THESE TERMS GOVERN YOUR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT

Your use of this Ontario Geological Survey document (the “Content”) is governed by the terms set out on this page (“Terms of Use”). By downloading this Content, you (the “User”) have accepted, and have agreed to be bound by, the Terms of Use.

Content: This Content is offered by the Province of Ontario’s Ministry of Northern Development and Mines (MNDM) as a public service, on an “as-is” basis. Recommendations and statements of opinion expressed in the Content are those of the author or authors and are not to be construed as statement of government policy. You are solely responsible for your use of the Content. You should not rely on the Content for legal advice nor as authoritative in your particular circumstances. Users should verify the accuracy and applicability of any Content before acting on it. MNDM does not guarantee, or make any warranty express or implied, that the Content is current, accurate, complete or reliable. MNDM is not responsible for any damage however caused, which results, directly or indirectly, from your use of the Content. MNDM assumes no legal liability or responsibility for the Content whatsoever.

Links to Other Web Sites: This Content may contain links, to Web sites that are not operated by MNDM. Linked Web sites may not be available in French. MNDM neither endorses nor assumes any responsibility for the safety, accuracy or availability of linked Web sites or the information contained on them. The linked Web sites, their operation and content are the responsibility of the person or entity for which they were created or maintained (the “Owner”). Both your use of a linked Web site, and your right to use or reproduce information or materials from a linked Web site, are subject to the terms of use governing that particular Web site. Any comments or inquiries regarding a linked Web site must be directed to its Owner.

Copyright: Canadian and international intellectual property laws protect the Content. Unless otherwise indicated, copyright is held by the Queen’s Printer for Ontario.

It is recommended that reference to the Content be made in the following form: , . ; Ontario Geological Survey, , p.

Use and Reproduction of Content: The Content may be used and reproduced only in accordance with applicable intellectual property laws. Non-commercial use of unsubstantial excerpts of the Content is permitted provided that appropriate credit is given and Crown copyright is acknowledged. Any substantial reproduction of the Content or any commercial use of all or part of the Content is prohibited without the prior written permission of MNDM. Substantial reproduction includes the reproduction of any illustration or figure, such as, but not limited to graphs, charts and maps. Commercial use includes commercial distribution of the Content, the reproduction of multiple copies of the Content for any purpose whether or not commercial, use of the Content in commercial publications, and the creation of value-added products using the Content.

Contact:

FOR FURTHER PLEASE CONTACT: BY TELEPHONE: BY E-MAIL: INFORMATION ON The Reproduction of MNDM Publication Local: (705) 670-5691 Content Services Toll Free: 1-888-415-9845, ext. [email protected] 5691 (inside Canada, United States) The Purchase of MNDM Publication Local: (705) 670-5691 MNDM Publications Sales Toll Free: 1-888-415-9845, ext. [email protected] 5691 (inside Canada, United States) Crown Copyright Queen’s Printer Local: (416) 326-2678 [email protected] Toll Free: 1-800-668-9938 (inside Canada, United States)

LES CONDITIONS CI-DESSOUS RÉGISSENT L'UTILISATION DU PRÉSENT DOCUMENT.

Votre utilisation de ce document de la Commission géologique de l'Ontario (le « contenu ») est régie par les conditions décrites sur cette page (« conditions d'utilisation »). En téléchargeant ce contenu, vous (l'« utilisateur ») signifiez que vous avez accepté d'être lié par les présentes conditions d'utilisation.

Contenu : Ce contenu est offert en l'état comme service public par le ministère du Développement du Nord et des Mines (MDNM) de la province de l'Ontario. Les recommandations et les opinions exprimées dans le contenu sont celles de l'auteur ou des auteurs et ne doivent pas être interprétées comme des énoncés officiels de politique gouvernementale. Vous êtes entièrement responsable de l'utilisation que vous en faites. Le contenu ne constitue pas une source fiable de conseils juridiques et ne peut en aucun cas faire autorité dans votre situation particulière. Les utilisateurs sont tenus de vérifier l'exactitude et l'applicabilité de tout contenu avant de l'utiliser. Le MDNM n'offre aucune garantie expresse ou implicite relativement à la mise à jour, à l'exactitude, à l'intégralité ou à la fiabilité du contenu. Le MDNM ne peut être tenu responsable de tout dommage, quelle qu'en soit la cause, résultant directement ou indirectement de l'utilisation du contenu. Le MDNM n'assume aucune responsabilité légale de quelque nature que ce soit en ce qui a trait au contenu.

Liens vers d'autres sites Web : Ce contenu peut comporter des liens vers des sites Web qui ne sont pas exploités par le MDNM. Certains de ces sites pourraient ne pas être offerts en français. Le MDNM se dégage de toute responsabilité quant à la sûreté, à l'exactitude ou à la disponibilité des sites Web ainsi reliés ou à l'information qu'ils contiennent. La responsabilité des sites Web ainsi reliés, de leur exploitation et de leur contenu incombe à la personne ou à l'entité pour lesquelles ils ont été créés ou sont entretenus (le « propriétaire »). Votre utilisation de ces sites Web ainsi que votre droit d'utiliser ou de reproduire leur contenu sont assujettis aux conditions d'utilisation propres à chacun de ces sites. Tout commentaire ou toute question concernant l'un de ces sites doivent être adressés au propriétaire du site.

Droits d'auteur : Le contenu est protégé par les lois canadiennes et internationales sur la propriété intellectuelle. Sauf indication contraire, les droits d'auteurs appartiennent à l'Imprimeur de la Reine pour l'Ontario. Nous recommandons de faire paraître ainsi toute référence au contenu : nom de famille de l'auteur, initiales, année de publication, titre du document, Commission géologique de l'Ontario, série et numéro de publication, nombre de pages.

Utilisation et reproduction du contenu : Le contenu ne peut être utilisé et reproduit qu'en conformité avec les lois sur la propriété intellectuelle applicables. L'utilisation de courts extraits du contenu à des fins non commerciales est autorisé, à condition de faire une mention de source appropriée reconnaissant les droits d'auteurs de la Couronne. Toute reproduction importante du contenu ou toute utilisation, en tout ou en partie, du contenu à des fins commerciales est interdite sans l'autorisation écrite préalable du MDNM. Une reproduction jugée importante comprend la reproduction de toute illustration ou figure comme les graphiques, les diagrammes, les cartes, etc. L'utilisation commerciale comprend la distribution du contenu à des fins commerciales, la reproduction de copies multiples du contenu à des fins commerciales ou non, l'utilisation du contenu dans des publications commerciales et la création de produits à valeur ajoutée à l'aide du contenu.

Renseignements :

POUR PLUS DE VEUILLEZ VOUS PAR TÉLÉPHONE : PAR COURRIEL : RENSEIGNEMENTS SUR ADRESSER À : la reproduction du Services de Local : (705) 670-5691 contenu publication du MDNM Numéro sans frais : 1 888 415-9845, [email protected] poste 5691 (au Canada et aux États-Unis) l'achat des Vente de publications Local : (705) 670-5691 publications du MDNM du MDNM Numéro sans frais : 1 888 415-9845, [email protected] poste 5691 (au Canada et aux États-Unis) les droits d'auteurs de Imprimeur de la Local : 416 326-2678 [email protected] la Couronne Reine Numéro sans frais : 1 800 668-9938 (au Canada et aux États-Unis)

LIMESTONE INDUSTRIES OF ONTARIO

Volume l — Geology, Properties and Economics Paleozoic Geology of Ontario Precambrian Carbonate Resources Properties, Specifications and Uses Production, Economics and Markets

Volume II — Limestone Industries and Resources of Eastern and Northern Ontario Eastern Ontario Cornwall District Carleton Place District Brockville District Napanee District Tweed District Pembroke District Northern Ontario Espanola District Blind River District Cobalt District Moosonee District

Volume III — Limestone Industries and Resources of Central and Southwestern Ontario Central Ontario Lindsay and Minden Districts Huronia District Maple District Cambridge District Niagara District Southwestern Ontario Owen Sound District Simcoe District Aylmer District Wingham District Chatham District Limestone Industries of Ontario

Volume l Geology, Properties and Economics

Prepared for the Aggregate Resources Section, Land Management Branch, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

by Derry Michener Booth and Wahl and Staff of the Engineering and Terrain Geology Section, Ontario Geological Survey, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines

Ontario G^olo^lc^l Survey GEOSCIENCE DATA CENTRE

JUNO 1989 RECEIVED

Ministry of Ministry of Natural Northern Development Resources and Mines Vincent G. Kerrio Sean Conway Ontario Minister Minister 1989 Queen©s Printer for Ontario ISBN 0-7729-3533-5 (3v. set) Printed in Ontario, Canada ISBN 0-7729-3534-3 (v. 1)

Current publications of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, and price lists, are obtainable through the Ministry of Natural Resources Public Information Centre, Room 1640, Whitney Block, 99 Wellesley St. West, Toronto, Ontario M7A 1W3 (personal shopping and mail orders). And: Personal shopping: Publications Ontario, Main Floor, 880 Bay St., Toronto. Mail orders: MGS Publication Services Section, 5th Floor, 880 Bay St., Toronto, Ontario M7A 1N8. Telephone 965-6015. Toll free long distance 1-800-268-7540, in Area Code 807 dial 0-Zenith 67200. Cheques or money orders should be made payable to the Treasurer of Ontario, and payment must accompany order.

Every possible effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this report, but the Ministry of Natural Resources does not assume any liability for errors that may occur. Source references are included in the report and users may wish to verify critical information.

Parts of this publication may be quoted if credit is given. It is recommended that reference be made in the following form: Derry Michener Booth and Wahl and Ontario Geological Survey 1989: Limestone Industries of Ontario, Volume I Geology, Properties and Economics; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Land Management Branch, 158p.

Cover photo of St. Marys Cement plant is courtesy of St. Marys Cement.

IV Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to industry personnel and landowners who allowed close examination of their properties, and who generously provided product lists and plant flowcharts. The members of the study©s steering committee made a valuable contribution to the study by guiding the authors, providing materials and reviewing the report. A large study such as this is completed only through the efforts of many people. The geological/mining engineering firm, Derry Michener Booth and Wahl, was the lead consultant and was responsible for the plant inventory and descriptions. Staff who prepared the material included David Wahl, Martin Taylor, Wes Roberts and Charles Pitcher, with the assistance of W.G. Wahl, Wahlex Ltd., G. Robert Guillet, Consultant, and Jack Kriens, IMD Laboratories. Don Hains of Hains Technology Associates was responsible for the material on commodities and economics of the limestone industries. Mr. Hains and Mr. W.G. Wahl prepared the plant descriptions for cement, lime and fillers opera tions. Staff of the Engineering and Terrain Geology Section, Ontario Geological Survey of the Ministry of Northern Development and Mines prepared the geologi cal description of each site as well as the regional descriptions of the geology of limestone and related carbonate rocks in Volume I. This work was supervised by Dr. Owen White, Chief, Engineering and Terrain Geology Section, and Mike Johnson, Acting Supervisor, Paleozoic/Mesozoic Geology Sub-Section. Staff in volved in preparing the site descriptions included Dr. Max Vos, Rainer Wolf, Ruth Bezys, Derek Armstrong, Julie Stevenson-Demeester, Val Mazur, and Chris Fouts. Dr. Peter Telford of the Mineral Development and Lands Branch, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines assisted in the interpretation of geological data and the review of the report. The project was initiated by the Aggregate Resources Section, Ministry of Natural Resources, under the direction of Dale Scott. Geoff Bell was the project coordinator and report editor.

Preface

Products from the limestone industries find their way into many of the items that are essential to our modern way of life. In one way or another, the output of the various members of the limestone industries is used in constructing or manufac turing items as diverse as office towers, homes, transportation networks, steel, glass, paper, or rubber products. This report examines Ontario©s limestone industries from two perspectives: the geological resource, including limestone, dolostone, marble and carbonatites; and secondly, the various industries which rely on these resources to manufacture products which are vital to Ontario©s economy. These products include construc tion aggregate, cement, lime, fillers and extenders, building stone and pulverized stone. In order to undertake a study on such a large and important economic sector, a steering committee was struck to formulate the terms of reference for the study and guide the research and field work through to the report stage. Members of the steering committee were: D Dale Scott, Chairman, Ministry of Natural Resources o Norris Walker, Aggregate Producers© Association of Ontario n Vie Perry, Canadian Portland Cement Association n Don Stonehouse, Energy Mines and Resources Canada n Dr. Owen White, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines n Dr. Peter Telford, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines D Dr. Max Vos, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines n Mike Johnson, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines a Zoltan Katona, Ministry of Transportation Q Chris Rogers, Ministry of Transportation n Geoff Bell, Executive Secretary, Ministry of Natural Resources The study brings together the most up to date geological information pertain ing to carbonate rocks and describes the current operations of the members of the limestone industry. In addition, information on the economics of the various commodities is presented in order to give a more complete picture of this re source activity. Field work and data compilation were performed in 1986 and 1987. The authors have attempted to incorporate changes in plant design and ownership up until summer 1988. The geological and plant site descriptions are organized based on the Ministry of Natural Resources administrative districts. This approach was taken to accom modate the multi-commodity nature of the industry, as well as to facilitate review of the material. This format also allows district updates of activity to be produced easily at a future date. Metric units are used in the geological descriptions throughout the report, and in parts of the plant and operations descriptions. Since plant equipment is normally sized in Imperial units, these measurements have not been converted to metric units for ease of presentation. VIII Contents

Introduction

Part l Paleozoic Geology of Ontario ...... 3 Summary ...... 4 The Michigan Basin ...... 4 The Appalachian Basin ...... 4 The Algonquin Arch ...... 4 The Frontenac Axis ...... 4 Eastern Ontario (Cornwall, Carleton Place, Brockville, Napanee and Pembroke Districts) ...... 9 Potsdam Group ...... 9 Beekmantown Group ...... 9 Ottawa Group ...... 11 Central Ontario (Huronia, Lindsay, Tweed, and Napanee Districts) . . . . . 14 Simcoe Group \ ...... 14 Niagara Escarpment (Niagara, Cambridge, Huronia, Owen Sound Districts) ...... 17 Cataract Group ...... 17 Clinton Group ...... 18 Amabel and Lockport Formations ...... 19 Guelph Formation ...... 19 Southwestern Ontario (Niagara, Simcoe, Aylmer, Chatham, and Wingham Districts) ...... 21 Salina Formation ...... 21 Bertie and Bass Islands Formations ...... 21 Oriskany Formation ...... 22 Bois Blanc Formation ...... 22 Onondaga Formation ...... 22 Detroit River Group ...... 22 Dundee Formation ...... 23 Marcellus Formation, Hamilton Group, Kettle Point Formation, and the Port Lambton Group ...... 23 Northern Ontario ...... 24 Northern Lake Huron ...... 24 Lake Timiskaming Area ...... 25 Hudson Bay/James Bay Lowlands and the Moose River Basin . . . 25 References Cited ...... 27

Part 2 Precambrian Carbonate Resources ...... 29 Marble ...... 30 Kenora ...... 30 Thunder Bay ...... 30 Sudbury ...... 31 Southeastern Ontario ...... 31 Central Gneiss Belt, Grenville Province ...... 31 Central Metasedimentary Belt ...... 31 Renfrew ...... 32 Coe Hill ...... 32 Carleton Place ...... 32 Kaladar ...... 33 Westport ...... 33 Calcite Veins ...... 34

IX Carbonatites ...... 36 Ontario Deposits ...... 36 Firesand River Complex ...... 36 Prairie Lake Complex ...... 36 Cargill Complex ...... 36 Spanish River Complex ...... 37 Marl ...... 38 References Cited ...... 39

Part 3 — Properties, Specifications and Uses of Limestone Commodities ...... 41 Limestone Aggregates ...... 42 Sources ...... 42 Production Technology ...... 42 Stone Specifications ...... 45 Other Uses ...... 51 Cement ...... 52 Types of Cements ...... 52 Cement Manufacture - Materials ...... 54 Cement Manufacture Technology ...... 54 Cement Uses ...... 60 Lime, Chemical and Metallurgical Stone ...... 62 Lime ...... 62 Lime Manufacture ...... 62 Lime Kilns ...... 63 Forms Of Lime ...... 66 Lime Hydration ...... 67 Lime Specifications ...... 67 Uses ...... 67 Fillers and Extenders ...... 73 Ontario Occurrences and Producers ...... 73 Extraction and Processing ...... 74 Specifications ...... 76 Uses ...... 77 Building Stone ...... 81 Definitions of Building Stone ...... 81 Properties of Building Stone ...... 82 Quarrying Methods ...... 82 Hand Quarrying ...... 82 Knox Method ...... 83 Channelling by Drilling and Broaching ...... 83 Wire Saw Method ...... 83 Stone Dressing ...... 83 Pulverized Stone and Stone Chips ...... 84 Introduction ...... 84 Terrazzo Chips ...... 84 White Marble Chips ...... 84 References Cited ...... 86

Part 4 — Production, Economics and Markets for Limestone Commodities ...... 87 Limestone Aggregates ...... 88 Demand ...... 88 Aggregate Supply ...... 91 Production Costs ...... 91 Prices ...... 92 Transportation Costs ...... 92 Technological Developments ...... 93 Cement ...... 94 Ontario Cement Producers ...... 94 Ontario Cement Production ...... 95 Cement Demand ...... 96 Cement Trade ...... 103 Cement Prices ...... 104 Cement Production Costs ...... 106 Cement Distribution ...... 106 Lime, Chemical and Metallurgical Stone ...... 109 Lime ...... 109 Chemical Process Stone ...... 112 Metallurgical Stone ...... 114 Fillers and Extenders ...... 116 Markets ...... 116 Prices ...... 117 Canadian Demand ...... 119 Canadian Developments ...... 119 Building Stone ...... 120 Building Stone Markets ...... 120 Pulverized Stone and Stone Chips ...... 121 Terrazzo Chips ...... 121 White Marble Chips ...... 121 References Cited ...... 122

Appendices ...... 123 Appendix I Glossary Of Geological Terms ...... 124 Appendix II Crystallinity Classification ...... 128 Appendix III Bibliography ...... 129 Appendix IV Inventory of All Known Paleozoic Limestone Quarries in Ontario ...... 140

XI

Introduction

Ontario is fortunate in possessing ample resources of limestone and related car bonate rocks, including dolostone, marble and carbonatite. The rocks, which consist primarily of calcium carbonate, have many uses in today©s economy. This report examines Ontario©s limestone resources as well as the industries which rely on them: crushed stone aggregates; cement; lime, chemical and met allurgical stone; fillers and extenders; building stone; and pulverized stone. These industries supply the materials upon which Ontario©s construction and transportation infrastructure rely. In addition, many limestone products are used in industrial processes which manufacture a host of products such as steel, chemicals, paper and composite materials. This report attempts to capture the many aspects of the resource sector. The geology of Ontario©s carbonate rocks has received considerable attention over the last fifteen years. Part l of Volume I deals with the geology of Paleo zoic limestone formations on a regional scale. Part l integrates all the recent interpretation of stratigraphy, lithology and nomenclature. This is particularly important in southeastern Ontario which relies heavily on bedrock aggregates because of a shortage of sand and gravel aggregate. The geology of southeastern Ontario has been analyzed in depth by geologists of the Ontario Geological Survey over the past eight years. The latest interpretation of the bedrock forma tions is presented. Part 2 describes the geology of marble deposits in southeast ern Ontario, and carbonatites in northern Ontario, as well as calcite veins and marl deposits. Part 3 of Volume I describes the main limestone industries in Ontario. The commodities of the various sectors are examined in light of physical characteris tics, processing techniques, end-uses and specifications of products. Part 4 describes the economics of each of the limestone industries, and deals with factors such as energy and transportation costs, prices, and compet ing products which determine the viability and competitiveness of the various products. An outlook for the commodities is given. Volumes II and III of the report describe the geology, plant, processing and products of the active members of the industry. Volume II includes the opera tions which are located in northern and southeastern Ontario. Volume III ex amines the sites in south central and southwestern Ontario. The two volumes consist of detailed site-by-site inventories of each operation. The site invento ries include a geological interpretation of the exposed rock in the quarry, a description of the operator©s quarry operations and stone processing plant, plus a products list and in many instances a plant flowchart. In addition to commer cial sites, many sites with important geological features are included in the in ventory. In the almost thirty years since the late Don Hewitt authored the first study of this type (Hewitt, 1960), many changes have taken place in Ontario©s econ omy. The limestone industries have kept pace with this change, achieving higher production rates with lower energy, labour and raw material input. The primary value for the various products manufactured by the limestone industries is currently approaching one billion dollars annually. The limestone industries are positioned to remain a vital segment of Ontario©s economy well into the 21st century.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics l Limestone Industries of Ontario Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics Summary

The Paleozoic strata in Ontario occur in a broad arc (Johnson et al., 1985), and averages about 400 m across which stretches from Ottawa and the Quebec border, the Province. Table 1.1 is a list of average thickness for southwest across the southern peninsula of the province formations used by the limestone industry. to Windsor (Figure 1.1, Chart, back pocket). Paleozoic Major structural elements which affected Paleozoic rocks also occur to the north along the Bruce Peninsula deposition across southern Ontario are as follows and across the north end of Lake Huron, and underlie (Figure 1.4): Manitoulin, Cockburn, and St. Joseph islands and the Sault Ste. Marie area. A small Paleozoic outlier also oc THE MICHIGAN BASIN curs in the Lake Timiskaming area and large areas of the Hudson Bay/James Bay Lowlands are underlain by rocks This approximately circular structure is present because of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. of regional subsidence of the Precambrian basement rocks centred near Napeena, central Michigan state. As During the Paleozoic era, much of Ontario was cov the basement subsided, Paleozoic sediments tended to ered by a series of inland seas in which sediments were collect and deposit more rapidly in the centre of the ba deposited. These sediments are now exposed and in sin, increasing the thickness of each unit towards the ba clude limestones, dolostones, shales and sandstones. sin centre. Since most of the sedimentary rocks in Ontario are of shallow marine origin, the local conditions at the time of THE APPALACHIAN BASIN deposition, such as: water depth, salinity, current direc tion, proximity to shorelines, etc., strongly influenced This basin is a foreland regional downwarp which paral the type of sediment. Major episodes of subaerial expo lels the Appalachian Mountains and is centred south of sure mark the end of each geological time period in On Ontario. Formations deposited under the influence of tario (i.e. Precambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and this feature thicken to the southeast. Devonian). The distribution of Paleozoic (and Mesozoic) rocks THE ALGONQUIN ARCH in Ontario can be subdivided into five major regions This basement high of Precambrian rocks separates the based on their age and geographic location. These major Michigan and Appalachian basins, forming the spine of regions are: eastern Ontario, central Ontario, Niagara the southern peninsula of Ontario. For several intervals Escarpment, southwestern Ontario, and northern On during the Paleozoic, this feature was pronounced and tario (Figure 1.2). The northern Ontario region includes therefore some units thin toward the arch or are absent parts of Manitoulin Island, the Lake Timiskaming area, over it. The Findlay Arch is a continuation of this feature and the Moose River Basin of the Hudson Bay Lowland. south into the United States, and its intersection with the The Paleozoic strata in southern Ontario possess a Algonquin Arch in the Chatham area is called the shallow southwesterly regional dip and, coupled with ero Chatham Sag. sion, this has resulted in successively younger rocks be coming exposed at the surface to the southwest. From THE FRONTENAC AXIS the northeast to the southwest, therefore, the rocks can This is another Precambrian high which extends from the be described in ascending stratigraphic order, beginning Canadian Shield to the St. Lawrence River between with the Cambro-Ordovician rocks in the northeast and Gananoque and Brockville. Unlike the Algonquin Arch, ending with the Upper Devonian rocks in the southwest this structure presently exposes Precambrian rocks at the (Figure 1.3). surface. This ridge separates the Paleozoic sediments in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in the Province were eastern Ontario from those in the rest of the province. originally deposited as flat-lying units, and most were As the rocks on both sides of the axis are very similar, it subsequently subjected to tectonic disruption to varying probably was not a barrier to deposition during much of degrees. Strata west of Kingston dip to the south or the early Paleozoic. Its current position is due partly to southwest at a rate of a few metres per kilometre. Strata uplift along major fault zones which border the arch. east of Kingston, however, have been disrupted by more The presence of the Michigan and Appalachian ba intensive tectonic processes with displacements across sins and the Algonquin Arch had a major impact on the fault zones of up to several hundred metres and beds Paleozoic rocks deposited in southern Ontario, both in which display very high-angle dips. The thickness of Pa terms of the thickness and variability of each rock type leozoic rocks over the Precambrian basement increases and in their present day distribution. Also affecting the in a southwesterly direction to a maximum of about deposition of Paleozoic rocks in southern Ontario was 1,350 m near Sarnia because of these regional trends the supply of clastic sediments which originated from two

Limestone Industries of Ontario Geological Regions Southwestern Ontario JjJ]]] Central Ontario 44 Eastern Ontario Niagara Escarpment

Northern Ontario

Lake Huron Area Timiskaming Outlier O 100 200 km Moose River Basin

Figure 1.2. DISTRIBUTION OF PALEOZOIC ROCKS IN ONTARIO.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics NIAGARA NIAGARA ESCARPMENT PENINSULA NORTH OF HAMILTON CENTRAL EASTERN SOUTHWESTERN SIMCOE - TO ONTARIO NIAGARA FALLS MANITOULIN ISLAND ONTARIO ONTARIO Port Lambton Gp. 2 Kettle Point Fm.

