THE MECHANISM OF LANGUAGE DEATH: A REFLECTION TO OUR LOCAL LANGUAGE

Neng Syifa Masnoneh STAI Daarussalaam Sukabumi, Sukabumi, West Java, Email: [email protected]

Abstract A lingua franca is important for a multilingual country. For this reason, Bahasa Indonesia is designed as a lingua franca for more than 700 local languages in Indonesia to unite people from different social and cultural backgrounds. During colonialism era, Bahasa Indonesia seemed successful in creating a sense of identity as Indonesians. However, the domination of Bahasa Indonesia tends to replace Sundanese, particularly in children. Sundanese seems poorly transferred to young generation. This paper proposes a research toward the mechanism of language death as a reflection for which undergoes shifting; a process that may lead to language death.

Keywords: language death, lingua franca, local language.

A. INTRODUCTION (Siregar, 2017). The total number of extinct languages gathered from these Indonesia is rich in language two news is eighteen. They are Hoti, diversity. The country ranks second in Hukumina, Hulung, Serua, Te’un, the list of multilingual country. It has Palumata, Loun, Moksela, Naka’ela, approximately more than 700 Nila, Ternateno, Ibu, Saponi, Mapia, languages. According to , Kayeli, Piru, Tandia and Mawes. Since Indonesia is a home for 719 languages. every language is a unique collection of Of 719 languages, 707 are living, while knowledge of the world based on the 12 are extinct. Of these 707 living perception of its speakers, it means that languages, 18 are institutional, 73 are Indonesia has an abundant wealth. The developing, 188 are vigorous, 347 are in loss of a language means the loss of a trouble, and 81 are dying (Eberhard et heritage, an archieve of human al., 2019). Regarding the extinct intelligence and history, and its unique languages in Indonesia, data from speakers’ description of the world. In Ethnologue is different with that from other word, every language extinction recent news in Republika.com also kills its culture. Once it has been (Republika, 2015) and Liputan6.com

80 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 extinct, there is no way to turn it back to Languages are dynamic. Like living status. Therefore, Indonesian living organism, they live, evolve and people should be aware of their own die. The history of first language of wealth and preserve their language. human being is obscure, but language Indonesia has 347 languages that are in evolution has become an interesting trouble and 81 are dying, meaning that subject for many linguists. Language in the next generations they might be on evolution, as Mufwene explains, the list of extinct languages unless there includes changes in structural and is an effort to document and revitalize pragmatic aspects of languages, also in them. their vitality (Mufwene, 2018, p. 73). Although there are hundreds of Through the study of language endangered languages in Indonesia, the evolution, linguists trace back the origin country still has languages with large of a language and study the reasons of speaker populations. However, the trend language changes, as we can see in of language shifting from local Collinge’s thorough explanation about language to Indonesian and English is language evolution (Collinge, 1990, p. rising among younger generation as 473-496). shown by some research (Cohn and The evolution of languages can be Ravindranath, 2014; Puspahaty, 2017). one of causes for the birth of new ones. Codeswitching and codemixing seem to Language birth refers to a protracted be common today. Based on this process, spanning several generations, phenomenon, the mechanism of in which a variety of language, language death is discussed in the structurally different from its ancestor, following as a lesson for Sundanese emerges. Language birth cannot be langaguage that seems poorly predicted, and the stage of the birth has transferred to younger generation. no point in time. The separateness is recognized by a cumulative accretion of different features from its ancestor language. Likewise, language death B. LANGUAGE BIRTH AND refers to prolonged change of state, in THE MECHANISM OF which there is community – level loss LANGUAGE DEATH of competence in a language. The

