Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology SECOND EDITION PERSPECTIVES on INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology SECOND EDITION PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University of North Carolina, Wilmington

DETERMINANTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Factors Edited by Mark Galizio and Stephen A. Maisto

HANDBOOK OF MULTIVARIATE EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition Edited by John R. Nesselroade and Raymond B. Cattell

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning

THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT AND SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Jaan Valsiner

LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNING STYLES Edited by Ronald R. Schmeck

METHODOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Victor L. Willson

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Developmental Perspective Edited by Lawrence C. Hartlage and Cathy F. Telzrow

PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Natural Science Approach Hans J. Eysenck and Michael W. Eysenck

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND AROUSAL Edited by Jan Strelau and Hans J. Eysenck

PERSPECTIVES ON BIAS IN MENTAL TESTING Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Robert T. Brown

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY Edited by Hans J. Eysenck and Irene Martin

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher. Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology SECOND EDITION

Edited by John R. Nesselroade Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania and Raymond B. Cattell University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii

Plenum Press • New York and London Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology I edited by John R. Nesselroade and Raymond B. Cattell. - 2nd ed. p. cm. - (Perspectives on individual differences) Includes bibliographies and index. ISBN-13 :978-1-4612-8232-7 e-ISBN-13 :978-1-4613-0893-5 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0893-5 I. Psychology, Experimental-Methodology. 2. Psychology, Experimental• Statistical methods. 3. Difference (Psychology)-Research-Methodology. 4. Dif• ference (Psychology)-Statistical methods. I. Nesselroade, John R. II. Cattell, Ray• mond B. (Raymond Bernard), 1905- . III. Series. [DNLM: I. Psychology, Experi• mental. BF 181 H236] BFI8l.C3 1988 150'.724-dcl9 DNLM/DLC 88-9806 for Library of Congress CIP

A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors

Mark S. Aldenderfer Jerry Brennan Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii Northwestern University Honolulu, Hawaii 96844 Evanston, Illinois 60201 Raymond B. CatteD P. M. Bender University of Hawaii Department of Psychology Honolulu, Hawaii 96844 University of California Los Angeles, California 90024-1563 Clitford C. Clogg Departments of Sociology and Statistics, and Dan D. Blaine Population Issues Research Center University of Hawaii The Pennsylvania State University Honolulu, Hawaii 96844 University Park, Pennsylvania 16802 Roger K. Blasbfield Department of Psychiatry JochenFahrenberg University of Florida Psychophysiology Research Unit Gainesville, Florida 32610 Institute of Psychology University of Freiburg Brian Bolton 7800 Freiburg Arkansas Rehabilitation Research and Train- Federal Republic of Germany ing Center University of Arkansas David W. Folker Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701 Institute for Behavioral Genetics University of Colorado Gregory J. Boyle Boulder, Colorado 80309 Department of Education University of Melbourne Richard L. Gorsuch Parkville Graduate School of Psychology Victoria 3052 Fuller Theological Seminary Australia Pasadena, California 91101 v VI· CONTRIBUTORS

John Hom S. B. SeUs Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Southern California Texas Christian University Los Angeles, California 90089 Fort Worth, Texas 76129 James W. Shockey L. R. James Department of Sociology School of Psychology University of Arizona Georgia Institute of Technology Tucson, Arizona 85721 Atlanta, Georgia 30332 Barry D. Smith Karl G. Joreskog Department of Psychology Department of Statistics University of Maryland University of Uppsala College Park, Maryland 20742 S-75120 Uppsala Sweden Conrad Wesley Snyder, Jr. Department of Psychology Richard Lynn University of Queensland Psychology Department St. Lucia The University of Ulster Queensland Coleraine BT52 1SA Australia Northern Ireland Maurice M. Tatsuoka J. J. McArdle Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology University of Illinois University of Virginia Champaign, Illinois 61820 Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 George P. Vogler Division of Biostatistics Robert MacCallum Washington University School of Medicine Department of Psychology St. Louis, Missouri 63110 Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 43210 Alexander von Eye Department of Individual and Family Studies Stanley A. Mulaik College of Health and Human Development School of Psychology The Pennsylvania State University Georgia Institute of Technology University Park, Pennsylvania 16802 Atlanta, Georgia 30332 Wemer W. Wittmann Lothar R. Schmidt Psychological Institute Department of Psychology Department of Personality Psychology University of Trier University of Freiburg 5500 Trier D7800 Freiburg im Breisgau Federal Republic of Germany Federal Republic of Germany Foreword

When the first edition of this Handbook was fields are likely to be hard reading, but published in 1966 I scarcely gave thought to a anyone who wants to get in touch with the future edition. Its whole purpose was to growing edges will find something to meet his inaugurate a radical new outlook on ex• taste. perimental psychology, and if that could be Of course, this book will need teachers. As accomplished it was sufficient reward. In the it supersedes the narrow conceptions of 22 years since we have seen adequate-indeed models and statistics still taught as bivariate staggering-evidence that the growth of a new and ANOVA methods of experiment, in so branch of psychological method in science has many universities, those universities will need become established. The volume of research to expand their faculties with newly trained has grown apace in the journals and has young people. The old vicious circle of opened up new areas and a surprising increase obsoletely trained members turning out new of knowledge in methodology. obsoletely trained members has to be The credit for calling attention to the need recognized and broken. And wherever re• for new guidance belongs to many members search deals with integral wholes-in per• of the Society of Multivariate Experimental sonalities, processes, and groups-researchers Psychology, but the actual innervation is due will recognize the vast new future that to the skill and endurance of one man, John multivariate methods open up. R. Nesselroade, who has searched the world It is very doubtful that I shall be here to for the important contributors in each growing see the birth of a third edition, after another field. Knowing from my work on the first 22 years, but I am confident that it will fill edition what choices and correspondence and psychology with scientific advances at present editing guidance are needed, I stand difficult to conceive. astonished at the product he has produced. There is no existing field of multivariate designs Raymond B. Cattell that he has not represented by the work of an Honolulu, Hawaii expert. Some of the more recent and complex

