditions” (Tomkins 1986, 132). in Alberta like in the past, and what societal The progressive ideas influencing educa- forces brought it about? tional thinking on both sides of the Atlantic were 2. What shape, content and thrust should the brought to public notice in 1916 with the publi- Alberta elementary science curriculum cation of John Dewey’s Democracy and Educa- have? tion, followed in 1918 by W H Kilpatrick’s The 3. What can we learn from the past about Project Method, which demonstrated the prac- mistakes to be avoided and directions to tical applications of Dewey’s philosophy (Tom- explore? kins 1986, 133). The project method is de- scribed as “a wonderfully purposeful activity,” proceeding in a social environment that is Historical Context of the “consonant with the child’s own goals [that] Alberta Elementary Science would enhance learning through . . . positive reinforcement . . . and intended to serve Curriculum Dewey’s social purpose by creating a school The 80 years of curriculum development in environment more nearly typical of life itself Alberta since the 1920s has produced an as- than that of the traditional curriculum” (Tomkins tonishing variety of ideas and innovations, often 1986, 190–1). from within the field of curriculum itself, and The 1918 revision of the Alberta curriculum, influenced always by the social, scientific, po- although not containing substantive changes litical and economic spirit of the times (Tomkins in program content from those of the 1892/1912 1986, chapter 10). curricula, already saw the inclusion of this new Alberta emerged from territorial status to philosophical thinking, “attention [being] paid become a province in 1905, but continued to to psychological considerations” (Tkach 1977, use the program of studies it had inherited from 272), with the injunction that “the skilful teach- its territorial days, which had been in place er will never lose sight of the fact that, while it since 1892 (Tkach 1977, 175). Curriculum writ- may be necessary to adapt this outline to the ing in the prairie provinces at this time consisted ability and power of the pupil, the progress of of simply selecting textbooks written and pro- the pupil should never be determined by the duced in Ontario (Tomkins 1986, 236). Legislators, scope of the work herein assigned for each

38 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 school year” (Tkach 1977, 273; and quoted in these into the school system following the 1922 J T Ross, Course of Studies for the Elemen- curricular revisions. The Dalton Plan, for example, tary Schools 1918). This new program encour- “was given a five year trial in Edmonton begin- aged teachers to take individual differences into ning in 1924” (Tomkins 1986, 191). account, and an effort was made to incorporate In the latter half of the 1920s, Alberta educa- this into the curriculum (Tkach 1977, 273). “The tors made “a systematic effort to create a theo- new course must be flexible and easily adapt- retical base that would undergird curriculum able to the varying needs of the children of all change” (Tomkins 1986, 191). Two able and parts of the Province” (Alberta Department of active educators, Fred McNally and Hubert Education 1922, 6). The introduction to the Newland, in association with social reconstruc- elementary science course of study states: tionists like George Counts in America, “argued The chief criticisms of the old course cen- that school should take an overtly political tered around the quantity of material in- stance and promote the building of a new social cluded, and the lack of specific direction. At order” (Counts 1997; Tomkins 1986, 191). first glance it may appear that the present The pressure for change in the elementary course is open to the former objection. Such, curriculum came from both the reconstruction- however, is not the case. The committee is ists and the lay public, including two influential able to present a course closely related to political groups, the United Farmers of Alberta and the Alberta Social Credit Party, both of the child’s pre-school experience, having its which endorsed a more liberal and inclusive basis in his every-day environment. (Al- education (Tkach 1977, 382–84). This demand berta Department of Education 1922, 26) led to the incorporation of the project method The document goes on to encompass and into the Alberta curriculum under what was expound on Dewey’s pragmatic and progres- known as “experience education” (as it was sivist philosophy, both as explanation and known in the United States) or the enterprise justification to the teacher, in the curriculum method (which was similar in nature but devel- guide under the heading “Why Is Elementary oped in Britain). “A decade of discussion and Science Included in the Course of Studies?” limited experimentation” (Tomkins 1986, 194) and the thinking reflects concerns similar to came to fruition. In his 1934 annual report, the those of today: Deputy Minister of Education stated: Man cannot live unto himself alone. . . . His The greatness of the Province will ultimate- whole being is defined in terms of his envi- ly be determined by the type of education ronment. He must respect the laws which we provide . . . and the creating of an atmo- govern the world about him. To disregard sphere within our schools that will serve well them is to invite discomfort, inconvenience, childhood, youth and manhood. . . . Educa- loss, and even destruction. Narrow experi- tion is not a means [to] livelihood it is a ence, limited knowledge, and faulty judg- means to life. Our objectives have possibly ments lead to poor adjustments of the indi- been based too much upon the need for vidual to his environment, and cater to obtaining a living. . . . Mental attainments, ignorance and superstition. (Alberta Depart- subjects taught, and methods employed are ment of Education 1922, 27) means rather than ends. . . . Education is not a forced growth in the classroom . . . but Under the heading “Method” (of instruction), is rather a self-developed process, a living the following advice is given: of life in wholsomeness and fullness, and Free and informal discussion with the children the process is continuous and lifelong on the various topics is suggested. The (Tkach 1977, 385). teacher should guide the discussion, encour- References to the enterprise method first aging the class to talk freely of their experi- appeared in the 1936 Programme of Studies ences and habits. They should be encouraged for the Elementary School. “The name ‘enter- to ask questions as well as to answer them. prise’ [was] chosen to designate the ‘doing or (Alberta Department of Education 1922, 33) activity’ [because] it has a stricter meaning than The project method spawned a variety of the more familiar ‘project.’ An enterprise is a project-centred, progressive curricula. Alberta, definite undertaking” (Alberta Department of leader of educational innovation, introduced Education 1936, 288).

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 39 “The program incorporated the educational the catalyst that spurred people to again con- principles of some of the foremost curricularists sider change (Tkach 1977, 382). of the time” (Tkach 1977, 387), and was sup- The golden age of progressivism started to ported by a formal announcement from the unravel, and even Dewey himself turned department of education that in the fall term of against the (mis)interpretations of his thinking, 1936, the “traditional school” would be replaced declaring it too child-centerd and unstructured by the “progressive school” (Tkach 1977, 380). (Tomkins 1986, 191). The curricular philoso- The major points of the philosophical base of phies of the rational humanists—Franklin Bob- this program, “in opposition to the traditionalist bitt and Ralph Tyler—which invoked the use of premise that “education is but a means of prepa- the scientific method for constructing curricula ration for life . . . was founded on the belief that and assessment tools, were becoming ex- education is life” (Tkach 1977, 381). The major tremely influential in North America. The ideas points may be summarized as follows: and methods continue to influence curriculum, 1. Learning is not something that a child gets, today reincarnated in Bloom’s Taxonomy of but something that he does. Educational Objectives (1956). However, the 2. The school must respond meaningfully and ‘enterprise’ method, carried the seeds of its own purposefully to the child’s call for things to do. destruction. The 1940 Programme of Studies 3. The natural way that children learn in their for the Elementary School begins with the fol- play life may be adopted by the school and lowing paragraph: redirected to educational objectives. While no attempt has been made to set out 4. School learning embraces more than the a specific outline of organized subject matter knowledge and skills of traditional school in the field of Elementary Science, it must subjects to include attitudes, ideals, abilities nevertheless be recognized that the present and so on. world is unintelligible to one who is ignorant 5. The school program must provide for instruc- of science and of its contribution to our tion in both the ways of life and how to live modern world. Outlines of subject in logical a normal life within the school. detail tend to hamper rather than further the 6. The teacher will watch carefully and pa- integration process . . . Elementary–science tiently for the learning outcomes of social material will be employed in the enterprises activities and experiences. as a natural part of a major socialized activ- 7. It is both feasible and desirable to correlate ity. Children do not come to school to learn many different learning units and consolidate Science per se. them into studies or social activities (Tomkins The enterprise method is one of the best 1986, 194). illustrations of the scientific method in think- ing. It is the scientific method, consisting School reorganization at this time brought essentially of a problem with a purpose. about the rearrangement of the classes from (Alberta Department of Education 1936, 57) the two-tier system of schooling to the current three-tier system. Grades 1–6 were designated These statements gave almost total discre- as elementary school, Grades 7–9 as junior tion about matter and method to the teacher high school and Grades 10–12 as senior high but no direction. Many teachers felt threatened school. Elementary school was further subdi- by, yet pressured to pursue, this radical method vided into two parts: Division I, comprised of “at the instigation of a group of theorists” (Tom- Grades 1–3, and Division II, comprised of kins 1986, 196). Many of the enterprises be- Grades 4–6. came empty “show pieces” with little educa- The Alberta model of enterprise spread tional value. Indeed, a falling away of support across Canada, and the province’s curriculum for this radical program was beginning to be felt revisions “between 1936 and 1940 have been throughout the education system in Alberta. called the high water mark in the acceptance Two of the greatest obstacles to its success of progressive education . . . in all of Canada” were a lack of proper teacher preparation in (Tomkins 1986, 194). Peter Sandiford regarded subject content and methodology, and a seri- these changes as the “first major curriculum ously inadequate supply of the materials and change in the province,” but as Tkach notes, library resources required to support such a pro- difficult political and economic conditions were gram. Then, as now, the education system was

40 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 underfunded, but sufficient pressure, again (which was trying to understand the Russian coming from the public, forced curriculum revi- coup in science and technology, and decided sions in 1940, including “a withdrawal of [the] how best to address it), decided that educa- new report card which [had] discarded grades, tional expectations and standards had to be examinations, marks, passing or promotion” raised immediately (Tomkins 1986, 291). (Tomkins 1986, 196). To reassure the public, it If Americans were to regain their superiority in was pointed out that the curriculum was made the fields of “pure” and “applied” sciences, they in Alberta especially for Alberta students and would have to renounce the philosophy of was not a foreign import. This was not com- education that they had adopted [since] the turn pletely true, and references to “enterprise” con- of the century . . . the progressive philosophy tinued to appear in the curriculum until 1957. of education . . . which [had] sabotaged one Up to this point, teachers had not been of the principal objectives of schooling . . . given much direction beyond lists of suggested academic excellence.” (Tkach 1977, 460) topics. Demand arose for the creation of struc- ture so that the elementary science program It was believed that social problems and the would have a shape, a coherence and a firm progressivist emphasis on group dynamics had foundation. A subcommittee to survey teachers’ de-emphasized the importance of basic skills needs was struck in 1952 and came back with and the traditional academic curriculum (Tkach the following list of problems that teachers felt 1977, 460). A meeting of leading scientists and needed to be addressed: educational psychologists was convened at • Lack of specific direction for developing Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts, in 1959 to ad- scientific concepts at each grade level dress the crisis in education. It was decided • Lack of direction for incorporating the exist- that children should be educated and trained ing approaches: to become “little scientists”—to think like scien- − Integrated teaching/learning, which was tists and problem solve like scientists. A mod- the enterprise method ernistic, positivist, elitist and exclusionary − Incidental/opportunistic learning system based on process skills was created − Parallel activities that took place in sepa- (Tomkins 1986, 291). Jerome Bruner was one rate periods of the foremost educators to push for this new education in his book The Process of Educa- Elementary science, health and social studies, tion, which appeared in 1960. His theory had continued to be combined until 1957. The pro- two aspects: presentation of hard-fact content, gramme of studies for 1940 stated: coupled with discovery or inquiry learning. This There should be no separation of science approach “was attractive because it promised from health and social studies in the elemen- to restore academic rigor to schooling and of- tary grades. Elementary science material fered a solution to the problem of the knowledge should be introduced as a natural part of a explosion by reducing the complexity and clut- major socialized activity, and should make ter of unlimited quantities of information. The its contribution to general educational objec- irony was that discovery/inquiry sounded very tives in intimate relationship to other areas similar to the progressivist project/enterprise of learning. (Tkach 1977, 445) method” (Tomkins 1986, 291). The situation The short list of only two major concept ar- was considered so dire that funding to develop eas from the 1936 revisions—Living Things, this program was provided to the American and the Earth and the Universe—was extended education system by the defense department. with the addition of the Energy and Machines Specialized programs at the secondary level in concept area. This change was included in the biology (Biological Science Curriculum Studies, 1957 programme of studies. It can therefore be or BSCS), physics (Physical Science Curricu- said that there was no great change in the elemen- lum Studies, or PSCS) and chemistry (Chemi- tary science curriculum in Alberta from 1936 cal Education Materials Study, or CHEM Study) until 1957, the year that the Russians launched were developed in the United Sates, and in the Sputnik and the world entered the Space Age. United Kingdom through the Nuffield Founda- Although subject-centred curriculum reform tion. (These were not only used in local schools had already begun (Tomkins 1986, 291), the but were also widely sought throughout the western world, especially the United States developing world.)

