Temperament and Chronotype Among Academic Athletes – Perspective of the Regulative Theory of Temperament

current issues in personality psychology · volume 6(1), 8 doi: https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2017.68892

original article Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes – perspective of the regulative theory of temperament

Kamila Litwic-Kaminska1·A,B,C,D,E,F,G, Martyna Kotyśko 2·A,B,C,D,E,F

1: Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland 2: Department of Psychology of Development and Education, Social Science Faculty, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland

background ed with chronotype in men. In the individual sport group The aim of the research was to evaluate the relationship chronotype was associated with four temperamental between chronotype and temperamental traits and tem- traits: BR, EN, ER (negatively) and SS. Activity (AC) signifi- perament structure specified in the Regulative Theory of cantly correlated with chronotype in the team sport group. Temperament among physical education students who are Two out of three indicators of temperament structure – actively engaged in sport. The analyses were performed potential for stimulation processing (MPS) and structure separately in groups of men, women, and individual and harmony parameter (Zh1) – were related to chronotype in team sports representatives. both genders. participants and procedure conclusions The study included 157 participants (women n = 35, men The results obtained in the present research indicate n = 122; individual sports n = 88 and team sports n = 69). that temperament is significantly related to chronotype. Measures used in the study were the Formal Characteris- Evening chronotype men and women might be overstimu- tics of Behaviour – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI) and the lated and morning types might be understimulated. These Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire(MEQ). data might be useful for coaches and provide a guide for further individualization of the training process. results Among women and men chronotype was positively corre- key words lated with Briskness (BR) and Endurance (EN). In women morningness; eveningness; individual differences; individ- chronotype was negatively related to Emotional Reactiv- ual and team disciplines ity (ER). Sensory Sensitivity (SS) was positively associat-

corresponding author – Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, Ph.D., Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, Kazimierz Wielki University, 22/47 Śląska Str., 85-235 Bydgoszcz, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] authors’ contribution – A: Study design · B: Data collection · C: Statistical analysis · D: Data interpretation · E: Manuscript preparation · F: Literature search · G: Funds collection to cite this article – Litwic-Kaminska, K., & Kotyśko, M. (2018). Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes – perspective of the regulative theory of temperament. Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 6(1), 79–90. received 13.11.2016 · reviewed 23.01.2017 · accepted 2.06.2017 · published 7.07.2017 Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes

BACKGROUND • emotional reactivity (ER) – the propensity to re‑ act intensively to emotion-generated stimuli; TEMPERAMENT expressed in high emotional sensitivity and low emotional endurance; Temperament plays the key role in the process of an • endurance (EN) – the ability to react adequately in individual’s adaptation to the demands of the envi‑ situations requiring long-lasting or highly stimu‑ ronment. It is an important factor which regulates lating activity and to work effectively under con‑ the course of human emotional reactions. Temper‑ ditions of intense external stimulation; amental traits influence the choice of activity forms • activity (AC) – the propensity to undertake be‑ (professional, sport, etc.) with various stimulatory haviours providing strong external stimuli. value. This phenomenon is particularly significant in The first two are temporal traits, while the remain‑ types of activities which are connected with a heavy ing four denote the energetic aspects of behaviour stimulatory load. Therefore, it may be expected that (Strelau, 1996, 2006, 2012). such types of activity will be undertaken mainly Previous findings indicate that athletes reveal by people highly capable of processing stimulation higher (than the general population average) BR, AC (Strelau, 2006). and EN as well as lower PE and ER (as cited in Za‑ Temperament tends to be treated as an element wadzki & Strelau, 1997; Blecharz & Siekańska, 2007). of personality; however, some authors (especially from the biological approach) use these notions in‑ terchangeably (Strelau, 2012). Various theories de‑ CHRONOTYPE scribing the significance of temperament and per‑ sonality have been applied with regards to sport. Chronotype refers to individual differences in the According to the meta‑analysis carried out by Rho‑ course of circadian rhythms. It is a personal, circa‑ des and Smith (2006), it may be assumed that the dian pattern of activity preferred by the individual, most frequent are Eysenck’s PEN Model (psychot‑ located on the dimension morningness-eveningness icism, extraversion, neuroticism), the five-factor (Cavallera & Giudici, 2008; Ciarkowska, 2003, 2010). model of personality by Costa and McCrae and the It is assumed that this dimension forms a continuum sixteen personality factor model by Catell. In Po‑ from extreme morningness to extreme eveningness land, sport activity was also frequently studied from (Cavallera & Giudici, 2008; Natale & Cicogna, 2002). the perspective of the Regulative Theory of Tem‑ Although morningness–eveningness is defined as perament by Strelau (e.g. Bernatek, Cwyl, Dudziak, a continuum, individuals can be classified into differ‑ Szantarek, & Guszkowska, 2006; Blecharz & Sieka‑ ent chronotypes: morning (‘larks’), evening (‘owls’) ńska, 2007). or neither/intermediate. The last type is the most rep‑ In this article we use temperament in terms of the resented (Allebrandt & Roenneberg, 2008). Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT). The au‑ Chronotype is closely associated with the timing thor of this theory, Strelau, presents nine postulates, of an individual’s sleep-wake cycle, e.g. the time of on the basis of which he gives a definition of tem‑ falling asleep and waking up or mid-sleep (the mid‑ perament, according to which it refers to “basic, rel‑ point between the time of falling asleep and waking atively stable, personality traits expressed mainly in up) (Roenneberg et al., 2007). Behavioural aspects the formal (energetic and temporal) characteristics of enabling determination on a continuum between reactions and behaviour.“ (Strelau, 2012, p. 184). Tem‑ morningness and eveningness are: typical hours perament traits have different adaptive functions, be‑ of spontaneous awakening, the tendency of lying ing responsible for regulating the level of arousal in down for night sleep and waking up in the morn‑ such a way as to maintain the individual’s optimal ing at a particular hour and time of day, subjective‑ level of stimulation. Based on his postulates and psy‑ ly perceived as optimal for the well-being and best chometric studies, Strelau distinguishes six tempera‑ mental performance. Morning-type individuals wake mental traits: up earlier than evening types and perform mentally • briskness (BR) – the disposition to react quickly, and physically at their best in the morning hours, but to maintain a high tempo of performing activities they find it difficult to stay awake at late-night hours. and to shift easily in response to changes in the In contrast, evening types plan their daily activities environment from one behaviour or reaction to for the afternoon or evening, and prefer to stay out another; late (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). • perseverance (PE) – the tendency to continue and The preferred falling asleep and waking up times to repeat behaviour after the termination of the are connected with the work effectiveness during stimuli or situation evoking this behaviour; particular parts of the day. The everyday demands • sensory sensitivity (SS) – the capacity to perceive experienced by student athletes (e.g. early hours of and react to sensory stimuli with low stimulative lectures at the university or training sessions) may value; distort their natural circadian rhythms, which may