81 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 process of language death is not sudden, are Hoti, Hukumina, Hulung, Serua, meaning that it does not affect all Te’un, Palumata, Loun, Moksela, speakers at the same time nor to the Naka’ela, Nila, Ternateno, Ibu, Saponi same extent. A language is declared as a and Mapia (Masnoneh, 2017, p.54). In dead language when there are no native addition, Kayeli, Piru, Tandia and speakers left, or when there is only one Mawes are also in the list of extinct speaker left, with no member of the languages in this country (Siregar and younger generation speak it, though the Ezry, 2017). language may still live in a recorded, Some factors are responsible for such as in writing, sound, or vidio language extinction, and they are archieve (Crystal, 2000; Mufwene, interrelated to such an extent. Crystal 2004). (2000, p.70-76) explains that to see the However, languages can also die. cause of language death, we have to To name a few of extinct languages are know factors that put people in danger. Bithynian, Cilician, Pisidian, Phrygian, A language lives as long as the speakers Paphlagonian, Etruscan, Sumerian, live. Therefore, any direct threats to the Elamite, and Hittite. These are dead safety of the life of a community can languages that the records can be found cause a language to be endangered, or in various forms, such as in inscriptions, extinct. The threats can be natural clay tablets, or documents. The exact disasters, famine, diseases, and wars. number of ancient dead languages, that For example, in 1918, the speakers of had no records, is obscure (Crystal, – a language that once 2000, p 68-69). Although the list may was spoken in Central , not be complete, we can easily find the Indonesia - experienced earthquake and list of new dead languages around the tsunami that killed many of its speakers world from websites such as Wikipedia (Tondo, 2009, p. 288). According to and linguistlist. The most recent dead Ethnologue, the population of its languages recorded are Mandan, speakers in 1984 was 50 speakers. Wichita, Gugu Thaypan, and Nuchatlaht Today, in 2018, the status of the dialect of Nuu-chah-nulth which died in language is nearly extinct. An example 2016 along with the death of the last of language death due to natural speakers. Dead languages In Indonesia disasters was due to a 7.1 Richter

82 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 earthquake off the coast of E. Saundaun intermarriage. This factors have nothing Province, New Guinea on July to do with the safety of the life of the 1998. The earthquake destroyed four people. They live well and still inhabit villages: Sissano, Warupu, Arop, and their traditional territory, but their Malol that killed over 2.200 people and language is declining from generation to displaced over 10.000 people. 30% of generation and eventually disappears, the Arop and Warupu villagers were replaced by other language (Crystal, killed, while the survivors moved to 2000, 2003; Mufwene, 2005; Phillipson, other place. The problem is, each 1992; Tondo, 2009). Cultural villages has distinct linguistic assimilation is responsible for many characteristics. According to language dissapearance. It is often Ethnologue in 1996 before the followed by a heavy language contact earthquake, the population of these four that triggers deep borrowing, language villages was already small: Sissano had shift, and language death (Myers- only 4,776 based on 1990 census; Malol Scotton, 1992, p. 31-58). In cultural had 3.330; Arop had 1.700 based on assimilation, there is often a dominant census in 1981; and Warupu had 1.602 culture bringing a dominant language in 1983. Because of the earthquake, that finally outlasts and kills the their languages were threatened by a indigeous language, but we cannot shap decline of their speakers (Crystal, blame a single factor. Speakers’ 2000, p 71). Although I have not find negative attitude toward their own the current status of these languages in language and language policy made by 2018, we can predict that these government also contribute to its languages are in endangered list if they endangerement leading to its death are not extinct yet. (Azhar, 2011, p.52-56). The change of Second, the cause of language ecological environment also contributes death comes from the change in to language extinction on lexical level people’s culture as the product of (Simanjuntak, 2017, p.490-502). cultural assimilation through In this context, Ibrahim (2011) colonization - such as in America, explains thoroughly the triggers for Australia and New Zealand-, language death that can be summarized globalization, urbanization, and into three main reasons. The first is the

83 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 language choice of a multicultural Sultanate, Ibu was pressed by community. When most people choose language. In that time, to use a language other than their own was lingua franca for people in North language in their daily life Maluku, and served as a royal language. communication, the mother tongue will For Ibu speakers, Ternate language was gradually lose its speaker and finally their second language. Due to its status comes to its death unless there is an as lingua franca and royal language, it effort to revitalize it. Like a living slowly but sure decreased the number of organism, the situation makes it difficult Ibu speakers in next generation. After to reproduce. Indonesian independence day, where This first reason is connected with Bahasa Indonesia becomes the national the second main reason, namely a language, the pressure came from pressure of a more powerful language Malay Ternate. The need to use Malay which plays a vital role in many aspects Ternate in many aspects of life: in of life, such as in social, economy, economy, social mobility, and politic, and education. For a education, strengthens its position as the multilingual nation like Indonesia, the language of cross ethnics (Ibrahim, need for a lingua franca is undeniable, 2011, p.42-43). though it may endanger the life of many In a situation where the society local languages as it, to some an extent, face a dominant and powerful language, is narrowing down the domain of local parents tend to teach a language other language use. Today, local languages than their local language due to the lack are mainly used in informal situation. of pride or prestige of the language. Language pressure from a more When most parents do not use the dominant and powerful language is not language to their children, there is no a new phenomenon. It has been process of passing the language down to happening from centuries. Take Ibu - the next generation (Ibrahim, 2011, p. the newly extinct local language in 42). This is the third reason. Vitality of Indonesia that once spoken in villages a language very much depends on the including Gam Ici, Gam Lamo, and younger generation. The increasing Tongute Ternate in West - decrease of the number of young as an example. During the Ternate speakers harms the life of the language.

