Contents

Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxix Art Credits xxxi About the Author xxxiii

PART I ■ INTRODUCTORY MATTERS AND TERMINOLOGY 1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EVIDENCE AND THE RULES OF EVIDENCE 2

Chapter Topics 2 Objectives 3 I. Definition of Evidence 3 II. The Court System 4 A. Federal Courts 4 B. State Courts 7 III. Sources of Evidence Law 8 A. Federal Rules of Evidence 8 B. Common Law 11 C. Constitutional Protections 12 D. Statutory Law 13

ix x Contents

IV. The Actors in the Criminal Justice Process 13 A. Investigative Personnel 13 B. Laboratory Personnel 14 C. Coroners and Medical Examiners 14 D. Attorneys 15 E. Trial Judge 15 Chapter Summary 18 Key Terms 18 Review Questions 19 Application Problems 19

CHAPTER 2 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS 22

Chapter Topics 22 Objectives 23 Introduction 23 I. The Stages of the Criminal Justice Process 24 A. Case Investigation 24 B. Charging Suspects 25 1. The Grand Jury Process 25 2. Informations and Preliminary Hearings 26 C. Arraignment 28 D. Bail 28 E. Motions Hearings 30 F. Evidence of Plea Negotiations 30 G. Trial 34 1. Jury Selection 34 2. Opening Statements 36 3. Prosecution’s Case-​in-​Chief 36 a. Direct Examination of the Witness 37 b. Cross-​Examination of the Witness 37 4. Defense’s Case-​in-​Chief 37 5. Prosecution’s Rebuttal 38 6. Closing Statements 38 7. Reading of the Jury Instructions 38 8. Objections 39 H. Appeal 41 1. Appeal of Right 41 2. Ineffective Assistance of Counsel 43 3. Habeas Corpus Petitions 43 Contents xi

II. Trial Evidence 44 A. Witnesses 44 B. Exhibits 44 C. Judicial Notice 45 D. Stipulations 46 E. Things That Are Not Evidence 46 Chapter Summary 48 Key Terms 49 Review Questions 49 Application Problems 50

CHAPTER 3 BASIC EVIDENTIARY TERMS: RELEVANCE, BURDEN OF PROOF, AND CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE 52

Chapter Topics 52 Objectives 53 Introduction 53 I. Admissibility of Evidence 54 A. Relevancy 54 B. Reliability 56 C. Competency of Evidence 57 D. Exclusion of Evidence Due to Its Prejudicial Effect: Rule 403 58 II. Burden of Proof 59 A. Burden of Production 59 B. Burden of Persuasion 61 1. Reasonable Suspicion 61 2. Probable Cause 61 3. Preponderance of Evidence 62 4. Clear and Convincing Evidence 62 5. Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 63 C. Defenses 65 1. Right to Present Evidence in Your Own Defense 65 2. Types of Defenses 66 a. Negating Defenses b. Affirmative Defenses 67 3. The Burden of Proof for a Defense 71 D. Presumptions 73 1. Presumption of Innocence 74 2. Presumption of Intoxication 75 xii Contents

III. Direct and Circumstantial Evidence 76 A. Direct Evidence 76 B. Circumstantial Evidence 76 1. Definition 76 2. Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence 77 a. Reasonable Hypothesis of Innocence Test 78 b. The Modern Rule 79 c. Use of Circumstantial Evidence in Murder Cases 80 Chapter Summary 83 Key Terms 84 Review Questions 85 Application Problems 85

PART II ■ THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE 89

CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE 90

Chapter Topics 90 Objectives 91 Introduction 91 I. Crime Scene Searches 92 A. Inward or Outward Spiral Search 93 B. Zone Search 93 C. Grid Search 94 D. Parallel or Lane Search 95 E. Searching in Stages 95 F. Alternate Light Sources 96 G. Automobile Searches 98 II. Crime Scene Documentation 98 A. Crime Scene Notes 98 B. Crime Scene Photography 100 1. Photography of Blood Stains and Pattern Evidence 101 2. Photography of Shoe and Tire Impressions 102 3. Panoramic Crime Scene Photographs 102 C. Crime Scene Measurements 102 D. Crime Scene Sketches and Diagrams 104 Contents xiii

III. Evidence Collection 105 A. Blood Stains and Other Biological Evidence 106 B. Hair and Fiber Evidence 107 C. Firearms Evidence 107 D. Gunshot Residue 108 E. Drugs 109 F. Fingerprints 110 1. Development of Latent Prints Using Fingerprint Powder 110 2. Development of Latent Prints Using Chemical Developers 111 3. Collection of Visible and Plastic Prints 111 G. Shoe and Tiremark Impressions 111 IV. Chain of Custody 113 A. General Requirements 113 B. Establishing the Chain of Custody in Court 114 V. Evidence Storage 116 VI. Contamination of Evidence 119 Chapter Summary 120 Key Terms 120 Review Questions 120 Application Problems 121

