Personality Dimensions and Arousal PERSPECTIVES on INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Personality Dimensions and Arousal PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University of North Carolina, Wilmington

DETERMINANTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Factors Edited by Mark Galizio and Stephen A. Maisto

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning

THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT AND SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Jaan Valsiner

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Developmental Perspective Edited by Lawrence C. Hartlage and Cathy F. Telzrow

PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Natural Science Approach Hans J. Eysenck and Michael W. Eysenck

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND AROUSAL Edited by Jan Strelau and Hans J. Eysenck

PERSPECTIVES ON BIAS IN MENTAL TESTING Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Robert T. Brown

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY Edited by Hans J. Eysenck and Irene M?rtin

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further informa• tion please contact the publisher. Personality Dimensions and Arousal

Edited by JAN STRELAU University of Warsaw Warsaw, Poland and HANS J. EYSENCK Institute of Psychialry University of London London, England

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Personality dimensions and arousal. (Perspectives on individual differences) Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Personality—Physiological aspects. 2. Arousal (Physiology) I. Strelau, Jan. II. Eysenck, H. ]. (Hans Jürgen), 1916- . III. Series. QP402.P47 1987 155.2'34 87-10808 ISBN 978-1-4899-2045-4 ISBN 978-1-4899-2043-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-2043-0

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors

Kristen Joan Anderson, Department of Psychology, Colgate University, Hamilton, New York

John Brebner, Department of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Ade• laide, South Australia

Monte S. Buchsbaum, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California

Gordon Claridge, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England

Christopher Cooper, Department of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia

Andrzej Eliasz, Department of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

Hans J. Eysenck, Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, London, England

Michael W. Eysenck, Department of Psychology, Birkbeck College, Uni• versity of London, London, England

Jochen Fahrenberg, Institute of Psychology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Federal Republic of Germany

Anthony Gale, Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, England

Richard J. Haier, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Uni• versity of California, Irvine, California v vi CONTRIBUTORS

Michael S. Humphreys, Department of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

Mark Katz, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California

Tatiana Klonowicz, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, War• saw, Poland

Paul M. Kohn, Department of Psychology, York University, Downsview, Ontario, Canada

Luciano Mecacci, Institute of Psychology, CNR, Roma, Italy

William Revelle, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

David L. Robinson, Department of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Pavel V. Simonov, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neu• rophysiology, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Ken Sokolski, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California

Jan Strelau, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

Peter F. Werre, Psychiatric Centre Rosenburg, The Hague, The Neth• erlands

Marvin Zuckerman, Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware Preface

At the beginning of this century, Pavlov developed a plan to explain individual differences in temperament by means of some features of the central nervous system (CNS). This attempt to seek explanations for individual differences in personality in physiological, especially in neu• rological mechanisms, led later on to research on several person• ality/temperament dimensions, such as, extraversion, strength of the nervous system, sensation seeking, and so on. Concepts like excitation, inhibition (especially transmarginal or protective inhibition), and, after Moruzzi and Magoun's discovery of the arousing role of the reticular formation, the concept of arousal/activation gained great popularity among biologically oriented personality researchers interested in the biological basis of personality. Facts collected during the last decades by neurophysiologists as well as by other specialists made it clear that there exist many anatom• ical-physiological mechanisms responsible for the organism's level of arousal/activation-the endocrine system, the autonomic nervous sys• tem, and the CNS with all of its levels and structures. It also became evident that arousal refers to different phenomena at the introspective, behavioral, psychophysiological, and electrophysiologicallevels. The very fact that the theoretical construct of arousal does not refer to a unidimensional phenomenon and that it is concerned with indi• vidual stimulus- and response-specific factors led personality re• searchers interested in the concept of arousal to refer, indeed, to differ• ent sets of phenomena. This state of affairs makes contacts more difficult among scientists who apply "arousal" or the notions of excitation-inhi• bition as key concepts in their personality/temperament theories. A deeper analYSis of the separate personality dimensions based on the concept of arousal/activation shows that they often refer to the same phenomena, such as, for example, speed of conditioning, sensory threshold, amplitude of AEP, and so forth. The dimensions of extraver- vii viii PREFACE sion, impulsivity, sensation seeking, or strength or the nervous system may serve as examples here. The evidence that the different personality concepts have often to do with the same variables or indicators pro• duced a growing tendency to find a common language or at least some mutual understanding among biologically oriented personality psychologists. This tendency is expressed, among other things, in the fact that since the 1960s several meetings have taken place where experts in arousal-oriented personality dimensions had the opportunity to present their theories and to discuss possible links between them. As an exam• ple, the symposia that took place during the International Congresses of Psychology held in Moscow (1966), in Leipzig (1980), and in Acapulco (1984) may be mentioned. The trend to exchange ideas among experts in extraversion, neurot• icism, anxiety, psychoticism, impulsivity, strength of the nervous sys• tem, sensation seeking, reactivity, and augmenting-reducing (all of these dimensions referring to the theoretical construct of arousal) is also observable in publications, the number of which has increased in the last decade. This is evident when one follows the tables of contents of the international journal Personality and Individual Differences as well as of several other published works. Let us mention as well a few books, such as Biological Bases of Individual Behavior, edited by Nebylitsyn and Gray (1972), Biological Bases of Sensation Seeking, Impulsivity, and Anxiety, edited by Zuckerman (1983), or the two volume set of The Biological Bases of Personality and Behavior, edited by Strelau, Farley, and Gale (1985, 1986). One of the common denominators of almost all the publications just mentioned is that authors representing different approaches to the study of personality dimensions present their own concepts and theo• ries without paying much attention (although with some exceptions) to the connections existing between the separate dimensions under discus• sion. Emphasis on similarities and differences among the biologically oriented personality dimensions, with special attention to the theoretical construct of arousal to which all of them refer, constitutes the specific concern of this volume. Personality Dimensions and Arousal, the authors of which are widely recognized experts representing different approaches and interests in a variety of biologically based personality dimensions, consists of four parts preceded by an Introduction and completed by a Postscript. In the Introduction, Hans J. Eysenck gives a general overview, in• cluding a historical account, of the interrelations between personality and the theoretical construct of arousal. Many arguments for the usefulness of the concept of arousal in studies on personality may be found in this introductory chapter. PREFACE ix