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Once the process of passing down the and flu severely reduced the Trumai language stopped, and the last speakers population. There were only 18 died, the language itself will come to its individuals left in 1952. In the end, bringing all the knowledge, culture, following years, started and humanity’s intelectual wealth marrying people from other tribes, comprised in it. Ibu is the example. The leading to the introduction of other country witnessed the process of falling languages into Trumai village. In 1960s, number of Ibu speakers, causing its the Trumai people lived on the Suya death. According to the data in 1987, Misu River where they started to get Ibu had 35 speakers. In 2008, the exposure to Brazilian Portuguese number decreased sharply into only five language through their contact with speakers aged above 50 (Ibrahim, 2011, their neighbors, Juruna and Kajabi p.41). In 2015, Ibu has been listed as groups. For Juruna and Kajabi, (Republika, 2015). Portuguese was their lingua franca. In To some languages, the process of 1970s, Trumai people moved to the their endangerement and death come main governmental office. The people from the combination of factors that got more exposure to Portuguese harms the life of the people and that language, because the place where they change their culture. Trumai language lived was the core site of indigenist, in is the example. Trumai tourist, anthropological and political language is used by Trumai people. maelstrom. Many people came from They live in Xingu reserve, state of Brazil and abroad for different purposes , central region of Brazil. and time of settlement. Here, they also This language is moribund accoring to had contact with white men who were ethnologue, meaning that the speakers working in governmental office. In left are old and few in number, and it is 1980s, there was an increasing contact no longer transmitted to younger with white men. The introduction of generation. The language has not been industrial products and easy access to listed in the list of extinct language, but medication established the influence of now it is in the queue waiting for its Portuguese, although they had moved to death because of epidemics and cultural an area far from the governmental contact. In 1950s, epidemics of measles office. In this time, they started to leave

85 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 traditional ceremonies and festivities. In spoken as everyday speech in the 1990s, easy access to cities led to western third of the island of Java, and dramatic contact with outsiders. And, it is the identity of Sundanese tribe. In the group became dispersed after terms of numbers, according to the data internal confict that initiated some of cited in Dictionary of Languages Trumai families to move to other (Dalby, 2006), it is Indonesia’s third locations. In this time, they performed language, spoken by nearly one-sixth of fewer and fewer traditional ceremonies. the national population. The introduction of television also had Sundanese has three different bad influence on the tradition of script, as it was affected by three storytelling. At this point, their different cultures. Aksara is Sanskrit- language and culture were apprehensive affected script that is no longer used, because the transmission of Trumai though it is still learnt at schools. Arabic language and culture to young transcript came along with the generation started to stop. The children widespread of Islamic teaching. It is were speaking Portuguese instead of still used mainly in traditional Islamic Trumai (Becquelin et al., 2008, p.43- boarding school. The most generally 47). In sum, language endangerement used transcript is Latin, introduces by and language death are a complex the Dutch during the collonialism. process that are not generally caused by According to Ethnologue, a single factor. Sundanese is in developing status, meaning that it is in vigorous use, and it has literature in a standardized form, C. PRESENT CONDITION OF though the literature is not widespread SUNDANESE AND LESSON or sustainable. In other words, the FROM EXTINCT language is still in a healthy status. LANGUAGES However, it seems that many parents Sundanese is a language that has today prefer using Bahasa Indonesia to approximately 32.400.000 speakers, Sundanese to communicate with their according to the census in 2015 as cited children. Codeswitching and by Ethnologue (Eberhard et al., 2019). codemixing are common. Many Sundanese belongs to the group of children also actively communicate in major that is

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Bahasa Indonesia, and acquire it as their such as the example of colors in the first language. There is also a tendency following table. Many children seem to among children toward lexical feel strange hearing the name of color in alleniation. For example, in the naming Sundanese. Note that Sundanese has of color, I encounter many children who many terms to describe colors. Each are more familiar with the name of color gradation has different name. colors in Indonesian than in Sundanese