vii Preface to the First Edition

A preface is a heart-to-heart talk from writer growth. And it is already socially evident that to reader conveying what might seem too the more traditional of bivariate psycholo• personal or human for the austere content of gists, on the one hand, and of psychometrists, the text. As such, if frankly given, it can be as on the other, have initially reacted to the field helpful as a hundred pages of text in enabling of multivariate experimental psychology (and the reader to focus, follow, and evaluate the to the Society of Multivariate Experimental rest. Then, like a good autobiography, such as Psychology) as an unnecessary declaration of that of Cellini, Rousseau, or Wells, it permits independence. Modern societies grow by new us to click our tongues at the questionable syntheses and specializations, but it is a social taste while enjoying the uniquely law of group dynamics-illustrated in the truthful gift of the artist! At once I must American War of Independence-that estab• confess that I shall disappoint the reader on lished groups are quite automatically hostile this score, though a minor novel could be to newborn groups. Consequently the new written on the group production of this work, methodological developments of multivariate with its interaction of creative ideas with the experimental psychology have been forced quirks, unusual sensitivities, and solid virtues explicitly to defend themselves. This accounts of the contributors-not to say much of what for the challenging tone of some of the the editor regarded as the pathological following pages, and hopefully the same spirit dilatoriness of a few. (But of the majority let has increased the originality of attack on old me say at once that I view them as Wellington problems. Further, one may venture to guess did the splendid companions who won with that in the perspective of psychological history him the battle of Waterloo.) this movement, far from appearing as a This last allusion is perhaps not entirely splinter group, will be seen as the creator of inapt, for as the substance and spirit of the an important synthesis combining within a chapters will clearly show, the book, in new conception those scientific values which addition to its creative purpose, has also brass-instrument psychologists on the one militantly to attack the dictatorship of a too hand and psychometrists on the other, have rigid, outmoded view of experimental psychol• served in separation. If, in this attempt at a ogy, in order to produce freedom for a new union, some onlookers have reacted like rival