Hamilton Gp. DEVONIAN \ Marcvllu* Fm. Dundee Fm. Dundee Fm. 5 Lucas Fm. Detroit River Gp. Onondaga Fm. Bois Blanc Fm. -1 Bois Blanc Fm. S Orlskany Fm. Bertie Fm.

D SILURIAN Salina Fm. Salina Fm.

V . ' '''V 1 V',;. .' ... i'J.V Guelph Fm. Guelph Fm. * 2 Lockport Fm. Lockport/ Amabel Fm. Clinton Gp. Clinton Gp. -j Cataract Gp. Cataract Gp.

Queenston Fm. Queenston Fm. Queenston Fm. Queenston Fm. *

' ' ••'•'. '.' •"•'.' .-'•'' '.''''V'.V.r-;'

D 'V ; ' ' .'. i'/.^ . '.-;': /i':.'. r..'"' ': iy'-'.'v' Georgian Bay Fm. Georgian Bay Fm. Georgian Bay Fm.

•" :'"''-:;;v^.v"; : '^O^:; :r-^. ,: •'y': :-:'^'~':^::^-.: : -:,.;;;;'.V,v; 1:::;'.:.;:.;Jl :;;;: vy:;-.-;r;h -••"- '' - ' ':-'M!^f^ Blue Mountain Fm. Blue Mountain Fm. Billings Fm. t-':": ^•'• :L:':.'.:-:^0^, __ .Collingwood Mbr.,,__ ....Collingwood Mbr. ... __.Eastview Mbr. ,.m "''' ' ' : i. Lindsay Fm. Lindsay Fm. ORDOVICIAN Q. O Q. -, '"-: -V'yV-' .'-^i;-'-.1 ,' ' .', '-".v'' : :.',''' '^••'•^•••^••^••'^f^ ' - '-,'-V. : ''.',V r '--'''"-'' ':'-V~' ; ^ ' s;,: 0) Verulam Fm. 43 Verulam Fm. o a o 5 ——————————— E ea 2 (0 Bobcaygeon Fm. •Z Bobcaygeon Fm. O

: ,- '-';'-''\ * ' :/'-:' ...'''0 ;v''' '.'''"' '- '.''y-' '~ :';. ::; : ty^^^&^^Y- Gull River Fm. Gull River Fm. .'--' •'•''. '•i:,.' : ::'-.'/-":'.- ' .,:.:.',, : ''': : '''- •... "" .'". v •.•'••. . , ,. . •:,-..: -" j:-:,-:;,;:;...'.' 1 '1,'. ":." '' : '•••.••'.;;:. ' Shadow Lake Fm. Shadow Lake Fm. •^".'''•-'Y1"':".'^' .'', ' -V r^ ';' r lV'-^-M; •:'.'.': \'-\' v; l- '. '";"' 1-'1 ' '''' -1''-'' -''' ^-'*'"' 1'" : : '' :; ;.''7.\v'vV! '•: '' " '. "' ••:'\ :--:: Rockcliffe Fm. -,1- " ~ , - '" , ' ' . ' ' ' - |o Oxford Fm. 1 'y'-1 :.~ ''- 1 ',v'''.;.r r.','-''V";.'-'v j :''j;, ''" |- V', ' ", : '- ;.-, i'^' 1 '." i: "'-"" i -' : .v ; ', : ' -j SS March Fm.

: ;- ; /', ',"- :', : - ', -'.••::"0;,'1'; ', ':'-': ^ :'-; " ' .", '"' " '- '- '"-'-'~ '.~. \ :- ', '"-. '' '- ,' : - ; ' - i Nepean Fm. , ' ' '- ' ' ' '- ' - '-" ; -', : : -".',' "' '- ' .' -'- '' - ' '. •aa. •. ' .••'/i -'. 1 ': v '•' ; :' ; ''-, 1 ' '"" ' . ', '': ' '''' '.',; . -1 .'- SO ————————————— CAMBRIAN 2 Covey Hill Fm.

Units not present because of erosion Units in subsurface only or non-deposition

Gp.sGroup, Fm.sFormation, Mbr.sMember * Does not occur on Manitoulin Island Figure 1.3. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS OF PALEOZOIC STRATA IN SOUTHERN ONTARIO.

Limestone Industries of Ontario ^ OTTAWA- ; ST- LAWRENCE ' -WLANDS

APPALACHIAN BASIN

Figure 1.4. MAJOR STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF PALEOZOIC ROCKS IN ONTARIO.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics Table i.l. AVERAGE THICKNESS OF PRINCIPAL sources — the Canadian Shield to the north, and from FORMATIONS USED BY THE LIMESTONE periodic uplifting of highlands to the east (i.e. the INDUSTRY. ______Taconic .[ancestral Appalachian] Mountains). The uplift Age Formation Thickness in the east is quite important lo some units as the clays (metres) and silts introduced had a deleterious impact on the Middle Devonian Dundee 30 quality of carbonate being deposited. Detroit River Group 180 Onondaga 20 The discussion which follows will highlight the five Lower Devonian Bois Blanc 40 regions of Paleozoic strata in Ontario, concentrating on Upper Silurian Bertie 14 those units which are of significance for use in the lime- Middle Silurian Guelph 30 stone industry. For a more complete discussion of the K ... M1 ~, . . Lpckport/Amabel 40 individual Paleozoic formations, refer to the geological Middle Ordovician VerulamLindsay 100 introduction. , of, each district,. and, to the, individual. ,. . , , quarry Bobcaygeon 70 descriptions found in Volumes II and III. Gull River 45 Lower Ordovician Oxford 120

Limestone Industries of Ontario Eastern Ontario (Cornwall, Carleton Place, BrockvTHe, Napanee and Pembroke Districts)

The Paleozoic bedrock in eastern Ontario (Figure 1.2) is EASTERN ONTARIO CENTRAL ONTARIO bounded by Precambrian rocks of the Gatineau Hills and QUEENSTON FM. QUEENSTON FM. the Frontenac Axis to the north and west, respectively. The provincial border delineates the southern and east UPPER CARLSBAD FM. G EORGIAN BAY FM. ern boundary of this area, although Paleozoic rocks ex tend southward into New York State and eastward into BILLINGS FM. B LUE MOUNTAIN FM. the Province of Quebec. EASTVIEW MBR. COLLINGWOOD MBR. Sandstones, shales and carbonates of latest LINDSAY FM. Cambrian to latest Ordovician age occur within eastern LINDSAY FM. Ontario. Carbonate rocks which are significant to the limestone industry occur in the Lower Ordovician Beek- VERULAM FM. ^ VERULAM FM. O mantown Group and in the Middle Ordovician Rock- OTTAWAGROUP CC cliffe Formation and Ottawa Group (Figure 1.5). The ORDOVICIAN O distribution of these rocks in eastern Ontario is compli u cated by the presence of numerous normal faults MIDDLE BOBCAYGEON FM. o BOBCAYGEON FM. (Figure 1.6), some of which may have several hundred 5 metres of displacement (Williams, in prep.), and unlike CO the Paleozoic rocks west of the Frontenac Axis, there are no regional patterns in the distribution of the rocks in eastern Ontario. GULL RIVER FM. GULL RIVER FM.

The following discussion of the Paleozoic sequence SHADOW LAKE FM. iSHADOW LAKE FM. will focus upon the carbonate rocks. Further details on the geology of the entire sequence can be found in Wil ROCKCLIFFE FM. liams (in prep.). BEEKMAN- TOWNGR h Jo equivalent strata LOWER OXFORD FM.

POTSDAM GROUP MARCH FM.

The Potsdam Group, which forms the basal Paleozoic NEPEAN FM. ^ NEPEAN FM. GRPOTSDAM unit in most of eastern Ontario, consists of the following CAMBRIAN ^ UPPER < two formations: the Covey Hill Formation and the over Q lying Nepean Formation (Figure 1.5). The age of these COVEY HILL FM. f2 COVEY HILL FM. 0 units may either be Cambrian or Lower Ordovician. Al Q. though the Covey Hill and Nepean have been quarried for building stone and crushed stone in the Ottawa area, they are sandstones and thus will not be discussed further Figure 1.5. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS OF PA in this report. LEOZOIC ROCKS OF EASTERN AND CENTRAL ONTARIO. BEEKMANTOWN GROUP dolostone. As the sandstones in this unit are indistin Directly overlying the rocks of the Potsdam Group are guishable from those of the underlying Nepean Forma the dolostones of the Lower Ordovician Beekmantown Group, which is subdivided into the lower March Forma tion, the lower contact of the March is placed at the base tion and the overlying Oxford Formation (Figure 1.5). of the lowest appearance of dolostone beds in the sec tion. Its first appearance is quite variable in different sur Both units are significantly utilized by the limestone in face exposures because of the variety of facies present dustry, but are found as outcrop only in eastern Ontario within the March Formation. The sandstones consist of although equivalent units are found in the subsurface in fine- to coarse-grained quartz sand, whereas the dolos- southwestern Ontario (Sanford and Quinlan, 1959). tones are fine to medium crystalline. The intermediate MARCH FORMATION lithologies (sandy dolostones/dolomitic sandstones) have characteristics of both the sandstones and dolostone^. The March Formation consists of interbedded quartz Generally the formation is thin to thick bedded, and sandstone, dolomitic sandstone, sandy dolostone and ranges in thickness from 18 to 20 m in the Ottawa area,

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics to 25 m in the Brockville area, and to 64 m in the sub lower contact of the unit is placed where the sand con surface near the Town of Alexandria (Williams, in tent becomes relatively insignificant (i.e. less than 59o prep.). The highly faulted nature of the rocks east of the quartz). Most outcrop exposures occur south of Ottawa Frontenac Axis (Figure 1.6) has caused most of the bed (Figure 1.6), although some exposures also follow the rock exposures of this formation to occur in small, len- Ottawa River eastward. These dolostones are extensively soid-shaped fault blocks, usually in proximity to the con quarried in the Brockville area and in a fault block tact with Precambrian rocks. southeast of Ottawa.

ROCKCLIFFE FORMATION OXFORD FORMATION As originally defined by Wilson (1937) the Rockcliffe The balance of the Beekmantown Group consists of the Formation, which unconformably overlies the Beekman Oxford Formation (predominantly dolostones), which town Group (Figure 1.5), consists of interbedded has a thickness between 62 and 102 m (Williams, in quartz-sandstone and shale. Overlying the Rockcliffe prep.). The dolostones are thin to thick bedded and Formation (of Wilson, 1937) is the St. Martin Forma range from miocrystalline to medium crystalline. Scat tion, also defined by Wilson (1937), which is a limestone tered sand grains and sand interbeds (up to 30 cm thick) and silty dolostone. Since these carbonates exhibit shaly appear in the lower part of the formation, and concen and sandy intervals similar to the underlying strata, re trations of chert nodules occur at some localities. The cent workers (Poole et al., 1970; Williams and Wolf,

LEGEND

FORMATION l 13 l QUEENSTON l 12 j CARLSBAD l 11 l BILLINGS l 10 l LINDSAY l 9 l VERULAM l 8 l BOBCAYGEON l 7 l GULL RIVER l 6 l SHADOW LAKE l 5 j ROCKCLIFFE l 4 l OXFORD l 3 j MARCH l 2 l NEPEAN

[ i l COVEY HILL l PC j PRECAMBRIAN

FAULT

PLEVNA FAULT NAME

- - - - CONTACT

Figure 1.6. MAP OF GENERALIZED PALEOZOIC GEOLOGY OF THE OTTAWA - ST. LAWRENCE LOWLAND.

10 Limestone Industries of Ontario 1982; Williams, in prep.) have combined the two units The upper St. Martin Member has been extensively into the Rockcliffe Formation with the St. Martin Mem quarried east of the Ottawa area, primarily for aggregate. ber constituting an upper member of the formation. OTTAWA GROUP The sandstones are light grey to greenish grey, thin to thick bedded and contain abundant sedimentary fea Significant changes to the nomenclature and subdivisions tures such as cross-bedding and burrows. The shales are of the Middle and Upper Ordovician Ottawa Group (see olive green to dark grey with maroon laminae, whereas Figure 1.7) have recently been made by the Ontario the overlying carbonates are light grey to grey-brown and Geological Survey (OGS). This was the result of consid range from microcrystalline to coarse-crystalline. Some erable new data generated by recent OGS field mapping of the coarse-crystalline limestones, which are largely re of these rocks (Williams, in prep.), in an attempt by the stricted to the eastern part of Ontario, are quite high in Survey to standardize, as much as possible, the nomen calcium content. The average thickness for the Rock clature used in Ontario. cliffe Formation is approximately 50 m. Outcrops of the The Ottawa Group was formerly termed the Ottawa Rockcliffe Formation are restricted and occur mainly Formation (Wilson, 1946), (Figure 1.7), and subdivided along the Ottawa River, or southeast of Ottawa into seven "faunal zone" members. Uyeno (1974) subse (Figure 1.6). The lower contact of the formation is quently raised the formation to group status and the placed at the lowest occurrence of the sand/shale lithol members to formation status. Initial OGS mapping in the ogy overlying the dolostones of the Oxford Formation. area by Williams and Wolf (1982) led to the adoption of six lithostratigraphic units, A to F (Figure 1.7). Stan Although the lower member of the Rockcliffe For dardization of this stratigraphy with the sections of Cen mation (predominantly a sandstone and shale) is not tral Ontario (specifically the Lake Simcoe area) was quarried on its own, some quarries have taken material made in 1983 with the adoption by Williams and Rae from this unit to be used as general fill. The highly friable (1983) of five formations to replace the six nature of this member has limited its use to date, al lithostratigraphic units previously used. The formations though in recent years several test pits have been exca adopted by Williams and Rae (1983) are: the Shadow vated to investigate the possible exploitation of the unit. Lake, Gull River, Bobcaygeon, Verulam and Lindsay

Williams and Williams and Rae 1983 Wilson 1946 Wolf 1982 Williams, in prep. "Faunal Formation zone" Formation Unit Gp Formation Member

EASTVIEW EASTVIEW UPPER (EASTVIEW) LINDSAY "Cobourg" F LOWER

"Sherman E VERULAM Fall*

OTTAWA "Hull" D UPPER OTTAWA OTTAWA "Rockland" BOBCAYGEON MIDDLE

"Leray" C LOWER

UPPER "Lowville" GULL RIVER B LOWER "Pamelia" A SHADOW LAKE

Figure 1.7. REVISIONS TO THE LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE OTTAWA GROUP IN EASTERN ONTARIO.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 11 Formations (in ascending stratigraphic order), VERULAM FORMATION (Figure 1.7). In central Ontario these same formations Conformably overlying the Bobcaygeon Formation, the exclude the Shadow Lake Formation and are collectively Verulam Formation consists of about 35 m of inter termed the Simcoe Group. These formations are further bedded limestones and shales. The limestones range discussed in the central Ontario section as there are re from microcrystalline to coarse crystalline, thin to me gional variations between the two. dium bedded and range from light to dark grey or grey- brown in colour. Beds of coarse fossil debris often occur SHADOW LAKE FORMATION within the limestone beds. The blue-grey, often calcare ous shale beds can be up to 15 cm thick and constitute a The basal unit of the Ottawa Group is the Shadow Lake significant portion of the formation. The distribution of Formation. In eastern Ontario it consists of silty and the Verulam Formation is restricted to an area directly sandy dolostone with minor interbeds of sandstone. The southwest of Ottawa (Figure 1.6) and to a larger area in dolostones are microcrystalline to fine crystalline, very the southwestern part of the Cornwall District. The use thin to thick bedded and light green-grey in colour. Up of these rocks by the limestone industry is largely re to 2.8 m thick in the Ottawa area, outcrops of this unit stricted to cement manufacture because of their lower are very rare and it is not used by the limestone industry purity (i.e. high shale content). in eastern Ontario. LINDSAY FORMATION GULL RIVER FORMATION The Lindsay Formation in eastern Ontario consists of limestone, with thin calcareous shale interbeds, which The Gull River Formation in eastern Ontario, which con conformably overlies the Verulam Formation. Identifying formably overlies the Shadow Lake Formation, has been the contact between these two units in an outcrop can be subdivided into two members: a lower member consisting difficult, but it is generally placed where the shale in of interbedded limestones and dolostones (which may terbeds (which characterize the Verulam Formation) be contain some silt or sand); and an upper member con come less than 5 cm thick. The Lindsay Formation is sisting of thin-bedded shaly limestones. The formation is divisible into two members; the upper is called the about 50 m thick in the Ottawa area and thins eastward Eastview Member and the lower is unnamed. Portions of to 40 m in the Hawkesbury area (Williams, in prep.). the Eastview Member are equivalent to the well known Features common in the Gull River Formation are small Collingwood shale, an oil shale which is exposed near lenses of calcite crystals, termed "birdseye" texture, sul Craigleith, Ontario. A distinctive characteristic of the phate nodules and molds, and abundant fossils, espe limestones of the lower member is the highly undulating cially the coral Tetradium in the upper member, and nature of the bedding which produces a nodular texture. stromatolites. The limestones are microcrystalline to coarse crystalline, The Gull River Formation outcrops primarily in the very thin to thick bedded and tend toward grey-brown Ottawa area although other exposures occur in eastern colours. Shale interbeds are calcareous and dark grey or Ontario especially in the Westport and Cornwall areas dark brown in colour. The Eastview Member consists of (Figure 1.6). This unit is important to the limestone in calcareous shale and exudes a petroliferous odor from a dustry and is extensively quarried in the Ottawa and fresh surface. The lower member is extensively used for Cornwall areas for crushed stone and concrete manufac general aggregate production by the limestone industry. turing. Distribution of the Lindsay Formation is generally re stricted to the Cornwall District (Figure 1.6). BOBCAYGEON FORMATION BILLINGS FORMATION The Bobcaygeon Formation conformably overlies the The Upper Ordovician Billings Formation consists mainly Gull River Formation and consists of limestone with pla of dark grey to black shale, and its lower contact with the nar to undulating shale partings. Three members have Eastview Member of the Lindsay Formation is defined been identified within the formation; the middle member where the shale beds become greater than 2 cm thick. It is substantially more shaly and resembles closely the is considered to be equivalent to the Blue Mountain For overlying Verulam Formation. The lower member is mation which occurs in central Ontario. In the Ottawa characterized by very thick-bedded, generally microcrys area (Figure 1.6), the Billings Formation is 62 m thick talline limestone beds. The thickness of the Bobcaygeon and consists of non-calcareous to slightly calcareous Formation in eastern Ontario is about 85 m. Within the shale. Minor limestone beds can also be present. This lower member, black chert nodules up to 20 cm in di unit is not used by the limestone industry. ameter may be present. This unit occurs throughout east ern Ontario but is most prevalent around Cornwall and CARLSBAD FORMATION Ottawa (Figure 1.6), and is of significant interest to the Conformably overlying the Billings Formation is the limestone industry as an aggregate source. Carlsbad Formation, which consists of about 180 m of

12 Limestone Industries of Ontario interbedded blue-grey shale, calcareous siltstone and QUEENSTON FORMATION silty limestone. This unit, while not actively used by the limestone industry, has some potential for cement manu The Upper Ordovician Queenston Formation consists facturing and is equivalent to the Georgian Bay Forma primarily of maroon and olive-grey shales. The thickness tion of central Ontario. The contact between the Billings of the formation in eastern Ontario is approximately and Carlsbad Formations is defined where the shales 50 m whereas in southwestern Ontario it reaches up to change colour from black to blue-grey. Subcrop and out 120 m. The only surface exposure occurs within a single crop exposures of this unit are restricted to fault blocks fault block in the Russell Township area (Figure 1.6). which parallel the Ottawa River in the Cornwall District This unit is not used in the limestone industry, but it is (Figure 1.6). widely used by the ceramic and brick industries.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 13 Central Ontario (Huronia, Lindsay, Tweed, and Napanee Districts)

For the purpose of this report, central Ontario encom southwest which results in successively younger rocks be passes that part of Ontario between the Niagara Escarp coming exposed to the west. The base of the Niagara ment and the Frontenac Axis underlain by Ordovician Escarpment, the western boundary of the region, also strata (Figure 1.2), and extends southwards from the ex delineates the Ordovician-Silurian contact. posed Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield to Lake The stratigraphic nomenclature for the Ordovician Ontario. The Ordovician strata exposed in the northern strata exposed in central Ontario has undergone consid Lake Huron area are discussed in the northern Ontario erable revision and alteration since the initial surveys of section. the Geological Survey of Canada in the mid-nineteenth The Ordovician rocks of central Ontario range in age century. The most recent and comprehensive study by from Middle to Upper Ordovician (Figure 1.8), and Liberty (1969, 1971) provided the basis for the consist of a sedimentary sequence of carbonates and stratigraphic subdivisions used in this report shales. These strata display a very low regional dip to the (Figure 1.8). Only minor revisions to Liberty's (1969) original nomenclature have been made, based on recent work by Russell and Telford (1983) and Williams (in prep.). These revisions resulted from the identification of lithological variations apparently not recognized by Lib Russell and Telford 1983 Liberty 1969,1971 erty (1969), and from extensive drilling undertaken by Williams in prep. the OGS (Johnson et al., 1985) since Liberty's (1969) report. Queenston Formation Queenston Formation The following discussion summarizes the description ORDOVICIANUPPER Georgian UPP*' Mbr. of each Ordovician formation present in central Ontario. Further details on local variations in lithologies are de Bay - "' Georgian Bay Formation GROUPNOTTAWASAGA Formation Lower Mbr- scribed in the district sections in Volume III. Additional information on Ordovician stratigraphy in this area can

Upper Mbr. be found in Liberty (1969) and Williams (in prep.). Blue Mountain Formation Whi'by M,*,,. M.. SHADOW LAKE FORMATION Formation The sediments initially deposited by the Middle Ordovi Lower Mbr. Collingwood Mbr. cian transgression over the Precambrian basement rocks Lindsay in central Ontario consist of conglomerates, sandstones Formation and shales, which are up to 12 m thick in some places. Lindsay Formation Lower Mbr. These strata are collectively assigned to the Shadow Lake Formation. Older terrigenous rocks may also be present Upper Mbr. SIMCOEGROUP in the subsurface. The Shadow Lake Formation is gener ORDOVICIANDOLE Verulam MCOEGROUP Formation Lower Mbr Verulam Formation ally not utilized by the limestone industry of Ontario.