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 41 Canadian educators were also concerned Organization of Topics within the with the state of science education, especially at the elementary level, recognizing that it was Concept of Elementary Science “years behind the times and the content and in the Alberta Curriculum methods of instruction were totally inadequate (Tkach 1977, 463). Northrop Frye went on to While not discussing this topic at length, it express concern about such a rigid and struc- is useful to see what topics have been included tured approach and the lack of consideration in elementary science over time, consider them for what the true goals of education should be from a historical perspective and consider the (Tomkins 1986, 292–93). philosophical and political suasions that brought These external international pressures in them about. I have compiled two sections part led to the 1963 changes in the elementary (Appendix 1): Language Used in the Curriculum science curriculum. The objectives of elemen- Writing, and Goals of Elementary Schooling, tary science (generalizations, problem solving, which I quote at length from the contemporary scientific attitude, interest and appreciation, Alberta government publications, and which store of knowledge and conservation) are not give an overview of elementary science. only listed (National Science Teachers Asso- In 1922, elementary science included nature ciation 1963, 7–10), but each discussed at study, geography and health (physiology and some length. This was also the first document hygiene). Agriculture was included in the upper to discuss the evaluation of the students, the two grades (Alberta Department of Education teacher, the science done in the classroom and 1922, 26). the school science program itself (p 14–15). In the 1936 curriculum, elementary science The program had new sections dealing with was only combined with health education; the space in the three major concept areas of Liv- two subjects were considered complementary. ing World, Earth and the Universe, and Energy This was also the year when enterprise as a and Machines, mainly at the Grade 6 level radical, hands-on program was introduced (Tkach 1977, 464–74). (Alberta Department of Education 1936, 144). A clear and coherent structure of this new The 1940 curriculum designated the pro- science program is presented in the 1968 Al- gram of studies for elementary school as an berta Program of Studies for Elementary Sci- “activity programme,” and it was divided into ence (Alberta Department of Education 1968, two parts: subjects (reading, language, arith- see Appendix 1). The two fundamental areas metic, physical education, art and music) and of emphasis of this program were integrated sequence (social studies, elemen- tary science and health). Elementary science, • the development and use of inquiry skills, health and social studies were further inte- and grated under the general theme of basic human • the development of basic science concepts. needs. The enterprise program continued (Al- This was to be accomplished within six major berta Department of Learning 1940, 27). conceptual schemes, including matter, energy, In 1963, science became a discipline in its life and the universe, and change and conser- own right. Material about space travel was in- vation in the interactions in and between these cluded in the Grades 4–6 curriculum. The en- spheres (p 33). There were no further changes terprise method continued (National Science until 1990, when science was divided into sci- Teachers Association 1963, 5). ence inquiry and problem solving through A major revision occurred in 1960. The pro- technology. Also in 1990, both the high school gram was put onto a more scientific footing, and elementary curriculum formally recognized emphasizing inquiry skills and the development technology’s influence on society. This was of basic science concepts done in high school through a science–technol- A modern science program emphasizes ogy–society (STS) component and in elemen- inductive modes of inquiry . . . contrasted tary curriculum by emphasizing problem solving with much science teaching in the elemen- through technology (Alberta Department of tary school, which has science as dogma. . . . Education 1990; 1996, A4). No further changes The difference stems from ones’ definition to the elementary science curriculum have been and view of science. . . . [If] science is re- made to the present (2003). garded as an active process for acquiring

42 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 knowledge about the world, curricula must The objectives have become more tightly be designed to bring the learner into a direct defined. Skills and attitudes have become more encounter with this process. (Alberta Depart- numerous and specific. ment of Education 1968, 4) Another change came in 1980/1983 (the Goals of Elementary Schooling program was formally revised in 1980)—the program was set up on a core–elective format. in Alberta The core component (taking 60–70 per cent of The goals and aims of elementary education, time) consisted of skills, concepts and attitudes as they have been articulated over the 80 years that all students must learn. The elective com- in this overview, have also changed. These ponent allowed teachers to choose from a list changes are also recorded in the language used, of topics, components that would enhance the emphases made to the teacher, the learner and learning for their particular students (Alberta the reader, and the inferences that each one is Department of Education 1982, C1). directed to draw. To illustrate, consider the goals In 1990, the science program was divided as published in the current program of studies. into two parts: science inquiry and problem solving through technology—recognizing for the first time that technology, being an integral Program of Studies for part of society, should be recognized in the Elementary Schools curriculum. STS was also formally introduced into the senior high curriculum. Although the Program Foundations elementary curriculum has undergone revision Under this umbrella heading is the subhead- in other areas, elementary science has not been ing Alberta’s Learning System, below which changed in any substantive way since 1990, and appear the topic headings Vision, Mission and the same curriculum is still in place in 2003. Goals (a footnote explains that this entire sec- This brief overview shows how stable and tion is taken from Alberta Learning’s 2001–2004 resistant to change the science curriculum has Business Plan. been through all the philosophical changes of the last 80 years. Goals “The goals for Alberta’s learning system outline government’s ongoing aims and direc- Language Used in the tions over the long term. To maintain a high- Curriculum Writing functioning society and prosperous economy, Alberta’s learning system must Important changes to the curriculum can be traced from 1922 to the present through the 1. provide quality programs that are responsive, language used to present the curriculum. The flexible, accessible and affordable; move has been from a generalized language 2. enable learners to demonstrate high that implies a moral good to a depersonalized ­standards; imperative. The overtone that learning is a 3. prepare learners for lifelong learning, work moral good, both for the individual and society, and citizenship; is emphasized through the use of conditional 4. develop and maintain effective relationships verbs (such as should). More recently, the with partners; and language has become more detached and 5. operate responsively and responsibly. imperative when emphasizing the expected These five goals support government’s core outcomes for the individual learner, for society business of people, prosperity and preserva- and for work, resulting in a switch to the im- tion, and related goals.” perative verb will (see Appendix 1). The tone The language here is impersonal, and refer- has shifted from the question “What should ences to direct human contact are absent. The students learn?” to “How should intended learn- goals are described in language that is so ings be stated?” in an attempt, in the interests vague and general that it is practically meaning- of efficiency and accountability, to make the less. What is a “learning system”? What ex- objectives of classroom, school, district and actly is meant by “ongoing aims over the long province congruent (Tomkins 1986, 311). term,” and “high-functioning society”?

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 43 The imperatives are given that Alberta’s before learning certain concepts. The middle learning system must “provide quality programs ground in curriculum writing—the ends justifying that are responsive [and] “flexible,” and that the means—was taken up by Ralph Tyler in his “enable learners to demonstrate high standards.” Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction None of these descriptors are defined or explained. (1949), a seminal work that still influences cur- And what exactly is meant by the imperatives riculum writing and lesson planning. that “Alberta’s learning system must . . . develop Russia’s launch of Sputnik caused a para- and maintain effective relationships with part- digm shift in the perception of and relationship ners”? Who might these partners be? What to the self, the other and the universe. The might their interest in education be? And what educational response in general was narrow is the meaning of the final sentence? If these and backward looking. For the next 15 years in are the goals of Alberta Education, then they most western countries, students struggled must be seriously questioned by everybody in while being formed into “little scientists,” not for education or concerned with education. their own benefit or their own understanding, growth or development, but for political im- peratives. Jerome Bruner’s The Process of Summary of Trends in Education (1960) influenced a generation of Education in North America students on both sides of the Atlantic, spawning such science programs as BSCS, PSCS and Since 1920 CHEM study in the United States and the Nuff- Each generation believes that it is faced with ield Foundation programs in the United King- different political and economic problems than dom, which were widely sought by governments those faced by previous generations, yet a around the world, especially from the develop- backward glance at the trends, tensions and ing world, as they scrambled to stay abreast in pressures in the emergence of the elementary the knowledge race. sciences curriculum in Alberta shows that the The 1968 Hall-Denis Report from Ontario, project of education is conservative; changes Living and Learning, suggested in flowery lan- come slowly. Politics, together with economics, guage that the truth of learning was powerfully may have a stronger influence on education liberating (“the truth shall make you free”). than educational theorists and philosophers. However, the question is, whose truth (Tomkins Three educational perspectives have influ- 1986, 302)? Thomas Kuhn had just published enced curriculum development over the last 80 the first edition of The Structure of Scientific years: the progressivists, the behaviouralists Revolutions in 1962, in which he showed that and those in-between. Two opposing views of by historical precedent there is no set scien- the child and of curriculum arose in the 1920s tific method (the premise on which school sci- and 1930s and still influence educational think- ence programs were based), that science ing today, certainly in North America. On one proceeds in leaps or paradigm shifts as old side, the progressivists, philosophically aligned theories are abandoned and new ones come with Dewey and Kilpatrick, emphasized a child- into vogue, and that knowledge is socially cre- centred, experiential, project-oriented method ated instead of discovered by individual scien- of learning. The contrary position was pre- tists. Paul Feyerabend held similar anarchistic sented in Franklin Bobbitt’s famous How to views, which he published in 1975 in the now- Make a Curriculum, published in 1924, and famous Against Method (Chalmers 1999). resulted in the minute objectification of every Truths were partial and changeable, and an- step in the learning processes (Bobbitt 1997). swers were always contextual and contingent. This notion was reincarnated in the 1960s in Knowledge was no longer fixed but socially Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, constructed. Feyerabend declared that method based on classifying and measuring overt be- was dead and that all form of knowing, includ- haviours. Skinnarian behavioural modification ing witchcraft, have equal validity. Philosophi- and Piaget’s idea of stages in child develop- cally, he had moved science from an isolated ment are still applied in early childhood educa- and solitary world (I) to a shared world (we); tion under the rubric of developmentally ap- practically, we were in the cold, calculating and propriate practice (DAP), which states that selfish world of Thatcher and Reagan (the world children need to reach certain maturation levels of me). It was the beginning of globalization.