ix x PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION in-laws at a wedding, we can only say sadly proach old problems in new operational with the historian that time, distance and terms, and to open doors before which decrease alone can take care of things. 1 bivariate methods have monotonously marked The notion of attempting to present this time-tbat multivariate experiment now synthesis in a book, helpful to students and brings. Unfortunately, it is often the nature of others, was conceived in 1960 in a bedroom at textbooks in science, especially those designed Allerton House (where the University of for the student, to picture a smooth transition Illinois offers hospitality to its Visiting of reasonable viewpoints, denying the fre• Conferences) where two dozen members of quently rather violent change of gears and the newly formed Society of Multivariate shifts of leadership from one field to another Experimental Psychology had secluded them• which actually occur in scientific advance. The selves for intensive discussion. The dedication importance of recognizing and preparing for of the book so conceived to SMEP in no way such methodological revolutions is thus not makes it an official product of the Society. understood and conveyed. Similarly, ONR, to which all are grateful for In consequence, perhaps an insufficiently arranging the conference where, incidentally, recognized social problem today is the need at both SMEP and this book thus began, is not times to stir up and break that smooth cycle of to be considered an official parent, though it teachers followed by students in the image of gave its blessing. their teachers, which so silently achieves the There has been some little disagreement dreadful momentum of a juggernaut. This among the contributors as to how enthusiasti• procession gains its momentum from the cally it is permissible to write about ordinary occupational feedback of supply revolutionary aspects and intentions. The upon demand, and also, if awkward truths editor's view, as his chapters will indicate, may be uttered, from the tendency of less takes the position that the most revolutionary creative heads of departments to fill their time transitions in sciences have usually occurred and obtain their consolation from simple through methodological innovation rather empire-building. The problem as far as a new than grand and bookish theories. A new methodology is concerned is to get teachers direction and power is usually given by with a radically new approach into university devices-as by the microscope, the telescope, departments which have a completely blank and the electron tube, or more subtly by face as far as these developments are stereochemistry or the differential calculus• concerned. For in 1966 it is still possible for a by the light of which all can see emerging new clean and powerful solution to a vital theories. These methodological inventions theoretical or practical question in almost any solve new kinds of problems and do so, area in personality, learning, clinical, social, moreover, with altogether more exact stand• and even comparative and physiological ards of what constitutes a solution. The more psychology-to be sent back by an editor with exact theories readily enough follow, because the comment that it is an excellent article but they are made possible by the new vision. It is that his readers would not understand this instrumentation-this capacity to ap- multivariate methodology. At first it may seem a simple solution to this ludicrous situation in a growing science (as suggested by lIt is a reflection on our scientific motivation and training the formation of more quality-restricted that an eminent historian and methodologist of science scientific societies than the AP A in psychol• (Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) ogy in the last few years) to label some feels it realistic to write: "Today it has become a truism to say that a major scientific theory triumphs, not by journals "popular psychology" and others converting its opponents, but by their deaths." scientific journals. Unfortunately, this is not . PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Xl the whole solution, for unless we attend to same has plagued the writers. The book is for graduate education there may still be many a new species of psychologist-the mathe• "qualified" men so one sided as to operate at matician experimenter-and there are not a popular level in important fields. enough representatives yet in existence to The present Handbook is primarily written decide how the book should either be read or for the graduate student and the independent written. The ideal author-a highly competent researcher. For every graduate student who mathematical-statistician who has spent most has professors who will guide him through its of his life deeply immersed in scientifically pages there will be two or three other productive work in some branch of psychol• psychologists who have to find their own way, ogy, is--except for a few instances--a figment with the inevitable rough times of adven• of the editor's imagination. This figment the turers, by their own resources. While it is editor has nevertheless painted and held up good thus to learn to read, a readable book before the eyes of his contributors to remind demands a better job than I have probably them of the future man. On behalf of this done to enable the independent reader easily still scarce "balanced psychologist" the to find his way. If my fellow contributors are contributors in Part I, dealing with abstract correct in believing that every graduate method-have constantly been reminded of student in psychology should be familiar with Part II, which deals with substantive psychol• multivariate methods and concepts, since ogical concepts and laws from the application these experimental designs are indispensable of such methods. Similarly those writing in to every specialist content area, then some• Part II have been reminded to keep an eye on thing better adapted than this book to the the more abstract disciplines set as standards limited time of graduate courses must in time in Part I. The result, one hopes, is that be produced. It would probably be premature relatively few contributors in Part I have to aim at a smoother, condensed, peda• written presentations that are statistical gogically oriented text, however, before the chapters uninspired by experimental re• often radically novel concepts here have been ference. It is happily more certain that those shaken down by specialists and turned over experimentally engaged writers in Part II have by five or ten years of discussion and ex• been unable to proceed without relating their perience in their application. For it must be psychology to Part I. Indeed, they have often pointed out that whereas some chapters and had the editor's encouragement to be critical themes, e.g., those of Anderson, Bock, Burt of the mere models of Part I, as well as to and Horst, deal with highly developed and orient their own presentations to experimental authoritatively settled issues, others, such as realities rather than to mere mathematical the present writer's development of the data elegance of statement as such. box, Coulter and Tsujioka's work on patterns, The defect remains that the chapters deliver or Cohen's survey of multivariate findings in their wares at very different levels of clinical, raise more questions than they can difficulty. The atheist who defended his settle, and necessarily aim at a more position by claiming he found the world in speculative treatment, offering fertile ideas for such a mess that it could only have been further attack rather than exact solutions. created by a committee surely had in mind One major problem of study orientation especially those books, so popular with which will plague some readers is an publishers nowadays, which are not written by uncertainty as to whether this is a book on a single author-and which seem to receive statistics and mathematics or one on experi• negligible guidance from any single editor. ment and the associated psychological con• The editor here had an initial agreement with cepts and theories. It can only be said that the his contributors that the work would not be 00 Xli PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDmON just a collection of unrelated chapters held serious. (There are still some slighter gaps, for together only by the binding, but that he which the qualified multivariate experimenter would really edit, demand integration of author simply did not exist.) designs, insert cross-references from chapter Probably the greatest problem from the to chapter, and even add introductory chapter standpoint of the psychological reader is the sections evaluative of each chapter's view• demand here, in places, for a degree of points vis-a-vis other existing viewpoints. mathematical education which in our present Certainly one owes this degree of integra• arrangements of psychological course work he tion to the graduate student reader, and does not automatically acquire. It cannot be probably to every reader in such a new field. denied that a few of our contributors can go One wonders, in reading current symposia, further than any other living psychologists in how sensible it really is to help a reader with covering a blackboard in ten minutes with a the simpler, more specific questions while shower of completely bewildering but highly leaving him to form his total perspectives• meaningful formulae. In some cases, since requiring the widest knowledge and they indicate the standard background reading experience---quite alone? Too often the in statistics by which their tour de force student is given a set of readings of widely becomes duly comprehensible-and, indeed, uneven quality, and grossly conflicting conclu• vastly entertaining-it has not seemed prac• sions, while the editor or his teacher-in the ticable to me to ask them (with little hope of interests, they claim, of avoiding value success) to forgo their mathematical elegance. judgments-maintains an unearthly silence. In others I have succeeded in obtaining some In this vacuum, all too frequently the helpful concessions to "writing down," by student's interest ceases to breathe. In the introducing words, and by the meaningful present book the editor's wish to help the relation of statistics and models to actual reader has had to be restricted, in only one or research and conceptual issues-a style at two instances, by the nervousness of a which I strongly feel more writers should aim contributor who wished critical cross• in this field. Although logic required general references, and the clear illumination of methodology to come in Part I, I believe the points of difference, to be omitted. But the reader would do best to begin with his natural majority of contributors have expressly area of interest in Part II, and, later, if he welcomed insertion of reference to other encounters a chapter in Part I which proves chapters and recognized that an introductory too abstract, to withdraw and return to it after paragraph or page by the editor of explicit patiently studying some of the preparatory and calm debate of vital differences is part of reading suggested. the spirit of science. I am greatly indebted to those contributors The only respect in which the editor is who contributed promptly and waited two regretfully aware of having done more than years with me patiently for the last of their was planned lies in his having had to step into fellows, and especially to Dr. Sam Hammond, the breach at the last moment to write two of Melbourne University, who carefully chapters when, through illness and other helped edit chapters for press over the last six causes, contributors, after some years, were months and then compiled most of the holding up the Handbook for lack of their bibliography. He has agreed to share with me chapters! In apology for this second-best, one the responsibility for any errors that may be must point out that the book was planned discovered-and for this I cannot be too essentially as a collection of areas and thankful to him! His perspective, from a concepts, not as an outlet for a transient or different psychological culture, became espe• fortuitous company of individuals; and to cially valuable where real surgery was needed. leave gaps in these areas would have been I am also much indebted to my research , " PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION X1l1 associate, Mr. Malcolm Coulter of Johannes- Ponleithner who attended to those editorial burg, for a final run over the style of matters which no author seems to be able to mathematical expositions. Finally, I wish to handle alone. express gratitude to numerous nonacademic helpers in this large undertaking, notably to Raymond B. Cattell Mrs. Deborah Skehen who retyped the final Urbana, Illinois, 1965 versions of the chapters and Mrs. H. Preface to the Second Edition