Upper Mbr. SIMCOE GROUP Bubcaygeon Midd|eMbf Upper Mbr. Formation ooDcaygeon The term Simcoe Group was applied by Liberty (1969) CO Lower Mbr. Formation M"*"e Mbr' to the Middle Ordovician carbonate sequence in central

Upper Mbr. Ontario. The formations of the Simcoe Group are cor Lower Mbr. S"" R^r M,*,,. Mb, relative with those of the Ottawa Group in eastern On 2 Formation ————— Gull River Upper Mbr. tario (which is also now subdivided into the same forma Lower Mbr. Formation Lower Mbr. tions (Williams, in prep.)). si Shadow Lake Shadow Lake Formation 25 Formation GULL RIVER FORMATION CAMBRO- OROOVtOAN Nepean Formation The Gull River Formation, the lowermost carbonate for Potsdam Formation mation in the Simcoe Group, had been subdivided by !i Covey Hill Formation Liberty (1969) into three members in the Lake Simcoe area and later (Liberty, 1971a-e) into four members in Figure 1.8. REVISIONS TO THE PALEOZOIC the Kingston area. Based on the recent geological map STRATIGRAPHY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. ping in eastern Ontario (Williams, in prep.), the Gull

14 Limestone Industries of Ontario River Formation is now considered to consist of two nodules of hard, black chert. This redefined lower mem members only. This subdivision can be used for most of ber of the Bobcaygeon Formation is equivalent to the central Ontario, except for the extreme western sector upper half of the middle member and all of the upper west of Lake Simcoe (i.e. Huronia District) where Liber member of the Gull River Formation, as defined by Lib ty's (1969) original three-fold subdivision is maintained. erty (1969), (Figure 1.8) and ranges in thickness from Subtle lateral variations in lithology at the base of the about 20 m in the west to about 40 m in the east. Simcoe Group need to be examined in more detail be The middle and upper members of the Bobcaygeon fore further revisions are undertaken in this westernmost Formation are similar to the lower member, except for sector. the higher shale content in the middle member. The The lower member of the Gull River Formation con thin— to medium-bedded, very fine- to medium-crystal sists of alternating units of limestone and dolostone. The line limestone beds of these members are interbedded limestones are dominantly microcrystalline, commonly with medium- to coarse-grained calcarenites. The upper with a lithographic texture, and are interbedded with member may also display a distinctive blue-grey weath rare thin-bedded, fine-crystalline intervals. The fine- ered surface. The middle and upper members, as rede crystalline dolostones commonly contain small amounts fined by the OGS, are equivalent to the lower, middle, of terrigenous material that ranges from mud to sand and upper members of the Bobcaygeon Formation as de sized. This member thickens from 15 m in the west to fined by Liberty (1969), (Figure 1.8). over 30 m in the Kingston area and is equivalent to the Outcrops of the Bobcaygeon Formation are rare, lower member Gull River Formation of Liberty (1969) relative to the Gull River Formation, although the base of (Figure 1.8). the Bobcaygeon Formation is often exposed as a caprock The redefined upper member of the Gull River For in some quarries. Where the formation is accessible, the mation consists of thin-bedded limestones, commonly unit is utilized primarily by the aggregate industry. In the containing thin shale partings between the beds, and past some building stone operations have used material maintains a uniform thickness of 7 to 8 m across the from the lower member. region. It is equivalent to the lower half of the middle VERULAM FORMATION member, Gull River Formation of Liberty (1969), (Figure 1.8). The term Verulam Formation was applied by Liberty (1969) to a sequence of interbedded limestone and shale The Gull River Formation has been quarried for which overlies the Bobcaygeon Formation. The Verulam many years, especially around Lake Simcoe and Formation thickens from about 65 m in the west to over Kingston. Stone has been used for aggregate, lime, ce 100 m in the east; exposures, however, are isolated be ment and building purposes, including bridges, town halls cause of the thick glacial deposits over most of the area and churches throughout central Ontario. Aggregate pro where the formation occurs. ducers currently utilize most of the rock which is quar ried from the Gull River Formation in central Ontario, The interbedded nature of the limestone and shale especially the lower member. Even though some difficul lithologies also makes the formation easily erodable and ties with alkali-reactivity have been identified (Rogers, few natural outcrops remain, although the formation can 1985), this unit can still be used for a variety of aggregate be examined in quarries and roadcut exposures. The car purposes. The major areas of production are east and bonate lithologies vary from very fine-crystalline lime west of Lake Simcoe and around the city of Kingston. stones, virtually fossil-free, to coarse-crystalline, bioclas tic limestones. The limestone beds rarely exceed 10 cm BOBCAYGEON FORMATION in thickness and the 1-5 cm thick interbedded shale is commonly calcareous and burrowed extensively. In the Lake Simcoe area the Bobcaygeon Formation had The Verulam Formation is rarely utilized by the been subdivided into three members by Liberty (1969), limestone industry because of its high shale content but whereas in the east only a two-fold subdivision was used in an outcrop area between Belleville and Kingston it is (Liberty, 1963; 1971a-e). The Bobcaygeon Formation used as a source for aggregate and for cement manufac can now be subdivided into three members across all of ture. central Ontario. The primary distinction between the members is the presence of numerous thin shale partings LINDSAY FORMATION between the limestone beds in the middle member, while The uppermost formation in the Simcoe Group is the the lower and upper members are virtually shale-free. Lindsay Formation. Originally defined by Liberty (1969) The lower member of the Bobcaygeon Formation from exposures around Lake Simcoe, it has subsequently consists of thick-bedded limestones, with beds usually been revised by Russell and Telford (1983), over l m in thickness. The microcrystalline to fine- crys (Figure 1.8). A detailed and widespread drilling program talline limestones are usually intermixed with medium- of the upper part of the formation across Ontario by the to coarse-grained calcarenites, and commonly contain OGS (Johnson et al., 1983) revealed that the black

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 15 shale, originally called the Collingwood Shale (Parks, The limestones of the Lindsay Formation are used 1928), and assigned by Liberty (1969) to the lower primarily as raw material for the manufacture of cement. member of the Whitby Formation, can be included with the Lindsay Formation. Its stratigraphic relationship to BLUE MOUNTAIN FORMATION the under— and overlying strata and its lithology, as de The Upper Ordovician Blue Mountain Formation (Rus termined by geochemical analysis, suggested to Russell sell and Telford, 1983) includes the middle and upper and Telford (1983) that this unit was more similar to the members of the Whitby Formation of Liberty (1969). Lindsay Formation than Liberty's (1969) Whitby Forma The blue-grey shales of the Blue Mountain Formation tion. The balance of the Whitby Formation was renamed outcrop only rarely in the western part of central Ontario the Blue Mountain Formation, reverting to Parks' and are not used by the limestone industry. (1928) original subdivision of these strata. GEORGIAN BAY FORMATION The Lindsay Formation, as used in this report, can be subdivided into two members: the lower member, a The Georgian Bay Formation (Liberty, 1969) is rarely nodular limestone (Liberty's Lindsay Formation), and exposed in central Ontario, and where it is exposed the the upper Collingwood Member, a black calcareous shale formation consists of interbedded limestone (rarely (Liberty's lower member, Whitby Formation). The lower dolostone) and shale. The formation averages 100 m in member ranges from very fine- to coarse-crystalline thickness and has been subdivided several times into nodular limestones with most beds medium crystalline members by various workers (see Liberty, 1969, for a and fossiliferous. On weathered surfaces these thin-bed summary). The formation extends across central Ontario ded limestones commonly exhibit a nodular texture be southward from Collingwood to underlie a significant cause of very thin, undulating shale partings. The black portion of Metropolitan Toronto. Thick glacial overbur shales of the overlying Collingwood Member may either den, limited exposures, and a high shale content limit the overlie the limestones with a minor disconformity, or usefulness of the formation to the limestone industry, al may be interbedded with the limestones over a thickness though St. Lawrence Cement Inc. have quarried the of several metres. This member is characterized by rock at their Mississauga plant for use in cement manu black, petroliferous, very calcareous shale which con facture. Rock from the formation is used in the Toronto tains a rich fossil assemblage. The Middle-Upper Ordo area as a raw material for brick manufacturing. vician boundary occurs near the contact between the QUEENSTON FORMATION lower and upper members of the Lindsay Formation. The youngest Ordovician strata in central Ontario are the The limestones of the lower member range in thick red shales of the Upper Ordovician Queenston Forma ness from 60 m in the west to over 100 m in Prince Ed tion. These shales occur below the Niagara Escarpment ward County, south of the City of Belleville. The black and extend from the Niagara River west and northward shales of the Collingwood Member maintain a uniform to Georgian Bay in Lake Huron. West of Toronto these thickness of about 10 m across central Ontario. shales are used to produce brick and ceramic products.

16 Limestone Industries of Ontario Niagara Escarpment (Niagara, Cambridge, Huronia, Owen Sound Districts)

The Niagara Escarpment in Ontario extends from the Ni TIME NIAGARA BRUCE agara River Gorge, westward along the Niagara Peninsula SCALE PENINSULA PENINSULA to Hamilton, northward to Georgian Bay, northwestward along the Bruce Peninsula, and westward across to GUELPH Fm. GUELPH Fm. Manitoulin and Cockburn islands (Figure 1.2). This erosional feature exposes a Silurian dolostone caprock ERAMOSA Mbr. ERAMOSA Mbr. overlying shales and softer carbonates of Silurian and Or E u. E VINEMOUNT SHALE LL dovician age. The escarpment consists of a series of steep t- BEDS rr north or northeast-facing cliffs, with the exposed strata UJ WIARTON 1 O m dipping gently to the southwest. Except for local 0. GOAT ISLAND Mbr. COLPOY BAY Mbr. lithological variations within the units, the following de o UJ o scriptions are applicable throughout the Ontario portion -j -J GASPORT Mbr. of the escarpment. Q LIONS HEAD Mbr. Q Upper Ordovician strata underlie and form the base DECEW Fm. of the escarpment throughout most of this region and Z Q. Q. represent the northerly extent of a wedge of clastic sedi ^^ D D O ROCHESTER Fm. O ments shed from the ancestral Taconic and Appalachian E rr rr D mountains. Silurian age units of the escarpment were de o o -1 z z posited under the influence of both the Michigan and CO O IRONDEQUOIT Fm. O r- H FOSSIL HILL Fm. Appalachian basins (Figure 1.4). The Silurian strata de Z REYNALES Fm. Z posited under the influence of the Appalachian Basin -l NEAHGA Fm. -1 ST. EDMUND Fm.* O 0 WINGFIELD Fm. * tend to have a higher clastic content, due to their prox THOROLD Fm. imity to highland source areas in the east. In northwest DYER BAY Fm. * ern areas adjacent to the Michigan Basin, however, car Q. Q. D GRIMSBY Fm. CABOT HEAD Fm. bonates of higher purity were deposited in predominantly O O shallow marine shelf and related environments away rr QC QC o O from clastic sources. Therefore rocks which make up the LLJ r- t- southern portion of the Niagara Escarpment (Niagara O CABOT HEAD Fm. O MANITOULIN Fm. Falls to Milton), tend to contain more terrigenous mate O rr rr —1 rial than those deposited in the northern portion. These r- r- differences have resulted in the application of two sets of O WHIRLPOOL Fm. o WHIRLPOOL Fm.** nomenclature for the Silurian strata exposed on the es K Ul ft. carpment (see Figure 1.9), one each for the northern ORO ft. QUEENSTON Fm. QUEENSTON Fm. and the Niagara Peninsula (southern) portions of the es 3 carpment. •KNot prevent south of Owen Sound **Not present north of Collingwood Modified after Bolton, Table 1, 1057 Deposition of the rocks exposed on the Niagara Es carpment commenced with the Upper Ordovician Figure 1.9. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS SHOWN- ING NOMENCLATURE OF LOWER AND MIDDLE Queenston Formation. This was followed by deposition SILURIAN UNITS OF THE NIAGARA AND BRUCE of the Uower Silurian Cataract Group, the Middle Silu PENINSULAS. rian Clinton Group, and culminated with the Middle Si lurian Uockport, Amabel and Guelph formations. (1957), Uiberty and Bolton (1971), and Sanford (1969) and more recent descriptions by Liberty, Bond and Tel The Queenston Formation, which consists mainly of ford (1976a,b,c), Bond, Liberty and Telford (1976), red shales, has been described in the previous section. Bond and Telford (1976), Telford (1976a,b; 1979a,b) The Cataract and Clinton groups consist predominantly and Liberty, Feenstra and Telford (1976a,b). of sandstones and shales, and are therefore not generally utilized by the limestone industry. The dolostones of the CATARACT GROUP Lockport, Amabel and Guelph formations are of great significance to the limestone industry. Other units, such The Lower Silurian Cataract Group is subdivided into as the Reynales, Irondequoit and Decew formations, are four formations (Figure 1.9) of which only one, the used only to augment the above formations. More de Whirlpool Formation, occurs in both the northern and tailed geological discussions are presented in Bolton the Niagara Peninsula (southern) portions of the escarp-

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 17 ment. The Manitoulin and Cabot Head formations occur THOROLD AND NEAHGA FORMATIONS only in the north and the Grimsby Formation is restricted On the Niagara Peninsula or southern portion of the es to the southern portion of the escarpment. Because of carpment, the Thorold Formation is a 2 to 3 m thick- the generally clastic nature of most of the Cataract Group bedded quartz sandstone overlain by the Neagha Forma formations, only the Manitoulin Formation is used by the tion, a black-grey to green shale with minor interbedded limestone industry. limestones. WHIRLPOOL, POWER GLEN, AND GRIMSBY DYER BAY, WINGFIELD, AND ST. EDMUND FORMATIONS FORMATIONS The oldest unit of the Cataract Group, the Whirlpool At about the same time as the Thorold and Neahga for Formation consists of about 8.0 m of quartzose sand mations were deposited on the Niagara Peninsula, three stone which becomes thinner to the north. The erosional formations were deposited in the area exposed by the edge of this unit is reported to be just north of the northern part of the escarpment. These northern units Duntroon area (south of Collingwood), (Liberty and Bol consist of (in ascending stratigraphic order) the Dyer ton, 1971; Telford, 1976a). Overlying the Whirlpool Bay, Wingfield, and St. Edmund formations Formation in the Niagara Peninsula are the interbedded (Figure 1.9), and are restricted to Manitoulin Island and shales, limestones, and impure sandstones of the Cabot the northernmost portion of the Bruce Peninsula. Head Formation (up to 15 m thick) (Telford and Tar The lowest unit, the Dyer Bay Formation, is a highly rant, 1975). The Cabot Head Formation is in turn over fossiliferous impure dolostone. Its thickness (only 2 to 4 lain by the Grimsby Formation which is of comparable m) and lack of outcrop exposure have combined to in thickness and consists of interbedded sandstones and hibit its development as a building stone. Overlying the shales. The Grimsby Formation is restricted to the Niag Dyer Bay Formation is the Wingfield Formation, a 10 m ara Falls-Milton portion of the escarpment. thick, olive-green to grey shale with dolostone interbeds. Although not significantly quarried by the limestone MANITOULIN AND CABOT HEAD FORMATIONS industry, the overlying St. Edmund Formation (previ North of Stoney Creek, the Manitoulin Formation di ously termed the Mindemoya Formation, Liberty, 1968) rectly overlies the Whirlpool Formation and is equiva has potential as an aggregate source. This formation con lent, in part, to the more clastic Cabot Head Formation sists of pale grey to brown, micro- to medium-crystal located on the Niagara Peninsula. The Manitoulin For line, thin- to medium-bedded dolostone. Little or no mation consists of up to 22 m of predominantly thin- chert is present, although shaly partings are present on bedded, blue-grey to brown dolomitic limestones and some bedding planes. The St. Edmund Formation tends dolostones. Although it is locally chert-rich, the to fracture naturally into brick-sized blocks, a useful at Manitoulin Formation where exposed (on Manitoulin Is tribute when crushing it for aggregate. Currently this unit land and on the lower Bruce Peninsula), has good poten is only excavated from wayside pits, and is used for gen tial as a source of building stone, and presently it is un eral fill and crushed stone for paving. The formation der- exploited. Overlying the Manitoulin Formation are reaches a thickness of about 25 m at the western end of the green, grey, and red shales of the Cabot Head For Manitoulin Island, where it is extensively exposed. mation. These shales weather recessively and generally FOSSIL HILL AND REYNALES FORMATIONS occur at the base of the steep cliffs formed by the overly The Fossil Hill Formation overlies the St. Edmund For ing resistant dolostones (Lockport and Amabel forma mation and is seen in the northern portion of the escarp tions). They are not utilized by the limestone industry. ment. This unit is stratigraphically equivalent in part to the Reynales Formation exposed on the Niagara Penin CLINTON GROUP sula portion to the south (Figure 1.9). Both the Reynales The Middle Silurian Clinton Group has been subdivided and the Fossil Hill formations are dolostones of relatively into ten formations; some are restricted in their occur low purity. The Fossil Hill Formation is a fine- to rence to either the northern or Niagara Peninsula (south coarse-crystalline dolostone, and has a high silica con ern) portions of the escarpment (Figure 1.9). The oldest tent (chert and silicified fossil debris). It is up to 25 m units of the Clinton Group are clastic or shaly dolostones thick on Manitoulin Island and thins southward to 6 m and include (in ascending stratigraphic order) the Dyer on the Bruce Peninsula. Bay and Wingfield formations in the north, and the The Reynales Formation, which overlies the Neahga Thorold and Neahga formations on the Niagara Penin Formation, is a thin- to thick-bedded shaly dolostone sula. The upper units- are predominantly dolostones and and dolomitic limestone, and is generally less than 3 m include (in ascending stratigraphic order) the St. Ed thick. The Reynales Formation does not have the high mund and Fossil Hill formations in the north, and the silica content of the Fossil Hill Formation. Reynales, Irondequoit (a limestone), Rochester (a Neither the Reynales nor the Fossil Hill formations shale), and Decew formations on the Niagara Peninsula. are excavated individually. Both units, however, are

18 Limestone Industries of Ontario quarried where the overlying Amabel and Lockport for area). Chert is strongly characteristic of the Goat Island mations make extraction economical. The Fossil Hill Member and varies from occasional nodules and lenses Formation has good potential for skid-resistant aggregate (as at Niagara Falls), to such abundance at Hamilton due to its high silica content. that this zone is informally referred to as the "Ancaster chert beds". The Goat Island Member reaches a maxi IRONDEQUOIT, ROCHESTER, AND DECEW mum thickness of 15.8 m, although the average is closer FORMATIONS to 10 m. South of the town of Waterdown, the Reynales Forma The upper portion of the Lockport and Amabel for tion may be overlain by one or all of the following forma mations is the Eramosa Member which is, in the area tions: the Irondequoit, Rochester or Decew formations between Niagara Falls and the village of Rockwood, a (Figure 1.9). Exposures of the Irondequoit and Roches dark brown, fine-crystalline, bituminous dolostone. ter formations are extensive, and occur on the escarp Dark grey shaly partings are seen in some exposures. ment at least as far north as Clappison's Corners (near North of Rockwood, in the Owen Sound-Bruce Penin Hamilton). The Decew Formation, however, is exposed sula area, the Eramosa Member exhibits several litholo- only in the area between the Niagara River Gorge and gies. It ranges from very fine-crystalline to sugary, pale Ancaster (near Hamilton). buff to almost black, laminated to massive-bedded dolostone, with variable bitumen content and local The Irondequoit Formation is a massive, coarse- biostromal development. The Eramosa Member typically crystalline, crinoidal limestone with a typical thickness of emits a strong petroliferous odor when freshly broken. approximately 2 m. The overlying Rochester Formation The thickness ranges from 15 m on the Bruce Peninsula is a black to dark grey calcareous shale with numerous to almost 20 m at the Town of Dundas, these variations limestone lenses, and is called informally the Rochester partly reflecting the discontinuous nature of the unit and Shale. Thinning westward from 17.5 m at the Niagara partly the difficulty in identifying contacts. River Gorge, this formation is only 4.2 m thick at Hamil On the Bruce Peninsula, the Amabel Formation has ton and pinches out around Clappison's Corners. The an average thickness of 45 m (at the Town of Wiarton), Decew Formation consists of sandy to shaly, dolomitic and is subdivided into the following three members (in limestones and dolostones and thins westward from a ascending stratigraphic order): Lions Head, Wiarton/ maximum thickness of 4 m at the Niagara River. Al Colpoy Bay and Eramosa members. The Lions Head though shaly partings are present, the Decew Formation Member consists of blocky, dark brown to white, very generally occurs as a single bed. fine- to fine-crystalline dolostone, witli a maximum thickness of 13.7 m (average 4.5 m). The Wiarton/Col- AMABEL AND LOCKPORT FORMATIONS poy Bay Member is a thick-bedded to massive, fine- to coarse-crystalline, blue-grey to white dolostone with Overlying the Clinton Group are rocks of the Middle Si abundant crinoidal debris. Bioherms (reefs) and thinner lurian Lockport Formation and equivalent Amabel for bedded inter-reefal rocks commonly occur within this mations (Figure 1.9). Both units are predominantly 23 m thick member, overlain by the Eramosa Member. dolostones with the Lockport Formation clearly recog nizable south of Waterdown (near Burlington). North of South of the Bruce Peninsula these members are not Waterdown, these dolostones have been assigned to the recognizable except for thin-bedded strata in the upper Amabel Formation which can be traced northwards and portion of the Amabel Formation (assigned to the westwards into the state of Michigan where it is called Eramosa Member). Southward the Amabel Formation the Engadine Dolomite. becomes a buff to blue-grey, often mottled, fine- to coarse-crystalline dolostone which is commonly massive The Lockport Formation consists of three formal bedded, although thin-bedded intervals are occasionally members and one informal member (in ascending seen. This lithology continues into the Lockport Forma stratigraphic order): the Gasport Member, the Goat Is tion. land Member, the informal Vinemount shale beds, and The Amabel and Lockport formations are the princi the Eramosa Member. The Eramosa Member forms the pal sources of aggregate for the province, particularly in upper part of both the Lockport and Amabel formations. the Milton-Hamilton area. The dolostone is also used The Gasport and Goat Island members are only clearly for building stone, armour stone, metallurgical flux, and identifiable as far north as Waterdown. The Gasport a variety of other purposes. Member is typically a thin- to massive-bedded, blue- grev to grey, fine- to medium-crystalline, crinoidal GUELPH FORMATION dolomitic limestone of variable thickness but averaging about 6 m. The overlying Goat Island Member consists The Guelph Formation overlies the Lockport and of massive, irregularly bedded, dark to light grey, fine- Amabel formations and occurs just west of the Niagara crystalline dolostone. Locally it is shaly (Hamilton area), Escarpment in a band trending north from Niagara Falls or contains vug-filling mineralization (Niagara Falls up to the northern tip of the Bruce Peninsula