44 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 The failure of progressivim and scientism, (Tomkins 1986, 282). How can this gap be nar- which influenced not only school science but rowed? Questions must be asked—not only also other subject areas in the curriculum, “What is the future of education in Alberta?” provoked a flurry of books, from Bloom’s The but “What should the future of education in Closing of the American Mind to Postman’s Alberta be?” Amusing Ourselves to Death, that addressed the problem and voiced the dangers of losing academic rigour in curriculum and of drowning Future Directions for in the soma of media pap. Elementary Science in Alberta? This coincided with the globalizing moves of multinational and transnational corporations, My personal involvement teaching elemen- the economic and political philosophy, and the tary science for Grades 4–6 led me to ask many fallout that we are currently experiencing. important questions. They rise from Spencer’s ­Nation states lost their power to control policy phrase, “What knowledge is of most worth?”, directions to economic interests, thereby com- which can also be rephrased as “Whose knowl- ing under the political influence of multi­ edge is of most worth?” and “For whom is this nationals, the World Trade Organization (WTO) knowledge of most worth?” My elementary and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). teaching experience was not in a regular ele- Politics became expedient as workers were mentary classroom, but in a school that had groomed to fulfill the needs of mobile job mar- specialist subject teachers teaching only their kets and as nation states fell under constraints specialty. Here are my questions: imposed by the WTO and the IMF. In the Carib- 1. Should children in elementary school be bean and Latin America, “under the Structural taught science at all? Adjustment Policies of the IMF and World Bank, 2. Who should teach science—only the teach- spending in the poorest 37 countries declined er or members from the community as well, 25 per cent between 1984 and 1994. Costa including professionals? How much liaison Rica . . . once had the highest literacy rate in and partnering should there be between the Caribbean, due largely to a public education the school and any part of the outside drive. . . . In 1981 the government was given ­community? an IMF loan on condition that education ex­ 3. In what ways can and do business partner- penditures be cut” (Smith 2002, 63). Mexico ships with schools affect curriculum? What has suffered even more severely—the public are the dangers? education system is being dismantled and in- 4. What exactly should be taught and why? For dustry–school partnerships are creating an example, why do elementary children have education that serves the needs of industry. to learn the parts of an airplane, and how Educators in a province like Alberta, which is the ailerons move and how the plane reacts heavily dependent on the export of energy, in each case? Why do problem solving skills especially to the United States, must be aware have to be taught in the framework of solving of these trends. The Alberta government is crime? Has education sunk to the lowest moving rapidly to privatize much of the public common denominator of entertainment? sector, including healthcare and education. The Children should be interested in the subject, language of the curriculum (the “bittification” of but, without sounding moralistic or patron- the curriculum), at least in science, is turning it izing, there must be better things than crime once more into a training ground for future to use as an educational vehicle. workers. The curriculum language employs the 5. What are the pros and cons of teaching the same time-and-motion and quality-control disciplines (life sciences, physical sciences techniques that Bobbitt used 80 years ago. Are and earth sciences) separately or at the we destined for another round of vocational same time? education? The previous programs had flaws 6. Is it better to give a lot of time (a term or a and problems, including not providing authen- school year) to a particular subject on the tic work experiences (Tomkins 1986, 301–2). grounds that it gives a more holistic view of The current economic policies are increasing that particular aspect of science, allows for the disparity between the poor and the middle an unhurried development of the subject class, educationally as well as financially (depth not breadth), and allows for the

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 45 ­digressions of interest that will arise from as a third parallel strand of information and time to time, or is it better, as now, to have communication technology. short units devoted to relatively unrelated 12. Should elementary children be taught by topics that give some breadth but little subject specialists because depth? • a specialist teacher knows the subject 7. Should the elementary curriculum include much better that a generalist and can science, technology and society (STS) and therefore anticipate problems and solu- science, technology, society and environ- tions, and give more insightful explana- ment (STSE) components? STS has been tions and experiences to the students; used as a vehicle for teaching and learning • it is good for children to meet with sev- within context for at least 30 years. This eral people on a daily basis and not be method is aimed at involving both students reliant on the knowledge and perspective and teachers in discussing and planning of only one adult in the classroom; directions and topics of study, which inte- • team teaching works well for the elemen- grates real-life situations and experiences tary grades; and into the classroom (National Science Teach- • we should be wary of the status quo? ers Association 1993; Yager and Roy 1993; Zoller 1993). All of these questions need to be answered, 8. What training should an elementary teacher and although their range is wide and demands who is certificated to teach science be re- several research papers, they all pertain to quired to have? This has been a problem curriculum. Curriculum can be defined as all right from the beginning. Normal schools the experiences that a learner encounters. were only closed in Alberta in 1946, when Curriculum is indeed lived. a university-degree program was finally put in place (Tomkins 1986, 245–420). Cur- References rently in Alberta, an education student fulfill- ing Alberta Education requirements only Alberta Department of Education. 1922. Course of needs a half-course in science to be qualified Studies for the Elementary Schools of Alberta: to teach science. I am told that more than Grades I to VIII Inclusive. Edmonton, Alta: Depart- 90 per cent of these students also take an ment of Education. elementary science methods course volun- ———. 1922. Course of Studies for the Elementary tarily. Is this a satisfactory state of affairs? Schools of Alberta: Part II. Edmonton, Alta: Depart- What could and should be done? ment of Education. 9. If STS is already being put into the curricu- ———. 1936. Programme of Studies for the Elemen- lum (as the “problem solving through tech- tary School: Grades I to VI. Edmonton, Alta: De- nology” emphasis indicates), do teachers partment of Education. have adequate training to cover this aspect ———. 1940. Programme of Studies for the Elemen- of teaching the elementary science program tary School (Grades I to VI). Edmonton, Alta: (Benson 1996)? Department of Education. 10. What are the pros and cons of the following ———. 1962. Program of Studies for Elementary spiral programs? Schools of Alberta. Edmonton, Alta: Department • An elementary curriculum that is com- of Education. posed of two complete cycles: Grades ———. 1965. Program of Studies for Elementary 1–3 and Grades 4–6, repeating each Schools of Alberta. Edmonton, Alta: Department component (life sciences, physical sci- of Education. ences and earth sciences) at increased ———. 1968. Program of Studies for Elementary levels of difficulty, one year each Schools of Alberta. Edmonton, Alta: Department • Same as above, but with the sequence of Education. repeated every year (one component per ———. 1975. Program of Studies for Elementary semester) Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of 11. Should science and technology be taught ­Education. in parallel? The United Kingdom elemen- ———. 1982. Program of Studies for Elementary tary program teaches design and technol- Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of ogy separately from (pure?) science, as well ­Education.

46 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 ———. 1990. Program of Studies for Elementary Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of Appendix 1 ­Education. This appendix consists of verbatim quotes ———. 1996. Program of Studies for Elementary from the identified documents. Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of ­Education. I: Language Used in the Curriculum ———. 2001. Program of Studies for Elementary Writing Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of ­Education. 1922 ———. 2002. Program of Studies for Elementary (Course of Studies for the Elementary Schools Schools. Edmonton, Alta: Department of of Alberta: Part II 1922, 28) ­Education. The Aims in Elementary Science Benson, G D. 1996. “Science as a Thought Process: • The child must be made conscious, early in Restructuring Science Curricula for Epistemo- his career, that he is part of a great system, logical Teaching.” Proceedings of the 8th IOSTE into which he must fit . . . Symposium: Vol 1. Edmonton, Alberta, 1–6. • He should be made to feel a personal re- Bobbitt, F. 1997. “Scientific Method in Curriculum- sponsibility to his neighbor and to his Making.” In The Curriculum Studies Reader, ed ­environment . . . by D J Flinders and S J Thornton. New York: • An attitude of reverence should be devel- Routledge. oped, and a soul-appreciation of the charm Chalmers, A F. 1999. What Is this Thing Called of nature born . . . ­Science? Indianapolis, Ind: Hackett. • A definite store of information should be Counts, G. 1997. Dare the School Build a New Social acquired which would have utilitarian value Order? In The Curriculum Studies Reader, ed by “in a social way, in his reading, and in his D J Flinders and S J Thornton. New York: interpretation of life situations . . . ­Routledge. • These data will serve the additional end of National Science Teachers Association. 1963. Sci- being of immediate value in establishing ence and Children, bases upon which to build the superstructure ———. 1993. “Science–Technology–Society: A New of science in later years . . . Effort for Providing Appropriate Science for All.” • It is fair to expect that the work in elementary In The Science, Technology, Society Movement, science should lead to the formation of cer- ed by R E Yager. Washington, DC: National Sci- ence Teachers Association. tain scientific habits; for example the habit of looking for things, the habit of withholding Tkach, N. 1977. “A Socio-Historical Analysis of Cur- judgment until a broad basis of experience riculum Development in Alberta, Illustrated by Changes in the Grade VI Science Program.” or data has been secured, the habit of in Unpublished thesis, University of Alberta. experimentation and investigation, and frame of mind which will tolerate nothing but truth. Tomkins, G S. 1986. A Common Countenance: Stability and Change in the Canadian Curriculum. • Elementary science may be said to have, in Scarborough, Ont: Prentice-Hall. the final analysis, an ethical end Roth, W-M, K Tobin and S Ritchie. 2001. Re/con- 1936 structing Elementary Science.” New York: Peter (Programme of Studies for the Elementary Lang. School: Grades I to VI 1936, 145–46) Smith, D G. 2002. Teaching in Global Times. Edmon- Elementary Science: Aim and Procedure ton, Alta: Pedagon Press. 1. The aim of this course is to help the child Yager, R E and R Rusum. 1993. “STS: Most Perva- orientate himself [sic] amidst the natural sive and Most Radical of Reform Approaches to ‘Science’ Education.” In The Science and Technol- phenomena of his environment. The objec- ogy Movement, ed by R E Yager. Washington, tive for the child is scientific understanding. DC: National Science Teachers Association. In the traditional approach to elementary Zoller, U. 1993. “Expanding the Meaning of STS and science through “nature study,” the motivation the Movement Across the Globe.” In The Science of “wonder” led to the nature myth, person­ and Technology Movement, ed by R E Yager. ification and anthropomorphism, ar ther than Washington, DC: National Science Teachers to intelligent enquiry and a scientific attitude. ­Association. It did little to establish in the child’s mind the

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 47 broad principle of cause and effect, which, 2. grow in ability to solve problems effectively, as civilization advances, replaces belief in 3. develop a scientific attitude and think magic, astrology, and superstition. In this ­critically, course, the child begins to attain scientific 4. develop an interest in an appreciation for the understanding through his own observations, world in which he lives, activities, and attempts to solve problems. 5. build an ever increasing store of useful sci- 2. As the children solve problems, and in so entific knowledge and doing arrive at the notion of cause and effect, 6. develop an ever-broadening appreciation of they will also learn that man’s conception of the need for conservation. truth changes. Once man believed that a fact is a fact for all time; but now man knows 1968 that what appears to be a fact today may be (Program of Studies for Elementary School of modified by the discoveries of tomorrow. Alberta 1968, 33) Hence the teacher will not suggest to the Objectives of Science pupils that his words are infallible. He will The new elementary school science program co-operate with his pupils, helping them to has two fundamental but inseparable objec- realize that their solution of a problem may tives. By emphasizing the development and be modified in the light of more evidence. use of inquiry skills as tools of investigation, the He will accustom the pupils to compare their program is designed to enable the student to conclusions with the conclusions of others become and dynamic investigator of science. who have worked on the same problem; and To have the student develop basic science to examine, when authorities are referred to, concepts is a second aim. A number of con- whether the authorities used the scientific cepts, that is abstract ideas generalized from method and stated their evidence. particular experiences, are to be developed 3. The scientific method—For the elementary under each of the six major conceptual school, the scientific method is the method schemes which provide a framework and struc- of solving problems by experiment, there are ture for the program at each grade level. seven steps in an experiment, whether it is used as a group activity, an individual activ- 1. Objectives: Skills ity, or a class demonstration. They are as As a result of science instruction, the elemen- follows: tary school pupil should 1. Problem a. develop the ability to inquire, i.e. ability to 2. Apparatus or materials think and investigate science through the 3. Method or procedure use of process skills (behaviours) such as 4. Observation or results observing, classifying, communicating and 5. Conclusion inferring. 6. Verification b. demonstrate manipulative skills in the use of 7. Application apparatus in order to conduct investigations. [Note: Points 1–7 are accompanied by ex- 2. Objectives: Attitudes planatory notes which I have omitted.] Much of the spirit and meaning of science is transmitted to students from the teacher. The 1962 teacher must create conditions of learning that (Program of Studies for Elementary Schools of will enable the student to Alberta 1962, 24) a. demonstrate a growing curiosity and interest, Objectives b. demonstrate intellectual honesty, Science is a method of discovering new facts c. be open-minded, and seeing new relationships, solving problems d. look for cause-effect relationships and and satisfying curiosity. As the child proceeds e. suspend judgement when data is inadequate. through elementary school, science should help 3. Objectives: Concepts him [sic] As the student proceeds through the elemen- 1. know some generalizations or science prin- tary school science program, he [sic] should ciples that he can use in solving problems develop an increasing body of scientific infor- in his environment, mation in the form of concepts.