What has happened since the first edition has "fits" have yielded results in annoyingly few exceeded all expectations of what two decades cases. The contribution of new models of could do. It is as if the volume itself called analysis has, however, provided the ex• forth a massive outbreak of multivariate perimenter with a kit bag from which to experimentation needing a central focus. extract solutions to a host of substantive Factor analysis was mature, the study of types problems. was passing from conjecture to serious Meanwhile it is evident that "experimental method, and a host of bivariate relationships psychology" has, as we predicted, moved on were struggling, in the discriminant function from its bivariate compulsion to employ and elsewhere, for more adequate formulas increasingly, multivariate methods. Psychology for necessarily multivariate experiments. The owes a debt, greater than it yet realizes, to the 1966 Handbook pulled all these efforts into a inventors of sheer new designs in the abstract, clear perspective, and presented a first harvest as presented here. The whole field of linear of novel experimental findings in varied fields. equation fitting, for example, along with path Since then there have been methodological analysis, brings about a fascinating new breakthroughs in several directions. Few of examination of causal connections that many these have yet led to substantive experimental had blindly assumed could be tackled only by findings, but the vigor of the designers of manipulative "brass instrument" methods. new methods has been unabated and realistic A practical problem that one must frankly in intent. Thus the present volume-though recognize is that few psychologists have at planned to include both methodological present sufficient mathematical training to advances and answers to substantive problems absorb these methods readily. The prize is in personality, learning, and social psychol• floating there in the water, but few can swim ogy-tends somewhat to emphasize the former. to reach it. Yet it must be, as in all sciences, Among the new approaches that have that the real demands of the complex subject burgeoned are the use of path coefficients and will in time lead to the mastery of more the fitting of linear additive equations, as well complex methods. This is the challenge that as an increasing use of checking (confirma• the present Handbook squarely sets out to tory) factor analysis to test clear hypotheses. meet. The most progressive psychology With regard to the linear additive form of departments-not only here but in Britain, most models, We can only reply to an implied Australia, Holland, and Germany-are now criticism that many real relations must be at last giving the training in multivariate more complex by pointing out that the linear methods that the real complexity of psychol• additive model has proven surprisingly ogy requires. We hope that this volume will effective, and that tests for more complex provide a basis for a survey of the whole field

xv xvi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDmON in a graduate course. It will, we hope, lead to as to the standing of the practicing an explosion of new research topics and to psychologist. answers to problems on the doors of which we To tum from politics to philosophy, let us have long beat in vain. Indeed, in the next notice the radical change that the discovery of two decades we hope that a new edition of dimensions, types, and processes by multi• this Handbook will appear, one that is far variate experiment is producing in our modes richer than the present one in findings on the of thought. Whereas the psychologist has main substantive issues of psychology. been content to think of new dimensions While this new edition of the Handbook has (e.g., extraversion or sensitivity) conjured up moved with the times-an exciting 20 years of by human perception and intuition, multivari• rapid construction-the reader is advised that ate experiment presents him with dimensions in some cases the first edition presents a (e.g., surgency or dissofrustance) the like of fundamental statement in the area, one that which he has never directly perceived. It can be further illustrated but not surpassed. brings in a host of concepts that are entirely This is certainly true of the first four chapters, new. The first reaction of some verbal dealing with the "eternal verities" of the philosophies is to reject them. The mature subject, which are reproduced with little reaction of a broader philosophy is to change. embrace them as real discoveries that have to As to advice on the best way to approach be understood and absorbed into our thinking the present book, it is natural that the student in an expanding science. This is the vision we will tum first to the chapters dealing with his have hoped to impart in this incursion into the special interests, e.g., types. But he will then complexities of the multivariate approach. find that he gets the best perspective in these Finally, we would like to acknowledge the later chapters after tackling the general assistance of Connie Cannon, who prepared introductory chapters. the Index and helped with proofreading, Phil The reader, indeed, needs to "stand outside Wood, who proofread several chapters, and the immediate problems and look in" on the Joy Barger, who typed manuscript. John R. wide variety of opportunities before he starts Nesselroade thanks the Max Planck Institute any research or evaluation. Motivated by the for Human Development and Education, intrusion of the computer in the last thirty West Berlin, the National Institute on Aging, years some very foolish things have been and the MacArthur Foundation Research done. Wisdom is needed in the design of any Program on Successful Aging for their research program-in the choice of variables, generous support of work on developmental in the standard checks on a true factor research methodology. Directly or indirectly, analysis, in being realistic about the labor still each agency contributed importantly to the needed in factor rotation, and so on. production of this volume. It has been our Multivariate psychology holds implications great pleasure to work with Plenum Publish• even for' so seemingly remote a question as ing Corporation in producing this edition of the future of the American Psychological the Handbook. Eliot Werner, Senior Editor, Association. Currently we stand confused as and Susan Woolford, Production Editor, to whether it is a scientific society (as it was deserve special recognition for their expertise half a century ago) or a political society for and their unflagging support during all phases the benefit of practitioners, mainly in the of the process. clinical field. It may still succeed in being both if departments give the necessary new Raymond B. Cattell emphasis to multivariate methods. For these John R. Nesselroade promise such an advance in psychology as a Honolulu, Hawaii science that their applications will reach a University Park, level of effectiveness that will leave no doubt Pennsylvania Contents