CHAPTER 5 IDENTIFICATION EVIDENCE 124

Chapter Topics 124 Objectives 124 Introduction 125 I. The Identification Process 126 A. Pretrial Identification Procedures 126 B. Admissibility of Pretrial and In-​Court Identifications 127 1. Suggestiveness of the Pretrial Lineup 127 2. Reliability of the Identification 130 a. Biggers Factors Used to Determine Reliability 130 b. Criticism of the Biggers Reliability Factors 131 c. Research Findings Concerning Eyewitness Misidentification 133 d. State Courts’ Modification of theBiggers Factors 135 xiv Contents

C. The Use of Expert Testimony on Eyewitness Misidentification 137 D. Right to Counsel 138 II. Protocols for Conducting Unbiased Pretrial Identifications 139 Chapter Summary 142 Key Terms 143 Review Questions 143 Application Problems 143

CHAPTER 6 CONFESSIONS 146

Chapter Topics 146 Objectives 147 Introduction 147 I. Obtaining Confessions 148 A. Physical Torture 148 1. Enhanced Interrogation Techniques 150 B. Modern Interrogation Techniques 152 1. The Reid Technique 152 C. Success of Interrogation 153 D. False Confessions 154 1. Types of False Confessions 154 2. Causes of False Confessions 155 3. Prevention of False Confessions 158 II. Corroboration of Confessions 161 A. Corpus Delicti Rule 161 B. Trustworthiness Rule 163 III. Immunity 165 IV. Use of Confessions of Co-​Defendants That Implicate the Defendant 168 A. The Bruton Rule 168 B. Redaction 169 Chapter Summary 170 Key Terms 171 Review Questions 171 Application Problems 171 Contents xv PART III ■ PRETRIAL MATTERS 175

CHAPTER 7 PRETRIAL DISCOVERY 176

Chapter Topics 176 Objectives 177 Introduction 177 I. The Prosecution’s Duty to Provide Discovery 178 A. The Brady Rule: Duty to Preserve and Disclose Exculpatory Evidence 178 1. Timing of Disclosures 179 2. Impeachment Material 180 B. Potentially Exculpatory Evidence 181 1. Destruction of Evidence 181 2. Preservation of Breath and Blood-​Alcohol Samples 182 3. Destruction of Evidence That Occurs During Testing 183 4. Video Recording of Evidentiary Tests 184 C. Discovery Obligations Under Rule 16 185 1. Statements of the Defendant 185 2. Documents, Photographs, and Tangible Objects 186 3. Investigator’s Notes 187 4. Expert Disclosures 188 5. Jencks Act 188 6. Witness Lists 189 7. Identity of Informant 189 8. Nondiscoverable Material 190 D. Relationship Between the Prosecution’s Duty to Disclose Exculpatory Material and Its Obligations Under Rule 16 191 II. Defendant’s Discovery Obligations 192 A. Notice of Alibi 192 B. Reciprocal Discovery 193 III. Sanctions for Violating Discovery Rules 193 Chapter Summary 196 Key Terms 196 Review Questions 196 Application Problems 197 xvi Contents

CHAPTER 8 THE EXCLUSIONARY RULE AND MOTIONS TO SUPPRESS EVIDENCE 200

Chapter Topics 200 Objectives 201 Introduction 202 I. Fourth Amendment Privacy Protections 203 A. The Warrant Requirement 203 B. The Reasonableness Requirement 205 C. The Exclusionary Rule 207 1. Fruit of the Poisonous Tree 207 2. Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule 209 a. Independent Source 209 b. Inevitable Discovery 211 c. Attenuation 212 d. Good Faith Exception 212 3. Private Parties and Third Parties 217 4. Grand Jury Proceedings and Parole Revocation Hearings 217 5. Continuing Viability of the Exclusionary Rule 218 II. Fifth and Sixth Amendment Protections for a Defendant’s Statements 221 A. Fifth Amendment Right to Remain Silent 221 1. Waiver of the Right to Remain Silent Must Be Voluntary 221 a. Scope of Custody and Interrogation 222 b. Waiver of Miranda Rights Must Be Voluntary 223 c. After-​the-​Fact Miranda Advisements 225 d. Right to Counsel Under Miranda 227 e. Public Safety Exception 228 f. Booking Questions Exception 230 2. Due Process Concerns and Coerced Confessions 230 a. Physical Violence or Torture 231 b. Deception and Other Psychological Interrogation Methods 231 c. Manufacturing False Evidence 232 B. Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel 234 C. Use of Illegally Obtained Evidence for Impeachment 235 III. Motions to Suppress 236 Chapter Summary 238 Key Terms 239 Review Questions 239 Application Problems 240 Contents xvii PART IV ■ ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE AT TRIAL 245