80 current issues in personality psychology Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, Martyna Kotyśko lead to ‘social jetlag’ (the misalignment of biological ness and that this variable plays the role of a me‑ and social time). Previous findings show that morn‑ diator between eveningness and mood. Jankowski ing-type people, for example, sleep more regularly concluded that EN accounts for a protective factor due to the possibility of sleeping more or less the against the negative psychological consequences same amount of hours every day (Fronczyk, 2001, of social jetlag, and the lowered mood in evening 2012; Haraszti, Ella, Gyӧngyӧsi, Roenneberg, & Kál‑ types. Moreover, he figured out that temperament di, 2014). traits are not always linearly related to chronotype. The scores from theMorningness-Eveningness Ques- tionnaire represented a linear positive relationship RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHRONOTYPE with BR and EN and quadratic associations with AND TEMPERAMENT TRAITS PR, ER and AC. AC is associated with chronotype in such a way that the graph takes the shape of the The prior research into the chronotype correlates letter U (Morningness and Eveningness were associ‑ indicate its relation to temperament traits acknowl‑ ated with high levels of results for activity and sub‑ edged in various concepts. Initially, particular interest jects in the middle of the morningness-eveningness was aroused by its relationships with the dimension dimension exhibited low levels of activity), whereas of extraversion-introversion according to Eysenck PR and ER show an inverse relation (Morningness (1991). The correlation analyses suggested that eve‑ and Eveningness related to low scores in tempera‑ ning types are more extroverted. Nevertheless, the ment traits). obtained coefficients were rather low (e.g. Ciarkow‑ Another study, by Olek (2007), showed that eve‑ ska, 2003; Tankova, Adan, & Buela-Casal, 1994). The ning types are less brisk and more persevering and use of Eysenck’s Personality Inventory (EPI), whose sensory sensitive than evening types. The relation‑ E-I dimension includes the subscales of impulsivity ship between chronotype and temperament depends and sociability, revealed a positive correlation be‑ on the time of exercising. In the group of women tween these variables and eveningness (e.g. Larsen, who chose physical fitness activity in the morning 1985; Neubauer, 1992). there was a negative correlation between PE and the The results of research concerned with the Pavlov‑ result in KRAD. Among women exercising in the ian dimensions of temperament (Zawadzki & Stre‑ evening, there was a positive correlation between BR lau, 1997) indicated a negative correlation between and chronotype. However, it has to be added that the morningness and the mobility of nervous processes. obtained correlation coefficients are very low (Kend‑ Moreover, morning types are characterised by rela‑ all’s tau coefficients between .15 and .28). tively stronger inhibition, which makes them more The aim of this article is to describe the results capable of controlling their behaviour (Ciarkowska, of our research concerning the relationship between 2010; Mecacci & Rocchetti, 1998). chronotype and temperamental traits in athletes who Other comparisons also employed the Sensation study physical education. The mentioned relations Seeking Scale (SSS) Questionnaire (Zuckerman, Kolin, were analysed separately in men and women, as well Price, & Zoob, 1964). The obtained negative correla‑ as among representatives of individual and team tions with morningness-eveningness suggest that the sports. It was also examined whether, in this group of stronger the evening preferences are, the stronger is athletes, there are gender differences in temperament the urge to seek stimuli (Ciarkowska, 2003). and chronotype. We also assessed whether students The research carried out in Poland has main‑ who are engaged in different sport disciplines differ ly revealed connections between the chronotype in terms of mentioned variables. and the variables measured with the Formal Char- acteristics of Behaviour – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI, Strelau & Zawadzki, 1995) based on the PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE RTT by Strelau. Ciarkowska (2003) reports the existence of a positive correlation between the PARTICIPANTS outcome of the KRAD questionnaire (Polish ver‑ sion of Horne-Ӧstberg’s Morningness-Eveningness The study included 157 university students of phys‑ Questionnaire) and EN. Such a result proves that ical education, actively engaged in sport, from Ka‑ the preference of morning hours is related to a rel‑ zimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (35 women atively stronger immunity to difficult and highly and 122 men, Mage = 21.52, SDage = 1.64). Individual stimulant situations. sports (IS) were represented by 88 people, and team A similar relation was found in the analyses by sports (TS) by 69 students. The types of disciplines in Jankowski (2012, 2014), yet his research revealed the IS group were e.g. athletics (short and long dis‑ several further dependencies. Additionally, he ob‑ tance running, triple jump, pole vault), combat sports served that EN, above other variables of the FCB-TI, and swimming. The TS group was represented by e.g. presented the strongest relationship with evening‑ volleyball, basketball, handball and football.

volume 6(1), 8 81 Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes

PROCEDURE FCB-TI includes 120 items (with true/false style of answering and zero-one scoring). Cronbach’s α for The results presented in this article are a part of the all scales of the Inventory ranges from .70 to .87 (Za‑ research conducted under the Academic Sport Devel‑ wadzki & Strelau, 1997). In our research, the reliabili‑ opment Programme (Ministry of Science and Higher ty coefficient for all scales was from .72 to .82. Education). The project was approved by the Ethics We also calculated three indicators of tempera‑ Committee for Scientific Research at Kazimierz Wiel‑ ment structure proposed by Jankowski and Zajen‑ ki University. kowski (2009): potential for stimulation processing The project is divided into two stages: the first is (MPS) and structure harmony parameters – Zh1 and correlational (in progress) and the second is experi‑ Zh2. All indicators were estimated based on standard‑ mental (yet to start). In this article we would like to ized values of six temperament traits included in RTT focus only on the correlational stage, which includes (the standardization procedure included means and three sources of data: questionnaires, tablet application standard deviations from the analysed group of ath‑ and monitoring device – ACTIWATCH-2. Due to the letes, separate for women and men). Positive value of fact that so far full data have only been obtained from MPS can be interpreted as indicating a high potential questionnaires (the process of data collection from tab‑ of stimulation processing (a negative value means the lets and ACTIWATCH-2 is still ongoing), these meth‑ opposite). The Zh1 indicator informs about harmony ods will be presented in the Measures section. of energetic traits – a positive value of the indicator The researchers set up many personal meetings might inform about overstimulation and a negative with groups of physical education students to inform value about understimulation. The Zh2 indicator in‑ them about the project. The basic requirement for fu‑ cludes information about harmony of energetic traits ture participants was engagement in sport activities and BR. Interpretation of the indicator value is the (obligatory sport classes at university were not taken same as for Zh1 (Jankowski & Zajenkowski, 2009). into account). Individuals who met the requirements Chronotype. The Polish language version of the and were interested in participation in the project Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ; Horne were asked to leave their e-mail address to give the & Östberg, 1976) known in Poland as KRAD (Kwe- researchers an opportunity to contact them. At the stionariusz Rytmu Aktywności Dobowej) prepared by next stage the researchers met willing students and Ciarkowska (as cited in Jankowski & Ciarkowska, explained them their role in the project and the de‑ 2008) is a one-dimensional measure which allows tails of their participation. The students were also one to specify the person’s sleep-wake cycle and pre‑ informed that they could withdraw at any step of ferred hours of functioning. The questionnaire com‑ the study without any consequences. Each person re‑ prises 21 items with usually four of five descriptive ceived a set of documents which included: study in‑ answers which are scored from one to four or five formation, an informed consent form and psychologi‑ points. The higher the score is, the stronger is the cal measures. After filling the documents, the consent tendency to prefer morning hours. The KRAD results and questionnaires were returned to the researcher. also allow one to divide subjects into three types: Participants were provided individual descriptive morning, intermediate and evening. The Polish ad‑ feedback about their results in the questionnaires. aptation of MEQ has a satisfactory reliability level of .83 (Jankowski & Ciarkowska, 2008). Cronbach’s α in our study was .79. MEASURES