48 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 1982 materials and activities which together, will (Program of Studies for Elementary Schools result in desirable changes in behaviour and 1982, B1). the development of wholesome attitudes and Science: Goals and Objectives ideals. Such is the point of view from which the The elementary science program is designed course has been written. The Minister of Educa- to contribute to the achievement of the overall tion adds: objectives for science in Alberta. The Department . . . must determine the sub- 1. To develop the ability to inquire and investi- jects which are of most worth to Alberta boys gate through the use of science process and girls. It must plan a course which will skills. make any other than thorough work and 2. To promote the assimilation of scientific development of habits of industry impossible, knowledge. no matter what subjects have to be sacrificed 3. To develop attitudes, interests, values, ap- . . . the curriculum must be made to contrib- preciations, and adjustments similar to those ute its full share to the development of char- which are recognized as appropriate to the acter, tight attitude and good citizenship in scientific endeavour. Alberta youth. 4. To develop an awareness and understanding of the environment with positive attitudes 1940 and behaviours toward its use. (Programme of Studies for the Elementary 5. To develop an awareness of the role of sci- School (Grades I to VI) 1940, 3) ence in the causes and resolution of some Aims and Objectives of the Elementary current social problems. School 6. To promote awareness of the humanistic 1. To facilitate the child’s progressive orienta- implications of science. tion in the life of which he is a part 7. To promote an understanding of the role that 2. To provide an environment that sustains science has in the development of societies growth and development and the impact of society on science. 3. To promote social adjustment 8. To contribute to the development of voca- 4. To develop desirable attitudes, ideals and tional knowledge and skill. appreciations 5. To develop necessary skills, and to impart 1990/1996/2001/2002 information (Program of Studies: Elementary Schools 6. To promote health, both physical and mental 1990/1996/2001/2002, B1–B33) 7. To supply objectives and activities suitable Learner Expectations for children’s leisure

II: Goals of Elementary Schooling 1965 (Program of Studies for Elememtary Schools 1922 of Alberta 1965, 4–5) (Course of Studies for the Elementary Schools Objectives of Education of Alberta: Part II 1922, 5–6) The major purpose of elementary education is It is the function of the curriculum to put children to foster the fullest development of each child’s in possession of their great intellectual heritage. potentialities. Direction for this development is This can be best interpreted to the child when provided by the behavioural goals listed below: it is regarded as a summary of the sole solutions I: Abilities and Skills of its various problems which the race has devised up to the present moment. It must Each child should increase his capabilities to however do more than this. Not only must the 1. communicate with others orally and in child be made acquainted with the steps by ­writing; which we have won our present position, but it 2. listen; must be assisted to an intelligent participation 3. read; in the various activities inevitable to our present 4. find, organize and use information; social organization . . . conscious curriculum 5. use numbers and mathematical processes making implies the intentional selection of effectively;

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 49 6. solve problems of a social and scientific conduct for himself, and a high regard for nature; other people and their values and beliefs; 7. express himself through artistic media; 2. the dignity, value and achievements of work 8. maintain health; in science, in religion, in philosophy, in art, 9. function as a wise purchaser and con- in literature, in craftsmanship, in honest la- sumer; and bour everywhere; and 10. maintain concentrated efforts in accordance 3. the manifestations and beauties of nature— with native ability and natural maturation. both in the natural state and as revealed through science. II: Understandings Each child should learn to recognize the sig- 1975 nificance of (Program of Studies for Elementary Schools 1. the social life of expanding communities, 1975, 1–3) 2. the interdependence of all forms of life, Goals of Basic Education 3. the effects of environment on human life, In a world characterized by rapid change, 4. man’s increasing knowledge of social devel- yet counterbalanced by stabilizing influences, opment and social control, education must provide opportunities for stu- 5. man’s increasing control over nature, dents to meet individual and societal needs. 6. the contributions of the past to the present, This statement of goals is intended to give di- 7. democracy as a way of life and rection for Grades I–XI which will assist in 8. responsibilities inherent in a democratic way meeting that dual set of needs. of life. As the variety among individuals and societ- ies is broad, no attempt is made to place the III: Attitudes goals in any order of importance. Such priorities Through suitable experiences each child should might more appropriately be made at system be helped to develop: or school levels. Despite the absence of stated 1. Self-respect—marked by control, discipline priorities, none of the goals are to be deleted and direction through his own initiative but complementary goals may be added. 2. Creativeness—marked by personal expres- In this regard, goals concerning the relation- sion that becomes unique and revealing ship of people to a deity will have special sig- 3. Scientific viewpoint—marked by the power nificance for certain populations. Other goal to delimit problems, search for data, weigh areas may be of prime interest to other groups. evidence, form conclusions, and above all to Nevertheless the goals which follow, combined evaluate his judgment in the light of subse- with such complementary goals as may be quent events deemed necessary, form the basis for directing 4. Co-operation—marked by consideration for the educational endeavours of schools and the rights and feelings of others and a willing- school systems. ness to share Finally, subsections under each goal are not 5. Responsibility—marked by readiness to carry meant to be inclusive but indicative of the intent tasks to completion, to behave honestly with of the goal. [Note: I only list the headings of the himself and with others, and to accept the 12 areas.] consequences of his own actions 1. Learn to be a good citizen. 6. Social concern—marked by earnest effort to a. Develop an awareness of civic rights and implement whatever desirable ends his responsibilities. group may seek b. Develop an understanding of the Cana- 7. Reverence—marked by a conviction of De- dian and other forms of government. ity, and a regard for His supreme handiwork, c. Develop feelings of cultural identity and mankind heritage at national and international levels. IV: Appreciations d. Develop an attitude of respect for public Through suitable experiences each child should and private property. acquire an appreciation of e. Develop an understanding of the obliga- 1. the dignity, worth and possibilities in the in- tion and responsibilities of Canadian and dividual, reflected in a high standard of world citizenship.

50 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 2. Learn about and try to understand the 9. Learn to use leisure time. changes that take place in the world. a. Develop interests which will lead to a a. Develop the ability to adjust to the chang- wise and satisfying use of leisure time. ing demands of Canadian society. b. Develop a positive attitude toward par- b. Develop an awareness of and the ability ticipation in a range of leisure time activ­ to adjust to a changing social and ities—physical, intellectual and creative. physical environment. 10. Practice and understand the ideas of health, c. Develop understanding of the past, fitness and safety. identity with the present and the ability a. Develop an understanding of good physi- to meet the future. cal and mental health practices. 3. Develop skills in communication (listening, b. Establish a good physical fitness program. speaking, reading, writing, viewing). c. Establish sound personal health habits. a. Develop skill in understanding the com- 11. Appreciate culture and beauty in the world. munication of others. a. Develop creative self-expression through b. Develop ability in communicating ideas various media including the fine and feelings effectively. and practical arts. c. Develop skill in oral and written b. Develop special talents in the arts. ­language. c. Cultivate appreciation of beauty in vari- 4. Learn how to organize, analyze, and use ous forms. information in a critical and objective 12. Develop basic and special knowledge ­manner. ­competencies. a. Develop ability to organize information a. Develop understanding and skill in the into meaningful categories. use of numbers, natural sciences, math- b. Develop ability to apply scientific meth- ematics and social sciences. ods in the pursuit of and analysis of b. Develop a fund of information and knowledge. ­concepts. c. Develop skills of thinking and proceeding c. Develop special interests and abilities. logically. 5. Learn to respect and to get along with 1982 people of varying beliefs and life styles. (Program of Studies for elementary Schools a. Develop appreciation and respect for the 1982, vi) worth and dignity of individuals. Purpose of the Elementary School b. Develop an understanding of functions, All three levels of schooling have a common responsibilities and achievements of purpose in that they share responsibility for various societal institutions. achieving the goals of schooling and education. c. Learn to take into account the values of At the same time, the mission of each school others when making personal choices. level differs from the other two in terms of the 6. Learn about the world of work. emphasis given the various goals as well as in a. Develop a feeling of pride in achievement the program selected to achieve that mission. and progress. For this reason the purpose of elementary b. Develop the ability to use information schooling can be considered unique. It consists and counselling services related to ca- of providing opportunities for students to reer decisions. • develop an appreciation for learning, c. Develop skills basic to the world of work. • acquire fundamental learning skills which 7. Develop management skills. will enable them to progress to more difficult a. Develop an understanding of economic learnings, principles and responsibilities. • acquire the requisite social skills which will b. Develop skills in managing natural, fi- enable them to function effectively both in nancial and human resources. school and in the community and 8. Develop a desire for learning. • develop certain desirable attitudes and com- a. Develop intellectual curiosity and eager- mitments towards themselves, their peers ness for lifelong learning. and the world as they know it . . . these five b. Develop a positive attitude towards statements constitute the mission or purpose learning. of the elementary school.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 51 1990/1996/2000/2002 society and prosperous economy, Alberta’s (Program of Studies: Elementary Schools learning system must 2002, 2) • provide quality programs that are respon- Program Foundations sive, flexible, accessible and affordable Under this umbrella heading is the sub-heading: • enable learners to demonstrate high standards; Alberta’s Learning System, below which appear • prepare learners for lifelong learning, work the topic headings Vision, Mission, and Goals, and citizenship; and this whole section is taken from the Alberta • develop and maintain effective relationships Learning 2001–2004 Business Plan. with partner; and Goals • operate responsively and responsibly. The goals for Alberta’s learning system out- These five goals support government’s core line government’s ongoing aims and directions business of people, prosperity and preservation over the long term. To maintain a high-functioning and related goals.

52 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Electricity Frank Weichman

Introduction The Ski Hill As some of you may know, I go to local Electricity flow is often compared to water schools on occasion with boxes full of science flowing through tubes. Pumps are the analogy toys and do a show-and-tell about electricity of choice for the battery. It is difficult to squeeze and magnetism. The call comes mostly from water through narrow tubing because it has Grade 5 teachers when they are ready to pres- more resistance to flow than wide tubing. I ent material on simple circuits. My presence propose a different analogy—that of a ski hill. is requested, usually through the Edmonton The ski lift is the battery, the trails and open Science Outreach Network, for many reasons. slopes are the conducting wires, and the skiers In some cases the teachers feel unsure are the particles of electricity that flow through about the material they have been teaching the circuits. Follow along with me and see how and would appreciate some reinforcement from it helps explain many electricity phenomena, an “expert.” Some just like to have access to and how it eventually gets us into trouble. the demonstration material, which I can bring along from our physics department. Some just want their students to meet a real scientist The Battery and the Ski Lift who might be able to interest them in scientific In the analogy of the ski lift as a battery, what matters. role does voltage play? The height (or “the I have come to realize that students, and vertical rise” in skiing terms) of a lift is a valid sometimes teachers, have little understanding analogy to the voltage of the battery. For ex- of voltage and current. What are they? Are they ample, a 9-volt battery will have six times the dangerous? For example, is 1,000 volts danger- vertical lift of a 1.5-volt battery. However, there ous? The school board limits experiments to are many different-sized 1.5-volt batteries, what can be done with 1.5-volt batteries. Do designated as D, AA or AAA, in order of de- they know walking on a carpet in a dry room creasing physical size of the battery. Where generates electric sparks that are greater than does that fit into the ski-hill analogy? If two lifts 1,000 volts? have the same vertical rise but are powered by I will present in this article an analogy that motors of different physical size, the one with is accessible to students and their teachers, the bigger motor will be able to lift more skiers and that will help them understand the basic per hour (if you want to pull up more people, ideas of voltage, current and resistance. By the you need a bigger motor). Look at it in a differ- end of this article, the use of this and other ent way. Suppose you had a 9-volt battery that analogies will become clear, as will the dangers was identical in volume to a 1.5-volt battery. of pushing the analogies too far. According to the ski-hill analogy, the ski-lift