Part I (Different Perspectives in Research on Extraversion- Introver• sion) includes chapters that present research on extraversion-introver• sion conducted in different laboratories and pays attention to various aspects of arousal. Revelle, Anderson, and Humphreys, referring to their own data, argue, among other things, that it is impulsivity rather than E-I regarded as a high order factor that is related to individual differences in the level of arousal. The authors have shown that the study of individual differences in impulsivity combined with studies of human cognitive performance under different levels of arousal leads to interesting results. Cooper and Brebner, taking as a point of departure their stimulus-analysis and response-organization model of extraver• sion-introversion, postulate that the amalgamation of the constructs of excitation-inhibition and arousal should be considered as an explanatory concept of this personality dimension. In the last chapter of Part I, Werre, using the contingent negative variation as an indicator of the level of arousal, demonstrates the interrelations between level of arousal in task performance situations described as stressful and the level of E-1. In Part II (Studies of Emotionality and Psychoticism), the reader will find a variety of views on the interrelations between the level of arousal/activation and such dimensions as anxiety, neuroticism, emo• tionality (all three terms often are used interchangeably), and psychot• icism. Michael W. Eysenck advances strong arguments that support his view that individual differences in trait anxiety (neuroticism) can be reasonably explained only when both the biological mechanism (limbic arousal) and human cognitive systems are taken into account. A detailed analysis of the concept of arousal within the framework of research in emotionality (neuroticism) is presented by Fahrenberg, who stresses the methodological aspects of studies in arousal! activation. The only study on animals presented in this book and conducted by Simonov supports the hypothesis that the interaction of the frontal neocortex-hypo• thalamus and the hippocampus-amygdala systems are responsible for the neuroticism (emotionality) dimension in dogs. Claridge's contribu• tion regarding the concept of arousal as related to the psychoticism dimension closes Part II. One of the interesting conclusions by this author states "that the inherent disregulation of the 'psychotic' nervous system can potentially lead to extreme levels (in either direction) of different components of 'arousal.'" The concepts that refer directly to the Pavlovian properties of the conceptual nervous system or for which the neo-Pavlovian typology was a starting point are presented in Part III (Neo-Pavlovian Concepts of Temperament). Robinson develops the idea that the diffuse thalamocor• tical system (DTS), which has specific psychological correlates, serves as the mediator of Pavlovian excitation. Individual differences in x PREFACE arousability are considered as a result of the sensitivity of the DTS neu• rons. Mecacci, too, discusses the neo-Pavlovian features of the CNS within the framework of modern neurophysiology. He pays attention to the so-called general and partial CNS properties that, in his opinion, underlie the different specific patterns of arousal discovered in contem• porary research. Both remaining chapters deal with the reactivity di• mension, a construct developed on the basis of the theory of strength of the CNS and popular among Warsaw psychologists. The empirical evi• dence presented by Klonowicz relates to facets of the control of reac• tivity over various forms of arousal. Eliasz, considering the role of tem• perament in a system of stimulation control, points out that reactivity has an impact on the formation of cognitive orientation toward various aspects of reality. Part IV (Attempts at Integration Based on the Arousability Concept) includes chapters aimed directly at searching for interrelations among the separate arousal-oriented personality/temperament dimensions. It starts with Zuckerman's chapter in which he discusses the interrelations between strength of excitation, extraversion, anxiety, impulsivity, and sensation seeking, regarding arousal as a key concept of his considera• tions. The author also presents a multimodal and multiresponse psycho• physiological model of sensation seeking. On the basis of psychometric evidence that reflects the link between such dimensions as extraversion, reactivity, neuroticism, augmenting-reducing dimension, and strength of excitation Kohn concludes in his chapter that highly arousable indi• viduals tend to avoid strong stimulation and the reverse. He also dis• cusses important issues regarding the inappropriateness of validating psychometric tests against experimental indexes. The chapter written by Haier, Sokolski, Katz, and Buchsbaum presents a new way of searching for integration among biologically oriented personality dimensions. This is the first time that the technology of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) has been applied in an attempt to see whether the activity of specific brain areas correlates with measures of personality. In the last chapter, Strelau compares eight arousal-oriented personality/tempera• ment dimensions from the point of view of five indexes: inventory data, sensory threshold, amplitude of AEP, efficiency of conditioning, and general behavioral activity. The similarities and differences among the personality dimensions under discussion are enumerated there. The volume also contains a general overview written by Gale. His chapter is presented as a postscript and has been prepared on the basis of all the other papers included here. The main results of his analysis can be found in Table 2 that deals with explanatory constructs, examples of scales, manipulations, and independent and dependent variables pre• sented in the separate chapters. Short comments are included also. The PREFACE xi author introduces in his systems approach analysis of the arousal-ori• ented personality dimensions the idea of an energic system, a control system, and an evaluation system. Judgments as to the degree to which this volume contains new ideas and whether it can be regarded as a "refreshing breath" in the studies of biologically oriented personality dimensions must be left to the reader. If, after getting acquainted with the content of the book, he or she agrees that reading it was not a waste of time, our expectations will be fulfilled. Much of the editorial work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Grant RP. III. 25).