The set of questionnaires used in the study consisted RESULTS of a number of psychological measures, but for the purposes of this article, a thorough analysis has been Statistical analysis was prepared in Statistica version applied to the data obtained using only two mea‑ 12. The first step was a statistical verification of gen‑ sures. Their characteristics are described below: der differences in six temperament traits and chro‑ Temperament. Jan Strelau is the author of a the‑ notype. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics (mean ory of temperament called the Regulative Temper‑ and standard deviation) and results of Student’s ament Theory (1996), more broadly described in the t-test. Three out of six temperament traits were sig‑ Background section of this paper. On the basis of this nificantly different in both groups. Women scored theory (Strelau & Zawadzki, 1993, 1995; Zawadzki higher than men in ER and PE but men obtained & Strelau, 1997) a measure of temperament traits higher scores in EN. Both groups had similar results was created: the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour for the general score in the chronotype measure. The – Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI). The invento‑ effects size analysed with Cohen’sd was low (for EN) ry contains six scales: briskness (BR), perseverance and medium (for ER and PE). (PE), sensory sensitivity (SS), emotional reactivity The participants of the study were divided into two (ER), endurance (EN) and activity (AC). In total, the groups of representatives: individual and team sports.

82 current issues in personality psychology Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, Martyna Kotyśko

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of temperament traits, three indicators of temperament structure and chronotype in women and men – gender differences

Variable Women Men t d n = 35 n = 122 M (SD) M (SD) BR 16.34 (2.93) 16.57 (2.95) –.41 – AC 12.71 (3.93) 13.26 (4.07) –.71 – SS 14.71 (3.01) 14.13 (3.33) .93 – ER 9.43 (4.97) 6.57 (4.06) 3.48** .67 PE 13.94 (3.42) 11.90 (3.82) 2.85** .55 EN 10.94 (4.12) 12.57 (4.09) –2.08* .40 MPS .00 (.94) .00 (.86) – – Zh1 .03 (1.22) .00 (1.04) – – Zh2 .02 (.83) .00 (.85) – – Chronotype – total score 60.06 (7.44) 59.03 (7.30) .73 – Note. **p < .01. *p < .05. BR – briskness; AC – activity; SS – sensory sensitivity; ER – emotional reactivity; PE – perseverance; EN – endurance; MPS – potential for stimulation processing; Zh1 and Zh2 – harmony parameters.

Student’s t-test was used to determine whether these ed to chronotype. For this purpose we used Person’s groups differ in temperament or chronotype (Table 2). r coefficient. This analysis was carried out separately Two variables – AC and chronotype – had different in women and men and also among representatives mean values in both groups. The students who prac‑ of individual and team sports. Table 3 shows the re‑ tised team sports (TS) obtained higher scores in AC sults of the performed analysis. For interpretation than the participants representing individual sports of coefficient values the guides proposed by Cohen (IS). On the other hand, IS students scored higher than (1988) were used. TS students in chronotype. Table 2 also includes the In the group of women chronotype was signifi‑ effect size of obtained results, which were significant. cantly associated with BR (r = .66) and EN (r = .53). In comparison to gender, the effect size noted for type Women who prefer functioning in morning hours of sport (IS or TS) was small (d = .35 and d = .39). are more brisk – their reactions are quicker and they Another step was checking how temperament maintain higher tempo of their actions. The relation traits and temperament structure indicators are relat‑ between chronotype and EN indicates that women

Table 2 Descriptive statistics of temperament traits and chronotype in individual and team sports – group comparison