List of Figures ...... xxv

PART I MULTIVARIATE METHOD AND THEORY CONSTRUCTION

Chapter 1 Psychological Theory and Scientifit Method 3 Raymond B. Cattell 1. The Role of Methodology in Science ...... 3 2. Design of This Book ... : ...... 4 3. Some Major Historical Springs of Methodological Tradition ...... 6 4. What Is and What Might Be in Present-Day Research Method Concepts...... 10 5. The Nature of the Inductive-Hypothetico-Deductive (IHD) Method in Science. " 12 6. Summary...... 19 References ...... 20

Chapter 2 The Principles of Experimental Design and Analysis in Relation to Theory BuDding...... 21 Raymond B. Cattell 1. The Six Basic Parameters of Experimental Design...... 21 2. The Logically Possible and Practically Viable Types of Experimental Design ...... 30 3. The Main Methods of Mathematico-Statistical Treatment ...... 33 4. Definition of'I'heory, Law, Postulate, Hypothesis, and Reversibility-Irreversibility. 40 5. Social and Psychological Influences in the Natural History of Scientific Theory. . . . . 47 6. The Total Plan: Advantages and Disadvantages Guiding the Choice among Various Research Procedures ...... 52 7. Creative Scientific Thinking in Relation to Multivariate and Bivariate Procedures " 56 8. Summary...... 64 References ...... 66 xvii xviii CONTENTS

Chapter 3 The Data Box: Its Ordering of Total Resources in Terms of Possible Relational Systems ...... 69 Raymond B. Cattell 1. Relational System, Hypothesis, Design, and Method as the Four Panels of the Investigatory Plan ...... 69 2. The Purpose of Developing the Covariation Chart into the BDRM or Data Box . . . 70 3. Two Protoconstructs: Pattern Entity (Vector) and Attribute Scale (Scalar) ...... 74 4. The Ten Coordinates of the Hyperspace BDRM ...... 76 5. The Nature and Definition of a BDRM Facet...... 87 6. Principles Governing "Entries": Aspects and Shifts...... 90 7. The Numbers and Varieties of Facets, and Associated Techniques ...... 95 8. The Numbers and Varieties of Faces, Frames, and Grids...... 100 9. The Totality of Possible Direct and Derived Relational Analyses and Techniques .. 105 10. Sources of Variance and Covariance in the Data Box: Observable and Inherent (Ideal, Conceptual) Sources Contrasted...... 110 11. Scales and Standardizations: Normative, Ipsative, Abative ...... 116 12. Superordinate Relational and Interactional Analysis Techniques: Including Superset and Interset Factor Analysis ...... 120 13. Summary, Glossary, and Notation...... 126 References ...... 129

Chapter 4 The Meaning and Strategic Use of Factor Analysis ...... 131 Raymond B. Cattell 1. Its Role and Relationships among Statistical Methods...... 131 2. The Basic Mathematical Propositions and Formulations ...... 132 3. Alternative Models: Components and Factors...... 133 4. Properties and Formulas for the Full Factor Model...... 136 5. Unique Resolution and the Tests of Its Attainment...... 140 6. Factor Invariance, Identification, and Interpretation...... 149 7. Deciding the Number of Factors ...... 157 8. The Reticular and Strata Models for Higher-Order Factors ...... 168 9. Some Modifications, Developments, and Conditions of the Main Factor Model. ... 176 10. Strategies in the Practical Use of Factor Analysis...... 183 11. Questions of Statistical Significance and Use of Computer Procedures...... 192 12. Summary (and Rationale of Notation) ...... 198 References ...... 201

PART II MULTIVARIATE MODELING AND DATA ANALYSIS

Chapter 5 Analysis of Covariance Structures ...... 207 Karl G. Joreskog 1. Introduction...... 207 2. Some Types of Covariance Structures...... 208 CONTENTS XIX·

3. General Approaches to Analysis of Covariance Structures ...... '" ...... 216 4. Analysis of the Examples...... 223 5. Generalizations...... 226 References ...... 228

Chapter 6 Exploratory Factor Analysis ...... 231 Richard L. Gorsuch 1. Introduction...... 231 2. Decision Points in Factoring ...... 237 3. Implications: Some Designs for Exploratory Factor Analysis...... 252 References ...... 257

Chapter 7 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ...... 259 Stanley A. Mulaik 1. Philosophical Contrasts between Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis ... 259 2. The Fundamentals of Confirmatory Factor Analysis ...... 269 3. Applications for Confirmatory Factor Analysis...... 277 4. Conclusion...... 285 References ...... 286

Chapter 8 Multimode Factor Analysis ...... 289 Conrad Wesley Snyder, Jr. 1. Multimode Experimental Design ...... 290 2. Factor-Analytic Developments ...... 290 3. Application: Spectrum of Affect...... 302 4. Comparisons and Contemplations ...... 312 References...... 313

Chapter 9 Causal ModeUng via Structural Equation Systems ...... 317 P. M. Bentler 1. Introduction ...... " 317 2. Structural Equations...... 319 3. Path Diagrams ...... • ...... 321 4. Representation Systems ...... 323 5. Estimation Systems ...... 327 6. Examples...... 330 7. Future Directions ...... 332 References ...... 333 xx CONTENTS