Jan Strelau Hans J. Eysenck Contents

INTRODUCTION

Arousal and Personality: The Origins of a Theory 1

HANS J. EYSENCK

Historical Anticipations ...... 2 The Beginnings of Experimental Testing ...... 4 Pavlovian Theories ...... 6 The Concept of Arousal ...... 7 The Place of Theory in a World of Facts ...... 9 "There is Nothing as Useful as a Good Theory" -Lewin. . . . 11 References ...... 12

PART I. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN RESEARCH ON EXTRA VERSION-INTROVERSION

1. Empirical Tests and Theoretical Extensions of Arousal-Based Theories of Personality ...... 17

WILLIAM REVELLE, KRISTEN JOAN ANDERSON, and MICHAEL S. HUMPHREYS

Introversion-Extraversion and Performance...... 18 Impulsivity, Time of Day, and Task Variables...... 20 Theories of Arousal and Performance ...... 28 Summary and Conclusions ...... 32 References ...... 33

xiii xiv CONTENTS

2. Excitation-Inhibition and Arousal as Explanatory Concepts for Extraversion ...... 37

CHRISTOPHER COOPER and JOHN BREBNER

A Unified Model of Extraversion ...... 37 Some Behavioral Evidence for the Unified Model ...... 39 Electrophysiological Studies: Some Evidence and Some Conclusions...... 45 References ...... 55

3. Extraversion--Introversion, Contingent Negative Variation and Arousal...... 59

PETER F. WERRE

Introduction ...... 59 Relationship between Contingent Negative Variation, Extraversion- Introversion and Neuroticism-Stability ... 61 Interaction between Extraversion-Introversion and Condition as Indicated by Contingent Negative Variation ...... 63 Usefulness of the Inverted-U Model...... 65 Design of a New Testable Model ...... 69 Limitations of the Model ...... 72 Concluding Remarks...... 74 References ...... 75

PART II. STUDIES OF EMOTIONALITY AND PSYCHOTICISM

4. Trait Theories of Anxiety ...... 79

MICHAEL W. EYSENCK

Introduction ...... 79 The Physiological Basis ...... 80 The Cognitive System ...... 83 Future Trends ...... 93 References ...... 94 CONTENTS xv

5. Concepts of Activation and Arousal in the Theory of Emotionality (Neuroticism): A Multivariate Conceptualization ...... 99

JOCHEN F AHRENBERG

Introduction ...... 99 Emotionality (Neuroticism) as Assessed by Questionnaire ... 100 Activation (Autonomic Arousal) in Eysenck's Theory ...... 102 Evaluation of Psychophysiological Research on Emotionality ...... 102 Multivariate Activation Theory...... 109 Some Perspectives! Alternatives in Psychophysiological Research on Emotionality ...... 111 Conclusions ...... 117 References ...... 118 6. Individual Characteristics of Brain Limbic Structures Interactions as the Basis of Pavlovian!Eysenckian Typology ...... 121