Variable IS TS t d n = 88 n = 69 M (SD) M (SD) BR 16.74 (2.63) 16.25 (3.29) 1.04 – AC 12.53 (3.93) 13.91 (4.05) –2.15* .35 SS 14.48 (3.28) 13.99 (3.23) .94 – ER 7.24 (3.84) 7.17 (5.10) .09 – PE 12.49 (3.86) 12.19 (3.79) .49 – EN 11.89 (4.15) 12.62 (4.11) –1.11 – Chronotype 60.50 (7.47) 57.68 (6.86) 2.43* .39 – total score Note. *p < .05; BR – briskness; AC – activity; SS – sensory sensitivity; ER – emotional reactivity; PE – perseverance; EN – endurance.

volume 6(1), 8 83 Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes

Table 3 Correlations between temperament traits and chronotype in women and men and among representatives of individual and team sports

Variable Chronotype All participants Women Men IS TS n = 157 n = 35 n = 122 n = 88 n = 69 BR .34*** .66*** .25** .34** .32** AC –.10 .07 –.14 –.07 –.06 SS .26** .12 .29** .27* .22 ER –.16* –.57*** –.05 –.33** –.01 PE –.10 –.28 –.08 –.13 –.09 EN .29*** .53** .23* .42*** .15 MPS – .59*** .16 – – Zh1 – –.41* –.27** – – Zh2 – –.23 –.10 – – Note. ***p < .001. **p < .01. *p < .05. BR – briskness; AC – activity; SS – sensory sensitivity; ER – emotional reactivity; PE – perseverance; EN – endurance; MPS – potential for stimulation processing; Zh1 and Zh2 – harmony parameters; IS – individual sport; TS – team sport.

athletes, with morning preferences, in stimulating er than among men. The relationship between chro‑ situations take appropriate actions and demonstrate notype and EN in both groups was significant (wom‑ effective work in unfavourable circumstances (in‑ en r = .53, men r = .23), but the difference between tense external stimulation). Another significant cor‑ coefficients was insignificantz ( = 1.79, p = .076). relation, in this group, was noted between chrono‑ Correlation analysis of temperament structure in‑ type and ER (r = –.57). Reactions to emotional stimuli dicators and chronotype showed that among women of women who function better in the morning are athletes higher MPS is positively related to morning less intense. These women are also less sensitive to preference. The Zh1 indicator was significantly asso‑ this type of stimuli and can endure more when the ciated with chronotype in men and women (but the situation generates emotions. Each significantr coef‑ difference between correlation coefficients was insig‑ ficient was greater than .5, which can be interpreted nificant z = .86, p = .391). Athletes with a stronger as a strong correlation. morning preference were more understimulated. BR (r = .25) and EN (r = .23) were also significantly Another analysis of correlation was prepared in related to chronotype among male athletes. Similarly groups of students who were engaged in individual to women, men who prefer earlier hours of the day (IS) or team sports (TS). In the TS group only one are more brisk and act with higher endurance. Unlike association was significant – chronotype and BR in women, among men chronotype was associated (r = .32). In the IS group chronotype was related to: BR with SS (r = .29). This relation indicates that a pref‑ (r = .34), SS (r = .27), ER (r = –.33) and EN (r = .42). Be‑ erence for morning hours in men results in greater sides SS (weak correlation), other temperament traits sensitivity to less intense sensory stimuli. Male ath‑ revealed a moderate correlation with chronotype. letes are able to perceive such stimuli and, in conse‑ quence, react to them. All significant correlations in this group were small. DISCUSSION We decided to compare correlation coefficients, in women and men, because in both groups the same TEMPERAMENT, CHRONOTYPE AND GENDER significant associations were present. The difference between the coefficients was measured with Fish‑ One of the goals of our research was to find out if er’s z-transformation. The first pair of coefficients there were gender differences in temperament traits referred to the relationship of chronotype and BR and chronotype. Prior findings suggest that wom‑ in men and women. Ther coefficient in women was en have different structure of temperament than r = .66 and in men it was r = .25. The difference be‑ men (Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997; Strelau, 2012). In tween the two coefficients was statistically signifi‑ our study women obtained higher scores than men cant (z = 2.70, p = .008), which means that among in ER and PE and lower scores in EN. These results women the correlation of chronotype and BR is high‑ are consistent with data obtained using the FCB-TI