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics -19- (Figure 1.1). The Guelph Formation is not exposed 4 to 50 m. The Guelph Formation is principally used by northwest of this area. Lithologically the Guelph Forma- the limestone industry in Cambridge District (especially tion is a brown, thick-bedded to massive, porous, sugary around Guelph and Hamilton) as dolomitic lime for met- dolostone. Massive reefal intervals occur in the forma- allurgical and flux stone and only rarely as an aggregate tion and are often associated with thinner bedded inter- source, reefal strata. The thickness of this formation varies from

20 Limestone Industries of Ontario Southwestern Ontario (Niagara, Simcoe, Aylmer, Chatham, and Wingham Districts)

The southwestern Ontario region is bounded on three The Paleozoic stratigraphy of southwestern Ontario sides by the Great Lakes: Huron, Erie, Ontario, and consists predominantly of shallow-water platform depos Lake St. Clair and its eastern side is bounded by the its that range in age from Upper Cambrian to Upper Niagara Escarpment. Paleozoic sediments deposited in Devonian. The carbonates, elastics and evaporitic units this area were influenced by both the Appalachian and dip gently and show little evidence of structural distur Michigan basins with the Algonquin Arch acting as a bance (Telford and Johnson, 1984). topographic high between these two basins. The Evidence of Cambrian or Lower Ordovician strata is Chatham Sag is present in the extreme southwestern por from drill hole information only. These strata represent tion of the region where the Algonquin and Findlay the initial marine transgression in the southwestern On arches meet (Figure 1.4). Paleozoic stratigraphic termi tario region and are truncated against the flanks of the nology for most of the units are Michigan Basin terms Algonquin Arch. Subsequent Middle Ordovician units and are applicable throughout most of the region. In the onlap and overlap the Arch which was a positive topo extreme easterly portion of the region (southern Niagara graphic feature in early Paleozoic times. Since no Upper Peninsula), Appalachian Basin terminology is more ap Cambrian to Middle Silurian units subcrop in the area, propriate (Figure 1.10) (Uyeno et al., 1982; Telford and they will not be discussed further. Johnson, 1984). SALINA FORMATION

CC PORT LAMBTON GP. The oldest exposed unit in southwestern Ontario is the LLJ Q. Upper Silurian Salina Formation which overlies the Mid Q. KETTLE POINT FM. dle Silurian Guelph Formation. The Salina Formation consists of easily weathered argillaceous dolostone, shale HAMILTON GP. and evaporites. A 6 m thick section occurs in a railway and road cutting adjacent to the new Welland Canal, along Townline Road south of Welland. In the subsur \MARCELLUS FM. z LLJ face the Salina Formation attains a thickness of approxi .J DUNDEE FM. mately 115 to 120 m, and although well known for its z Q evaporite minerals, particularly the extensively mined o Q ^ CC gypsum and halite (salt) deposits, it is not used presently LLJ LU by the limestone industry. Q ^ LUCAS FM. CC . ^- o 0 ——— ^^ BERTIE AND BASS ISLANDS FORMATIONS DC AMHERST^ ONON- \^ BURG FM^"DAGA FM. The Bertie Formation (in southern Niagara Peninsula) is Q "^" composed predominantly of resistant dolostones which DC in are exposed in the Onondaga Escarpment (up to 7.6 m 5 BOIS BLANC FM. in relief), on the Niagara Peninsula. The lower contact of 0 /ORISKANY FM. the Bertie Formation with the Salina Formation is grada- BASS IS.-^ BERTIE tional, and its upper contact with Devonian age rocks FM. ^ FM. (either the Oriskany or Bois Blanc Formations) is a dis tinct erosional surface representing a major disconfor Z mity. In Ontario the Bertie Formation is represented by DC Zi Lil five members (in ascending stratigraphic order): the rr Q. Oatka, Falkirk, Scajaquanda, Williamsville, and Akron D n D SALINA FM. members. The lithologies range from shaly dolostones to CO calcareous dolostones with interbeds of calcisiltites and calcilutites. (See southern Niagara District section, Vol ume III, for more details on these members.) Individual members of the Bertie Formation are best seen in the eastern portion of the Niagara Peninsula, Figure 1.10. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF PALEO since westward, the units pinch out because of the influ ZOIC ROCKS IN SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO. ence of the Algonquin Arch during their deposition. The

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 21 top of the Bertie Formation is marked by features repre seen in subsurface drill hole records. On the Niagara senting a period of shallowing and subaerial exposure. Peninsula, the Bois Blanc Formation forms the bedrock The Michigan Basin equivalent of the Bertie Formation in a narrow belt extending west from Fort Erie to in the extreme southwestern portion of the region is the Hagersville, and then northwest through Innerkip, Lis- Bass Islands Formation. The Bertie Formation reaches a towel, and Mildmay to Port Elgin on the shore of Lake maximum of 14 m in thickness in southwestern Ontario. Huron. Outcrops through these areas are numerous and The Bertie Formation is an important crushed stone the unit is often exposed as the caprock of the discon source for the limestone industry, and major operations tinuous Onondaga Escarpment. Quarry operations have are located near the towns of Fort Erie, Cayuga, utilized the Bois Blanc Formation near Hagersville, Hagersville, and Dunnville. The Bass Islands Formation Cayuga and Port Colborne for crushed stone. is not utilized by the limestone industry. ONONDAGA FORMATION ORISKANY FORMATION In the Niagara Peninsula area, the Middle Devonian Onondaga Formation is well exposed. It is an Appala The Lower Devonian Oriskany Formation is the oldest chian Basin unit which has been subdivided into four Devonian unit in the region. It can be identified with members (in ascending stratigraphic order): the certainty in outcrop at only one locality in Ontario, Edgecliff, Clarence, Moorehouse, and Seneca members. where it forms the bedrock of an approximately 600 ha The Edgecliff, Clarence, and the lower part of the area, 10 km east of the town of Hagersville. It is a thick- Moorehouse Member extend into the Niagara Peninsula bedded to massive, coarse-grained, grey-yellow sand of Ontario from New York and can be traced towards the stone that disconformably overlies the Silurian dolos- town of Selkirk. Further west, these three members be tones of the Bertie Formation and attains a thickness of come less distinct and beyond the Port Dover area they approximately 4.5 m. The Oriskany Formation has pre grade laterally into limestones and dolostones of the De viously been quarried for silica sand. troit River Group (a Michigan Basin unit). The members represent a diversity of lithologies which include: bioclas BOIS BLANC FORMATION tic limestones; biohermal and biostromal limestones; cherty limestones; and argillaceous, fossiliferous lime The Springvale Sandstone Member forms the basal por stones. The maximum thickness of this formation is tion of the Lower Devonian Bois Blanc Formation and 27 m with reefal mounds sometimes reaching 300 m in consists of medium- to coarse-grained, green, diameter. glauconitic sandstone with interbeds of limestone, dolos Member contacts within the Onondaga Formation tone, and brown chert. It is discontinuous and is some are gradational, whereas the formation's upper contact times difficult to distinguish from the Oriskany Forma with the Dundee Formation is sharp. The Onondaga is tion sandstones. quarried around the cities of Welland and Port Colborne The Bois Blanc Formation, typically a Michigan Ba for crushed stone. sin unit, is an eastward thinning carbonate wedge which spilled over the Algonquin Arch and interfingered with DETROIT RIVER GROUP clastic and carbonate strata of the Appalachian Basin. It is a cherty limestone (excluding the Springvale Sand The Onondaga Formation correlates, in part, with the stone Member) with shaly partings and minor inter Middle Devonian Detroit River Group from the Michi bedded dolostones, and is very diverse in texture and gan Basin. The two formations in this group are the Am composition. Fossils are common and the chert can be herstburg and Lucas formations (in ascending strati light grey or brown in colour, and occurs as thin beds or graphic order) (Figure 1.10). Outcrops of these forma nodules. Toward the centre of the Michigan Basin, the tions are rare, although they can be seen in quarries lo limestones of the Bois Blanc Formation are gradually re cated in the Chatham and Aylmer districts. The lower placed by grey-brown microsucrosic dolostones, and contact of the Amherstburg Formation with the Bois chert decreases. In the Niagara Peninsula area, the Bois Blanc Formation is difficult to identify and appears to be Blanc Formation's thickness may reach 15 m, whereas gradational. The upper contact of the Amherstburg For in southwestern Ontario its thickness reaches approxi mation with the Lucas Formation is distinct only in the mately 50 m. Woodstock-Ingersoll area.

The Bois Blanc Formation's upper contact with the AMHERSTBURG FORMATION overlying Onondaga Formation, on the Niagara Penin sula, is sharp and probably disconformable but, westward The Sylvania Sandstone Member is the basal portion of towards the Michigan Basin, the contact loses its defini the Amherstburg Formation. It does not outcrop and tion. Outcrops of the Bois Blanc Formation in the south only occurs in the extreme southwestern corner of the western portion of the region are sparse and it is best region (near Amherstburg and Windsor), as reported in

22 Limestone Industries of Ontario drill hole records. It is a strandline deposit consisting of quarry face. In subsurface the Lucas Formation can an orthoquartzitic sandstone and overlies the Bass Is reach thicknesses of approximately 80 m, and is discon- lands Formation around the western, southern, and formably overlain by the Dundee Formation. southeastern margins of the Michigan Basin. In Essex In -southwestern Ontario, the Amherstburg and County, us maximum thickness is 25 m. The Am Lucas formations are important to the limestone indus herstburg Formation (excluding the basal Sylvania Sand try. The high purity limestones of the Lucas Formation stone Member) is a coral/stromatoporoid-rich, bioclastic are used to produce high-calcium lime for metallurgical limestone that is very bituminous and contains grey chert processes, and for the manufacture of chemicals. Rock nodules. Its upper contact with the Lucas Formation ap -from the Lucas and Amherstburg formations is also used pears to be conformable with a change from dark for cement manufacture, agricultural lime, fillers and ag coloured, bituminous, coarsely bioclastic limestone (Am gregate. herstburg Formation), to a generally light brown micritic limestone (Lucas Formation). DUNDEE FORMATION The Formosa Reef Limestone (part of the Am herstburg Formation) is a localized reef development The Middle Devonian Dundee Formation is assigned to which is approximately 15 m thick and covers about strata lying between the Detroit River Group and the 39,000 ha in Bruce and Huron counties (Owen Sound Marcellus Formation, or the Hamilton Group. Outcrops and Wingham districts). The reefs and bioherms which are not abundant, although extensive exposures occur in make up the Formosa Reef Limestones are the remnant the Selkirk-Port Dover area on the Niagara Peninsula; surface exposures of large platform reefs that character on Pelee Island; in quarries near Amherstburg; and ized the southeast rim of the Michigan Basin during the along the Thames and Maitland rivers near the towns of deposition of the Amherstburg Formation. The type sec St. Marys and Goderich. Thickness varies from 20 m to tion for the Formosa Reef Limestone can be seen in a 40 m with the best known section occurring in the St. roadcut 4 km north of the village of Formosa. This lime Marys Cement Co. Ltd. quarry (W-1, Wingham District, stone is of high purity; stromatoporoids were the domi Volume III). nant reef-builders. The maximum thickness of the Am The Dundee Formation has a relatively uniform li herstburg Formation in the region is approximately thology: a medium- to thick-bedded, fossiliferous, 50 m. micritic limestone with occasional brown chert nodules. On Pelee Island, the lower part of the formation is ex LUCAS FORMATION posed and consists of a massive-bedded, bioclastic lime The Lucas Formation is well exposed in southwestern stone. Bituminous laminations are abundant and pockets Ontario and forms the bedrock of a broad area extend of bituminous material are generally concentrated in the ing northward from the Ingersoll area to Lake Huron. porous structure of colonial corals. While the upper con Excellent exposures of the formation occur in quarries tact of the Dundee Formation is not exposed, subsurface near Amherstburg, Ingersoll, and St. Marys. The Lucas records indicate lithologies change abruptly from the Formation is complex but tends to be an evaporite-rich micritic limestone to the shales of the Marcellus or Bell (halite and anhydrite) dolostone and limestone. Along Formations. The Dundee Formation is used by the lime the rim of the Michigan Basin the formation becomes a stone industry for cement manufacture, crushed stone, platform carbonate deposit of high purity limestone and rock dust, chips, and riprap. dolostone. The Anderdon Member forms the upper portion of MARCELLUS FORMATION, HAMILTON the formation but is found only around the rim of the GROUP, KETTLE POINT FORMATION, AND Michigan Basin. The Anderdon Member is usually de THE PORT LAMBTON GROUP fined as a high purity limestone (Uyeno et al., 1982). In the quarries around the Woodstock-Beachville area The overlying Marcellus Formation, Hamilton Group, (Aylmer District), the Anderdon Member represents the Kettle Point Formation, and Port Lambton Group (in as majority of the Lucas Formation that is exposed (inter cending stratigraphic order), (Figure 1.10) consist pre bedded limestones and calcarenites). In the upper por dominantly of grey shales, blue-grey shales, black shales tion of the Stelco Steel quarry (A-4, Aylmer District, and shaly limestones, respectively, and are rarely utilized Volume 111), the Anderdon Member is a sandy lime by the limestone industry. Uyeno et al., (1982) provide stone which acts as a very distinctive caprock for the more information on these units.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 23 Northern Ontario

For the purposes of this report, the northern Ontario re MANITOULIN AND COCKBURN ISLANDS gion includes all of the Canadian Shield north of the Manitoulin and Cockburn islands are northern exten French River that is overlain by Paleozoic rocks sions of the Niagara Escarpment and expose primarily (Figure 1.2). This region includes Paleozoic rocks in the Silurian strata (Figure 1.11), which consist of (in as northern Lake Huron area (Manitoulin, Cockburn, and cending order) the Manitoulin, Cabot Head, Dyer Bay, St. Joseph islands, and the Sault Ste. Marie area); the Wingfield, St. Edmund, Fossil Hill and Amabel forma northern end of Lake Timiskaming; and the Moose tions. The lithologies of these Lower and Middle Silurian River Basin in the Hudson Bay/James Bay Lowlands. units are similar to their descriptions given in the Niagara The geology of each of these widely scattered areas is Escarpment region. unique and will be discussed separately. The Ordovician units present on Manitoulin Island and the smaller islands directly to the north include (in NORTHERN LAKE HURON ascending order) the Georgian Bay and Blue Mountain

In the northern Lake Huron area, the Silurian strata of NORTHERN LAKE HURON LAKE TIMISKAMING (after Johnson and Telford, 1985 , OUTLIER Manitoulin and Cockburn islands (Figure 1.11) repre Russell, 1985 and Wolf, 1986) (after Russell, 1984) sent the northernmost extension of the Niagara Escarp ment, and trend north- and westward from the Bruce z Peninsula in the south. St. Joseph Island is underlain by Amabel Fm. Thornloe Fm. Ordovician strata, overlain mostly by thick glacial depos E its. D -J W Fossil Hill Fm. Earlton Fm. SAULT STE. MARIE AREA LJJ -J Q The oldest Paleozoic rocks in this region are the quartz Q St. Edmund Fm. sandstones of either Late Precambrian, Cambrian, or 2 Wingfield Fm. ^ Evanturel Creek Fm. Ordovician age which occur in the Sault Ste. Marie area. Dyer Bay Fm. ^ Small exposures are present along the shoreline of Lake Superior and along the St. Mary River, and on islands lil ^ Cabot Head Fm. 5 Cabot Head Fm. throughout the area. These rocks have been a source of building stone in the past. ^ W Manitoulin Fm. Manitoulin Fm.

Z ST. JOSEPH ISLAND Georgian Bay Fm. QCQ St. Joseph Island is underlain by Ordovician limestones LU — and shales. Immediately overlying the Precambrian sur SLO face are conglomerates and sandstones of Cambrian or (T Ordovician age, some of which are similar to the sand O Dawson Point Fm. stones which outcrop near Sault Ste. Marie. The Middle Collingwood Mbr. Ordovician limestones are superficially similar to the se Q. quence of carbonate rocks which occur in southern On Z D Farr Fm. tario but have not, however, been differentiated into spe 0 O cific formations. The Upper Ordovician is represented by T3 the Collingwood Member (Lindsay Formation), which e^ and shales) cuA consists of black, organic-rich, argillaceous limestone; 9o Bucke Fm. '.jco the Blue Mountain Formation, composed of blue-grey DC shales; and the Georgian Bay Formation, composed of 0 interbedded dolostones, dolomitic limestones and shales (see Russell, 1985, for more detailed information). Much of the island is covered with thick glacial deposits (dolostones and sandstones) limiting exposure of these formations, and even though Figure 1.11. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS OF PA this island is the only limestone source in the area, much LEOZOIC ROCKS IN THE NORTHERN LAKE of what is exposed is rich in terrigenous material that HURON REGION AND THE LAKE TIMISKAMING make it unsuitable for a number of applications. OUTLIER.

24 Limestone Industries of Ontario formations, and the Collingwood Member of the Lindsay Formation (Figure 1.11). Ordovician strata underlying r- LLJ these units in the subsurface cannot be adequately differ CC -'•"^4——— r entiated using any of the stratigraphic systems presently O —\r-i-l UUlUll111 . li *U ATTAGAMI Fm available. This is similar to the situation on St. Joseph UJ "^ -1 w "ill Island. Q TTTT——— W^U| Bedrock resources on both islands (especially from -JURASSICDEVONIAN Q MISTUSK\ VIA Bill i •700 the Amabel and Fossil Hill formations) are significantly i under-utilized by the limestone industry, largely as a re — V- sult of the distance from suitable markets. Recent quarry DC developments on Manitoulin Island using ship transpor UJ tation (see Quarry FS-1, Northern Ontario Region, Vol J LONG FRAPIDS Fm. •600 ume II), suggest aggregate/flux production will continue D and expand. In addition, the St. Edmund Formation is used locally for crushed stone and fill, and the UJ WILLIA MS Is. Fm. Manitoulin Formation is used for building stone. -1 Ci fi#ft|iiYti/FS...... 9 MOOSE. RIVER Fm LAKE TIMISKAMING AREA KWATAB OAHEGAN Fm. In the Lake Timiskaming area (Figure 1.2), a section of Paleozoic strata has been preserved in a large graben STOOI3 ING ^ structure. Movements of smaller-scale faults within the [jj RIVER Pm.'^r graben result in major changes in the geology between adjacent outcrops (a situation which is similar to the Pa z *crSEXTANT -400 0 ^..^ Fm. leozoic geology in eastern Ontario). -l .—^— - The Paleozoic succession in the Lake Timiskaming area includes Orodovician and Silurian strata (Figure 1.11). The Ordovician sequence consists of (in Q. KENOC5AMI RIVER ascending stratigraphic order) the Guigues, Bucke, Farr 111 Fm. -300 Q. and Dawson Point formations, and differs significantly Q. from the Ordovician sequence of southern Ontario. The 3 Farr Formation is currently being developed as a source SILURIAN of flux for use in smelting. ATTAWA- "^ EKWAN Q- PISKAT^ The following Silurian units are present in this area ^^ 'RIVER UJ Fm- -^^" Fm. -200 (in ascending stratigraphic order) the Manitoulin, Cabot ^ ——— ——— Head, Evanturel, Earlton and Thornloe formations (Rus sell, 1984). In general the Silurian sequence in the Lake 2 SEVERt* RIVER Fm Timiskaming outlier correlates with strata exposed in Hi— - - - - southern Ontario (compare Figure 1.11 with Figure 1.9); the Thornloe Formation is very similar to OC RED HE lAD RAPIDS •100 ORDOVICIAN UJ Fm. parts of the Amabel Formation on Manitoulin Island, Q. and the Earlton Formation is similar to the St. Edmund Q. D CHURC HILL RIVER Formation. G ROUP

HUDSON BAY/JAMES BAY LOWLANDS AND

THE MOOSE RIVER BASIN Modified after Norrls(1986) p.23 metres Paleozoic and Mesozoic age strata underlie a broad area Figure 1.12. STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF PALEO (approximately 920,000 sq. km) of northern Ontario ZOIC ROCKS OF THE MOOSE RIVER BASIN. called the Hudson Bay Platform. Two-thirds of the plat form is under water (Hudson and James Bays) and the remaining third underlies three physiographic regions: Bay Basin in the northwest and the Moose River Basin in the Southampton Plain (Southampton, Coats and Man- the southeast, separated by a northeast-trending feature sel islands) in the north, and the Hudson Bay and James called the Cape Henrietta Maria Arch (Figure 1.4). Bay Lowlands in the south. The strata in the Hudson Bay While the Hudson Bay Basin is mainly submerged, the Platform occur in two sedimentary basins, the Hudson Moose River Basin underlies the James Bay Lowland and

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 25 contains some strata of interest to the limestone industry. poroids and corals. Its Southern Ontario equivalent is the Unfortunately large areas of the James Bay Lowland are Edgecliff Member of the Onondaga Formation and it is covered by poorly drained muskeg which is dotted by the only unit quarried for stone in the Moose River Ba numerous lakes, and therefore information on underly sin. The Murray Island Formation is a succession of ing rock units is confined to scarce river bank outcrops banded, bituminous, highly calcareous dolostone, fine- and geological drill holes. to very coarse- crystalline clastic limestone and thin- to medium-bedded argillaceous limestone. It is stratigraphi- The Moose River Basin is infilled with a Paleozoic cally equivalent to the Dundee Formation in southern and Mesozoic succession which includes Ordovician, Si Ontario. The Murray Island Formation is disconformably lurian, Devonian, Middle Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous overlain by the Williams Island Formation, which con rocks with a total thickness of approximately 760 m. The sists of a lower, recessive shale member, and an upper, stratigraphic succession and corresponding lithologies for resistant carbonate member. The upper member consists the Moose River Basin are shown in Figure 1.12. Middle of thin- to medium-bedded, argillaceous limestones and Devonian carbonate units appear to be the most desir calcareous shales; medium- to coarse- crystalline sac- able strata for quarrying purposes in the basin and the charoidal and oolitic limestones; and partly brecciated, more attractive units are the Kwataboahegan Formation vuggy, oolitic limestones. (see Labelle Quarry, MO-1, Northern Ontario Region, Volume II), the Murray Island Formation, and the up These carbonate units (the Kwataboahegan Forma per member of the Williams Island Formation. tion, the Murray Island Formation and the upper mem ber of the Williams Island Formation) occur in areas of The Kwataboahegan Formation predominantly con the Moose River Basin which are accessible by the On sists of resistant, thick- to massive-bedded, medium- tario Northland Railway line and may be potential crystalline, biostromal limestone with abundant stromato- sources for quarried products.