PAVEL V. SIMONOV

Specific Features of Escape Responses in Rats after Damaging Limbic Brain Structures ...... 123 Hippocampal Theta Rhythm and Conditioned Reflexes Transswitching in Dogs ...... 127 Conclusion ...... 131 References...... 131 7. Psychoticism and Arousal...... 133

GORDON CLARIDGE

References ...... 147

PART III. NEO-PAVLOVIAN CONCEPTS OF TEMPERAMENT

8. A Neuropsychological Model of Personality and Individual Differences...... 153

DAVID L. ROBINSON

Introduction ...... 153 Pavlov's Theory ...... 154 xvi CONTENTS

The Neural Bases of Introversion-Extraversion and Neuroticism...... 155 The Neural Bases of Group Intelligence Factors ...... 159 The Neural Bases of Psychoticism and Cognitive Style ...... 162 Pavlovian Concepts, Systems Theory, and Arousability ..... 163 An Integrated Neuropsychological Model ...... 164 Conclusion ...... 169 References ...... 169

9. Basic Properties of the Nervous System and Arousal Model in the Light of Current Neuropsychophysiology ...... 171

LUCIANO MECACCI

The Notion of Basic Properties ...... , ...... " 171 Arousal, Cognition, and Persomi.1ity ...... 175 Conclusion ...... 180 References ...... 180

10. Reactivity and the Control of Arousal 183

TATIANA KLONOWICZ

Introduction ...... 183 Reactivity and the Resting Level of Arousal ...... 185 Reactivity and the Impact of Stimulation ...... " 186 Reactivity and Self-Regulation ...... 189 Reactivity and Anticipation ...... 194 Concluding Observations ...... 194 References ...... 196

11. Temperament-Contingent Cognitive Orientation toward Various Aspects of Reality ...... 197

ANDRZEJ ELlASZ

Introduction ...... 197 General and Selective Sensitivity to Stimuli ...... 198 Studies on Cognitive Orientation toward Various Aspects of Reality ...... 203 Studies on Cognitive Differentiation (CD) of People, Things, and Inner States ...... " 208 CONTENTS xvii

Final Remarks ...... 211 References ...... 212

PART IV. ATTEMPTS AT INTEGRATION BASED ON THE AROUSABILITY CONCEPT

12. A Critical Look at Three Arousal Constructs in Personality Theories: Optimal Levels of Arousal, Strength of the Nervous System, and Sensitivities to Signals of Reward and Punishment ...... 217

MARVIN ZUCKERMAN

Pavlov: Strength of the Nervous System ...... 218 Neo-Pavlovian Concepts ...... 218 Eysenck: Extraversion and the Optimal Level of Arousal .... 220 Gray: Sensitivities to Signals of Reward and Punishment . . .. 221 Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking, Optimal Level of Arousal of Catecholamine Systems ...... 223 A Multimodal Multiresponse Psychophysiological Study of Sensation Seeking ...... 225 References ...... 230

13. Issues in the Measurement of Arousability 233

PAUL M. KOHN

Arousability and Sensation Seeking ...... 233 General versus Partial Properties Revisited ...... 246 Conclusions...... 247 References ...... 247

14. The Study of Personality with Positron Emission Tomography ...... 251

RICHARD]. HAlER, KEN SOKOLSKI, MARK KATZ, and MONTE S. BUCHSBAUM

Introduction ...... 251 Method ...... 252 Results ...... 256 Discussion ...... 264 References ...... 266 xviii CONTENTS

15. Personality Dimensions Based on Arousal Theories: Search for Integration...... 269

JAN STRELAU

Introduction ...... 269 Arousal Mechanisms as a Physiological Basis of Different Personality Dimensions ...... 271 Different Components of Arousal Used as Measures of Interrelations among Personality Dimensions ...... 274 Biologically Based Personality Dimensions Measured by Psychometric Data ...... 278 Conclusions and Methodological Remarks ...... 281 References ...... 283

POSTSCRIPT

Arousal, Control, Energetics and Values-An Attempt at Review and Appraisal ...... 287

ANTHONY GALE

Introduction ...... 287 Common Features of Biological Theories of Personality ..... 288 The Concept of Systems ...... 289 Implications of a Systems Approach for Individual Differe~nces ...... 291 Problems with the Concept of Arousal ...... 294 Arousal and Contemporary Studies of the Expression of Emotion ...... 297 Bioenergetics and Individual Difference Theory ...... 299 The Relevance of Family Process Theory to Individual Differences Research ...... 303 Why Have Psychophysiological Approaches to Personality Failed!' ...... 312 Conclusion ...... 313 References ...... 314

Author Index...... 317 Subject Index ...... 323