84 current issues in personality psychology Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, Martyna Kotyśko questionnaire on the validation and standardization hours). This result is consistent with the data pre‑ sample (Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997). Jankowski (2012) sented by Jankowski (2012). He analysed chrono‑ also noted differences between genders in PE, SS, ER type and temperament in undergraduate students. and EN. Furthermore, FCB-TI has separate norms for In that group morningness was correlated with EN men and women (Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997), which and BR. In Olek’s study (2007), morning women had confirms the existing gender differences, also preva‑ a higher level of BR, which corresponds with our lent in our research. findings. Conscientiousness – a personality trait in The obtained results raise the question why there the Big Five Model – was significantly related to were no discrepancies in SS, BR and AC, despite indi‑ morningness (Randler, 2008). The similarity between cations from the authors of the FCB-TI questionnaire Conscientiousness and BR was presented by Strelau for such divergences. In accordance with the assump‑ and Zawadzki (1995). On this basis it can be assumed tions of the Regulative Theory of Temperament, a par‑ that the result obtained in Randler’s study (2008) ticular structure of temperament leads an individual is in line with our data. A certain similarity can be to choose activities with various levels of stimulation. seen in the results of Adan, Lachica, Caci, and Natale Sport is such an activity that requires a large capacity (2010) regarding the association of chronotype and for processing stimulation. The outcome of our study temperament, measured with the Temperament and is rather closer to the scores given by Kłodecka-Różal‑ Character Inventory (TCI). In this research morn‑ ska and Mroczkowska from the study on 296 athletes ing-type participants presented a higher level of (as cited in Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997) than the results Self-Directedness and Persistence. These two traits, of the FCB-TI standardization sample. in our opinion, can be compared to FCB-TI’s BR and The relationship between gender and chrono‑ EN. Randler and Saliger (2011) presented data con‑ type in the prior studies is not clear. Most measures firming the relationship between morningness and showed the advantage of eveningness in men (Adan Persistence. TCI variables were significantly cor‑ & Natale, 2002; Natale & Di Milia, 2011; Randler, related with FCB-TI traits (Hornowska, 2011), which 2007; Cavallera & Guidici, 2008; Wiłkość, 2014). There allows us to make a comparison between our results are also reports indicating no differences (Ogińska, and the data obtained from TCI in relation to chro‑ 2011; Paine, Gander, & Travier, 2006; Pracki, Wiłkość, notype. Moreover, the relation between chronotype Pracka, Dmitrzak-Weglarz, & Augustyńska, 2014). In (morning preference) and BR plays a significant role our research, both gender groups had similar mean in athletes’ functioning, but as our results showed, results in the general score in the chronotype mea‑ this relation is stronger in women. sure. Moreover, other analyzes, have not been shown Other temperament traits – ER (in women) and in this paper, show that both women and men had SS (in men) – were connected to chronotype. ER in comparable distribution of three chronotypes (morn‑ general refers to emotional functioning of an indi‑ ing and intermediate types were represented by the vidual (Strelau, 1996, 2006, 2012), which means that largest number of athletes in comparison to evening people with a low level of ER react less intensively type). The lack of differences and the distribution of in highly emotional situations and can endure more results opposed to previous research (advantage of emotional stimuli. Our study suggests that highly re‑ morning type over evening type) can be explained active women prefer evening hours, or alternative‑ by the physical activity undertaken by the examined ly, less reactive women function better in morning students. Henst, Jaspers, Roden, and Rae (2015) found hours. Depression and worse mood are presumed, in that marathon runners had earlier chronotypes com‑ many studies, as correlates of eveningness (e.g. Jeong pared to the control population of less active indi‑ et al., 2015; Ottoni, Antoniolli, & Lara, 2012; Park et viduals, suggesting that individuals who are more al., 2015). The data directly related to ER and EN, in physically active may have earlier chronotypes. This terms of RTT, indicate that they are associated with is consistent with recent findings (Cavallera, Boari, depression – ER positively and EN negatively (Hint‑ Labbrozzi, & Del Bello, 2011; Wennman, Kronholm, sa, Wesołowska, Elovainio, Strelau, Pulkki-Råback et Partonen, Peltonen, Vasankari et al., 2015) that eve‑ al., 2016). In the research of Jankowski (2012), SS was ningness was associated with higher probability of not significantly related to chronotype, but our find‑ more time spent sitting, in comparison to morning‑ ings are opposite: in male athletes, the greater the ness. Furthermore, social factors play an important intensity of morning preference, the higher is SS. role, especially those connected with forcing a spe‑ Additional analysis of temperament structure cific daily rhythm, such as students’ schedule (Ciar‑ (three indicators) gave interesting results. The re‑ kowska, 2003). lation between chronotype and potential of stimu‑ The correlation analysis, carried out on the ba‑ lation processing (MPS) in women was significant. sis of the data collected in our study, indicated that We can assume that, in the analysed group, women among athletes – in women and men – chronotype with higher preference for morning hours have high‑ is related to BR and EN. Both traits were positively er potential of stimulation processing. It is probably connected with chronotype (preference for morning the consequence of the MPS formula which includes