26 Limestone Industries of Ontario References Cited

Bolton, T. E. Liberty, B.A., Bond, I.J., and Telford, P.G. 1957: Silurian Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Niagara Es 1976a: Paleozoic Geology of the Hamilton Area, Southern Ont carpment in Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Mem ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2336, scale oir 289, 145p. 1:50,000. 1976b: Paleozoic Geology of the Orangeville Area, Southern On Bond, I.J. and Telford, P.G. tario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2339, scale 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Bolton Area, Southern Ontario; 1:50,000. Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2338, scale 1:50,000. 1976c: Paleozoic Geology of the Dundalk Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2340, scale 1:50,000. Bond, I.J., Liberty, B. A., and Telford, P.G. Liberty, B.A., Feenstra, B.H., and Telford, P.G. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Brampton Area, Southern Ont- 1976a: Paleozoic Geology of the Grimsby Area, Southern Ontario; ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2337, scale 1:50,000. Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2343, scale 1:50,000. 1976b: Paleozoic Geology of the Niagara Area, Southern Ontario; Hewitt, D.F. Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2344, scale 1:50,000. 1960: The Limestone Industries of Ontario; Ontario Department Norris, A.W. of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report No. 5, 177p. 1986: Review of Hudson Platform Paleozoic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy; p. 17-42, in Canadian Inland Seas, I.P. Johnson, M.D., Russell, D.J., and Telford, P.G. Martini (editor), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 494p. 1983: Oil Shale Assessment Project, Volume l, Shallow Drilling Parks, W.A. Results 1981/82; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Re 1928: Faunas and Stratigraphy of the Ordovician black shales and port 5459, 20p. related rocks in Southern Ontario; Transactions of the 1985: Oil Shale Assessment Project, Drillholes for Regional Cor Royal Society of Canada, Third Series, Volume 22, Section relation 1983/84; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File 4, p. 39-90. Report 5565, 49p. Poole, W.H., Sanford, B.V., Williams, H., and Kelley, D.G. 1970: Geology of Southeastern Canada; p.227-304, in Geology Liberty, B.A. and Economic Minerals of Canada, R.J.W. Douglas (edi 1963a: Geology of Tweed, Kaladar, and Bannockburn Map Ar tor), Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Re eas, Ontario, with Special Emphasis on Middle Ordovician port l, 5th Edition, 838p. Stratigraphy; Geological Survey of Canada Paper 63-14, Rogers, C.A. 15p. 1985: Evaluation of the Potential for Expansion and Cracking due 1963b: Tweed Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map to the Alkali-Carbonate Reactions; Ontario Ministry of 24-1963, scale l inch lo l mile or 1:63,360. Transportation and Communications, Engineering Materi 1968: Ordovician and Silurian Stratigraphy of Manitoulin Island, als Office, Report EM-75, 38p. Ontario; p.25-37, in The Geology of Manitoulin Island, Russell, D.J. Michigan Basin Geological Society, Annual Field Trip 1984: Paleozoic geology of the Lake Timiskaming area, Timis Guidebook, lOlp. kaming District; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary 1969a: Palaeozoic Geology of the Lake Simcoe Area, Ontario; Map P.2700, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Geological Survey of Canada Memoir 355, 201p. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of St. Joseph Island, Algoma District; 1969b: Geology, Lake Simcoe Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2835, Geological Se Canada, Map 1228A, scale l inch to 4 miles, or ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1:253,440. Russell, D.J. and Telford, P.G. 1971a: Bath Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1983: Revisions to the Stratigraphy of the Upper Ordovician Col 19-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63, 360. lingwood Beds of Ontario - A Potential Oil Shale; Cana 1971b: Gananoque Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, dian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 20, p. 1780-1790. Map 18-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63, 360. Sanford, B.V. 1971c: Paleozoic Geology of Wolfe Island, Bath, Sydenham and 1969: Silurian of Southwestern Ontario; Geological Survey of Gananoque Areas, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada Canada, Technical Paper No. 5, Eighth Annual Confer Paper 70-35, 12p. ence, Ontario Petroleum Institute, 44p. 1971d: Sydenham Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Sanford, B.V. and Quinlan, R.G. Map 17-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63, 360. 1959: Subsurface Stratigraphy of Upper Cambrian rocks in South 1971e: Wolfe Island Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, western Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Map 20-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63, 360. 58-12, 33p. Telford, P.G. Liberty, B.A. and Bolton, T.E. 1976a: Paleozoic Geology of the Collingwood-Nottawasaga Area, 1971: Paleozoic Geology of the Bruce Peninsula Area, Ontario; Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2341, Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 360, 163p. scale 1:50,000.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 27 1976b: Paleozoic Geology of the Guelph Area, Southern Ontario; Williams, D.A. Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2342, scale 1:50,000. in prep: Paleozoic Geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, 1979a: Paleozoic Geology of the Cambridge Area, Southern Ont Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey Open File Re ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P. 1983, port in preparation. Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1979b: Paleozoic Geology of the Brantford Area, Southern On Williams, D.A. and Rae, A.M. tario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P. 1984, 1983: Paleozoic geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Southern Ontario; p. 107-110, in Summary of Field Work 1983, edited by J. Wood, O.L. White, R.B. Barlow, and Telford, P.G. and Johnson, M.D. A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous 1984: Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Southwestern Ontario; Geological Paper 116, 313p. Association of Canada and Mineralogical Association of Canada, Joint Annual Meeting, London, Ontario, Fieldtrip Williams, D.A. and Wolf, R.R. Guidebook l, 45p. 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Northern Part of the Ottawa-St. Telford, P.G. and Tarrant, G.A. Lawrence Lowland, Southern Ontario; p.132-143, in 1975: Paleozoic Geology of the Welland-Fort Erie Area, South Summary of Field Work 1982 edited by J.Wood, O.L. ern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map White, R.B. Barlow, and A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geologi P.989, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. cal Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 106, 235p. Uyeno, T.T. Wilson, A.E. 1974: Conodonts of the Hull Formation, Ottawa Group of the Ot 1937: Erosional Intervals Indicated by Contacts in the Vicinity of tawa-Hull Area; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin Ottawa, Ontario; Royal Society of Canada, Transactions, 248, 31p. Third Series, Vol. 31, Section 4, p.45-60. Uyeno, T.T., Telford, P.G., and Sanford, B.V. 1946: Geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Ontario 1982: Devonian Conodonts and Stratigraphy of Southwestern and Quebec; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 241, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 332, 55p. 66p.

28 Limestone Industries of Ontario Part 2 Precambrian Carbonate Resources

Additional carbonate resources for the limestone industries are Precambrian marbles, carbonatites and calcite vein deposits. Minor postglacial marl deposits are also a potential resource.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 29 Marble

Marble, as used in this report, is defined as a metamor WOMAN LAKE NARROWS, CONFEDERATION LAKE phic rock consisting predominantly of recrystallized cal AREA cite and/or dolomite, usually with a granular or sac- At Woman Lake Narrows (Figure 2.1, deposit NO-2) a charoidal (sucrosic) texture. In Ontario, marbles are 2.79 billion years old calcitic, stromatolitic marble is ex confined to the Precambrian rocks of the Canadian posed. The 100 m thick marble contains minor cherty Shield. lenses. The deposit has a strike length of 1.6 km (Storey, To most of the commercial limestone industries, es 1986). Elsewhere in the area an equally thick older mar pecially the building stone operators, the term marble is ble is reported with scattered lenses of massive pyrite and applied to almost any type of crystallized carbonate rock pyrrhotite. (including true marble, limestone, and dolostone) which THUNDER BAY is capable of taking a polish and can be used as architec tural or ornamental stone. In Ontario, this use includes The Rossport Formation in the Thunder Bay area may the "marbles" of the Amabel Formation on the Bruce be divided into three members: (a) lower dolomite, Peninsula (see Owen Sound District) and the "marbles" (b) central chert-carbonate (stromatolitic to the north), of the Gull River and Bobcaygeon Formations of Eastern and (c) upper dolomite. Only when metamorphosed by Ontario (see Cornwall District). Keweenawan diabase dikes or sills does the carbonate recrystallize to white dolomitic marble (Speed et al., For the purposes of this part of the report, the term 1985). Four locations are known where sections of 3 to 6 marble is only used for metamorphic, recrystallized car m of this dolomitic marble constitute a potential re bonate rocks. The unmetamorphosed carbonate rocks source. The following are the most significant deposits in are referred to by their common geological name, eg. the Thunder Bay area. limestone, dolostone, etc. COOKE POINT, SOUTH SHORE OF LAKE NIPIGON Marble deposits are identified both in the following A quarry was opened at Cooke Point (Figure 2.1, depos text and on Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2 (Chart, back it NO-7) for the purpose of producing building and orna pocket) according to their geographic distribution, start mental stone. At the base of a diabase sheet, thin-bed ing in the west and progressing eastward. Deposits are ded, gently folded dolomitic limestones, either white or centered in the Kenora, Sudbury, Thunder Bay areas pale green in colour, rise to a height of 6 m above lake and in southeastern Ontario. Terrazzo (marble chip) level, for about 1.5 km along the lakeshore. A silica con quarries in the Madoc area of southeastern Ontario pres tent in excess of 20 percent within the limestone is ently account for most of Ontario's marble production. quoted by Pye (see Hewitt, 1964, p.85). Descriptions of the Madoc operations are included in the quarry descriptions for Tweed District in Volume II, thus EAGLE HEAD LAKE, 71 KM NNE OF THUNDER BAY they are not discussed in detail in this section. A quarry for the production of decorative stone from white, brucitic marble and grey, wavy banded dolomitic marble is operated at Eagle Head Lake (Figure 2.1, de KENORA posit NO-8) by H. Lundmark and W. McAteer. The 4.5 to 5.5 m thick marble unit is associated with greenish or red carbonate mudstone and overlain by diabase along Marble deposits in the Kenora region include those at an irregular contact. Hahn Lake, west of Red Lake and at Woman Lake Nar rows, approximately 80 km east of Red Lake. ITREN LAKE, 69 KM NNE OF THUNDER BAY A good building and decorative stone material is ob tained by H. Lundmark from an exposure of white HAHN LAKE, RED LAKE AREA brucitic marble and grey to multicoloured dolomitic mar ble on the southwestern shore of Itren Lake (Figure 2.1, Production of lime in a kiln on the north shore of Hall deposit NO-9). Associated with purple spotted mudstone Bay, Red Lake, was based on marble exposed to the and overlain by diabase, the marble attains a maximum north in a 2.5 km long, 550 m wide belt running north- thickness of 3 m and is exposed for a strike length of northeast across Hahn Lake (Figure 2.1 deposit NO-1). approximately 72 m (Speed et al., 1985, p.84-87). This operation was undertaken in the late 1930s. This calcitic marble is intercalated with felsic metavolcanics. WABIKON LAKE, 110 KM NORTH OF THUNDER BAY White to light grey carbonate forms approximately 259o White, grey and red calcareous mudstone, intercalated of the rock in outcrop (Storey, 1986). with black shale, is exposed on the west shore of

30 Limestone Industries of Ontario Wabikon Lake (Figure 2.1, deposit NO-6). A maximum and lime (Parry Sound area (Figure 2.2, NO- 20, 21)). thickness of 3 m of red tinted impure carbonate, grading Satterly (1943) provides a general characterization of the to white in the vicinity of diabase is exposed. This show deposits: "Very little pure crystalline limestone occurs, ing is staked for potential production of decorative build and most of it is speckled with grains of silicate miner ing stone (Speed et al., 1985, p.155-158). als."

SUDBURY CENTRAL METASEDIMENTARY BELT The Espanola Formation is part of the Huronian Super Ontario's most extensive marble resources are contained group of metasediments and is the only limestone-bear in the Central Metasedimentary Belt of the Grenville ing formation in the Huronian. Although localized areas Province. In Ontario, a tentative subdivision, based on are contact metamorphosed to marble, the majority of differences in rock groupings, structural style and meta this unit has remained a limestone in spite of its 2 or morphic facies, separates the area of so-called "Gren more billion year age. The presence of limestone has ville Super Group" formations into the Bancroft, Elzevir, been reported in several widely spaced locations, suggest Sharbot Lake and Frontenac terrains (Bartlett et al., ing a deposit of large areal extent, eg. Endikai Lake 1984, p.4). Marble is common in all these terrains but Area (Siemiatkowska, 1978), Benny Area (Card and correlation across terrain boundaries is difficult due to Innes, 1981), Shining Tree Area (Carter, 1981), Hut the tectonic character of the boundaries. At least two ton, Parkin, Afton and Clement Townships (Meyn, ages of deposition have been established in the Elzevirian 1968, 1977). The Espanola Formation is characterized terrain where the Flinton Group sediments in the Flin- by a lower member rich in carbonate, followed by one or ton-Kaladar area represent deposition subsequent to the two members with increased sand or silt content. Even in Elzevirian orogeny (Bartlett et al., 1984, p.5). Locally, the lower member, siltstone interbeds or sandy limestone as many as four cycles of volcanic activity and carbonate or dolostone are common. sedimentation have been distinguished in the Belmont- Marmora area (Bartlett et al., 1984, p.9-28). The thickness of the Espanola Formation is variable. In the Benny Area the formation ranges in thickness A statistical analysis of the chemical composition of from less than 15 m to over 90 m and averages about 45 over 1900 marble samples covering a large part of the m (Card and Innes, 1981, p.59). Elsewhere the forma Central Metasedimentary Belt is provided by Grant and tion consists of two more or less equal parts, neither esti Kingston (1984). mated to exceed 60 m in thickness (Meyn, 1968). De The respective major marble deposits of the Central velopment of the Espanola limestone resources north of Metasedimentary Belt will be discussed according to ar Lake Huron would be in competition with efficient pro eas of distribution in the following geographic order: Kin- duction from large scale operations in the south that mount, Haliburton, Maynooth, Renfrew, Coe Hill, benefit from easy access via Great Lakes shipping (on Plevna, Carleton Place, Kaladar and Westport. Manitoulin and Drummond Islands). KINMOUNT, HALIBURTON, MAYNOOTH SOUTHEASTERN ONTARIO Many small deposits are known in this area with a num ber of small abandoned marble quarries. Geological Late Precambrian rocks of southeastern Ontario fall mapping of the area by Bright (1977) suggests there are within the Grenville geological province. These rocks can several marble units in the area of considerable thick be grouped into two major rock types and geographic ness. The following formation descriptions pertain to the areas: rocks northwest of a line running northeast be Eels Lake area east of Kinmount: tween Bobcaygeon and Pembroke are part of the Central Gneiss Belt and consist predominantly of gneissic rocks. (1) Monmouth: Thickness less than 30 m up to 900 m; Rocks southeast of this line are part of the Central limestone and dolostone; minor greywacke siltstone (calcitic to dolomitic marble; minor biotite-rich Metasedimentary Belt and consist of mostly clastic rocks. Marble deposits of southeastern Ontario mostly occur in gneiss). the Central Metasedimentary Belt. (2) Tory Hill: Thickness less than 30 m up to 1350 m; thinly interbedded limestone, calcareous greywacke, CENTRAL GNEISS BELT, GRENVILLE arkosic sandstone, and chert; subordinate tuff (cal citic silicated marble, calc-silicate gneiss, clean PROVINCE quartzofeldspathic gneiss, impure quartzite; minor Several marble deposits in the Central Gneiss Belt have amphibolite). been investigated, at one time or another, for production (3) Dungannon: Thickness 300 m to 1350 m; dolostone of refractory magnesite (Rutherglen deposits, west of and limestone; subordinate calcareous sandstone Mattawa (Figure 2.2, NO-23)), calcite filler (Burcal de and siltstone; minor arkosic sandstone, chert and posits, Huntsville (Figure 2.2, NO-22)) or building stone mafic tuff (dolomitic and calcitic marble, calc-sili-

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 31 cate gneiss, amphibolite, biotitic quartzofeldspathic chips in the area (Figure 2.2, NO-25) which are detailed gneiss and quartzite). in the Tweed District descriptions.

A graphic display of the geological environment that MARMORA TOWNSHIP brings about the alternating sequence of marble, vol caniclastic units and siliceous sediment is given by Easton Resources in Marmora Township, Hastings County, are (1986, p.141-151). largely part of the Marmora Formation (Bartlett et al., 1984, p. 15), a predominantly carbonaceous metasedi Due to the localized nature of volcanic activity asso ment in Cycle III of the Belmont Lake volcanic complex. ciated with the carbonates, the marbles cannot be re Up to 2,000 m thick, this formation can be distinguished gionally correlated. into a lower, predominantly dolomitic part (algal mats), and an upper non-stromatolitic calcitic part. RENFREW BARRIE, CLARENDON AND PALMERSTON Marbles in the Renfrew area (Figure 2.2, NO-27) are TOWNSHIPS derived from impure limestone and dolostone (Lumbers, Fine crystalline pink and white dolomitic marble extends 1982, p. 19). Calcitic and dolomitic marbles are distin across Lots 27, 28 and 29, Concessions 9 and 10, Barrie guished by Lumbers into relatively pure varieties and Township, Frontenac County (Hewitt, 1964, p.56). The those with substantial siliceous impurities, though these presence of tremolite in the marble detracts somewhat units are frequently intercalated. from its potential as a building stone, although it may still Marbles in the Renfrew area are predominantly have potential for terrazzo. coarse crystalline and occasionally, in highly strained Marbles of the Clarendon Lake area, Clarendon structural zones, very coarse crystalline. Minor dolomitic Township, are distinguished into dolomitic and calcitic layers are found intercalated with the predominantly cal dominated varieties (Moore and Morton, 1980, p.26). citic marble in this area, while major units of dolomitic They consist of massive or layered white, grey, bluish marble show a spatial association with metavolcanic grey, greyish buff and buff, fine to coarse crystalline car rocks (Lumbers, 1982, p. 19). Some of these units are bonates with occasional intercalation of metavolcanic or quarried for building stone and the production of magne metasedimentary beds. sium (Figure 2.2, NO-27). Verschuren et al. (1985, p.52) mention two areas in Chemical analyses of marble in the Renfrew area are Lot 37- 39, Con. 2, Clarendon Township, Frontenac reproduced in: Industrial Minerals of the Pembroke- County, which have potential for marble development. Renfrew Area, Part 1: Marble (Storey and Vos, 1981). Verschuren et al. (1985, p.85) also mention an area in Lot 10, Con. 11, Palmerston Township, Frontenac COE HILL County, with a similar potential for development. In the literature, Clarendon and Palmerston Town Coe Hill designates an area from Bancroft to Madoc, ships are mentioned in connection with a wide band of and Apsley to Weslemkoon. Marbles in this area are dolomitic marble (Hewitt, 1964, p.58) between Ompah generally medium to fine crystalline, corresponding to an and Plevna. This marble was tested for building stone intermediate to low grade metamorphism (Lumbers, purposes as early as 1935 (Goudge, 1938, p.74). 1964, p.7). Part of this area was mapped in detail by Bartlett and CARLETON PLACE Moore (1985) who make, where possible, the following The area surrounding the Town of Carleton Place is distinctions in carbonate metasediments: dolomitic mar characterized by medium to high grade metamorphism of ble, calcitic marble, interlayered calcitic/dolomitic mar the underlying rocks. In a study of the Lavant area Pauk ble, dolomitic marble with abundant lenses and layers of (1984, p.7, 8) correlates older metasediments and chert, tremolite marble and skarn. As a group these map metavolcanics with the Herman and Mayo Groups in the units are distinguished from interlayered carbonate and Bancroft area, and some younger formations, caught up siliceous metasediments. in structural zones in the northwest part, with the Flinton Group. Carbonate metasediments are generally medium MADOC TOWNSHIP to coarse crystalline, occasionally fine crystalline, calcitic In his report on the geology of Madoc Township, Hast and dolomitic marbles that occur as thick beds or as ings County, Hewitt (1968, p. 11, 12) characterizes mar thinner beds intercalated with clastic metasediments or ble of the northern part, occurring in the Queensborough metavolcanics (Pauk, 1984, p.35). syncline, as blue grey and well bedded. Elsewhere, white, In the Lavant area massive units of white, medium to buff, green, black and pink marble are common. Several coarse crystalline, calcitic marble, with occasional colour quarries are operated for the production of terrazzo variations to grey-blue or salmon pink, are the most

32 Limestone Industries of Ontario widely distributed variety of a total of 8 subunits. These Con. 2, South Sherbrooke Township, Lanark County subunits are distinguished primarily on the basis of min (Grant and Kingston, 1984, p. 192). eral content (Pauk, 1984, p.35). Predominantly fine crystalline dolomitic calcite mar DARLING TOWNSHIP ble, grey or light and dark grey laminated, with occa sional pods or blocks of white, plagioclase-rich silicate A major operation for the production of calcite chips, rocks, occurs in Lots 16, 18, 19, Con. 10 and 11, South filler and whiting is conducted by Steep Rock Calcite in Sherbrooke Township (Grant and Kingston, 1984, Darling Township, Lanark County. The property in p.214-216). cludes two building stone quarries in the Tatlock area previously held by Angelstone Limited (Guthrie Farm) and Omega Marble Tile and Terrazzo Limited (Lot 6, KALADAR Con. 5, S.W. half), respectively (Hewitt, 1964, p.61, 64). A white medium-crystalline calcitic marble is re In the Kaladar area, marble quarries are located in Lot ported by Hewitt (1964, p.62). 7, Con. l and Lots 2 and 3, Con. 6, Elzevir Township, Hastings County (Hewitt, 1964, p.52), as well as in Lot A wide belt of low silica content (O^c silica) marble 11, Con. 14, Hungerford Township, Hastings County is bounded by dolomitic marble to the west and by zones (Figure 2.2, NO-26). with higher silica content (3^o to 119k) to the east. The latter zones underlie the initial quarry, which produced crushed marble of high brightness but of limited use as a WESTPORT calcite filler. The low silica zone marble reaches true thicknesses Favourable mention is made by Grant and Kingston of 85 m. Here the marble is white, medium to coarse (1984) of marble outcrops in the following townships in crystalline, with negligible phlogopite and essentially free the Westport area. of graphite. OLDEN TOWNSHIP The footwall boundary is determined by impure dolomitic marble with increased silica content and inclu White, massive, medium to coarse crystalline calcite sions of boudinaged amphibolite. Rare boudinaged marble occurs within the Mountain Grove Intrusion in quartz veins cross cut the marble belt. Lot 2, Con. 5, Olden Township, Frontenac County, in Along strike, the ore body is also limited by higher an area 150 to 200 m wide and 650 m long on the site of silica content. Quartz and tremolite are the major silicate the former Long Lake Zinc Mine. This is potentially of minerals. The presence of phlogopite and diopside interest as industrial filler material (Grant and Kingston, (Hewitt, 1964, p.66) has been recorded. 1984, p. 133-135), although a larger body would be more desirable for economic operation. LANARK AND RAMSAY TOWNSHIPS White to light grey, fine to medium crystalline cal Banded, white and grey, calcitic marble trends northeast citic marble with only minor graphite and phlogopite oc erly through Lanark Village, in Lot l, Con. l, Lanark curs in Lot 6, Con. 3 (Grant and Kingston, 1984, Township, Lanark County (Hewitt, 1964, p.60). Build p.127-130). ing stone, lime and road metal were produced locally (Storey and Vos, 1981, p.62). UNITED COUNTIES OF LEEDS AND GRENVILLE Northeasterly trending calcite marble, layered with graphite, silicate minerals and dolomite crystals, and in- White calcitic, coarse-grained marble in Lot 14, Con. 7, terlayered with paragneiss units, is reported in Lots 26 Rear of Leeds and Lansdowne Township, United Coun and 27, Con. 5-9 of the same township (Storey and Vos, ties of Leeds and Grenville, is of potential interest as 1981, p.95). Additional analyses are given by Grant and filler material (Grant and Kingston, 1984, p. 159-161). Kingston (1984, p.201- 204). Predominantly white calcite marble, with grey bands and minor graphite and pyrite, outcrops in Lot 21, Con. 9, White calcitic marble is reported in Lot 8, Con. 6, South Crosby Township, United Counties of Leeds and Ramsay Township, Lanark County, by Hewitt (1964, Grenville (Grant and Kingston, 1984, p. 170). p. 17). Grant and Kingston (1984] p.211-212) record coarse to medium crystalline marble with minor graphite, phlogopite and muscovite in this area. STORRINGTON TOWNSHIP White calcitic marble with minor phlogopite and graphite SOUTH SHERBROOKE TOWNSHIP and some pyrite and muscovite occurs in Lot 10, Con. White, calcitic marble, occasionally white and grey lami 13, Storrington Township, Hastings County (Grant and nated with phlogopite and graphite, occurs in Lot 13, Kingston, 1984, p.170-172).