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 53 equivalent to a 9-volt battery would bring skiers All the above points are valid on a ski hill. up the hill at six times the height. However, What are their counterparts in the electric cir- because the motor is the same physical size cuit? I’ll go point by point. as the lower lift, it could only take 1/6 the num- 1. The lift capacity is stated in numbers of ski- ber of skiers in the same elapsed time. ers per hour—let’s say it’s 1,000 skiers per hour. Regardless of the number of skiers or Current the conditions of the hill, the average flow cannot exceed 1,000 skiers per hour. A bat- In the analogy, the current in an electrical tery has a voltage output, which can be circuit is the number of skiers moving up or compared to the vertical height of the lift, but down the hill during a given time interval. This it also has limitations in current output. is not as obvious because at a given moment Physical size (volume) limits the output cur- the number of skiers being pulled up may be rent because chemical reactions that pro- quite different from the number going down duce the current need space and time to (when the lift opens in the morning, a lift full of separate the charges.If there happens to be skiers is heading up but no one is coming down a day when there are no skiers (perhaps yet). This is a non-equilibrium situation, and it there’s a hockey game on TV, or it’s bitter does have momentary equivalents in electric- cold), then no matter what the lift might be ity flow. A similar situation (lots going up, noth- capable of or how good the snow conditions ing going down) could occur at lunchtime at if are, there will be no flow. The lack of skiers there is a cafeteria partway up the slope. The is analogous to the electrical insulator in lunchroom is a storage facility. A capacitor in which there are no loose electrical charges an electric circuit plays a similar role. It can to be moved around. store electric charge for future release. Before 2. Now for the number of skiers. Let’s start with the analogy gets too complicated, let us return one skier. She takes the lift up, skies down, to equilibrium situation, with a steady flow up finds that there is no line-up at the lift, goes and a steady flow down, and the two being up again, down again, up again and so on. equal. We also still have to clearly define what The flow, in terms of skiers per hour, will be we meant by “flow.” determined by the time it takes for this single What factors determine the flow of skiers? skier to make a round trip. If it takes four 1. The capability of the lift—With no lift, there are minutes to go up with the lift and three min- no skiers going up and skiing down (except utes to ski back down, then the round trip the few cross-country skiers that might climb will take seven minutes. The single skier will up the hill and ski down again, but those we constitute a flow of 60 minutes per hour / 7 will ignore). minutes per round = 8.6 skiers (rounds) per 2. The number of skiers on the hill—The more hour. If there are 10 skiers on the hill, all with skiers, the more “flow.” However, if the number the same skiing skills, then the lift has ad- of skiers exceeds the lift capacity, the skiers equate capacity and the flow becomes 86 have to line up to wait their turn at the lift. skiers per hour. Now, assume that there are 3. The type of skiers—Are they beginners, 500 equivalent skiers on the hill. Because snow bunnies or world-class competitors? of the capacity limitations of the ski lift, at 4. Steepness of the hill—Good skiers will go 1,000 skiers per hour, each skier can only faster down a short, steep slope than a long, go up twice each hour and has to wait in the gentle slope. lift line for 23 minutes between runs (or quits 5. The conditions on the hill—Is it fast and easy in disgust). to ski down, or are the trails long and nar- Put all this together. The flow of skiers row? Is the slope icy, or does the skier have requires a ski lift. The lift has power restric- to deal with deep, heavy snow? tions that place an upper limit on the number 6. A special case of conditions on the hill—Sup- of skiers going up the hill per hour. Next, the pose the hill is in excellent shape except for model requires a number of skiers willing a short stretch that everyone has to pass and able to take to the slopes. Increasing through on the way down. This area will be the number of skiers increases the flow, congested, with rocks, ice or obstructions. until you reach the carrying capacity of the Caution prevails and all skiers slow down. lift. It also follows that as long as the numbers

54 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 of skiers stays small, the flow increases if electronics. For example, electrons have the skiers ski down faster. been found to move more easily than the Electrical current is the movement of comparably massive ions. They therefore electrical charges instead of skiers. These have a higher mobility. Copper conducts may be electrons, ions or even nuclear par- electricity better than iron because the mobil- ticles. In our analogy, a skier represents a ity of electrons in copper is higher than the particle carrying a net charge—an ion for mobility of electrons in iron, despite there example. It is placed in a higher energy state being twice as many electrons per cubic by the battery and makes it down through centimetre available for the conduction pro- the rest of the circuit to the lower end of the cess in iron than in copper. battery, to be lifted again to repeat the pro- Current flow, then, depends on the voltage cess. In our ski-hill analogy, the number of of the battery, the number of charge carriers skiers making the rounds per hour are and the mobility of the charge carriers. counted. In an electrical circuit, the charge 4. What about the conditions on the ski hill? is counted—some ions might be singly Skiing on a wide-open slope is much differ- charged and others doubly charged, or even ent than skiing down through the woods. more. We don’t care about the size or num- Electrons also move faster (with higher ber of ions, just how much charge they mobility) in solids in which the individual carry along. To fantasize a little further, sup- atoms are neatly lined up—the perfect single pose what really counts toward the flow is crystals. Imperfections in the atomic ar- the number of daypacks making the rounds rangement give rise to scattering centres, instead of the number of skiers. Some skiers where the electrons are temporarily bounced carry them, some skiers do not. off their idealized paths, reducing their aver- Coulomb and ampere are units of mea- age speed. surement that predate detailed knowledge 5. The steepness of the ski slope, in the anal- of the particle nature of electron flow. We ogy, is the electric field. The larger the elec- now know that electrical currents consist of tric field, the greater the force on the electric individual particles passing by, just like the charges and the faster they are pushed or skiers and daypacks on the ski hill. It was pulled about. The combination of the established in 1900 that each particle carries strength of the electric field (slope) with a charge—positive or negative—in multiples mobility (skiing skill) determines the speed of 1.602 × 10-19 coulombs. Therefore, each of the charge carriers. coulomb corresponds to approximately 6. Congestion points reduce the flow. They may 1/1.602 × 10-19 = 6.24 × 1018 of these elemen- be at the top of the lift before the skiers tary charges. The flow of a one-ampere disperse, in the middle where a gully is the current through a wire means that 6.24 × only way down between steep cliffs or near 1018 individual charges pass by any section the bottom where skiers must slow down of that wire each second. before getting back to the lift. They increase 3. What are the skiers like? There are experts, the time the skier requires to get down, which intermediates and beginners, with significant increases the time required for a round trip, speed differences. Research has uncovered and therefore, even if the number of skiers that an electrical conductor can have more remains the same, decreases the flow rate. than one charge carrier. For example, an A congestion point in the electrical circuit is electrolyte, like the sulphuric acid in a stor- called a resistor. It limits the flow of the age battery, can have moving electrons, charge carriers. moving positive ions, moving negative ions In a classroom experiment, the battery is the and possibly even electrically charged cos- ski lift, the lead wires are the open slopes and mic rays, all making their contribution to the the lamp that lights up is the congestion point total charge flowing in the circuit. The ease (the resistor). The resistor is the place in the with which the charge carriers can be made circuit where the electric flow does the assigned to move is given the technical term mobility. work—lights a lamp, runs a motor or a com- Mobility and the number of electrons that puter, or heats the coffee pot. It is as if the participate in the conduction process can be ski-hill operator lets you go up for free but de- measured in all materials of interest for mands his pound of flesh halfway down.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 55 Some Details Speed of the Electrons This would not be a physics paper without How is the speed of the electrons calculat- a few detailed calculations. Skip this segment ed? First, another analogy—a freeway and the if you just want to know the results. flow of cars. The problem to be solved is the On the ski hill there is height, number of following: given a certain density of traffic and skiers and the speed of the skiers. Are the all cars moving at the same known speed, equivalent numbers available for, say, copper determine the number of cars passing a mile- wire? Yes. For many metals, copper included, post in one minute? Let’s say there are three each atom contributes one electron that can solid lines of traffic going west, all the cars are move freely under the influence of an electric moving at 90 km/hour and in each lane the cars field. How many electrons, then, would be avail- are spaced at a density of 4 cars per 100 m able for an electrical current in a cubic centi- (0.04 cars/m). The cars are moving at 90 km/h, metre of copper? The atomic weight for copper or 1.5 km/min. In 1 minute, all of the cars is 63.5 grams per mole. The density of copper within a distance of 1.5 km east of the milepost metal is 8.96 grams per cubic centimetre. are going to pass by. With 4 cars per 100 m per Therefore, one cubic centimetre contains lane, this equals (40 cars/km)(1.5 km/min) 8.96/63.5 = 0.141 moles. Each mole contains (3 lanes) = 180 cars per minute past the mile- 6.022 × 1023 atoms, which leads to 0.141 × post. The flow rate is 180 cars/minute. 23 22 Now let’s go back to the copper wire. Let N 6.022 × 10 = 8.50 X 10 atoms per cubic o be the number of electrons per cubic centime- centimetre, and there are just as many free 22 electrons per cubic centimetre. tre (already established to be 8.50 × 10 ). How fast do they move? This question re- Select a time t. The electrons move at an un- quires more input. First, we need to know the known speed v. Following the highway exam- ple, all the electrons at a distance vt “upstream” electrical resistance of the copper. What is the from our metering point will pass the meter in resistance of a length of wire? The handbooks the time interval t. The volume of that segment give a of values of a material constant λσνγ λιστ of wire is the distance multiplied by the cross- called resistivity, designated by the Greek sectional area of wire—vtA—and the number symbol ρ. For copper ρ = 1.72 × 10-6 ohm-cm. of electrons in this segment will be (vtA)No = Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a one (vtπ(0.030/2) 2)(8.50 × 1022). This is the number centimetre cube. The resistance R of other of electrons passing the meter in time t. The shapes is given by R = ρl/A, where l is the length current (or the electron flow) is the number of the wire and A is its cross-sectional area. passing by per second, that is, I = (vtπ(0.030/2) 2) A long, thin wire has a greater resistance than (8.50 × 1022)/t = (v)(π(0.030/2) 2)(8.50 × 1022) = a short, squat rod. (v)(6.0 × 1019). Written completely in symbols I will go step by step through the following the electron flow isAvN and the electrical cur- calculation, even though there are short cuts. o rent is I = qAvNo. We know that 3.1 amperes is For example, the length and diameter of the a current of 19 × 1018 electrons per second, wire cancel out in the end. therefore v = (19 × 1018)/(6.0 × 1019) = 0.32 cm/s. Quite arbitrarily, let’s use a 2-metre long and Slow, isn’t it? 0.3-milimetre thick copper wire. Once con- The mobility (the speed for a given strength verted to centimetres, the resistance can be of electric field) can also be calculated. Apply- calculated as R = ρl/A = (1.72 × 10-6)(200)/ ing 1.5 V over a wire 200 cm long produces an (π(0.030/2)2) = 0.487 ohms. Convert the em- electric field of 1.5/200 = 7.5 × 10-3 V/cm. The pirical relationship V = IR to I = V/R and calcu- mobility of the electron in copper, then, is late the current I to be I = 1.5/0.49 = 3.1 am- (0.32)/(7.5 × 10-3) = 43(cm/s)/(V/cm). For the peres. This is a pretty hefty current, and it would record, electrons have a much higher mobility drain the battery quite rapidly—almost making in semiconductors. The mobility of electrons in a short circuit. silicon is 1,450(cm/s)/(V/cm), and in the semi- The current is 3.1 amperes, where each conductor indium antimonide it has been mea- ampere represents 6.24 × 1018 electrons pass- sured at 77,000 (cm/s)/(V/cm). All these figures ing by every second, for a total of (3.1)( 6.24 × are for the materials at room temperature. In 1018) = 19 X 1018 electrons making the rounds most materials, the mobility of electrons in- each second. creases as the temperature drops.