Chapter 10 Multivariate Analysis of Discrete Data ...... 337 Clifford C. Clogg and James W. Shockey 1. Introduction...... 337 2. One-Way Tables...... 343 3. Bivariate Data: Two-Way Tables ...... 346 4. Multiway Tables ...... 355 5. Latent Structure Models ...... 360 6. Conclusion...... 363 References ...... 364

Chapter 11 Some Multivariate Developments in Nonparametric Statistics ...... 367 Alexander von Eye 1. A Characterization of Nonparametric Statistics...... 367 2. Multivariate Perspective...... 372 3. Exploratory Nonparametric Analysis of All Analytical Units...... 373 4. Exploratory Nonparametric Analysis of Subsets of Analytical Units ...... 379 5. Confirmatory Nonparametric Analysis...... 386 6. Discussion and Summary ...... 394 References ...... 396

Chapter 12 Multivariate Analysis of Variance ...... 399 Maurice M. Tatsuoka 1. Classical Approach ...... 399 2. General Linear Model Approach...... 403 3. Significance Tests ...... -...... 411 4. Discriminant Analysis...... 414 References...... 418

Chapter 13 Multidimensional Scaling ...... 421 Robert MacCallum 1. Introduction...... 421 2. Models and Methods ...... 424 3. Important Findings...... 435 4. Classic Problems in MDS ...... , 439 5. Current Issues and Future Directions...... 441 References ...... 443

Chapter 14 The Methods and Problems of Cluster Analysis ...... 447 Roger K. Blashfield and Mark S. Aldenderfer 1. Introduction to Cluster Analysis...... 447 2. Ouster Analysis Methods ...... 449 . CONTENTS XXI

3. Similarity ...... 457 4. Unresolved Problems of Cluster Analysis ...... 460 5. Final Remarks ...... 469 References ...... 470

Chapter 15 Human Behavior Genetics...... 475 George P. Vogler and David W. Fulker 1. Introduction...... 475 2. The Development of Multivariate Human Behavior Genetic Analysis...... 476 3. Multivariate Generalization of Path Analysis ...... 480 4. Application of Multivariate Path Analysis: Nuclear Family and Twin Design ...... 482 5. Application of Multivariate Path Analysis: Full Adoption Design ...... 494 6. Current Status of Multivariate Human Behavior Genetics ...... 499 7. Multivariate Behavior Genetic Models of Development ...... 500 8. Future Directions: Intergenerational Equilibrium? ...... 501 9. Summary...... 501 References ...... 501

Chapter 16 Multivariate ReUability Theory: Principles of Symmetry and Successful VaUdation Strategies ...... 505 Werner W. Wittmann 1. Introduction...... 505 2. Basic Concepts of Reliability Theory ...... 508 3. Multivariate Extensions of Reliability Concepts ...... 518 4. Foundations of a General Measurement and Research Strategy Synthesizing the Experimental and the Psychometric Traditions in Psychology ...... 527 5. Paradoxes Revisited ...... 549 6. Relationships to Other Approaches, Implications, and Conclusions...... 555 References ...... 557

Chapter 17 Dynamic but Structural Equation ModeUng of Repeated Measures Data ... 561 J. J. McArdle 1. Introduction...... 561 2. Basic Features of a Latent Growth Curve Model ...... 565 3. Dynamic Modeling with Latent Growth Curves...... 572 4. The Curve-of-Factors Model of Multivariate Growth ...... 580 5. The Factor-of-Curves Model as a Multivariate Alternative...... 591 6. Discussion of Further Issues ...... 600 7. Appendix: Assorted Technical Issues for LGM Programming...... 605 References...... 611 .. XXll CONTENTS

Chapter 18 N-Way Factor Analysis for Obtaining Personality, Situation, and Test Form Contributions to a Psychological Response: mustrated by a Three-Way Plasmode...... 615 Raymond B. Cattell, Dan D. Blaine, and Jerry Brennan 1. Three Existing Approaches and Two Possible Models for Representing Environ- ment in the Behavioral Equation...... 615 2. The Utility of Alternative Breakdowns into Contributing Factor Systems...... 618 3. The Problem of "Side Effects" in Analysis by Faces...... 622 4. Numerical, Plasmode Illustration...... 624 5. Summary...... 633 6. Appendix: Boundary Values...... 636 References ...... 640

PART III MULTIVARIATE RESEARCH AND THEORY

Chapter 19 Thinking about Human Abilities ...... 645 John Horn 1. The Many and Few of Human Abilities: Common and Specific ...... 645 2. A Hierarchy of Human Abilities ...... 656 3. Developmental Evidence...... 669 4. Genetic Evidence and Early Development...... 676 5. To Come to a Close...... 680 References ...... 682

Chapter 20 Personatity: Multivariate Systems Theory and Research ...... 687 Barry D. Smith 1. Introduction...... 687 2. Traits, States, and Situations: An Overview ...... 689 3. Multivariate Personality Research: Some Basic Issues...... 691 4. Classification of Traits ...... 693 5. Primary Source Traits in L- and Q-Data ...... 695 6. Higher-Order Factors ...... 704 7. Objective Test Data...... 710 8. The Universality of Source Traits ...... 715 9. The Heritability of Personality...... 720 10. States and Processes ...... 721 11. The Full Specification Equation ...... 724 12. Conclusion...... 725 13. Summary...... 725 References ...... 727