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 33 Calcite Veins

Substantial amounts of calcium carbonate have been en GRAVEL RIVER CALCITE OCCURRENCE countered in calcite veins. In the Thunder Bay area they Calcite veins in Archean hornblende-biotite granite are are associated almost exclusively with shales and wackes found in a high cliff on the western shore of the Gravel of the Rove Formation and ironstone of the Gunflint River, north of Rossport (Figure 2.3, NO-14) (Speed et Formation. Here they occur as simple and composite al., 1985, p.72-75). A timber access road leads north veins in faults and fissures structurally related to diabase from Highway 17 at a point 52 km east of Nipigon. After dykes and sills (Speed et al., 1985, p.10). The veins 15 km this road passes close by the occurrence after hav were described as follows by Speed et al. (1985, p. 11): ing crossed the Gravel River itself. Samples taken from "The veins commonly consist of a gangue of calcite and/or the veins, the largest of which is 4 to 5 m wide, show the barite with minor quartz and fluorite. Metallic minerals found in carbonate to be very pure calcium carbonate with only these vein systems are argentite, native silver, galena, sphalerite, minor amounts of silica. chalcopyrite and pyrite. The majority of these veins were mined for their silver, lead, zinc or copper content in the late 1800s and early NEEPATYRE MINE 1900s." The Neepatyre Mine is located on the widest part of an Vein deposits of potential economic importance as a east-trending vein cutting across Paipoonge and Neebing source of calcium carbonate include the Gaherty Island Townships, 10 km west of Thunder Bay (Figure 2.1, and Kawashegamuk Lake deposits in the Kenora area, NO-10). The near vertical vein cuts flat-lying cherty the Gravel River, Neepatyre Mine, South McKellar Is taconite iron formation of the Gunflint Formation land and Spar Island deposits in the Thunder Bay district (Speed et al., 1985, p.97). and the Parkin Township deposit, northeast of Sudbury. The Neepatyre Mine consists of 2 open cuts, respec tively 9 m and 6 m wide, in Neebing Township. Coarse Elsewhere in Ontario, calcite veins of a purity and crystalline calcite from these cuts was crushed and size to be of interest as sources of filler-grade calcium screened for production of stucco dash, chicken grit and carbonate are scarce. A particular example occurs in landplaster. Up to July 1927 one hundred and fifty tons Frontenac County in southeastern Ontario, as described of material had been marketed (Speed et al., 1985, below. p.99). The mineralization in this vein is described by In 1946, a large vein of massive, cream-coloured to Speed et al. (1985) as follows: slightly pink calcite was worked by Marlhill Mines Lim "The main constituent of the Neepatyre vein is massive white ited in Palmerston Township. The vein cuts a granite and calcite. A transparent variety of calcite (Iceland Spar) is also said to occur. This form of calcite was not observed during the visit to varies in width from 18 m to 30 m, with an east-west the property. Quartz occurs as either the white or amethystine vari strike and a near vertical dip. It has been traced by drill ety. Barite and fluorite also occur sporadically throughout the vein. ing over a length of more than 200 m and to a depth of Metallic minerals are rare and sparsely disseminated in the vein 45 m and, except for rare wallrock fragments, consists material and include galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and pyrite." totally of calcite. SOUTH MCKELLAR ISLAND DEPOSIT The South McKellar Island deposit, 22 km southeast of GAHERTY ISLAND DEPOSIT Thunder Bay on South McKellar Island (Figure 2.1, NO-13), is only accessible by boat. The island is the The Gaherty Island deposit (Figure 2.1, NO-3), 16 km most northeasterly of a chain of islands including Jarvis, south of and accessible by boat from Kenora, consists of Spar and Thompson Islands, all of which are underlain a dolomitic carbonate vein with minor amounts of quartz by a diabase dike striking in this direction and extending and sulphide minerals in a pyroclastic host rock (Storey, from the mainland at McKellar Point. A vertical, com 1986, p.79). The vertical vein is at least 6 m wide. The posite barite-calcite vein with minor fluorite, sphalerite, dolomite content weathers rusty brown and appears to be galena, pyrite and silver, strikes due northwest across the predominantly ankerite (Storey, 1986). island (Speed et al., 1985, p. 142). The 150 m exposed length of the vein is from 13 to 20 m wide and is the KAWASHEGAMUK LAKE DEPOSIT largest known composite vein in the region (Speed et al., 1985, p. 142). Sections of this vein are either predomi Carbonate veins occur in the area of Kawashegamuk nantly barite or calcite and as such the vein is a major Lake, 27 km southeast of Dinorwic (Figure 2.1, NO-4) source of good quality barite and calcite in the region (Storey, 1986, p.83-85). The area can be reached by (Speed et al., 1985). Mining of this vein has taken place forest access road exiting south from Highway 17 at 10.7 since discovery by the McKellar brothers in 1869; ship km southeast of Dinorwic. Chemical analyses indicate ments of barite were made in 1894 and further drilling that the carbonate is an iron-rich dolomite. took place in 1967.

34 Limestone Industries of Ontario SPAR ISLAND OCCURRENCE The calcite deposit can be subdivided into three grades according to drill results by Raretech Minerals Spar Island is one of the islands underlain by a northeast Inc. (Constable, 1986). These grades are provisionally striking diabase dike leaving the mainland at McKellar classified as good, fair and poor calcite (Table 2.1). Point. It is approximately 35 km due south of Thunder Bay (Figure 2.1, NO-12). Calcite occurs in a near-verti Whereas good-grade calcite has assayed 99.2 per cal composite vein striking 160 degrees across the south cent CaCO3 in surface showings, the contents of MgO, ern part of the island. Vein walls and a central rib of SiO2 and Fe2O3 increase towards the contact with the barite alternate with massive calcite bands in which some fair grade calcite. quartz and barite occur. A large horse of diabase in par On the basis of a total of 8 drill holes combining allel attitude is enclosed in the 5 m wide south shore 1458.5 feet (444.5 m) of BQ drill core, a possible ton outcrop (Guillet, 1963, p. 12). The proportion of major nage of 23,370 tonnes good grade calcite, 58,015 tonnes minerals is approximately: calcite - 65 percent; barite - fair grade calcite and 52,390 tonnes fair to poor grade 25 percent; and quartz - 10 percent (Guillet, 1963, calcite was established by Constable (1986). Sulphide p.12). stringers and disseminated pyrite in siliceous units with The history of the mining operations of this deposit low values in nickel, copper, zinc and gold also occur since 1846 is described by Speed et al. (1985, p. 148, within the deposit (Constable, 1986). 149). Production figures are not available.

PARKIN TOWNSHIP DEPOSIT

A body of massive calcite, here classified as a vein de Table 2.1. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF PARKIN posit, is found in Parkin Township, 40 km north- TOWNSHIP CALCITE northeast of Sudbury (Figure 2.3, NO-19). Drilling has shown that this body has limited depth extension. Grade: Good Good to Fair Fair The calcite deposit is located in Lot 8, Con. 3, SiO2 0.93 2.47 9.94 Parkin Township, in an area of brecciated quartzites and A1203 0.02 ^.01 0.06 diabase, which includes some fragments of the carbon-, CaO 55.6 54.5 27.1 ate-rich Espanola Formation. The area is characterized MgO 0.26 0.55 17.6 by faults and fractures which Karvinen (1982) relates to Na2O 0.03 0.02 •CO.01 a local rift structure which had been active from early K2O 0.01 0.01 0.01 Proterozoic to post-Nipissing time. The hydrothermal al Fe203 0.11 0.14 3.62 teration and brecciation is apparently related in time to MnO 0.07 0.08 0.22 the intrusion of Nipissing diabase. It is conceivable that Ti02 *C0.01 0.01 0.01 carbonates originating in the Espanola Formation were 0.01 0.01 0.01 remobilized and concentrated in the present lens-like LO I 43.2 42.5 41.8 body as suggested by W. Meyer (Resident Geologist, TOTAL 100.2 100.3 100.4 Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, Sudbury Analyses by X-Ray Assay Laboratories Limited, Don Mills, Ont - see Vos, 1986). ario (Constable,1986)

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 35 Carbonatites

The term carbonatite applies to carbonaceous material in FIRESAND RIVER COMPLEX igneous rock complexes. In surface outcrop the com plexes are characterized by concentric distribution of a The Firesand River Complex, approximately 7 km east great variety of rock types. of Wawa (Figure 2.3, NO-17), covers approximately 4.5 km2 (Sage, 1983a; OFR 5403, p.2) that is underlain by a In carbonatite complexes there is frequently a grada- core of ferruginous dolomite and a calcitic rim which tional transition between rock types, and not all of the consists of "a complex mixture of carbonate, silicocar- types are necessarily represented in each complex. A bonatite, ijolite and wall rock fragments ..." (Sage, typical distribution sequence is an outer ring of altered or 1983a, p.8). fenitized country rock followed by syenide rock low in Fenitization has affected the Early Precambrian quartz, calcium and ferromagnesian minerals (Heinrich, supracrustal host rocks adjacent to the complex (Sage, 1966, p.323). Towards the centre, ferromagnesian-rich 1983a, p. 13-16). In a quartz-feldspar porphyry Sage ultramafic rocks in rings, dykes or bodies may be en notes a loss of silica and sodic metasomatism of the feld countered, accompanied by concentrations of magnetite, spars. The calcite carbonatite of the calcitic rim occurs in ilmenite and/or other metallic minerals. Either pure car a ring, or a succession of rings, up to a total width of 600 bonate or calc-silicate rock occupies the core of the m (Parsons, 1961, p.26). The potential of these rocks as complex. a source of lime was tested by the Algoma Steel Corpora tion Ltd. in 1970 with surface work and drilling totalling In many instances the elements lacking from the 717 m in eight holes. The contents of phosphorous, silica outer rings of a carbonatite complex are compensated for and magnesium apparently proved too high for use of at the centre, the chemical balance indicating a transport this material as a source of lime in the sinter plant at of elements from the outskirts toward the centre of the Wawa. complex. Whether this chemical distribution was ob tained magmatically or by metasomatic transfer of ele PRAIRIE LAKE COMPLEX ments, possibly with the help of groundwater circulation as suggested previously (Vos, 1980), remains to be estab The Prairie Lake Complex is a circular carbonatite ap lished for each deposit individually. Such knowledge is proximately 3 km2 in an area located northwest of Mara essential for a comprehensive evaluation of mineral po thon, about 25 km north of Lake Superior (Figure 2.3, tential. For purposes of resource evaluation it is neces NO-15). sary only to establish the quantity and chemical composi The complex consists of an intricately interfingered tion of carbonaceous material available in the complex. sequence of arcuate to curvolinear bands of carbonate In areas of granitic terrain in the Canadian Shield the rock and ijolite, the ijolitic rocks being more abundant carbonatite complexes are frequently the only geological towards the core. While calcite is the dominant carbon environment in which economic concentrations of cal ate phase in the complex, dolomite commonly occurs as cium carbonate are found. As such they are an impor accessory grains in carbonate units or ijolitic rocks (Sage, tant complement to the limestone resources of Ontario. 1983b, p.26-31). The possibility of using Prairie Lake calcium car bonatite for production of cement has been considered ONTARIO DEPOSITS by Nuinsco Resources Limited, the company presently holding options on the deposits. Consistent with produc tion of cement and lime from carbonatites in Sweden The distribution of carbonatite-alkalic complexes in On (Alno Complex), Uganda (Tororo Complex) and Brazil tario is shown by Satterly (1968; Map P.452). Some of (Jacuparanga Complex) both the Firesand River and these complexes have been examined much more closely Prairie Lake Complex provide an exploration target for than others and whether or not calcium carbonate is pre cement stone north of Lake Superior. sent is not known with certainty in some instances. CARGILL COMPLEX Four of the better known complexes with a carbon ate content of potential economic interest are discussed A readily accessible carbonatite intrusion is located 32 below. They are the Firesand River and Prairie Lake km southwest of Kapuskasing in Cargill Township complexes in the Wawa and Marathon areas, northeast (Figure 2.3, NO-16). The intrusion took place approxi and north of Lake Superior, the Cargill Complex south- mately 1.74 billion years ago (Gittins et al., 1967) in an west of Kapuskasing, and the Spanish River Carbonatite environment of hybrid quartz diorite gneiss and am Complex west of Sudbury. phibolite of Archean age (Bennett et al., 1967). Major

36 Limestone Industries of Ontario rock types of the complex are carbonatite and pyroxenite and water (average: Q.38%). Some beneficiation or se (Sandvik and Erdosh, 1977). The surface magnetic ex lective mining would be necessary to obtain a suitable pression of the intrusion indicates three centres, identi cement source rock from this deposit, though calcium fied respectively with the South and North Subcomplexes carbonate could be produced as a by-product if the and a poorly defined West Subcomplex, 4 km west of the phosphates present were to be mined. main intrusive. In the South Subcomplex a total area of approxi SPANISH RIVER COMPLEX mately l km2 consists of an outer ring of calcite car The Spanish River Carbonatite Complex is approximately bonatite and a core of dolomite carbonatite. Siderite car 55 km northwest of Sudbury, on the boundary of Ven bonatite is indicated as well, but very little of this mate turi and Tofflemire Townships (Figure 2.3, NO-18). rial has actually shown up in subsequent drilling (Ford, The complex has a total surface area of approximately 2 1986, p.326). The calcite carbonatite is near the surface km2, but bedrock is exposed in only two areas where or exposed in contact with the pyroxenite envelope in extensive bulldozing has been completed (Sage, 1983d, some areas. p.4). The rock types of the complex, occurring within a In his report on the Cargill Complex, Sage (1983c, halo of fenitized granitic rock, include silicocarbonatite, p.23-26) reports 45 major element analyses of sovite of ijolite and pyroxenite in the periphery, and purer car- which 18 have a CaO content of 45^" or more. The bal bonatites towards the core. The latter 5 samples have ance in these analyses is made up of SiO2 (average: more than 45% CaO (Sage, 1983d, appendix). Not 2.66^0), A12O3 (average: G.57%), Fe2O3 (average: enough information is available to evaluate the potential G.95%), FeO (average: 2.379c), MgO (average: 3.3996), of this complex as a source of calcium carbonate due to Na2O (average: Q.47%), K2O (average: Q.22%), TiO2 poor exposure and limited drilling. It is identified here (average: Q.14%), P2O5 (average: S.93%), S (average: primarily because of its geographic location near an area Q.34%), MnO (average: G.11%), CO2 (average: S.36%) of industrial and agricultural markets.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 37 Marl

Marl is essentially a soft limestone mud that accumulates In recent years, marl has received more interest in in the beds of certain spring-fed landlocked lakes and northern Ontario, in spite of the fact that deposits are marshes. It results from biochemical precipitation in scarcer than in the south and their quality is generally duced by photosynthesis of algae. Where the lake waters only fair. This interest stems largely from the scarcity of are nearly saturated with calcium carbonate, as a result limestone in the predominantly Precambrian terrains. of the abundance of nearby limy tills or bedrocks, these Deposits near Timmins, Thunder Bay (Figure 2.1, algae are so prolific as to give a most distinctive and at NO-10) and Sioux Lookout (Figure 2.1, NO-5) have tractive blue-green colour to the water. each been considered for portland cement manufacture and agricultural soil conditioner, neither of which require Marl lakes are particularly abundant in southern On particularly high purity. tario, but a few deposits are also known in the Timmins area and the Nipigon and Thunder Bay areas. More than Finely-divided organic matter and clay are the prin a hundred occurrences have been described (Guillet, cipal impurities in marl, and Ontario deposits vary con 1969). siderably in these regards. The purer deposits are moder ately white in colour, and several attempts have been From 1889 to 1919 marl was extensively used in On made to develop them for filler applications. However, tario for making portland cement. For much of this pe their high natural moisture content (50 to 75 percent) riod it was used exclusively, with clay, in fourteen plants and their extreme fineness (70 to 90 percent finer than throughout southern Ontario, but by 1919 all had either 325 mesh) has made their handling and processing both closed or converted to limestone. For cement, as for difficult and costly. The best products have had white most limestone markets, marl proved inferior because of ness ratings of only about 80 (on a standard scale of l to its high water content and greater variability, the latter 100), while whiteness ratings from the best marble de due in part to the dredging method of excavation. posits are 95-96.

38 Limestone Industries of Ontario References Cited

Bartlett, J.R., Brock, B.S., Moore, J.M., Jr., and Thivierge, port 5509, 297 p., 4 tables, 27 figures, 4 photos and l map R.H. in back pocket. 1984: Field Trip 9A/10A: Grenville Traverse A, Cross-Sections Guillet, G.R. of Parts of the Central Melasedimentary Belt; Geological 1963: Barite in Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Industrial Association of Canada, May 1984. Mineral Report 10, 42p. Bartlett, J. R. and Moore, J. M., Jr. 1969: Marl in Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Industrial 1985: Geology of Belmont, Marmora, and Southern Methuen Mineral Report 28, 127 p., 7 tables, 2 figures, incl. Map Townships, Peterborough and Hastings Counties, Ontario; 2183. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5537, 236p. Heinrich, E.W. Bennett, G., Brown, D.D., George, P.T., and Leahy, E.J. 1966: The Geology of Carbonatites; Rand McNally and Com pany, Chicago, 555 p. 1967: Operation Kapuskasing; Ontario Department of Mines, Miscellaneous Paper 10, 98 p. Hewitt, D.F. Bright, E.G. 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Part III, Marble; Ontario De partment of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 16, 89p. 1977: Regional Structure and Stratigraphy of the Eels Lake Area, Haliburton and Peterborough Counties; p. 110-117 in Sum 1968: Geology of Madoc and the North Part of Huntingdon mary of Field Work, 1977, by the Geological Branch, ed Township; Ontario Department of Mines, Geological Re ited by V.G. Milne, O.L. White, R.B. Barlow, and J.A. port 73, 45p. Robertson, Ontario Geological Survey, MP 75, 208 p. Karvinen, W.O. Card, K.D. and Innes, D.G. 1982: Geological Report on the Mowat Creek Property, Parkin 1981: Geology of the Benny Area, District of Sudbury; Ontario Township; unpublished Assessment File Report 2.4536, Geological Survey, Report 206, 117 p. Assessment Files Research Office, Ontario Geological Sur vey, Toronto. Carter, M.W. 1981: Shining Tree Area, Districts of Sudbury and Timiskaming; Lumbers, S. B. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5346, 67 p., 1964: Preliminary Report on the Relationship of Mineral Deposits 2 tables, 8 figures and l map. to Intrusive Rocks and Metamorphism in Part of the Gren ville Province of Southeastern Ontario; Ontario Department Constable, D. W. of Mines, P.R. 1964-4, 37 p. 1986: Report on the Calcite Property for Raretech Minerals Inc., 1982: Summary of Metallogeny, Renfrew County Area; Ontario Parkin Township, Ontario; unpublished report, copy on Geological Survey, Report 212, 58p., incl. Map 2462, file, Engineering and Terrain Geology Section, Ontario scale 1:100,000. Geological Survey. Easton, R. M. Meyn, H.D. 1968: Geology of Hutton and Parkin Townships, District of Sud 1986: Paleoenvironment and Facies of the Apsley Formation, bury; Ontario Department of Mines, Geological Branch, Peterborough County; p. 141-151 in Summary of Field Open File Report 5015, approx. lOOp. Work and Other Activities 1986, by the Ontario Geological Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. White, R.B. 1977: Geology of Afton, Scholes, Macbeth, and Clement Town Barlow, M. E. Cherry, and A. C. Colvine, Ontario Geo ships, Districts of Sudbury and Nipissing; Ontario Geologi logical Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, 435 p. Accompa cal Survey, Report 170, 77 p. nied by l Chart. Moore, J.M. Jr. and Morton, R.L. Ford, M.J. 1980: Geology of the Clarendon Lake Area, Counties of Fron- 1986: Industrial Minerals of the Cargill Township and Martison tenac and Lennox and Addington; Ontario Geological Sur Lake Carbonatite Complexes; p. 325-330 in Summary of vey, Open File Report 5316, 83 p. Field Work and Other Activities 1986, by the Ontario Geo Parsons, G.E. logical Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. White, 1961: Niobium Bearing Complexes East of Lake Superior; On R.B. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Colvine, Ontario tario Department of Mines; Geological Report 3, 73 p. Ac Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, 435 p. Ac companied by Maps 2005 to 2008, scale 1:15,840 or l companied by l Chart. inch to 1/4 mile. Gittins, J., Maclntyre, R. M., and York, D. Pauk, L. 1967: The Ages of Carbonatite Complexes in Eastern Canada; 1984: Geology of the Dalhousie Lake Area, Frontenac and Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 651-655. Lanark Counties; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Goudge, M. F. Report 5517, 116 p., 7 tables, 4 photos, incl. Map P.2533. 1938: Limestones of Canada, Their Occurrence and Characteris tics - Part IV-Ontario; Canada Department of Mines and Sage, R.P. Resources, Bureau of Mines, Publication Number 781, 1983a: Geology of the Firesand River Carbonatite Complex; On 362p. tario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5403, 136 p., 9 tables, 3 figures and l map in back pocket. Grant, T.W. and Kingston, P.W. 1983b: Geology of the Prairie Lake Carbonatite Complex; Ontario 1984: Geology and Geochemistry of Grenville Marble in South Geological Survey, Open File Report 5412, 133 p., 3 pho eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Re tos, 6 tables, 8 figures.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 39 1983c: Geology of the Cargill Township Carbonatite Complex, Storey, C.C. District of Cochrane; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File 1986: Building and Ornamental Stone Inventory in the Districts of Report 5400, 46 p., 2 tables, 2 figures, l appendix, l Kenora and Rainy River; Ontario Geological Survey, Min map. eral Deposits Circular 27, 168 p. 1983d: Geology of the Spanish River Carbonatite Complex; On tario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5416, 115 p., 2 Storey, C.C. and Vos, M.A. tables and 4 figures. 1981: Industrial Minerals of the Pembroke-Renfrew Area, NTS Sandvik, P.O. and Erdosh, G. 31F, Part 1: Marble; Ontario Gelogical Survey, Mineral 1977: Geology of the Cargill Phosphate Deposit in Northern On Deposists Circular 21, 132p. tario; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Bulle tin, Vol. 70, Number 777, p. 90-96. Verschuren, C.P., van Haaften, S., and Kingston, P.W. Satterly, J. 1985: Building Stones of Eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological 1943: Mineral Occurrences in Parry Sound District; Ontario De Survey, Open File Report 5556, 116p. partment of Mines, Annual Report for 1942, Volume 51, Vos, M.A. Part 2, 86 p. 1968: Aeromagnetic Maps of Carbonatite-Alkalic Complexes in 1980: Industrial Minerals of the Alkalic Complexes; p. 179-182 Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Preliminary Map in Summary of Field Work, 1980, by the Ontario Geologi P.452 (revised). cal Survey, edited by V.G. Milne, O.L. White, R.B. Bar low, J.A. Robertson and A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geological Siemiatkowska, K.M. Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 96, 201 p. 1978: Geology of the Endikai Lake Area, District of Algoma; Ontario Geological Survey, Report 178, 79 p. 1986: Precambrian Limestone Resources; p. 323, 324 in Sum mary of Field Work and Other Activities 1986, by the On Speed, A.A., Mason, J.K., and Vos, M.A. tario Geological Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. 1985: Lime Resources of the Thunder Bay Area; Ontario Geo White, R.B. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Colvine, logical Survey, Open File Report 5566, 173 p., l map and Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, l appendix. 435p. Accompanied by l Chart.