56 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Does It Make Sense So Far? purpose but costs considerably more. Cal- culate the resistance of a 25 m length of #16 An electron speed of 0.32 cm/s should sur- copper wire and the resistance of a 25 m prise you. Lights go on at the “flick of a switch,” length of #14 copper wire. The handbooks1 and we have learned long ago that electrical quote the resistance of #16 copper wire as signals move at something close to the speed 13.17 Ω/km and the resistance of #14 cop- of light. What is wrong? Is anything wrong? The per wire as 8.29 Ω/km. short answer is that nothing is wrong. The in- 4. What is the cross-sectional area and diam- dividual electrons do move slowly, but, as we eter of the #14 and #16 wires? To make the saw in the ski-lift analogy, it is not necessary wires flexible, they are usually made of for a given electron to make the complete multiple, parallel strands of thinner wire. round. At the ski hill, as one person gets on the 5. Calculate the current through the #16 cable lift at the bottom, another gets off the lift at the when it is used to connect the block heater top, well before the newcomer gets to the top. to the 120-V outlet. Remember that an elec- On the macroscopic scale, such as household trical cable must have at least two wires. electrical circuits, electricity acts like an incom- Calculate the total resistance—cable plus pressible fluid. A push at one place is instanta- block heater—first. The third wire in high neously felt in the entire circuit. On the micro- quality extension cords is for safety. It is called scopic scale, the speed of the individual the ground wire. It does not play a role in the electrons becomes important, and the incom- circuit under normal operating conditions. pressible-fluid principle is no longer applicable 6. Will the engine block still get its 800 W at (this has applications for computer chips). the end of the #16 cord? Calculate the heat Test your knowledge of the laws of physics energy dissipated in the block heater and in with the following problem, adapted from the the cord leading to the car. If the voltage at book Real-Life Problems for Introductory Gen- the outlet in the house is 120 V, what will the eral Physics.1 Why do building codes require voltage be at the contacts for the block that we have such thick copper wires in the heater? walls of our homes? 7. Repeat the calculations for parts 5 and 6 for the #14 wire cable. Note the effectiveness of the block heater when used with extension Problem 1 cords having a greater or lesser diameter. In northern climates, automobiles sprout 8. Back to the original question: because the external electrical connectors in the winter and electrical power enters the house from an cars parked on the street appear to be con- external cable and is then distributed to the nected by umbilical cords to the nearest house. many outlets in the house, why should the Although some car owners go so far as to install distributing wires be as thick as possible? electrically heated seats, most are satisfied with an electrical heater in the engine block to keep the oil flowing freely. Solution 1 A standard version of such a block heater 1. Power P = V2/R. With P = 800 W and V = 120 V, consumes power at a rate of 800 W at the 120 V 2 2 it follows that Rbh = V /P = 120 /800 = 18.0 Ω. of the electrical outlets in the house. 2. Power P = IV. With P = 800 W and V = 120 V, 1. Calculate the resistance of the block heater. it follows that I = P/V = 800/120 = 6.67 A. 2. Calculate the electrical current in the heater 3. At 12.14 Ω/km, the wire will have a resis- -3 when it is used at 120 V. tance of Rc = (13.17 × 10 )(25) = 0.329 Ω. 3. Many cars are parked on the street and At 7.63 Ω/km, the wire will have a resistance require extension cords to reach from the of Rc = (8.29 × 10-3)(25) = 0.207 Ω. house electrical outlet to the block heater. A 4. Use R = ρl/A. The value of R was calculated distance of 25 m is not uncommon. The in part 3, the length l is also known and the choice at the hardware store is between a resistivity Ω of copper is 1.72 × 10-6 Ωcm. cable made from #16 wire, which should be Substitution of the values leads to A = 1.29 just about adequate in cold weather for the × 10-2 cm2 for #16 wire and A = 2.07 × 10-2 cm2 required wattage, and a cable made from for #14 wire. The diameters will be 1.24 mm #14 wire, which is recommended for the and 1.63 mm respectively.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 57 5. The total resistance of the cable and the In the main text we have looked in detail at block heater is 0.329 Ω + 0.329 Ω + 0.329 Ω copper as a conducting material. We have + 18.0 Ω = 18.66 Ω, which implies a current estimated that the number of electrons that are

of I = V/(Rbh + Rc)= 120/18.66 = 6.43 A. free to move in the electrical conduction process 6. A lower current through the block heater are 8.50 × 1022 per cubic centimetre, and there means less heating power. The power de- are experimental methods to confirm this num- 2 livered to the block heater is P = I R = ber. Knowing the resistivity of copper, we then 2 bh 6.43 (18.0) = 744 W. The power dissipated determine the mobility of the electrons to be 2 as heat in the extension cord is P = I R = 43(cm/s)/(V/cm). Now try your skill at the fol- 2 c 6.43 (0.658) = 27.2 W. The voltage at the lowing problems.

contacts for the block heater is V = IRbh = 6.43(18.0) = 116 V. [Note: 744 + 27.2 = 771 W, which is less than 800 W.] Problem 2 7. There are two wires in a series for a total Silicon, the workhorse for the semiconductor distance of 50 m. At 8.29 Ω/km, the cable industry, can be manufactured to have a wide will have a resistance of Rc = 0.414 Ω. The range of electrons free to move in the electrical total resistance of the cable and the block conduction process. The minimum is 1010 per heater is 18.41 Ω, which implies a current cubic centimetre and a practical maximum is 18 of I = V/(Rbh + Rc) = 120/18.41 = 6.52 A. The 10 per cubic centimetre. The mobility of elec- power delivered to the block heater is P = 2 2 2 trons in silicon is 1,450(cm/s)/(V/cm). Predict I Rbh = 6.52 (18.0) = 764 W. The power dis- the range of resistivities of silicon as compared sipated as heat in the extension cord is P = 2 2 to copper. I Rc = 6.52 (0.414) = 17.6 W. The voltage at the contacts for the block heater is

V = IRbh = 6.52(18.0) = 117.3 V. As a general Solution 2 principle, the thicker the wires, the lower the The easiest way to approach this problem resistance of the cable, the higher the current is to use proportions. We have used the resis- in the circuit and, finally, the more heat created tivity ρ of copper as 1.72 × 10-6 Ωcm. It is as- where it is needed—in the block heater. [Note: sociated with a mobility of 43(cm/s)/(V/cm). If 764 + 17.6 = 782 W is still less than 800 W.] its mobility was boosted to 1,450(cm/s)/(V/cm), 8. There are two reasons for using thick copper an increase of a factor of 34, the resistivity wiring in the house. The first is to ensure that should drop by that factor of 34 to 5.10 × 10-8 you get the highest possible voltage at the cm. Counteracting the increase in speed of electrical outlets of the house, regardless of Ω the electrons is the decrease in their number, the power drawn from the outlet. The second from 8.50 × 1022 to 1010, representing a factor is that the wires will heat up whenever current of 8.50 × 1012. That decease in numbers causes is drawn. The thicker the wire, the less it heats an increase in the resistivity by that same fac- up, which reduces the danger of fires. tor, from 5.10 × 10-8 Ωcm to 4.3 × 105 Ωcm. The lowest resistivity silicon, at 1018 conduction Comments on the Problem and electrons per cubic centimetre, will, accord- Its Solutions ingly, have a resistivity 108 times less, 4.3 × 10-3 Ωcm. Copper is therefore still a better Working on the problem will have reminded conductor than low resistivity silicon by more you how to use the equation V = IR and how than a factor of 1,000. resistivity relates to resistance. More practi- cally, you will realize that, although thin wires are cheap, they won’t always do. Even a good Comments on the Problem and electrical conductor like copper is not at con- stant potential when currents are flowing Its Solutions through it. The voltage drops significantly over One of the characteristics of semiconductors a length of copper conductor, degrading the is that their resistivity can be accurately con- power that can be delivered to the intended trolled over many orders of magnitude. Silicon user. The copper conductor will also generate is the best understood and most widely used heat, which can become dangerous. semiconductor.

58 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 What Else? Solution 3 Much of my research work has been on To decrease the resistance by a factor of measuring the mobilities and carrier concentra- two, the number of conduction electrons must tions in semiconductors. Of particular interest be increased by a factor of two. Therefore, to me has been the influence of light on electri- an average of 1010 additional electrons per cal conduction. A large numbers of insulators cubic centimetre must be maintained. If these become electrically conducting when they are electrons only live (are free) for one microsec- illuminated. When the lights are turned off, ond, 1010 electrons per cubic centimetre these materials become insulators again. This per 10-6 seconds, or 1016 electrons per second, phenomenon is called photoconductivity and is must be generated. This requires a light inten- used in light sensors. A related phenomenon is sity of 1016 photons per second. the emission of cold light when a current flows We have a time, 10-6 seconds, but to find the through certain materials. This has led to the distance we need a speed. Speed is deter- creation of light-emitting diodes and laser pointers. mined by electric field and mobility,v = µE. The Where might these fit into our ski-hill model? mobilitly µ is known for silicon, but a value for For many insulators, the lack of current is the electrical field, E, must be selected. For due to a lack of charge carriers (electrons), not copper, a few volts per metre already gives poor mobility for the electrons. As well, incident excessive currents. Silicon, a much-higher light can temporarily break some of the chem- resistivity material, can tolerate much higher ical bonds, releasing electrons. These electrons voltages before heating up. 100 V/cm is quite can then flow through the circuit until caught acceptable. In that case, v = µE = (1450)(100) again to re-establish the bonds. What kind of = 1.5 × 105 cm/s. The distance of travel is then jolt could increase the number of skiers on our (1.5 × 105)( 10-6) = 0.15 cm. ski hill? A contest? An advertising campaign? Closing the cafeteria halfway up the hill? Comments on the Problem and A simpler analogy is that ski hills shut down in the dark, but floodlights keep them going. Its Solutions Among the materials that change their elec- The lifetime of the light-generated electrons trical resistance in the presence of light are is extremely important in determining the silicon—the mainstay of the computer indus- change in resistance. A slowly responding try—some diamonds, cadmium sulphide, gal- semiconductor like lead sulphide, which is a lium arsenide and my personal favourite, cu- widely used light detector, needs fewer photons prous oxide. for the same number of generated electrons Try another problem to see how photocon- because the electrons live longer. The drawback ductivity works. is that this material is not as sensitive to quick changes in conditions. It would be useless in opti- Problem 3 cal communication (fiber optic networks), in which light is made to flicker at nanosecond rates. It was stated in Problem 2 that silicon can be made with only 1010 electrons per cubic centimetre free to move in the electrical conduc- Back to the Story tion process. Suppose now that we have pho- The increase in the number of charge carri- tons of just the right wavelength to each shake ers due to light is, in actuality, due to external- loose an extra electron from a stable bond to energy input. A single photon, if it has enough help conduct electricity. The extra electrons stay energy, breaks a bond and releases an elec- loose for one microsecond before being trapped tron. Light is given off while electrons are mak- in the chemical bond again. How many photons ing the rounds because of a process in which per second would be required to cut the resis- electrons suddenly lose energy, giving it off in tance of a piece of silicon of one cubic centi- the form of a photon. To understand this, let’s metre in half? Assume that each incident go back to the ski-hill analogy. A skier sliding photon shakes loose an electron. down the slopes continuously loses potential How far might one of these light-generated energy. What if, on the other hand, there are electrons travel before it is recaptured? small cliffs or a ski jump? Here, energy is lost

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 59 in sudden steps. This is analogous to what randomly distributed on the board are posts happens in an insulator. The electron is ripped that scatter the ball as it rolls from the high side loose from its moorings and now, while passing to the low side. The tilting mechanism, to- a similar spot of a broken bond, gets trapped gether with the lift for the balls, substitutes for and loses potential energy. This energy, in turn, the ski lift, which in turn was the analogy for the can be emitted as a photon. Be careful with this battery. The balls have been substituted for the analogy; it is just an imaginary picture of what skiers, and the randomly distributed posts are might happen in the material. In fact, the electron the trees and other hazards on the ski hill. The jump takes place where two different materials size and weight of the balls can parallel the are joined in the circuit, such as where the copper mobility concept. Why is this model better than lead wires connect to the insulating material. the ski-hill model? Reversing the battery tilts The above-described phenomenon of light the board the other way, presumably with the emission is called electro-luminescence. Gal- associated reversal of the lifting mechanism. lium arsenide, gallium nitride and silicon carbide are used in devices based on this principle. Does the Rest Make Sense? Think of batteries, lead wires and light-bulb circuits. What happens if the polarity of a battery is reversed? If the current is reversed, the light What about the influence of light? Put some bulb is just as bright as before. It is independent shallow dimples on the board in which the balls of the direction of the current. What would hap- can get stuck. Small, locally applied energy, pen in the ski-hill analogy if the direction of the such as a puff of air, can knock the ball loose, lift were reversed—that is, it only took skiers and it can get caught again at a later time in down, not up? Regardless of the number of the same dimple or another one. skiers in the area, the slopes would quite soon Light emission can be modelled by a wedge. be empty (with the exception of a few cross- The ball easily rolls up one side but falls down country diehards) and the cafeterias at the steeply on the other side, releasing a burst of bottom of the hill will be crowded, followed by energy. Putting enough of these wedges side the exodus from the parking lots. The ski-hill by side produces an asymmetry. The steep side model at best describes a circuit with a rectifier: of the wedges allows the ball to roll at only one one-way current only. The ski slope acts as a direction of tilt. A barrier has been introduced. one-way street because the majority of skiers Light could be emitted at this barrier when the are unwilling or unable to go uphill. polarity is one way, and no light will be emitted (and no current will pass) when the polarity is reversed. This is a reasonable model for the Can the Model Be Tweaked? electronic device called the rectifying diode, It seems a shame that the model fits many and, with the correct material, it is also a aspects of an electrical circuit but then, in the model for the light-emitting diode. end, looks like nonsense after all. Has the entire effort been in vain? All models can be no more than an approximation of the real world. If the model helps us visualize at least part of what goes on, it can help us understand, but we must be conscious that we are dealing with a model, not reality, and that it can only carry The idea can be taken another step further. us a limited distance. If the board is tilted enough, even with its After finding some of the failures, the model dimples and wedges, and even in the blocking can be tweaked to closer fit reality. Let’s try a direction, the balls could jump the barrier and pinball machine. A flat board or table top with allow current to pass. Electronic diodes have a a good-sized rim. The board can be tilted at maximum blocking capability as well. Once the angle and there is a mechanism for lifting balls safe level is breached, breakdown occurs, usu- from the low end to the high end. Somewhat ally burning out the device in the process.