Chapter 21 Elucidation of Motivation Structure by Dynamic Calculus ...... 737 Gregory J. Boyle 1. Introduction ...... ··· 737 2. Criticisms of Cattell's Motivation Research ...... 740 CONTENTS xxiii

3. Exploratory Factor-Analytic Principles in Motivation Research ...... 742 4. Objective Devices and the Measurement of Motivation Strength Components ..... 745 5. Dynamic Structure of Ergs and Sentiments ...... 753 6. Computation of Ergic Tension Arousal and Sentiment Activation ...... , 758 7. Measurement of Dynamic Motivation Structure ...... 760 8. Dynamic Calculus of Conflict...... 774 9. Structured Learning Theory of Motivation...... 776 10. Systems Theory Approach to Motivation . . . • ...... 780 11. Summary and Conclusions...... • ...... 781 References ...... 782

Chapter 22 Multivariate Approaches to Human Learning ...... 789 Brian Bolton 1. Introduction...... 789 2. Factor Analysis and Learning ...... 791 3. Structured Learning Theory ...... 797 4. Summary ...... " 815 References ...... 817

Chapter 23 CIiDieaI Psychology: A Multivariate Appraisal ...... 821 Lothar R. Schmidt 1. Introduction...... 821 2. Some General Considerations: Developments and Shortcomings of Research in Oinical Psychology ...... • ...... 822 3. Selected Topics...... •...... 826 4. Future Directions ...... •...... 856 References ...... 859

Chapter 24 Psycbopbysiologieal Processes ...... , ...... 867 Jochen Fahrenberg 1. Introduction...... 867 2. Patterns of Activation ...... , ...... , .... , 870 3. Personality Traits ...... ; ...... • .. 885 4. Psychophysiological Research and Applied Areas ...... 892 5. Essentials of Psychophysiological Assessment...... 894 References ...... 907

Chapter 25 Organizational CUmate ...... 915 S. B. Sells and L. R. James 1. Introduction...... 915 2. Toward a Theory of Organizational Oimate ...... 917 XXIV· CONTENTS

3. Measurement Problems and Strategies ...... 924 4. Dimensions of Organizational Climate...... 925 5. Homogeneity of Climate in Complex Organizations ...... 927 6. Types of Organizational Climate ...... 927 7. Prediction of Organizational Performance Criteria...... 935 References ...... 936

Chapter 26 Multivariate Analyses of the Sociology of IntelHgence ...... 939 Richard Lynn 1. J. B. Maller: The Sociology of Intelligence in New York, 1930...... 939 2. C. Burt: Educational Backwardness in London ...... 941 3. E. L. Thorndike: Your City ...... 945 4. K. S. Davenport and H. H. Remmers: Intelligence Differences between the American States ...... 946 5. R. L. Thorndike: More American Cities...... 947 6. S. Wiseman: The Manchester Studies...... 948 7. O. D. Duncan: Path Models in Sociology...... 950 8. R. Lynn: A Path Model of the Sociology of Intelligence in the British Isles ...... 951 9. R. Lynn: The Sociology of Intelligence in France ...... 958 10. Conclusion...... 960 References ...... 960

Index ...... 961 List of Figures

Chapter 1

1. The inductive-hypothetico-deductive spiral...... 17

Chapter 2

1. Plurality of causes and consequences ...... 26 2. Differences of complexity of model to which statistical fit is immediately tested ...... 37 3. Basis of distinction of theoretical concept and empirical construct ...... 44 4. Interdependence of four essential and other definable parts in a scientific investigation ...... 53 5. Possible misleading conclusions from operationally defioinga concept by a single variable ...... 63

Chapter 3

1. Possible techniques of relational analysis shown in the simpler context of the three-axis covariation chart .. 71 2. The six correlations in relational matrices and techniques obtainable from the three facets of the three-axis covariation chart ...... 72 3. Relatives set 1. X's ...... 75 4. Cross-set, mixed, and staggered facets...... 94 5. Deriving a face from several facets...... 100 6. Unrolling of a frame into a grid ...... 103 7. Sum and difference faces and regularly staggered facets...... 107 8. The standardizations over sets which produce normative, ipsative, and abative scores ...... 116 9. Possibilities in rescaling to standard scores ...... 120 10. Illustration of a "homogeneous relative" grid from unfolding a three-stimulus, four-environment, five-person frame ...... 123 11. A super-set matrix with persons, states, stimuli, environmental backgrounds, and responses...... 125

Chapter 4

1. The matrix multiplications relating the reduced correlation matrix to the factor pattern ...... 133 2. Relation of loadings, etc., on reference vectors and factors, in two dimensions ...... 138 3. Matrix operations for obtaining factor standard scores...... 139 4. Two empirical examples of simple structure...... 142 :ov XXVI· LIST OF FIGURES

5. Simple structure, obtained obliquely, unobtainable orthogonally ...... '.' 144 6. Extracted distributions of factor variance before and after rotation...... 160 7. Ideal and empirical diagrams of the scree test...... 163 8. Some major models for the relations among factors ...... ,.... 171 9. Relation of operations revealing factor order to inferences about factor strata...... 173

Chapter 6

1. Sec as a function of number of variables, mean correlation (r'), and proportion of variance extracted (p) . . 245

Chapter 7

1. Path diagram for model of ratings of nurses' supportiveness behavior in a patient interview ...... 281

Chapter 8

1. Three-mode data design ...... 290 2. PARAFAC analysis...... 294 3. TUCKALS3 analysis...... 301 4. PARAFAC solution for the affective adjectives mode ...... , ...... 305 5. Configuration of the semantic differential adjectives with both poles represented...... 306 6. COSAN solution for the affective adjectives mode ...... 307 7. COSAN factor score means for the Complex and Pleasant factors plotted across tasks, ordered in terms of the level of Assimilation Resistance each task represents ...... 307 8. PARAFAC solution for the problem-solving tasks mode ...... 310