40 Limestone Industries of Ontario Part 3 — Properties, Specifications and Uses of Limestone Commodities

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 41 Limestone Aggregates

Limestone aggregates (crushed limestone) represent the ing, hauling and crushing rather than the actual methods single largest category of limestone production. Most of of quarrying. the production is associated with the requirements of the construction industry as either road building material or In Ontario, production of crushed limestone is exclu as concrete aggregate. Other major uses include rubble sively by open quarry; there is no underground mining of and riprap, railroad ballast and stone for a wide variety limestone. Quarries vary considerably in size; number, of other uses. depth and width of benches; and type of processing equipment. The principal factors affecting quarry size Ontario is blessed with an abundance of limestone and scope of operations are the quality of the deposit resources. However, regional differences in the supply (depth, width, bedding integrity, and physico-chemical and economic accessibility of the resource do result in uniformity of the deposit), available markets (number of significant differences in the supply and demand patterns product sizes and market volumes for each size), and the for stone. As a consequence, the industry shows a degree financial capability of the operator. of dynamism unusual for a low priced commodity. There is no standard design for aggregate plants. Each deposit and each range of desired products re SOURCES quires careful analysis and a specific design engineered As documented in other parts of this report the lime for the location. By selecting various available standard stone resources of Ontario are extensive and deposits are components and assembling them in combinations that found in most regions of the province. The industry, provide the required crushing, sizing, washing, benefica however, is concentrated in southern Ontario, especially tion, stockpiling and loading, a wide variety of needs and along the Niagara Escarpment, and in eastern Ontario. problems can be efficiently handled. Some of the com The major producing centres include Halton, Ottawa- ponents can be purchased as portable units, thus permit Carleton, Simcoe, Niagara, Hamilton-Wentworth, Nor ting ready relocation after the depletion of a source or thumberland, Essex and Oxford. Together, all these ar the satisfaction of a short-term need such as a highway eas accounted for l\^o of all stone production for all project. uses. The optimum size of a plant depends on the demand Centres of major urban growth such as Metropolitan for the desired quantities of product. Currently in On Toronto, Peel Region, York Region and Durham Region tario crushed stone operations can be found with annual lack accessible deposits of limestone for use as aggregate production volumes ranging from about 50,000 tonnes to material. However, crushed gravel is readily available in 9 million tonnes. Due to the heavy investment required these regions and is usually an acceptable substitute for for a large fixed plant it is necessary to carefully evaluate crushed limestone. Transportation costs play a significant production capacity in relation to the size of the deposit role in determining the relative use of crushed limestone available for processing and the market. A minimum of a and gravel in construction applications in these regions. 20-year supply of extractable material is generally re As a rule of thumb, the area west of Highway 11 (Yonge quired before a large fixed plant can be justified. St.) relies on crushed limestone from quarries on the Ni As mentioned previously, the major technological agara Escarpment to meet its aggregate requirements. factors affecting the crushed stone industry have to do Conversely, the area east of Highway 11 relies on with the increasing size of both mobile and fixed produc crushed gravel for much of its aggregate requirements. tion equipment. Plants with through-puts in excess of Similarly, the southwestern Ontario counties of 1,500 tonnes per hour are now common, whereas 30 Lambton, Huron, Middlesex, Kent, Essex and Elgin rely years ago a large plant would have an effective capacity on imports of crushed stone from other regions of On of approximately 400 tonnes per hour. tario or from the United States to meet their aggregate requirements. These aspects of regional supply/demand Equipment has increased dramatically in size. Haul and transportation costs will be more fully explored in a age trucks have changed from 12 to 15 tonne capacity to later section of this report. 50 to 75 tonnes. The shift to larger haulage trucks has been parallelled by a shift to larger extraction equipment, PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY as equipment manufacturers and users seek to optimize overall production efficiencies and thereby reduce the The production methods for crushed limestone have not unit costs of production. Smaller crawler shovels of 0.75 changed significantly in their basic principles in many to 3 cu. m capacity have been replaced by units of up to years. Technological change has been mainly associated 6 cu. m, or by rubber-tired front-end loaders of 7.5 to 9 with increases in the size of equipment for drilling, blast cu. m or even up to 18 cu. m capacity.

42 Limestone Industries of Ontario A similar tranformaiion has occurred in terms of the Secondary breaking of rock, if required, is generally size of the operators. Large equipment is very expensive conducted by either impact hammer or drop ball. The and can only be purchased by large organizations. There choice depends on the amount of secondary breaking has been a significant trend to consolidation in the indus required and the difficulty of breaking. On occasion sec try in terms of the integration of smaller producers into a ondary blasting may be used for particularly large and/or larger organization and the development of major verti highly competent blocks. Very large pieces of stone may cally integrated operations such as those of the cement be reserved for sale as armour stone for shoreline protec producers. The cement producers, in particular, have tion or sold to dimension stone producers if the material significantly extended their interests in aggregate produc is of suitable quality. tion in recent years. This expansion has been brought about to satisfy the internal demand of the cement pro PRIMARY CRUSHING ducers for concrete aggregate, as well as a strategic deci Proper sizing of the primary crusher to match the capac sion on their part to diversify operations. While there will ity of the bucket or loader is essential for high productiv always be a role for the smaller operator serving local ity. The crusher should be able to accommodate the larg markets, the trend is certainly to larger plants financed est-sized stone that the bucket can efficiently handle. by large corporations. This minimizes the chance of oversized rock jamming Because the demand for aggregates in Ontario is the crusher and obstructing the flow of material. highly seasonal, and because of the difficulties and ex The selection of the primary crusher is influenced by pense of operating in the winter months, most quarries the required capacity, the range of stone sizes to be pro operate less than 12 months. Larger operators are able to duced and the compressive strength of the rock. Jaw satisfy winter demand from stockpiles. All operators take crushers are the oldest type of primary crusher. They advantage of the winter slowdown to conduct necessary may be of the double toggle or dual jaw type, the single maintenance on key items of plant and equipment and in toggle or overhead eccentric type, or have two movable many cases perform progressive rehabilitation of ex jaws. Jaw crushers are generally more compact than tracted areas. gyratory crushers and can be set with wider discharge Figure 3.1 depicts a flow diagram for a typical large, ends than gyratory crushers. However, for the same size modern crushed limestone processing plant. The basic unit the gyratory has over twice the capacity of the jaw production processes and features of some of the equip crusher. Gyratory crushers are also available in much ment associated with such plants are detailed below. larger sizes than jaw crushers. Jaw crushers range in ca pacity up to approximately 600 tonne/hr. and in size DRILLING AND BLASTING from 61 cm x 91 cm to 168 cm x 213 cm and can crush stone down to 7.5 cm to 13 cm. The jaw crusher is typi Drilling and blasting operations represent the first major cally less expensive to operate than the gyratory for lower phase of crushed stone production after the removal of capacities. the overburden. Drilling is generally conducted using ro Gyratory crushers consist of a conical head inside an tary percussion drills, although churn drills and down- outer concave bowl, a slow gyratory or eccentric move the-hole drills may also be used. Typically, holes are 7 to ment of the head compressing the stone against the fixed 15 cm in diameter. Hole spacing is dependent on the crushing surface. Gyratory crushers are available with ca fracturing properties of the rock and the desired bench pacities in excess of 300 tonnes per hour and sizes up to width, but is typically conducted on patterns of 1.8 m x 183 cm or larger. The smallest discharge openings range 1.8 m, 1.8 m x 3.0 m, 2.4 m x 3.0 m or 3.7 m x 3.7 m. between 9 cm and 23 cm. For equal capacity, the Holes are generally drilled to bench height. gyratory weighs less and costs less than the jaw crusher, Modern blasting techniques rely almost exclusively but requires more space, has more restricted discharge on AN/FO (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil) as the explosive. openings and generally high maintenance costs. How Dynamite and other such explosives are rarely used. The ever, it is the unit of choice when high through-put is AN/FO may be mixed in the hole but is typically mixed required. in a batching plant on site and transported to the drill site Impact crushers may also be used. The impact in special trucks. There is a wide variation in the make crusher consists of one or two impeller breakers that ro up of the mixture due to variations in the integrity of the tate at speeds of 250 - 1000 rpm. Rock size reduction is rock and the desired shattering pattern. It is normal for caused by the stone hitting the sides of the breaker, full bench faces to be blasted in a single shot, and this other pieces of stone and steel breaker bars inside the generally implies one or two shots per week. Many op crusher chamber. The breaker bars can be adjusted to erators rely on contract drillers and blasters, having allow for the production of stone down to 4 cm to 5 cm, found such arrangements to be less expensive than em thus perhaps eliminating the need for secondary crush ploying their own staff in what may be only a part-time ing. The crusher tends to produce a cubic-shaped prod operation. uct. Capacities range from 200 to 2,000 tonnes per hour.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 43 (11 3'

12) 4 1/4' SYMONS CONE CRUSHER (l) T (2) T 13)

13) 3' SYMONS CONE CRUSHER

2m -2" ' " ' O (

1 ""CW/FYO" *o- t (5 O

FIRST CONTROL TOWER

SECOND CONTROL TOWER

Figure 3.1. FLOW DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL LARGE, MODERN CRUSHED-LIMESTONE PLANT, FEATURING FLEXIBILITY IN SIZES AND GRADATIONS.

44 Limestone Industries of Ontario SECONDARY CRUSHING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

Secondary crushing is employed to reduce material to The crushing, screening and conveying of stone neces more salable size distributions. There are a variety of sarily creates significant amounts of dust. Techniques to secondary crushers on the market, most of which are reduce dust levels include the use of covered conveyors, smaller, lower capacity, higher speed variations of pri water sprays and special surfactant compounds. Road mary crushers. The most common secondary crushers dust is generally controlled by the use of water trucks are hammermills and cone crushers, a type of gyratory and the application of calcium chloride solutions. crusher. Cone crushers are available which can crush Waste wash water is generally discharged to settling stone to 1009c passing 10 mesh at rates up to 1,000 ponds for subsequent re-use. Make-up water may be tonnes per hour. derived from special wells or from the surface run-off of the quarry. Pulverized stone is processed in either wet or dry grinding circuits using hammer mills, cage mills, roller In urban and semi-urban areas noise control is a se mills and ball, tube, rod and pebble mills. The choice of rious concern. Special enclosures are generally required mill depends on the type of stone being processed, the to reduce the noise from crushing and screening opera degree of fineness desired, and the particle size distribu tions. Truck noise is often a significant problem and cir tion desired. Details of these mills are to be found in the cuitous access roads and berms are often required. section on Fillers and Extenders. Pit rehabilitation is a requirement for all operations in areas designated under the Pits and Quarries Control CONVEYING AND SCREENING Act.. Increasingly stringent standards are adding substan tially to quarry costs and thus to the costs of stone. How After crushing, the stone is generally conveyed by belt ever, operators recognize the value of rehabilitation as a conveyor to a series of single, double and triple-deck wise corporate practice in light of increasing land use screens which are used to separate products by size competition, especially in southern Ontario. range. Vibrating screens are generally employed to pre vent clogging. Screen materials vary from punched metal STONE SPECIFICATIONS plates to woven wire, rubber or urethane. Urethane Specifications for crushed limestone for various uses screens are enjoying increased use because of their resis have been developed based on the use of the material as tance to wear, and their lower tendency to clog with fine either coarse or fine aggregate. The most important particles. Screened product may be conveyed to surge specifications deal with the use of limestone aggregates as piles for subsequent reclaiming and stockpiling or sale, or road building materials and as concrete aggregate for to a wash plant. building construction.

WASHING CLASSIFICATION Aggregate is defined as coarse if it is retained on a seive Some quarries have wash plants to remove residual clay, that has openings with sides of 4.75 mm (No. 4 mesh). shale, silt and stone dust from the crushed stone. The Fine aggregate is the material that passes. Typically, road prevalence of washing has increased in recent years as construction requires 509c coarse and 509k fine aggre customers increase their quality requirements for stone. gates; concrete and concrete products require 559c Wash plants may incorporate scrubbing systems, water coarse and 459o fine aggregates. Crushed stone is inter jets or sprays, or log washers, depending on the degree of changeable with gravel for many applications but not all. washing required and the type of material to be removed. The most important specifications are those of particle Very elaborate washing systems employing flotation proc size and distribution, and particle shape, although physi esses are common in Europe. Washed stone is generally cal and chemical properties are also important. dried in rotary driers, a necessary step for some markets such as asphalt aggregate which require bone-dry stone. The gradation of fine aggregate in asphalt and con crete mixes is critical. Specifications permit a fair range in gradation but require a high degree of uniformity in STORAGE the continuing supply. In concrete, the colour and tex Screened and/or washed stone is generally stored in un ture of the finished product is materially affected by the covered stockpiles on the ground. Reclaim may be either nature of the aggregate, particularly of the fine aggregate. by underground conveyor, sometimes with product mix The proportion of fine material produced in a ing capabilities, or by front-end loader. In some cases crushed stone operation depends on several factors, pri the reclaimed product is moved to storage bins which marily the degree of crushing. Typical crushed limestone empty directly into waiting trucks or rail cars. Plants may plants produce approximately 259k fine aggregate, not all maintain a diverse range of product sizes; typically about of which is salable. Some plants, due to equipment fac 10 size gradations. tors and the physical characteristics of the stone may

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 45 produce 3596 or more fine aggregate. The unsalable pro n Chemical soundness portion of this output can build quickly and create a a minimum content of soluble minerals, impurities costly storage problem. If it is never sold, the whole cost such as sulphates and susceptibility to alkali-reactiv of the operation, including the cost of disposal of the ity - particularly important where aggregate is used in unwanted material, must be borne by the revenue from concrete other products. In Ontario, the use of limestone aggregate in road The gradation and angularity of a typical quarry fine construction is governed by Ontario Provincial Standard product, while generally resembling sand in its size range Specifications (OPSS) developed by the Ministry of and quite consistent in its makeup, does not make its use Transportation. The following specifications cover the in concrete or asphalt readily acceptable. Its best use is main aggregate applications: in base course materials where its nature contributes to 1001 - aggregates - general, fine and coarse compactability. However, problems are encountered 1002 - aggregates - concrete when too much extreme fine content impedes the drain age of water from the base. 1003 — aggregates — hot mix asphaltic concrete 1004 - aggregates - miscellaneous "Manufactured sand" can be produced by the crush ing and grinding of stone. It is a practical method for 1010 - aggregates - Granular A, B, and M and select increasing the proportion of fine aggregate within certain subgrade material limits. However, the method is highly energy intensive These specifications are supplemented by specified and the product, while satisfactory for some uses such as test procedures and specifications developed by the Ca mass concrete, is unsuitable for many uses due to its nadian General Standards Board (CGSB), the Canadian harsh angular shape. The most significant difficulty is Standards Association (CSA), and the American Society caused by the large amount of extreme fine sizes, below for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for special situations. 200 mesh, that is produced. The amount of this material The OPSS prescriptions for aggregates are summarized in can exceed 20*?k and its disposal is costly and difficult. Table 3.1. In fine aggregates the gradation is usually the most The most significant factors in the specifications re important quality factor. If that is controlled, the mate late to the following: rial is usually acceptable. - gradation of fine and coarse aggregate In coarse aggregate, the desired size can generally be - percent of flat and elongate particles in the batch produced by the degree of crushing, but many physical - physical test requirements such as Los Angeles Abra and chemical specifications must also be satisfied. Vari sion, Magnesium Sulphate Soundness, Petrographic ous deleterious materials such as chert, shale or siltstone Number, Absorption and Plasticity Index may be present in a quarry face which may restrict or - chemical requirements such as alkali limits for al totally prevent the use of such materials. Specifications kali-silica and alkali-carbonate reactive rock that do not permit the use of lower quality material result An additional criteria which is being developed re in higher prices. However, the cost of aggregate is usually lates to the skid resistance of aggregate. The Ministry of such a small part of the total construction cost that com Transportation uses a measure of the ability of an aggre promising the expected life of the finished product by gate to retain or develop microtexture called the Polished using cheaper materials is rarely a good practice. Stone Value (PSV) test. Wear resistance of the aggregate is measured by the Aggregate Abrasion Value (AAV). CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATE SPECIFICATIONS Table 3.2 illustrates a typical section through a road. Considerations in the assessment of aggregate for con The thickness and composition of each layer will be de struction purposes include the following: pendent on the level of traffic and the nature of the traf fic expected for the road, as well as the nature of the a Strength and hardness ground conditions and the climatic conditions. principally related to density, porosity, and homoge Crushed limestone aggregate is used in road base be neity of a deposit low the asphaltic driving course. A well graded material results in greater interlock between particles thereby in Q Cleanness creasing the frictional strength and load bearing capacity free from dust and fines such as clay, silt and soil of the road. Limestone particles must be resistant to freeze-thaw action. This avoids the generation of excess n Particle shape fines which results in decreased permeability and the particles should be as cubic shaped as possible strength. Physical and gradation requirements for these with no laminations or incipient cracks. Flat elongate materials are covered by OPSS 1010 and OPSS 1001 particles are not desirable as they exhibit poor inter and refer to Granular A, B, M, and select subgrade ma locking and contribute to excessive voids. terial.

46 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 3.1. ONTARIO PROVINCIAL STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATE.

OPSS 1002 - SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE OPSS 1003 - SPECIFICATIONS FOR HOT MIX AGGREGATES. Gradation Requirements For Fine ASPHALTIC CONCRETE. Gradation Requirements For Aggregates. * Total Fine Aggregate.*

MTO Sieve Percentage MTO Sieve Percentage Passing Designation Passing Designation HL 1&3 HL2 HL4&8

9.5 mm 100 9.5 mm 100 100 100 4.75 mm 95-100 4.75 mm 90-100 85-100 85-100 2.36 mm 80-100 2.36 mm 70-100 70-90 60-100 1.18 mm 50-85 1.18mm 50-90 50-75 34-90 600 Jim 25-60 600 firn 30-70 30-55 17-70 300 Jim 5-30 300 Jim 15-40 15-35 9-40 150 Jim 0-10 150 Jim 5-15 5-15 3-15 75 Jim 0-3 Natural Sand 75 Jim 0-5 3-8 0-7 0-6 Manufactured Sand *MTO Lab Test No. LS 602. *MTO Lab Test No. LS 602.

Gradation Requirements For Coarse Aggregate.* Gradation Requirements - Coarse Aggregates For Structural Concrete, Sidewalks, Curb I& Gutter.* MTO Sieve Percentage Passing Designation HL 1 A 3 HL 4 HL 8 Nominal Maximum Size 19.0 mm 13.2 mm 9.5 mm** 26.5 mm - - 100 19.0 mm - 100 90-100 MTO Sieve 16.0 mm 100 96-100 65-90 Designation Percentage Passing 13.2 mm 96-100 67-86 9.5 mm 50-73 29-52 20-55 53.0 mm 4.75 mm 0-10 0-10 0-10 37. 5 mm *MTO Lab Test No. LS 602. 26.5 mm 100 22.4 mm 19.0 mm 90-100 100 Physical Requirements For Coarse Aggregate. 16.0 mm 65-90 13.2 mm - 90-100 100 MTO Lab Test MTO Lab 9.5mm 20-55 40-70 85-100 Test # H L Type 4.75mm 0-10 0-15 10-30 1348 *MTO Lab Test No. LS 602 **Not more than W7o of 9.5 mm nominal maximum size mate Los Angeles LS 603 15 35 35 35 rial shall pass the 2.36 sieve. Abrasion, 9fc Maximum Loss Magnesium Sulphate LS 606 5 12 12 15 Gradation Requirements - Coarse Aggregates For Soundness, 5 cycles Concrete Pavement Or Base.* 9fc Maximum Loss Absorption, LS 604 1.0 1.75 2.0 2.0 Nominal 9fc Maximum Maximum Size 37.5 mm 19 mm Combined Petrographic LS 609 100 135 160 160 Number, HL Max. MTO Sieve Loss by Washing LS 601 *1.0 *1.3 *1.3 *1.3 Designation Percentage Passing (Passing 75 Jim 53.0 mm 100 - 100 Sieve), 9o Maximum 37.5mm 90-100 - 95-100 Flat and Elongated LS 608 20 20 20 20 26.5 mm 20-55 100 Particles, 9fc Maximum 19.0mm 0-15 90-100 35-70 Percentage Crushed LS 607 100 60 60 60 13.2 mm - 9k Maximum 9.5mm 0-5 20-55 10-30 *When quarried rock, is used as a source of coarse aggregate, a 4.75 mm - 0-10 0-5 maximum of 2 percent passing the 75 \im sieve shall be permit *MTO Lab Test No. LS 602. ted.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 47 Table 3.1. CONTINUED. OPSS 1002 - SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE AGGREGATES. Physical Requirements - Coarse Aggregates.

Acceptance Requirement Concrete Structures MTO Sidewalk, Curb and MTO Lab Test Lab Test Number Concrete Pavement Gutter, and Base

Material finer than 75 Jim Sieve, by LS 601 washing, Jo Maximum, - for gravel 1 1 - for crushed rock 2 2 Los Angeles Abrasion, 7o Maximum Loss LS 603 35 50 Absorption, 9o Maximum LS 605 2 2 Magnesium Sulphate Soundness, 5 cycles, LS 606 12 12 9fc Maximum Loss Flat and Elongated Particles, 9fc Maximum LS 608 20 20 Petrographic Number, Maximum LS 609 125 140

OPSS 1010 - SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD BASE AGGREGATES . Physical Requirements.

Select Subgrade MTO Lab Physical Test Granular A Granular B Granular M Material Test Number Type I Type II Los Angeles Abrasion, 60 N/A N/A 60 N/A LS 603 Loss Jo Maximum Petrographic No., 200 •250 250 200 *250 LS 609 Granular, Maximum Plasticity Index 0 0 0 0 0 LS 704 Percentagae Crushed 50 N/A 100 50 N/A LS 607 Minimum *The Petrographic No. requirements will be waived if the material has more than 80^o passing the 4.75 mm sieve.

Gradation Requirements***.

Percentage Passing by Mass MTO Sieve Select Subgrade Designation Granular A Granular B Granular M Material Type I**** Type II****

150 mm N/A 100 100 N/A 100 37.5 mm N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 26.5 mm 100 50-100 50-100 N/A 50-100 19 mm 85-100 N/A N/A 100 N/A •(87-100) 13.2 mm 65-90 N/A N/A 75-95 N/A •(75-95) 9.5 mm 50-73 N/A N/A 55-80 N/A •(60-83) 4.75 mm 35-55 20-100 20-55 35-55 20-100 •(40-60) 1.18 mm 15-40 10-100 10-40 15-40 10-100 300 jj.m 5-22 2-65 5-22 5-22 5-95 150 urn N/A N/A N/A N/A 2-65 75 Jim 2-8 0-8 0-10 2-8 0-25 '•(2-10) ••(0-10) ••(2-10) D Where the aggregate is obtained from an iron blast furnace slag source. r*) Where the aggregate is obtained from a quarry or slag source. r**) MTO Lab Test No. LS 602. r***; When Granular B is used for granular backfill for pipe subdrains, WOVo of the material shall pass the 37. 5 mm sieve.