60 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 Conclusions So Far Problem 4 Models, such as the ski hill for an electric cir- On average, electrons travel a distance l cuit, can be useful for visualizing many attributes between collisions and accelerate freely be- of a phenomenon. They are good teaching tools, tween collisions. The acceleration will be pro- but it takes a solid, fundamental understanding portional to the electric field strength E, which of the real phenomenon to come up with a valid is given by the voltage V/d, the length of the model. The better you understand, the more so- wire over which the voltage is applied. Further- phisticated and reasonable the model becomes. more, let No be the number of electrons per There are at least two difficulties with mod- cubic centimetre and A be the cross-section of els. First, it is virtually impossible for someone the wire. Derive an expression for I, the current with a poor understanding to make up a model in the wire as a function of applied voltage. that will be useful as an educational tool. Sec- ond, trouble arises when you pursue some of the details with numerical calculations. The Solution 4 three problems in this article happen to work From the text, the equation is I = qAvNo. The well. The speed of the electron in copper seems average electron speed v will depend on the a bit low, but still acceptable. applied voltage and requires analysis. As a practicing scientist and researcher on The force on an electron is given by F = qE the optical and electronic properties of semi- = qV/d. The acceleration in the space between conducting materials, I kept finding far too many collisions will be a = F/m = qV/dm. Given logical holes in my arguments as I was writing this acceleration, what is the average speed this article. over the distance l ? Recall from mechanics What happens if we dig a little deeper by that l =at2/2. The variables l and a are known, applying more algebra and the basic laws of allowing us to solve for t2 = 2l/a and t = mechanics to our imagined analogies. (2l/a)1/2. The average speed v is l/t, which is 1/2 1/2 1/2 v = l/(2l/a) = (lq/2md) V . Finally, I = qAvNo = qAN (lq/2md)1/2V1/2. Some More Problems to o Contemplate Comments on the Problem and There is an interesting difference between the starting assumptions of mechanics and Its Solutions those of electricity. Mechanics starts with the Does this expression make sense? Some assumption that friction is non-existent, and if of it does, but some of it does not. Increase A, it does exist, it is considered a minor, complicat- q, No, l and V, and the current increases, as it ing factor. The beginning equation is F = ma. should. Increase the mass of the electron m or Electricity works the other way around by assum- the length of the wire d, and the current de- ing that friction is there from the start. Friction creases, also as it should. What does not make is called resistance, and the equation V = IR is, sense is that, although experiments show the for the student, the electrical equivalent of F = ma. current to be proportional to the voltage, as per There are materials, called superconductors, Ohm’s law, the model has shown it to be pro- that have zero resistance. This can be difficult portional to the square root of the applied volt- to accept because we have been indoctrinated age. This is another serious failure of the with V = IR, which makes superconductivity and model, which requires a bit more tweaking. zero resistance seem counter intuitive. F = ma holds for electrons in a solid where the mean free path (the distance an electron Problem 5 travels between collisions) is large. It also holds Problem 4 started with the idea that electrons, for electrons in a vacuum, as long as the on the average, travel a distance l between electron’s speed does not become excessive. collisions and accelerate freely between colli- How then do we get from “acceleration pro- sions. Try a mathematically simpler assumption portional to force” to “speed proportional to next. Let us postulate that an electron spends force”? The following attempts this using the a specific average time τ between collisions principles of the model we have used. instead of a specific average distancel .

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 61 The acceleration will still be proportional to (1.5 V)/(200 cm)(9.1 × 10-31 kg)](4.9 × 10-10 the electric field strength E, which is given by seconds)/2 = 0.32 cm/s. This is the same speed the voltage V/d, the length of the wire over found much earlier in this article. The length which the voltage is applied. No is still the num- that a typical electron travels in the average ber of electrons per cubic centimetre and A is time between collisions is d = vτ = (0.32)(4.9 × still the cross-section of the wire. Again, derive 10-10) = 1.6 × 10-10 cm. How does that number an expression for I, the current in the wire as a compare to atomic dimensions? The size of function of applied voltage. an atom is around 10-10 m, about 60 times the 1.6 × 10-10 cm that the electron travels. The original idea that electrons slow down Solution 5 as they bounce off atoms that block their way can’t be true. The other bothersome aspect is From the text, the equation is I = qAvNo. The average electron speed v must now be main- that the specific average time between -colli tained under the new conditions. sions makes little or no sense. If the electrons The force on an electron is, as before, given really slow down by hitting randomly placed by F = qE = qV/d. The acceleration during the barriers (the atoms), then the faster the electron time between collisions is a = F/m = qV/dm. moves under the influence of the electric field Given this acceleration, what will be the aver- (force), the sooner it will reach the next barrier. age speed v over that time τ? But the experimental evidence, according to v = aτ/2 = (qV/dm)τ/2, φρoµ ωηιχη φoλλoωσ Ohm’s law, only works for specific average time I = (q2AN τ/2dm)V. rather than specific average distance between o collisions. More tweaking of models is required, as well as the use of experimental evidence Comments on the Problem and that resistivity decreases with decreasing tem- perature, thereby increasing the time between Its Solutions collisions. This will lead to the current theory of Does this new expression make sense? electrical conduction, which involves the pres-

Increase one or all of A, q, No, τ and V, and the ence of high frequency vibrations in the solid. current increases, as it should. Increase the Much like photons that carry electromagnetic mass of the electron m or the length of the wire energy, the electrical conduction process can d, and the current decreases, as it should. What best be explained by the existence of a new set also makes sense is that the current is directly of particles—phonons—that carry vibrational proportional to V, as required by the experi- mechanical energy. These phonons bounce ments and Ohm’s law. But did the assumption into the conduction electrons, much like how make sense? gas molecules bounce against dust particles in Brownian motion, inhibiting the electron’s movement. Yet even greater sophistication is Another Step needed to include all the possible natural vibra- 2 Compare I = (q ANoτ/2dm)V as derived from tions in the solid to get full agreement between I = (1/R)V—an altered version of Ohm’s law. theory and experiment. It even goes the other 2 Identify the resistance of the wire as q ANoτ/ way around—the electrical measurements can 2 2dm = 1/R and, from R = 2dm/q ANoτ = ρd/A, be used to identify the types of vibrations that 2 isolate the resistivity ρ = 2m/q Noτ. As shown can exist in the solid. earlier, the number of electrons in copper is known, as is their mass and charge, so it is possible to estimate the time τ between colli- Final Conclusion sions: ρ = 1.72 × 10-6 ohm-cm, q = 1.602 × How much do you need to know? How cor- -19 22 3 10 coulombs, No = 8.50 × 10 electrons/cm rect do you want to be? Can you ever really be and, from the handbooks, m = 9.1 × 10-31 kg. correct? Let’s look at the questions one at a With these, calculate for τ = 4.9 × 10-10 seconds. time, because it all depends. This time interval is short, to say the least. How much do the students in your class Put that lifetime of τ = 4.9 × 10-14 seconds need to know? Primarily, they need to know into context. Return to the formula v = aτ/2 = that Ohm’s law is an experimental fact, that (qV/dm)τ/2, using v = [(1.602 × 10-19 coulombs) batteries drive the current and that different

62 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 materials need different amounts of push to fairy tale, and both the audience and teller know make the current go. Students also need to it. Analogies have enough resemblance to real relate the new material to previous experience. life that they have a predictive power that can The ski-hill analogy may provide enough expe- be tested. It is great fun, when you have bright rience to make Ohm’s law and simple circuits students, to help them dig around to find the seem reasonable. holes in the analogy and then to tweak it. How much do you as a teacher need to Can you ever really be correct? The answer know? You should ideally be a trained physicist is simple: never. As the precision and sophisti- so that you really know what you are talking cation of experiments improves, there will al- about. But would anyone be helped if you ways be refinements in the theory, but that is started your presentations with the phonon the job of the specialist in that field of research theory of condensed matter? Or, for that matter, and it will have little influence on the old tried- would a condensed matter physicist be able to and-true subjects you are asked to teach. teach Ohm’s law and simple circuits in a man- ner that would make sense to the students? Notes Here is my recommendation: be able to deal 1. Real-Life Problems for Introductory General with an analogy that is appropriate to the level Physics1 (Weichman, F P Hendriks Publishing, 2000, of teaching, but emphasize that the analogy is p 99) just a way of thinking about how nature oper- 2. Weast, R C, ed. 1968. Handbook of Chemistry ates, and realize that the analogy breaks down and Physics, 49th ed. Cleveland, OH: Chemical if and when you take it too far. Rubber Company, F131. How correct do you want to be? Analogies 3. Madelung, O, ed. 1991. Semiconductors: are like fairy tales. Fairy tales play a useful role Group IV Elements and III–V Compounds. Berlin: in teaching morals, but the fairy tale remains a Springer-Verlag, 18.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 63 Approaches to Reciprocal Teaching in Science Education: A Questions-Based Approach Dr Thelma Gunn and Dr Lance Grigg

Introduction text comprehension to occur (see, for example, Adams 1990). Put more simply, text compre- The skills students need to comprehend, hension is contingent on the basic decoding remember and learn from science texts are skills of the reader. Fortunately, a great deal of numerous and difficult to acquire. Many science research concerning orthographic, morphemic teachers know that understanding the material and phonologic processing has been con- in a science text requires specific knowledge, ducted, enabling a clearer understanding of the skills and strategies that are obtained through complexities involved in word processing (see, extensive instruction and practice. In light of such for example, Adams 1990; Stanovich 1986; difficulties, it is important that teachers are made 1989). This research has also enabled the aware of research that focuses on optimum text development of instructional models that target processing. This is especially true for expository reading development and reading recovery. text processing in science teaching. Word recognition, however, is only one of This article outlines an important but often many reading-comprehension processes. ignored questioning strategy designed to help Mental representations of text, text coherence students process science texts. It describes and topic familiarity all contribute to comprehen- current research about and features of the sion (Beck, McKeown, Sinatra and Loxterman generic-question-stem technique as it occurs 1991; Just and Carpenter 1987; Spires and in reciprocal teaching. This approach has typi- Donley 1998; van Dijk and Kintsch 1983). cally been conducted with lecture and/or lesson Students’ ability to comprehend a piece of comprehension as well as in group settings. text can be impeded if one or more of these Guided generic question stems are better at components aren’t in place, no matter what enabling students to make meaning out of their technical skills are. For example, under- expository texts than single word questions or standing a science text requires both a textbase unguided questions (Gunn 2000). Science and a situation model. The textbase model teachers can thereby greatly improve learners’ encompasses those elements and relations that acquisition, utilization and maintenance of text- are derived from the text itself (McNamara and derived knowledge, and comprehension skills Kintsch 1996). The situation model involves and strategies. meaning making. It is a representation of the situation depicted in the text—events, actions, Generic Stem Questioning: scientific characters and so on) (Zwaan 1996). It is constructed using the textbase, as well as Setting Things Up the reader’s prior knowledge and experience. Being able to read and comprehend text is Various sources contribute to the building of a well-recognized goal of instructional practice. a situation model, including knowledge about Research findings indicate that word-recognition language, the world and the specific commu- processes must be accurate and automatic for nicative situation, and personal experiences