CHAPTER 9 WITNESSES PART I: EXPERT AND LAY WITNESSES 246

Chapter Topics 246 Objectives 247 Introduction 247 I. Types of Witnesses 248 A. Lay Witnesses 248 B. Expert Witnesses 251 1. Types of Experts 252 2. Preliminary Screening of the Admissibility of Expert Testimony 252 a. The Trial Judge’s Gatekeeping Function 252 3. The Degree of Certainty to Which Experts Have to Hold Their Opinions 262 C. Lay Opinions Versus Expert Opinions 264 II. Subpoenas 265 A. General Requirements 265 B. Out-​of-​State Subpoenas 266 C. Subpoenas Duces Tecum 267 1. Motion to Quash 267 D. Grand Jury Subpoenas 268 Chapter Summary 269 Key Terms 270 Review Questions 270 Application Problems 270

CHAPTER 10 WITNESSES PART II: RELIABILITY OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE 274

Chapter Topics 274 Objectives 275 Introduction 275 I. The Reliability of Forensic Comparison Evidence 276 A. Independent Studies on the Reliability of Forensic Evidence 276 xviii Contents

1. National Academy of Sciences Report on Forensic Science 276 2. Subsequent Reports on the Reliability of Forensic Evidence 279 B. Courts’ Evaluation of the Reliability of Forensic Disciplines 281 1. DNA Evidence 281 2. Friction Ridge Analysis and Fingerprint Identification 282 3. Firearms Identification 285 4. Handwriting Analysis 287 5. Hair Comparison Analysis 289 6. Bitemark Identification 291 C. Connection Between Wrongful Convictions and False or Misleading Forensic Evidence 292 D. CSI Effect 293 II. Admissibility of Polygraph Evidence 295 Chapter Summary 297 Key Terms 297 Review Questions 297 Application Problems 298

CHAPTER 11 WITNESSES PART III: COMPETENCY AND PRIVILEGE 302

Chapter Topics 302 Objectives 303 Introduction 303 I. Competency of Witnesses 304 A. General Requirements 304 B. Determining Incapacity 305 C. Types of Incapacity 306 1. Physical or Mental Infirmity 306 2. Child Witnesses 308 D. Personal Knowledge 310 E. Oaths and Affirmations 311 F. Judges and Jurors 312 II. Privileges 312 A. General Requirements 312 1. Creation 313 2. Assertion and Waiver of the Privilege 314 3. Comments at Trial 316 B. Specific Privileges 316 Contents xix

1. Privilege Against Self-​Incrimination 316 2. Attorney/​Client 317 a. The Existence of an Attorney/​Client Relationship 318 b. The Provision of Legal Advice 318 c. Waiver of the Privilege 319 d. Inadvertent Disclosure 319 e. Death of the Client 320 3. Clergy/​Communicant 322 4. Family Relationships 323 a. Spousal Privilege 323 b. Parent/​Child Privilege 327 c. Sibling Privilege 328 5. Physician/​Patient 328 6. Psychotherapist/​Patient 329 7. Counselor or Advocate/​Crime Victim 330 8. Reporter/​Source 332 9. Medical and Mental Health Records of a Crime Victim 334 Chapter Summary 335 Key Terms 336 Review Questions 336 Application Problems 337

CHAPTER 12 WITNESSES PART IV: IMPEACHMENT AND CROSS-​EXAMINATION 342

Chapter Topics 343 Objectives 343 Introduction 343 I. Impeachment 344 A. Bias or Motive to Lie 345 B. Lack of Capacity to Perceive or Recall 346 C. Contradiction 346 D. Impeachment by Character and Conduct 348 1. Attacking Character by Reputation or Opinion 348 2. Attacking Character by Prior Conduct of Witness 350 3. Attacking the Defendant’s Character 351 E. Impeachment by Conviction 352 1. Acts That Are Probative of Truthfulness 353 2. Elements of the Underlying Conviction 354 3. Juvenile Adjudications 355 F. Prior Inconsistent Statements 356 xx Contents