No Color English Translation 1 Bodas White

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Bodas ngeplak Very white Bodas nyacas Very white 2 Koneng Yellow Koneng umyang Golden yellow Koneng enay Very yellow Koneng koleas Sheer yellow, the color is faded Koneng saheab Sheer yellow Koneng gedang The color is like pappaya fruit asak 3 Beureum Red Beureum euceuy Very red, like the color of blood Beureum ati Red like the color of heart Beureum cabe Red like the color of chilli Kasumba Pink Kayas Light pink, sheer pink 4 Hejo Green Hejo bagedod, Very green hejo ngagedod, hejo binetot Hejo pucuk cau Green like the color of young leaf of banana tree Hejo botol Dark green Hejo lukut Dark green like the color of moss Hejo carulang Smooth green. The color is always associated with a beautiful girl with smooth skin 5 Hideung Black Hideung lestreng Very black Hideung santen Clean and beatiful black. The color is always associated with a person who has smooth brown skin. The skin is clean and beautiful Hideung lagedu Dirty black. The color is always associated with a person who has dirty brown skin Hideung meles Shiny black Geunteul Pale. It is always used to refer to pale lips because a person feels cold Table 1. Colors’ names in Sundanese In this situation, based on my categorize children into three groups. daily encounter with many children, I First, they understand and speak

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Sundanese, but mix the vocabulary with Language pressure also comes Indonesian. Second, they understand from English, though it does not Sundanese, but speak Indonesian. They influence too much on Sundanese are passive language users. The last, people. Many teachers reported they speak Indonesian and do not unsuccessful English teaching showed understand Sundanese. However, this by students score. However, I categorization is not based on a formal personally find some Sundanese parents research, and there has not been a who believe that the younger their survey about the number of each group. children learn English, the better. For Therefore, many aspects on this area them, their childern need to speak in a needs investigating, including parents global language. They create an and children’s language preference from environment where they speak English generation to generation and how big and Bahasa Indonesia, with no place for is happening in Sundanese to grow. The proportion of Sundanese children so that we can English is bigger that Indonesian. I predict the vitality of the language in witnessed the children’s mastery of two to three generations from now. Indonesian is not better than English. At this moment, publication in Normally, parents of children speaking Sundanese is limited. There are books english are postgraduate students. A written in Sundanese, but as far as I can further research needs to be conducted see, children get more exposure to to see the correlation between parents’ books in Bahasa Indonesia. The latter education and their language language is only used mostly in preference. informal situation. Television, book, In big cities like Tangerang and signs on the street, language instruction , regardless of their ethnic at schools mostly use Bahasa Indonesia. background, I find a small group of In other words, the domain use of children who actively communicate in Sundanese is narrowing down. The English. They speak English not in a survival of this language in the nest classroom environment. They speak generations will very much depend on with their parents at mall, book store, the attitude of parents now. playground, and other public places. In my first impression, they speak fluently

89 |Jurnal Makna Volume 4, No. 1 Maret 2019 so I conclude that English is their first enter a global world. But we need to language. It is interesting because realize, that we also need to preserve Indonesia is not British colony. English our root, our heritage, our cultural is brought to Indonesia through formal wealth. The following is a more and informal education, supported by thorough explanation on this issue. globalization of mass media. The world 1. Diversity is important. is very widely open through internet that English is everywhere. The position Language diversity is important of is also strenghtened for the life of a culture, for cultures are to such an extent by language policy. chiefly transmitted through spoken and From the explanation about the written languages. When a language mechanism of language death, we can dies, there will be a loss of inherited see that language death is a gradual knowledge about the world and a loss of process, starting mostly from language cultural wealth. A language constitutes shift because of intertwined factors. As human understanding and description of Sundanese apparently undergoes the world. If there are 6000 living shifting, the people should be aware that languages in the world, we are rich. The this language conflict may lead to loss of language diversity is comparable language extinction unless there is an to the loss of cultural richness. Russian effort to make sure that the language is writer Vjaceslav Ivanov, as cited by transferred to young generation. Crystal (2000, p.36), writes: Then, why should we care about Each language constitues a local language? Some reasons underlie certain model of the universe, a semiotic system of my argument that preserving local understanding the world, and if language is important, without setting we have 4000 different ways to describe the world, this makes aside the need to master Indonesian and us rich. We should be English. In this time, these two concerned about preserving languages just as we are about languages are importat as they serve as ecology. lingua franca. Indonesian bridges multi ethnics and has become the identity of 2. Languages are identity Indonesian citizen. The mastery of Identity refers to something that English is important as well, in order to makes people recognizably the same.