64 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 (McNamara and Kintsch 1996). These sources Reciprocal Teaching help transform isolated memories into something that better reflects the reader’s knowledge and Generic question stems work well within a experience (McNamara and Kintsch 1996, 252). teaching strategy known as reciprocal teaching An approach that can help science students (Brown and Palincsar 1989; Palincsar and understand what is in a text and how to make Brown 1984). Reciprocal teaching is a step-by- meaning or sense of it would, therefore, be use- step model that has had considerable success ful for science teachers. One approach is ge- across all learning domains, including reading, neric stem questioning—questioning techniques mathematics, writing instruction and science. that can be personalized, administered to large The model consists of four critical strategies: groups, and used individually or cooperatively. questioning, clarifying, summarizing and pre- Alison King is the primary proponent of and dicting. These strategies are acquired and author of writings on generic question stems. practised in an environment of cooperative She has successfully demonstrated using this learning, expert scaffolding and guided instruc- approach with adolescents in lecture and lesson tion. This is a very useful approach for social comprehension settings. This approach involves studies education. the development of questions using generic Each strategy has a specific purpose. For in- stems. The stems are not so much guidelines stance, question construction leads to a greater as structures upon which questions are con- integration of text; clarification assists the in- structed. Their purpose is to assist in construct- structor, the group and the learner to monitor ing internal and external connections within the not only their own comprehension levels but the material being studied and the students’ prior comprehension of others as well; summation knowledge. Internal connections involve orga- promotes further analysis and self-evaluation nizing selected information from the presented of the learner’s knowledge, skills and strategies; material into a coherent whole, and external and prediction activates prior knowledge (Derry, connections link some or all of the newly acquired 1990; Lysynchuk, Pressley and Vye 1990). information to prior knowledge structures (Mayer Students were trained to develop questions 1989; 1992). After students create questions, that incorporated who, what, where, when, why they are to discuss them within small groups. and how. These prompts are referred to as By employing generic question stems, co- signal words (Rosenshine, Meister and Chap- herency can be easily achievable at both the man 1996) and have been successful in improv- local and global levels, helping students better ing social studies text comprehension. understand science texts. Generic question Empirically, reciprocal teaching improve stems are partially completed sentences that reading comprehension scores as well as cue the subject to create internal and external metacognitive awareness (Palincsar and Brown connections (Mayer 1989; 1992) by way of 1984; Lysynchuk, Pressley and Vye 1990). question generation. The following are exam- Thus, it has succeeded in decontextualizing ples of generic stem questions: vital knowledge, skills and strategies, which are • How is ____ associated with, or related to required across the domains. what we have learned or read before? • Are ____ and ____ related in any way? Explain. Reciprocal Peer Questioning • What do you think might occur if ____? The link between generic stem questioning • What information do we already have and reciprocal teaching occurs in an activity about ____? known as reciprocal peer questioning (King • How does it apply to ____? 1989; 1990a; 1990b; 1991a; 1991b; 1992a; • Are there any differences between ____ and 1992b; 1994a; 1994b; King and Rosenshine ____? Explain. 1993). Reciprocal peer questioning focuses on • ____ appears to be a problem because ____. the construction of questions and responses, What are some possible solutions? and the integration of schematic structures with • The author states that ____. Explain why new knowledge, skills and strategies, and is this statement is true or false. useful for science teachers. • Compare ____ and ____ in regards to ____. Reciprocal peer questioning begins with ex- Explain your answer. plicit instruction on the use of question generation

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 65 using generic question stems. Generic question A good strategy is to get the students to imag- stems require the learner to complete skeletal ine they are describing the scene to their friends question outlines. They require the learner to or parents, but they can only use two or three make connections both within the text and to words, so those words have to be powerful. his or her prior knowledge. Write some of their responses on the board so Following question generation, each learner that everyone can see them. Last, ask the independently generates two or three questions students to formulate four to six generic stem relevant to the material being studied. Individu- questions based on the material they have read ally or through small, cooperative groups, the and heard. For example, they might ask: learners take turns posing their questions to each • What do you think might occur if a mammal other. As with reciprocal teaching, feedback is developed outside of its mothers body? provided by the instructor and/or peer group. What dangers would there be for the baby’s According to King (1990a; 1990b; 1991a; 1991b; survival? 1992a; 1992b), this model produces signifi- • What information do we already have about cantly higher achievement scores than discus- reptiles and mammals? How do these dif- sion alone, questioning and responding without ferences apply to physical characteristics? guidance, and independent study. Learners are • Are there any differences between learned required to activate and use prior knowledge, and instinctive behaviour? Explain. generate higher-level meaningful questions and • The death of a mother appears to be a prob- to monitor one’s own knowledge, skills and lem because of her role as a nurturer and strategies. This makes reciprocal peer ques- teacher. What are some possible solutions for tioning and generic question stems promising the baby’s survival if the mother dies early? approaches toward the development of cogni- • The author states that “mammals are the tion, metacognition and knowledge construction. only animals that have hair or fur.” Explain why this statement is true or false. Applications to Science • Compare incisors and canines with premo- lars and molars in regards to eating. Explain Teaching your answer. How might this work in a science classroom? Students can brainstorm by themselves and To prepare, first identify a text that you want then gather questions from one another in a your students to study in-depth, such as an cooperative-learning setting. These questions article on understanding animal behaviour. can be placed on the board for other groups to Next, break down that text into four parts. Each see. They can also be used for authentic ap- part must have enough information in it to allow proaches to peer assessment, teacher-directed students to visualize what that part of the assessment, homework assignments and so on. text is describing, summarize it and formulate Go through the rest of the text in the same generic stem questions about it—two para- way. graphs could be adequate for each part. Make enough photocopies for the entire class, and tell them they will be doing what every good Conclusions reader does—visualizing, summarizing and Reciprocal teaching and reciprocal peer ­questioning. questioning using generic question stems are Read the first part of the text aloud to the useful strategies for encouraging students to class, asking them to visualize the material, or process science texts more effectively, but create an image of what the author is saying. sadly, they are not often used. Because ge- Encourage the students to ask questions like, neric stem questions are not subject-specific, “What scene is being described?”, “What does they are applicable to a broad range of science it look like?”, “What animals are in it?” and texts. This article hopefully exposes teachers “What are they doing?” After reading the text, to a way of engaging students in text compre- ask the students to open their eyes and draw hension that combines a set of basic strategies what they have visualized. in a creative manner. It is also anticipated that Next, ask the students to summarize in two teachers will take this material further, highlight- or three words what has been said and drawn. ing its limitations and building on them.

66 ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 ———. 1991a. “Effects of Training in Strategic Ques- Bibliography tioning on Children’s Problem-Solving Perfor- Adams, M. 1990. Beginning to Read: Thinking and mance.” Journal of Educational Psychology 83: Learning About Print. Cambridge, Mass: MIT 307–17. Press. ———. 1991b. “Improving Lecture Comprehension: Beck, I L, M G McKeown, G M Sinatra and J A Effects of a Metacognitive Strategy.” Applied ­Loxterman. 1991. “Revising Social Studies Text Cognitive Psychology 5: 331–46. from a Text-Processing Perspective: Evidence of ———. 1992a. “Facilitating Elaborative Learning Improved Comprehensibility.” Reading Research through Guided Student-Generated Questioning.” Quarterly 26: 251–76. Educational Psychologist 27: 111–26. Bender, T. 1986. “Monitoring and the Transfer of ———. 1992b. “Comparison of Self-Questioning, Individual Problem Solving.” Contemporary Summarizing, and Note Taking-Review as Strat- ­Educational Psychology 11: 161–69. egies for Learning from Lectures.” American Bereiter, C. 1985. “Toward a Solution of the Learning Educational Research Journal 29: 303–23. Paradox.” Review of Educational Research 55: ———. 1994a. “Guiding Knowledge Construction in 201–26. the Classroom: Effects of Teaching Children How Britton, B K, L van Dusen, S Gulgoz, S M Glynn. to Question and How to Explain.” American Edu- 1989. “Instructional Texts Rewritten by Five cational Research Journal 31: 338–68. ­Expert Teams: Revisions and Retention Improve- ———. 1994b. “Autonomy and Question Asking: The ments.” Journal of Educational Psychology 81: Role of Personal Control in Guided Student-Gen- 226–39. erated Questioning.” Learning and Individual Brown, A L, and J C Campione. 1986. “Psychological Differences 6: 163–85. Theory and the Study of Learning Disabilities.” King, A, and B Rosenshine. 1993. “Effects of Guided American Psychologist 41: 1059–68. Cooperative Questioning on Children’s Knowl- Brown, A, and A Palincsar. 1989. “Guided, Coopera- edge Construction.” Journal of Experimental tive Learning and Individual Knowledge Acquisi- Education 6: 127–48. tion.” In Knowing, Learning and Instruction: Lysynchuk, L M, M Pressley and N J Vye. 1990. Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, ed by L B “Reciprocal Teaching Improves Standardized Resnick, 393–451. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Reading-Comprehension Performance in Poor ­Erlbaum Associates. Comprehenders.” Elementary School Journal 90, Derry, S J. 1990. “Learning Strategies for Acquiring no 5: 469–84. Useful Knowledge.” In Dimensions of Thinking McNamara, D S, and W Kintsch. 1996. “Learning and Cognitive Instruction, ed by B F Jones and from Text: Effects of Prior Knowledge and Text L Idol, 347–79. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Coherence.” Discourse Processes 22: 247–87. Associates. Mayer, R E. 1989. “Models for Understanding.” Re- ———. 1992. “Beyond Symbolic Processing: view of Educational Research 59, no 1: 43-64. ­Expanding Horizons for Educational Psychology.” Mayer, R.E. 1992. “Cognition and Instruction: Their Journal of Educational Psychology 84: 413–18. Historic Meeting within Educational Psychology.” Gunn, T. 2000. “The Effects of Question Construction Journal of Educational Psychology 84, no 4: 405–12. on Expository Text Comprehension.” PhD dis- Palincsar, A S, and A Brown. 1984. “Reciprocal sertation, University of Saskatchewan. Teaching of Comprehension-Fostering and Com- Just M A, and P A Carpenter. 1987. “The Psychology prehension-Monitoring Activities.” Cognition and of Reading and Language Comprehension.” Instruction 1: 117–75. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon. Rosenshine, B, C Meister and S Chapman. 1996. King, A. 1989. “Effects of Self-Questioning Training “Teaching Students to Generate Questions: on College Students’ Comprehension of Lec- A Review of the Intervention Studies.” Review of tures.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 14: Educational Research 66, no 2: 181–221. 366–81. Spires, H A, and J Donley. 1998. “Prior Knowledge ———. 1990a. “Enhancing Peer Interaction and Activation: Inducing Engagement with Informa- Learning in the Classroom through Reciprocal tional Texts.” Journal of Educational Psychology Questioning.” American Educational Research 90: 249–60. Journal 27: 664–87. Stanovich, K E. 1986. “Matthew Effects in Reading: ———. 1990b. “Reciprocal Peer-Questioning: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in A Strategy for Teaching Students How to Learn the Acquisition of Literacy.” Reading Research from Lectures.” The Clearing House 64: 131–35. Quarterly 20: 360–406.

ASEJ, Volume 37, Number 2, March 2006 67 Stanovich, K E. 1989. “Has the Learning Disabilities van Dijk, T A, and Kintsch W. 1983. Strategies of Field Lost its Intelligence?” Journal of Learning Discourse Comprehension. San Diego, Calif: Disabilities 22: 487–92. Academic Press. van Dijk, T A. 1995. “On Macrostructures, Mental Zwaan, R A. 1996. “Toward a Model of Literary Models, and Other Inventions: A Brief Personal Comprehension.” In Models of Understanding History of the Kintsch-van Dijk Theory.” In Dis- Text, ed by B K Britton and A C Graesser, 241–55. course Comprehension: Essays in Honor of Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Walter Kintsch, ed by C A Weaver III, S Mannes and C R Fletcher, 383–410. Hillsdale, NJ: Law- rence Erlbaum Associates.

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