II. Cross-​Examination of Witnesses 359 Chapter Summary 362 Key Terms 362 Review Questions 363 Application Problems 363

CHAPTER 13 CHARACTER EVIDENCE 366

Chapter Topics 366 Objectives 367 Introduction 367 I. Character Evidence Is Generally Excluded: Rule 404(a) 369 II. The Exceptions Under Which Character Evidence Is Admissible 370 A. The Defendant’s Own Good Character: Rule 404(a)(2)(A) 371 B. Character of the Victim: Rules 404(a)(2)(B)-​(C) 372 1. Self-​Defense 373 2. Rape Shield Laws 375 a. Types of Rape Shields 376 b. Evidence of Prior Sexual Conduct with the Same Victim 378 c. Evidence of Sexual Conduct with Third Parties 378 d. Prior False Allegations of Sexual Abuse 380 e. Prior History of Sexual Abuse 380 f. Criticisms of Rape Shield Laws 382 III. Use of Character Evidence to Prove an Independent Purpose: Rule 404(b) 384 A. Whether the Defendant Committed the Prior Act 385 B. Relevance of the Prior Acts 386 C. Independent Purpose 388 1. Identity 389 2. Intent and Motive 390 3. Absence of Mistake 391 D. Balancing the Probative Value Against the Prejudicial Effect 392 E. Admission of Prior Acts in Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Cases 394 1. Lustful Disposition Exception 395 2. Heightened Relevance Laws 396 Contents xxi

3. Admission of Evidence of Prior Acts in Sexual Assault Cases in Federal Court: Rules 413 and 414 398 Chapter Summary 402 Key Terms 402 Review Questions 403 Application Problems 403

CHAPTER 14 HEARSAY EVIDENCE 408

Chapter Topics 408 Objectives 409 Introduction 409 I. Origins of the Hearsay Rule 411 II. Modern Rule 411 A. Definition of Hearsay (Rule 801(a)-(c);​ Rule 802) 411 B. Exemptions from the Hearsay Rule 414 1. Prior Testimony: Rule 801(d)(1) 414 2. Statements of Defendant: Rule 801(d)(2) 415 C. Hearsay Exceptions 416 1. Availability of the Defendant Immaterial 417 a. Present Sense Impression: Rule 803(1) 417 b. Excited Utterance: Rule 803(2) 418 c. State of Mind: Rule 803(3) 419 d. Medical Diagnosis or Treatment: Rule 803(4) 420 e. Records of Regularly Conducted Activities: Rule 803(6) 421 f. Public Records: Rule 803(8) 423 2. Unavailability of the Declarant 424 a. Former Testimony: Rule 804(b)(1) 425 b. Dying Declaration: Rule 804(b)(2) 426 c. Statement Against Interest: Rule 804(b)(3) 427 3. Residual Exception: Rule 807 428 D. Impeachment of a Missing Declarant: Rule 806 429 E. Res Gestae 430 III. Testimonial Hearsay Under the Confrontation Clause 431 A. Crawford v. Washington 432 B. Davis v. Washington 432 C. Michigan v. Bryant 434 D. Statements Made to Persons Who Are Not Law Enforcement Officials 435 1. Statements Made by Young Children 435 xxii Contents

a. Statements Made to Parents or Family Members 435 b. Statements Made to Teachers 436 c. Statements Made to Forensic Interviewers 437 2. Statements Made to Neighbors 438 3. Statements Made to a Doctor for Medical Diagnosis 439 E. Forensic Lab Reports and Other Certificates of Analysis 440 F. Workflow for Testimonial Hearsay 442 G. Forfeiture by Wrongdoing: Rule 804(b)(6) 444 Chapter Summary 447 Key Terms 448 Review Questions 448 Application Problems 449

CHAPTER 15 AUTHENTICATION OF EVIDENCE AND THE BEST EVIDENCE RULE 454

Chapter Topics 454 Objectives 455 Introduction 455 I. Authentication of Evidence 456 A. Physical Evidence 457 B. Documentary Evidence 457 1. Hard Copies 457 2. Electronically Stored Information 458 3. Social Media Postings 460 C. Demonstrative Evidence 462 1. Photographs and Video Generally 462 2. Digital Photographs 463 a. Original, Unaltered Images 464 b. Minimally Enhanced Images 465 c. Materially Altered Images 465 3. Remote Cameras 468 4. Computer Graphics and Animations 469 II. Best Evidence Rule 470 A. Requirement That the Original Writing Be Produced 471 1. Application of the Best Evidence Rule 471 2. Definition of a Writing 472 B. Exceptions to the Best Evidence Rule 474 1. Admission of Copies or Duplicates 474 Contents xxiii

2. Admissibility of Secondary Evidence 476 3. Public Records 478 4. Summaries 478 Chapter Summary 480 Key Terms 481 Review Questions 481 Application Problems 481

Appendix: Federal Rules of Evidence 485 Table of Cases 525 Glossary 527 Index 545