volume 6(1), 8 85 Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes

EN and ER – which individually were also correlated undergraduate team and individual sport partici‑ with chronotype. Women athletes who prefer morn‑ pants and nonparticipants, showed that team ath‑ ing hours can endure more stimulation. It can be letes gained higher scores in Extraversion than both helpful in everyday functioning due to the fact that individual sport participants and nonparticipants. the morning oriented female academic athletes might Similar results were observed by the author of the better face the challenges of a double or even triple questionnaire (Eysenck, Nias, & Cox, 1982). This is role: as a woman, a student and an athlete (Lance, consistent with our results for the AC trait. However, 2004; Yukhymenko-Lescroart, 2014). In women as it must be highlighted that the effect size of differ‑ well as in men the Zh1 indicator was also correlat‑ ences between groups in our study was small. We ed with chronotype, but the relation was negative. could treat the obtained results as a trend rather than Athletes who prefer morning hours of functioning a certainty. This argument and the lack of differences tend to be understimulated and those who have eve‑ between results in other temperament traits is prob‑ ning preference might be overstimulated. ‘Larks’ ably connected with the fact that every sport disci‑ might need more stimulation than they are providing pline has its own specific character, and is associat‑ themselves and ‘owls’ might need to stop for a while ed with various training and competing conditions. because their temperament structure has limitations Other traits could be desirable for good performance. and they provide themselves more stimulation than For example, despite the fact that among athletes they can handle. Additional quality analyses would those with low reactivity dominate, high reactivity have been useful to provide more precise data about may help to achieve high performance in sports re‑ how different chronotypes manage with everyday quiring precise movements and sensitivity to musical tasks and how much stimulation they have during rhythm (Gracz & Sankowski, 2007). Combining dif‑ the day or in a longer period. ferent disciplines in the categories – individual/team – the differences become blurred. This study also reveals a distinction (rather weak) TEMPERAMENT, CHRONOTYPE in the result of chronotype depending on the type AND SPORT DISCIPLINES of sport. Those of the participants who practise in‑ dividual disciplines obtained higher results in the We found that the groups of students practising in‑ KRAD questionnaire, which means they can be char‑ dividual and team disciplines differ in the level of the acterized more as ‘larks’ than ‘owls’. The mean for temperament trait Activity. There are no earlier stud‑ the examined athletes, regardless of the sport type, ies that relate to the differences between individual placed them on a continuum for chronotype in nei‑ and team sports in terms of the Regulative Theory ther type. Concerning the whole of the sample there of Temperament, so we refer to the reports about was a comparable number of morning and interme‑ temperament in different disciplines in general. Ber‑ diate type individuals and the fewest representatives natek et al. (2006) made a comparison between ath‑ of the evening type. Additional analizes showed that letes training for team disciplines and combat sports. the frequency distribution was different in groups. They observed the differences in four temperament Among the group of individual disciplines there were traits. Team sportsmen had a higher level of ER and the most participants representing the morning type lower level of AC, EN and BR than combat sport (47.00%) and the fewest representing the evening competitors. In our study, in the group of individual type (16.00%). In turn, team athletes were mostly rep‑ disciplines, there are other than only combat sports. resented by neither chronotype (43.00%) or, compa‑ Furthermore, in our research the team athletes ob‑ rably, evening (26.00%) and morning types (30.00%). tained similar results (besides PE) to the athletes in The present results are consistent with the earlier combat sports and our team sports group significant‑ outcomes showing a small number of evening-ori‑ ly differed in ER, PE and EN from a similar group in ented people in different groups of athletes (e.g. Ku‑ Bernatek and co-workers’ study. The discrepancies in norozva, Stephenson, Rae, & Roden, 2012; Silva et al., the presented results should be considered with the 2012; Zani, Rossi, Borriello, & Mecacci, 1984). Trying arguments of Kosińska (1991) that specific configu‑ to interpret the obtained results we can refer to Last‑ ration of personality traits is characteristic for indi‑ ella, Roach, Halson and Sargent’s (2015) outcome in vidual sports. sleep and wake behaviour of elite athletes from indi‑ For the interpretation of our results, we also used vidual and team sports. They found that sportsmen the report of the authors the FCB-TI about the cor‑ from individual disciplines went to bed and woke relations between the RTT traits and other tempera‑ up earlier than athletes from team sports. Because mental and personality characteristics. AC is highly chronotype set optimal times for mental and phys‑ and positively connected with extraversion – partic‑ ical performance, we assume that it might affect the ularly for the temperament trait measured by Eysen‑ choice of a particular sport by an individual depend‑ ck’s EPQ-R (Strelau & Zawadzki, 1995). Therefore, ing on its scheduling. In individual disciplines there Eagleton, McKelvie, and de Man (2007), comparing is a tendency to train earlier than in team sports.