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Identity can be in the form of physical “seer pisan” Therefore, when we meet appearance, local customs such as dress, someone speaking “loba jasa”, we can beliefs, rituals, and the whole panoply identify that he(she) comes from of personal behaviours. Above all, Tangerang. language is the primary symbol of 3. Languages are repositories of identity, the emblem of its speakers history (Crystal, 2000 p. 39-40). When a Languages are repositories of person speaks other language than history as they store information about his(her) ethnic language, we can the contact cultures went through in a indentify his(her) identity of his(her) very long process of language birth. tribe through his(her) dialect. We From their vocabularies, we can trace further sometimes can locate his(her) back the history of cultures and the homeland. For an instance, some surrounding environment in the past, in Sundanese vocabularies, to refer to the which the languages are used. In other same meaning, in Tangerang are words, languages encapsulate their different with those in Sukabumi. speakers’ history. Sundanese, as an People in Tangerang will say jasa when instance, has some vocabularies that to they want to say “very”. For example, some extent have similarity with “very much”, they will say “loba jasa”. javanese. The following is the example: For Sukabumi people, “very” is “pisan”. So, they will say “loba pisan”. Another difference between Sundanese in Tangerang and in Sukabumi is its’ degree of politeness. In Tangerang, “loba” is polite. So it is not wrong to say “loba jasa” to older people. For Sukabumi people, the sentence “loba pisan” will be slightly rude if they use it to older people. They will prefer to say

Numerals in Javanese and Sundanese Numbers Javanese Ngoko Sundanese

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1 Siji Hiji 2 Loro Dua 3 Telu Tilu 4 Papat Opat 5 Lima Lima 6 Enem Genep 7 Pitu Tujuh 8 Walu Dalapan 9 Sanga Salapan 10 Sepuluh Sapuluh Table 2. Numerals in Javanese and Sundanese This similarity shows history that mean tuang, neda, dahar, nyatu, Sundanese and Javanese had cultural lelebok, ngawadang, jajablog, lolodok. contact. Sundanese also has loanwords Another example is the classification of from arabic, such as duniya, niyat, abdi, “river” depending on the size. It can and saum. These loanwords store means wahangan or susukan. This information about Islamic spreading in infomation dissipates when the number the community. The Dutch collonialism of the speakers is decreasing or dead. also influenced Sundanese vocabury. What the Kallawaya of Bolivia know Sepur, langsam, and masinis are about medical plants, how the Yupik of loanwords from the Dutch. Alaska name 99 district sea ice formations, how the Tofa of Siberia 4. Languages are humanity’s classify reindeera, are the domain of intellectual wealth. ancient knowledge that are rapidly eroding along with the decreasing of the Languages are humanity’s speakers. Therefore, language death intellectual wealth because they store leads to the death a culture, in which the information about the world that people’s knowledge about the world are manifest in their speakers’ mind and embedded. Because of this reason, mouth. The example of how rich is Harrison (2010) wrote a book about the Sundanese can be seen in their last speakers of some endangered vocabularies. The word “eating” in languages to document their life as well Sundanese refers to many words as their language. depending on to whom we speak. It can

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D. CONCLUSION interesting to study. The result of the The discussion on the mechanism proposed study can be used in language of language death reminds us that policy, to protect Sundanese language. language is like a living organism that can be unhealthy and come to its death. REFERENCES The process is mostly not sudden, Azhar, I.N. (2011). Saat-Saat Kritis involving shifting in some generations. Bahasa Cia-Cia. Prosodi: Jurnal Language death is caused by many Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra. Volume distinctive intertwined factors. 5, Issue 2. 52-64. Sundanese is a language with big Becquelin, A.M., de Vienne, E., and population, but language shift is Guirardello-Damian, R. (2008). apparently happening in the younger Working Together: The Interface generation. The status of Sundanese as a Between Researchers and the big living language should not make us Native People-the Trumai Case. forget that our attitude toward In K.D. Harrison, D.S. Rood, and Sundanese influences its life, as attitude A. Dwyer (Eds.), Lessons from affects our language preference in Documented Endangered speaking with our children. Children Languages (pp. 43-66). has a critical age in which they easily Amsterdam: John Benjamins acquire a language. Protecting the Publishing Company. wealth of Sundanese is highly Cohn, A.C., and Ravindranath, M. correlated with transmitting it to a very (2014). Local Languages in young generation, because the life of a Indonesia: Language Maintenance language is dependent on them. The or Language Shift? Linguistik phenomenon of language shift in Indonesia. Volume 32, Issue 2. Sundanese is open for quantitative and 131-148. qualitative study by researchers. There Collinge, N.E. (1990). Language As It should be a research on language Evolves: Tracing Its Form and preference related with parents’ Families. In N.E. Collinge (Ed.), educational background, or language An Encyclopaedia of Language maintenance in younger generation. The (pp. 473-496). London: number of language loss is also Routledge.

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