Chapter 9

1. MIMIC modelfor the six measured variables Vc V6 ...... • ...... • ...... • .. • ...... • .. • • .. 321 2. Latent variable model for the six measured variables V1- V6 ...... 322 3. Matrix path representation of the Bentler-Weeks model...... 325 4. Matrix path representation of the JOreskog-Keesling-Wiley model, using USREL v symbolic notation..... 325

Chapter 13

1. Two-dimensional stimulus configuration for color data ...... 423

Chapter 15

1. Path model of correlated genetic and environmental influences on a phenotype ...... 476 2. Path model of genetic and environmental influences on two phenotypes (X and Y) measured on the same individual ...... 477 3. General multivariate model of parent-offspring resemblance: Simplest case...... 484 4. General multivariate model of parent-offspring resemblance in the presence of genotype-environment correlation ...... 484 5. General multivariate model of parent-offspring resemblance in the presence of genotype-environment correlation and cultural transmission ...... 485 6. General multivariate model of parent-offspring resemblance in the presence of genotype-environment correlation, cultural transmission, and assortative mating ...... 486 7. General multivariate model of familial resemblance in nuclear families and twins ...... 487 8. General multivariate model of familial resemblance in families of an adopted child...... 496 9. General multivariate factor model defining the genotype and environment in terms of latent genetic and environmental factors...... 499 .. LIST OF FIGURES XXVll

Chapter 16

1. Odd-even and split-half reliabilities of diverse mood scales as a function of aggregation...... 519 2. Unfolding the three-dimensional data box...... 521 3. The four-data-box conceptualization ...... 528 4. Variance pie; partitioning the ETR-box according to Cohen and Cohen's subjects within groups by conditions-design ...... " ...... 531 5. The generalized hierarchical lens model for denoting symmetry between predictors and criteria...... 538 6. Eysenck's hierarchical personality model in lens-model frameworks ...... 543 7. Jager's two-mode classification of 48 intelligence tests ...... 546

Chapter 17

1. Mean raw scores for eight WISC-Scales as a function of group age at four occasions ...... 562 2. A RAM path diagram of the latent growth CURVE model parameters estimated from WISC-Total score moments ...... 568 3. Raw-score expectations from the latent growth CURVE model fitted to the WISC-Total scores ...... 571 4. Alternative dynamic growth model loadings ...... 577 5. A generic "curve-of-factor scores" or CUFFS model ...... 585 6. The CUFFS latent response surface estimated from the WISC-Scale cross products ...... 591 7. A generic "factor-of-curve scores" or FOCUS model...... 593 8. Model comparison indices for selected multivariate latent growth models of the WISC-Scales ...... 598

Chapter 18

1. Score matrix for a three-way factor analysis...... 617 2. Facets, faces, and files as derivative matrices from the data box...... 620 3. Face A, B, and C scree plots...... 628 4. Three-way data box ...... 639

Chapter 19

L Human abilities are many and varied ...... 646 2. Hierarchical model of the WAIS ...... 654 3. Adulthood age differences in dimensions of human intellect ...... 669 4. Quadratic factor score curves predicted from model ...... 670 5. Quadratic factor score curves predicted from education-partialed model ...... ,...... 670 6. Nonlinear age and education growth curves forfactors...... 671 7. Plot of repeated-measures WAIS studies group means...... 672 8. Multiple group factor means and variances from WAIS as a function of age groups in census sample ...... 673 9. Aging decline of CDS and Gf ...... 674 10. Aging decline of Gf after control for component processes ...... , ...... 674 11. A genetical model for Gf and Gc ...... 679

Chapter 20

1. Main model and mode of calculation of higher-order factors...... 706 2. Relationship among primary, second-order, and third-order factors extracted from the objective test (T-data) battery...... 712

Chapter 21

1. The structure of second-order motivation components, U and I ...... 750 2. Activation level of U and I dynamics in relation to significance of correlations with 8SQ states ...... 773 3. VIDAS systems theory model of total personality process in adjustive action...... 778 ... xxvw LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 22

1. Loadings of trials on the three reference learning curves ...... 794 2. Path learning analysis for trait vector changes ...... 805 3. Path learning analysis for behavioral index changes...... 806 4. The adjustment process analysis chart ...... 807 5. Chronic illness versus no chronic illness ...... 809 6. Church membership: Active versus nonmembers...... 810

Chapter 23

1. Framework of the Patient Evaluation Grid ...... 829 2. A grid model for theory and research in the psychotherapies ...... 847 3. Variables of therapists, clients, and some interactions ...... 848 4. Correlations and hypothesized causal path coefficients among dynamic traits ...... 853

Chapter 24

1. Range of an activation parameter as a methodological problem in adequate scaling of observed reactions. . 897

Chapter 26

1. Path model of hypothesized causal chain linking father's education and occupation through intervening variables to child's occupational status and income ...... 950 2. Mean IQ of populations in the regions of the British Isles...... 952 3. The British Isles. Path model showing hypothesized causal chain linking historical net migration to contemporary mean IQs, to various economic and social outputs ...... 957 4. France. Path model showing hypothesized causal chain linking historical net migration to contemporary mean population IQs, to four economic and social output variables ...... 959 Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology SECOND EDITION