86 current issues in personality psychology Kamila Litwic-Kaminska, Martyna Kotyśko

Furthermore, we noted more significant correla‑ In terms of chronotype, studies of other authors do tion coefficients between temperament and chro‑ not give conclusive results. In some cases, differences notype in the individual sports group. BR, as the between genders are present, women prefer morn‑ only trait, was associated with morningness in both ing hours. There are also data showing that women groups (individual and team sports). This result may and men do not differ in chronotype. Because of the indicate that, regardless of the type of sport, greater mentioned congruency problems, there is a necessi‑ morningness is accompanied by a higher level of BR. ty to conduct further research which would include The positive relationship between EN and morn‑ athletes and a comparison group of non-athletes. ingness might be explained by the training regime. Controlling the two variables of gender and sport In individual sports, in comparison to team sports, level (recreational and professional sports might dif‑ an individual needs to motivate him/herself regard‑ fer) can help gain useful data for interpretation. This less of circumstances and the absence of other peo‑ solution would allow it to be clarified whether the ple. Vollmer and Randler (2012), in their study on obtained data indicate the difference of athletes from chronotype and values, obtained results demonstrat‑ other people. ing that individual values (openness to change and Representatives of team disciplines tend more self-enhancement) are preferred by evening-type ad‑ to undertake behaviours providing strong external olescents and social values (self-transcendence and stimuli in comparison to individual sportspeople. conservation) are important for the morning types. Participants who practise individual disciplines can In the light of these results such values as modesty, be characterized more as ‘larks’ than ‘owls’ in com‑ appropriate behaviour and obedience (being a part parison to team athletes. of conservation and observed more frequently in This study has some limitations which should be morning types) might, in the morning type with high pointed out. The difference in the number of women EN, influence their keeping commitments, including and men is the main limitation. Only 35 women ath‑ in sport and training. The data obtained by Nia and letes participated in the study, which might have an Besharat (2010) from athletes representing individ‑ impact on the presented differential analysis between ual and team sports showed that individual sports genders as well as on the correlation analysis in this representatives scored higher in Conscientiousness group. Further studies should include similar num‑ – a trait that is highly desirable in sport. bers of both genders to provide more precise data. The negative correlation of morningness and ER This study was quantitative, which does not always in individual disciplines (IS) suggests that these ath‑ capture all relevant information that could be better letes might be less prone to emotional stimuli and analysed using qualitative methods. The combina‑ remain calm in difficult situations, unlike in the team tion of quantitative and qualitative methods could sport group. It is possible that emotional reactions in provide in the future the most desirable solution to this group are needed to mutually stimulate to action analyse the temperament and chronotype among and do not depend on chronotype. When it comes to athletes. Because of the relatively small number of team sports, athletes, whether or not individual, are participants, not all statistical analyses could be per‑ part of a group that functions on its own terms. More formed, and certainly they would have been a source research is needed for better understanding of the of additional information. Additionally, every sport chronotype and temperament relationship among discipline has its own specific character, which is individual and team sport athletes. associated with various training and competing conditions and other traits that could be desirable. Combining different disciplines in the research in the CONCLUSIONS individual/team categories can blur the differences. The most relevant research should include the same To conclude our study we would like to point out the number of athletes of different sport disciplines, indi‑ main findings and make a comment on the potential vidual and team as well. future improvements in research methods and prac‑ tical application of our results. In the analysed group of athletes, chronotype ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS was related to temperamental traits. This knowl‑ edge might be useful for coaches who are involved Scientific work financed under the programme of in sport development of athletes. We also noted the Minister of Science and Higher Education named significant differences between men and women in “Development of Academic Sport” in the years 2015- temperament but not in chronotype. The obtained 2018 (project number: 0010/RS3/2015/53). We would results are another argument for individualization like to thank Dr. Mirosława Cieślicka and Dr. Błażej of sport training, in terms of both temperament and Stankiewicz for help in recruitment of participants chronotype, taking into account the work with men and students Agata Piasecka and Mateusz Minda for and women, and individual and team sports athletes. their help in data collection and database organizing.

volume 6(1), 8 87 Temperament and chronotype among academic athletes

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