48 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 3.2. A TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION THROUGH minimum mat thickness of about 30 mm, but normally AN ASPHALT ROAD. 44 mm. On highways with more than 2,500 AADT/lane the Surface types of asphalt aggregates used are designated HL1, DFC (dense friction coarse) and OFC (open friction WEARING COURSE Surfacing coarse). HL1 asphalt has the same gradation as HL3, only the nature of the stone is different. DFC has angular BINDER COURSE fine aggregate to increase stability. OFC is an open Pavement GRANULAR BASE graded mix, allowing internal drainage through the ma trix rather than over the pavement surface. It is used on GRANULAR SUB-BASE very high volume, urban highways because of its low tire SUB-GRADE noise characteristics. Aggregates for HL3 and HL4 have no requirements Wearing course A stable weather resistant running surface respecting their frictional properties, except for northern which has to withstand the abrasive forces of traffic and provide a degree of skid Ontario. In this region, most of the locally available ag resistance gregates are of igneous or metamorphic origin, with hard wear-resistant minerals. These aggregates generally give Binder course Provides strength to the pavement while good frictional properties in contrast to pavements made providing an even, well regulated surface with carbonates of low wear-resistance. Drivers in north for the wearing course. ern Ontario become accustomed to the good friction sup Granular base The load-bearing and strengthening plied by local aggregates and do not adjust their driving component of the pavement. Protects habits to accommodate poorer performing materials. As wearing and binder course from frost a result, in many parts of northern Ontario the use of action. aggregates containing more than 409k carbonates is pro hibited. Granular sub-base Lowest layer of the pavement. Acts as the principal foundation for the subsequent The selection of the coarse aggregate for HL1, DFC road profile, and protects overlying and OFC pavements is based on the actual performance pavement structure from frost. of the aggregate in test sites. The following aggregate Sub-grade Usually natural soil, exposed rock types are used: trap rock (metavolcanic), steel slag, blast formation, or rock fill. furnace slag, dolomitic sandstone and some igneous grav els from the north shore of Lake Huron. Table 3.3 illus Modified after Power, 1985. trates the principal types and properties of surface coarse asphalt mixes used in Ontario. The skid resistance of a road surface is determined by both its macrotexture; i.e., the projection of coarse aggregate particles above the matrix, and its microtex- ture, i.e., the surface texture of the particle. Good mac Aggregates used in concrete pavement or base are rotexture is required to break the water film on the road governed by OPSS 1002. Coarse aggregate for this appli surface at high speed and to provide bulk drainage. It is cation has a nominal minimum size of 4.75 mm. Fine measured by the aggregate's ability to withstand abra aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 9.5 mm and a sion, the Aggregate Abrasion Value (AAV) test. A good nominal minimum size of 150 microns. The physical re microtexture is needed at all driving speeds to penetrate quirements for coarse aggregate require a maximum Los the thin water film and come in contact with the tire. Angeles Abrasion and Impact Loss of 359c and a maxi This is measured by the Polished Stone Value (PSV) mum Magnesium Sulphate Soundness Loss of 129c. The test. Low AAV values and a minimum PSV of 50 have percent of flat and elongate particles should not exceed been reported as being desirable for high density roads in Ontario. In the United Kingdom high traffic volume road Aggregate for use in asphaltic mixes for road surfaces surfaces are constructed with aggregates having a maxi must conform to the requirements of OPSS 1003. These mum AAV of 12 and a minimum PSV of 55-65. Very aggregates are referred to as HL1, 2, 3, 4 and 8. Secon few, if any, carbonate materials are able to pass these dary highways with less than 2,500 AADT/lane (average requirements, except for dolomitic sandstone (from the annual daily traffic/lane) use HL3 (hot laid) and HL4. March Formation), which has been found to be the best, HL3 aggregates have a maximum size of 13.3 mm, allow naturally occurring skid-resistant material in Ontario as ing a minimum mat thickess of about 25 mm. HL4 ag determined by the PSV test. This rock is found in east gregates have a maximum size of 16 mm, allowing a ern Ontario. This material also appears to provide the

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 49 Table 3.3. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SURFACE COURSE ASPHALT MIX USED IN ONTARIO. Normal Annual Maximum Stone Fine Average Mix Stone Content Aggregate Daily Type Size 7o Type Traffic HL4 16.0 mm 45-50 Natural sand •C2500 HL3 13.2 mm 45-50 Natural sand •*2500 HL1 13.2 mm 45-55 Natural sand ^500 ^000 D. F. C. 13.2 mm 45-55 Angular screenings ^000 O.F.C. 9.5 mm 65-70 Angular screenings ^000 (Urban expressways) Modified after Rogers, 1983.

lowest cost per tonne on a laid-down basis of any of the better skid-resistant materials, as shown in Figure 3.2. 45 "t CONCRETE AGGREGATE t0 51 49 Aggregates for use in concrete, exclusive of that for road o 40 building, are governed by OPSS 1002, CSA specification a \ CAN3-A23.1-M77 and/or ASTM specification C33- \ 82. The desirable properties of concrete aggregates are A A\ that they be essentially clean, and uncoated, consisting 35 o \ of properly shaped particles of strong, durable material.

When incorporated in concrete, they should satisfactorily B. resist changes such as cracking, swelling, softening, 30 a \ •' Dollars O \ leaching, or chemical alteration, and should not contain D* per \ \ tonne AB " \ D* contaminating substances which might contribute to the n \ deterioration, loss in strength, or unsightly appearance of 25 Q \ a o \ 3 \ " B the concrete. D\ \ ^ \ B* \ n \ Many carbonate rocks produce good quality aggre 20 o 5 \ * D * gates. However, grain size or the presence of other mate \ * A O ^i \"v. rials can affect the overall quality. Carbonate rocks can D \^ AA ^ k A m A Q\ \ ^ B o N have very porous structures due to leaching of soluble 15 \ a a** D A minerals (evaporites) or the weathering out of argil 'f laceous impurities. They can also contain fossils which * 0* l MM l MM l Mtl may increase the porosity of the rock. 10 l l M l^ll Extremely fine grained limestones (lithographic lime 100 500 1000 5000 10000 50000 stones) can give reduced strength in concrete due to Tons of Asphaltic Concrete Required poor bond strength between the rock and cement paste. o O.F.C Trap H.L.I. Slag The evaporite minerals gypsum and anhydrite can A D.F.C. Trap H.L.I. Dolomitic Sandstone occur in calcareous rocks as nodules. Gypsum can delay A D.F.C. Slag Patching Contracts or the setting time of concrete and can also cause concrete Long Haul expansion. D H.L.I. Trap Anhydrite absorbs water readily causing volume in Figure 3.2. COST PER TON OF MIX PLOTTED creases as well as the formation of secondary gypsum. AGAINST QUANITITY FOR 1979-1981 CONTRACTS. Gypsum nodules are found in some quarries within the Source: Rogers, 1983. Niagara Escarpment between Queenston and Hamilton. Coarse crystalline marbles are weak when subject to stress. This is a result of poor intergranular bonds. Ulti mately, the compressive and flexural strengths of a con crete containing these aggregate types will be reduced.

50 Limestone Industries of Ontario Some marbles may also have peculiar and uneven rates caygeon Formation in the Lake Ontario Basin and Ot of thermal expansion and contraction which can make tawa/St. Lawrence Lowlands are known to be alkali-sil them incompatible with the cement paste in a concrete at ica reactive due to the presence of small amounts of low temperatures. This effect can lead to rapid deteriora chalcedony. tion of a concrete. The Mortar Bar Test (ASTM C227) is employed ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTIVITY with suspect aggregates. Results are usually obtained after 3 or 6 months. The Quick Chemical Test (ASTM C289) Certain Ontario carbonate aggregates react with the is not practical when significant amounts of carbonate alkalies of cement (Na2O and K2O) which produces an materials are present so is not useful for evaluating the undesirable expansion leading to the cracking and dete alkali-silica reactivity of these limestones. rioration of concrete. Cracking also creates channels for water movement in the concrete leading to an increase in The Ontario Ministry of Transportation has compiled information and performed research on the alkali reac saturation and reduced freeze-thaw durability. The higher the alkali content of the cement and the higher tivity of concrete aggregates. Several limited distribution the cement content of the concrete, the greater the rate reports have been published on the topic. For more de tailed information, the reader is referred to the Soils and of expansion and cracking. It is possible to use special low alkali cement or other corrective measures but it is Aggregates Section of the Engineering Materials Office, better to use non reactive aggregates. It is most important Ministry of Transportation, Downsview, Ontario. that potentially reactive aggregates are recognized, and are properly investigated before they are used in con RAILWAY BALLAST crete. These reactions can be grouped into two types with Specifications for railway ballast are generally established Ontario limestones (1) alkali-carbonate, and (2) alkali- by the American Railway Engineering Association silica. (AREA). The AREA specifies material in the size range 64-19 mm, although 5^o to 109c) of the ballast may be as Alkali-Carbonate Reaction small as 9.5 mm. The ballast must have an abrasive re sistance value equal to or less than 409^ based on the Los Rocks of the Gull River Formation (Lake Ontario Basin Angeles Abrasion test. and Ottawa/St. Lawrence Lowlands) are alkali-carbon ate reactive. They are comprised of beds of fine grained The increased use of concrete sleepers may force a dolomitic limestone with a significant clay mineral con gradual change from the use of limestone as ballast. Con tent. crete sleepers reduce the relative resistance of the ballast to point loading by concentrating the vertical and hori This reaction only occurs with coarse aggregate from zontal forces on individual units. This creates too heavy a quarries. Only certain beds or levels within the quarry load on the aggregate resulting in the production of ex may be reactive. A number of different techniques may cess fines and a gradual rounding of the aggregate. Re be used to identify the potential reactivity of these mate duced particle interlock because of rounding, and the rials, of which the simplest method is the Quick Chemi generation of fines which trap water, will result in de cal Test (MTO LS-615). This test measures the relative creased strength in the ballast and increase the incidence amount of dolomite and clay content within the rock. of frost heaving. Preferable materials in such cases are This test can be completed in a few days. The results granitic rocks, trap rock, and blast furnace slag. allow the immediate acceptance of most aggregates. If an aggregate fails the Quick Chemical Test, more lengthy testing is called for, specifically, the Concrete OTHER USES Prism Expansion Test (CAN3- A23.2-14A, 1986). This test usually takes one year before a final result is ob Specifications for other uses of limestone aggregate such tained. as roofing granules, stucco dash, poultry grit, etc., are Other techniques are also used, such as the Rock generally set by ASTM. Roofing granules for built-up Cylinder Expansion Test (ASTM C586) or detailed ex roofs are generally in the size range of 19.2 to 2.4 mm. amination under the microscope. These techniques are Poultry grit varies from 9.5 mm coarse material to usually used in the exploration of new quarries and are 3.2 mm fine aggregate. Crushed limestone for use in not normally used for accepting aggregate stockpiles. flue-gas desulphurization is generally specified to be 85^o passing 325 mesh. Filter beds for sewage treatment Alkali-Silica Reaction plants use stone of 3.8 to 6.35 cm size (or 5.1-7.6 cm for high rate filters) with very low tolerances for plus or The main alkali-silica reactive mineral found in Ontario minus size material. Soundness requirements are very limestones is chalcedony (SiO2). Rocks of the Bob- strict and low moisture absorption is required.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 51 Cement

The term "cement" most commonly refers to hydraulic ment plants in North America had been closed or con cement, especially portland cement. Hydraulic cements verted to portland cement production. have the property of hardening under water and are the The first cement produced in Ontario was derived chief binding agents for concrete and masonry. Portland from natural cement rock. Production probably began in cement, originally patented by Joseph Aspdin in England the early 1840s at Thorold at the quarry of John Battle, in 1824, is the predominant variety of hydraulic cement, which was opened in 1841. This quarry was later called accounting for about 959k of all cement produced in the Thorold Hydraulic Cement Works and operated until North America; slag cement and masonry cement used 1891. During the period from about 1880 to 1907 there for stucco and mortar account for most of the balance. were five natural cement producers in the province. In Hydraulic cements were originally discovered in an addition to the Thorold operation, natural hydraulic ce cient times. The Egyptians calcined an impure gypsum ment was produced by Rathbun and Company at its plant containing calcium carbonate to obtain a cementing ma at Strathcona (Napanee Mills) beginning in 1880; by the terial for use in the construction of the Great Pyramid Toronto Lime Company at Limehouse; by Queenston about 2,600 B.C. The Greeks and the Romans pulver Cement Works at Queenston beginning in 1881; and by ized volcanic material and mixed it with sand and lime to F. Schwendiman in Barton Township near Hamilton be make a mortar which exhibited great strength and dura ginning in 1894. bility under water. Portland cement production based on marl began in 1886 at Strathcona, by Rathbun and Company. Marl- The art of producing cement was lost during the de derived portland cement flourished from 1886 to 1919, cline of the Roman Empire. In 1756, John Smeaton with 14 plants being active. Most of the plants were lo rediscovered the lost art when he found that clay, when cated in Grey County (7), with other plants being lo contained in or added to limestone and the volcanic ma cated in Hastings, Lennox 81 Addington, Victoria, Peter terial pozzolana, produced a. hydraulic cement. Joseph borough, Perth, and Dufferin counties. Parker, in 1796, patented a hydraulic cement produced The first limestone-based portland cement plant in from limestone containing nodules of clay, and pulver Ontario was built in 1905 by the Belleville Portland Ce ized old bricks and tiles. This material was called Roman ment Company at Point Anne near Belleville. In 1908, cement. Finally, in 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a Lehigh Portland Cement Co. also built a plant at Point process for the production of a hydraulic cement based Anne. This was followed by plants at Port Colborne on the mixing and calcination of clay, sand, and lime (1908, Canadian Portland Cement), St. Marys (1912, stone. This material was called portland cement because St. Marys Cement), Hanover (1920, Hanover Portland the set material resembled the building stone quarried Cement), and Lakefield (1927, Canada Cement Com from the Isle of Portland in England. pany). In North America, testing of limestones for use as In 1909 severe competition and over capacity in the mortar in the construction of the Erie Canal led to the cement industry prompted the formation of the Canada discovery of an argillaceous limestone in Madison Cement Company. This company was formed as the re County, N.Y. This material was called cement rock be sult of a merger of four of the marl cement producers cause it contained raw materials in proportions required and three of the limestone portland cement producers, for the production of "natural cement". Rapid expansion plus two Quebec-based cement plants. Competition in of the system of canals in eastern North America re the Ontario cement industry remained limited until the sulted in an expansion of the natural cement industry. In mid-1950s, when several new producers such as Lake about 1850, however, concrete became a major building Ontario Cement and St. Lawrence Cement Company en material and the superior qualities of portland cement tered the market. resulted in it becoming an important import into North Current North American clinker production capacity America. is approximately 136.5 million tonnes, distributed 639c (86.0 million tonnes) in the U.S., 1296 (16.4 million In 1871, David Taylor of Pennsylvania patented a tonnes) in Canada, 219k (28.7 million tonnes) in Mex cement equal to the imported portland cement. The ma ico, and 496 (5.4 million tonnes) elsewhere. terial was produced from argillo-magnesium and argillo- calcareous limestone burned at a high temperature to a TYPES OF CEMENTS state of vitrification. The ground clinker made an excel lent cement. Portland type cement production increased Portland cement is produced by heating a properly por rapidly in subsequent years and gradually displaced natu tioned mixture of finely ground raw materials containing ral cement production. By 1920, most of the natural ce calcium carbonate, silica, alumina and usually iron ox-

52 Limestone Industries of Ontario ide, to a sintering temperature of about 1,480 0 C in a phonated benzene or naphthalene ring. The usual kiln. Partial fusion occurs at this temperature, resulting product is the sodium salt in a product called clinker. Chemically, clinker com - calcium lignosulphonate from sulphite pulping prises four main phases of various proportions of trical- cium silicate (3CaO.SiO2 , abbreviated C3S), dicalcium - sodium salts of cyclo-paraffin carboxylic acids such silicate (2CaO.SiO2 , or C2S), tricalcium aluminate as naphthenic acid (3CaO.Al2O3 , or C3A), tetracalcium aluminoferrite - calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in (4CaO.Al2O3 .Fe2O3 , or C4AF), minor amounts of cal the tanning process cium sulphate (CaSO4), and usually, but not necessarily, - alkali or triethanolamine salts of fatty acids derived magnesia (MgO), lime (CaO), and various alkalis, de from fats and vegetable oils and from the alkali pulp pending on raw materials used. The clinker is ground to ing process a fine powder with a small amount, 296 to 596, of calcium sulphate, usually gypsum or anhydrite, to make portland - triethanolamine salts of sulphonated aromatic hydro cement. carbons derived from petroleum. White cement is an ordinary portland cement made There are several varieties of portland cement which from iron-free materials so that its colour is white instead are classified mostly on the proportions of C3S, C2S, and of grey. The clinker is burned in a reducing flame in the C3A in the cement. The five most common types of kiln and rapidly quenched in a water spray to keep any portland cement are: iron in the ferrous state to avoid coloration by ferrie iron n Normal Portland - Type 10 (Canada); Type I (U.S.) compounds. The clinker is ground with high purity gyp sum using ceramic balls and liners in grinding mills, al n High Early Strength Portland - Type 30 (Canada); Type III (U.S.) though there is a trend to the use of high-chromium al loys for use as liners and grinding media. White cement similar to normal portland, but is normally ground is used in decorative concrete including terrazzo, high finer and slightly altered in composition way lane markers, and architectural concrete. n Sulphate Resisting Portland - Type 50 (Canada); Masonry cement is a hydraulic cement for use in Type V (U.S.) mortars for masonry construction. It contains one or more of the following materials: portland cement, composition is modified to provide increased resis portland-pozzolan cement, slag cement, or hydraulic tance to sulphate-bearing waters lime, usually with hydrated lime, limestone, chalk, cal n Moderate Portland Cement - Type 20 (Canada); careous shale, talc, slag, or clay interground for plastic Type II (U.S.) ity. The material is marketed under the following pro provides moderate sulphate resistance and moderate prietary names: heat of hydration - mortar cement n Low-Heat-of-Hydration Portland - Type 40 (Can - mortar mix ada); Type IV (U.S.) - mason's cement chemical composition is adjusted to reduce the heat - brick cement of hydration and provide a slowrer rate of strength - masonry cement. development than normal portland Portland-blast furnace slag cement is an interground Moderate portland and low-heat-of-hydration port mixture of portland cement clinker and granulated blast land cements are for use in concrete to be poured in furnace slag in which the amount of the slag constituent large volumes such as in dam construction. is between 2596 and 709& of the total weight of the Portland cements are also available in an air- blended cement. It is used for general concrete construc entrainment formulation in which a small amount of an tion. air-entrainment agent has been added during grinding. Portland-pozzolan cement is an intimate and uni The agent produces minute, well-distributed, completely form blend of portland cement or portland-blast furnace separated air voids that protect the concrete from slag cement and fine pozzolan. The pozzolan constituent freeze-thaw damage. The agents used are: ranges from 1596 to 409c of the total weight of the blended cement and is a finely divided aluminous and alkali salts of wood resins, soluble in coal tar hydro siliceous material that reacts with calcium hydroxide in carbons (i.e. benzene, toluene, etc.) and insoluble in the presence of water to form a material with cement- petroleum solvents like properties. Fly ash from coal fired power plants is a - synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate typical example. Natural pozzolanic materials include type, the alkyl group being derived from a petroleum some diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts and shales, distillate and the aryl group usually being a sul- tuffs, volcanic ash, and pumices.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 53 Slag cement is a finely divided material consisting of pared. Cembureau also publishes the World Cement Di an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast fur rectory, which lists production capacities by country and nace slag and hydrated lime in which the slag constituent by company. is at least 709c of the total weight of the blended cement. Oil-well cement is used to seal oil and gas wells at CEMENT MANUFACTURE - MATERIALS pressure up to 18,000 psi and temperatures up to 180 0 C. Portland cement is prepared by igniting a mixture of raw The cements are required to remain fluid for up to 4 materials, one of which is mainly composed of calcium hours and then to set rapidly. Setting time is controlled carbonate and the other of aluminum silicates. The most by reducing C3A to nearly zero or adding to portland typical materials answering this description are limestone cement some retarder such as starches or cellulose prod and clay, both of which occur in nature in a great num ucts, sugars, and acids or salts of acids containing one or ber of varieties. In Canada limestone represents about more hydroxyl groups. 849o of the total raw material requirement, the balance Expansive cement is a hydraulic cement that ex being comprised of clay, shale, gypsum, sand or silica, pands slightly on hardening, or has no net shrinkage on and iron oxide. subsequent air-drying. Three types of expansive cements Limestone for cement use is obtained from sedimen are recognized in the American Society for Testing and tary formations of marine origin from virtually every geo Materials (ASTM) specifications, all of which depend logic age. Argillaceous limestone, often called cement upon the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate rock, and containing ingredients for cement manufacture to cause expansion equal to or greater than shrinkage in approximately the required amount, is extensively that would normally occur during the hardening process. used in Ontario. The maximum magnesium oxide (MgO) Set-regulated cement is a hydraulic cement where allowed in portland cement is 59o in both Canada and the setting time can be controlled from l to 10 minutes the United States. and very high early strengths develop. The cement con Noncalcareous materials necessary for manufactur tains from l to 30 weight percent of ing clinker are silica (SiO2), alumina (A12O3), and iron l lCaO.7Al2O3 .CaF2 . Slip-formed structures, highway oxide (Fe2O3). Many limestone deposits contain chert, a repairs, underwater patching, and manufacture of pre- form of silica, and some contain iron minerals. Sand, stressed, precast forms are principal applications. quartzite, and sandstones from sedimentary deposits are Aluminous cement, also known as high-alumina ce used to maintain the proper silica ratio, but most of the ment, calcium aluminate cement, or "Ciment Fondu" is silica is added in the form of aluminum silicates in clay manufactured by heating until molten, or by sintering, a and shale. Iron ore and mill scale are the predominant mixture of high-purity bauxite and limestone with a very sources of iron oxide. Fly ash is being increasingly used low silica and magnesium content. The product is cooled as a substitute argillaceous raw material. Blast furnace and finely ground. Special applications of aluminous ce slag is utilized for both the silica and alumina content ment are based on its rapid-hardening qualities, resis and as a source of iron oxide. tance to sulphate action, and refractory properties when In addition to the raw materials used for making used as "castable refractories" and mortars for furnaces clinker, calcium sulphate (CaSO4) in the form of gypsum and kilns. The material is black in colour. or anhydrite, is added during the grinding of clinker in Specifications for portland cements used in Canada quantities up to 59k, to impart set-retardant properties to are published by the Canadian Standards Association the finished cement. (CAN 3-A5-M83). Masonry cement used in Canada Table 3.5 provides analyses of typical cement raw should conform to the CAN 3-A8-M83 specification. materials. Table 3.6 shows the distribution of cement Blended hydraulic cements are covered by CAN raw materials used in Canada and the United States. It is 3-A362-M83. Cement types manufactured in Canada assumed that Ontario cement manufacturers employ a but not covered by the CSA standards generally meet the mix of raw materials similar to that used in the rest of appropriate specifications of the ASTM. A comparison Canada in the production of their products. of Canadian and U.S. cement specifications is provided in Table 3.4. It will be noticed that Canadian specifica CEMENT MANUFACTURE - TECHNOLOGY tions allow for a larger percentage of alkali materials in the cement than do U.S. specifications. This difference EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT in specifications has an impact on the operations and The relative abundance of limestone and other calcare market opportunities available to some of the Ontario ous materials, shales, and clays narrows the prospecting cement manufacturers. and exploration work mostly to delineating the size and Cembureau, the European Cement Association, has chemical uniformity of the deposits. Portland cement published Cement Standards of the World - Portland cannot contain more than 59fc MgO as larger amounts Cement and its Derivatives, in which standards are com promote the formation of periclase, which expands and

54 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 3.4a. COMPARISON OF CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS.

Canada United States Type Type Factor 10 20 30 40 50 I la II Ha III Ilia IV V Chemical requirements SiO2 , min., 7o - - 20.0 - A12O3 , max., Vo - - 6.0 - Fe2O3 , max., % ------59 - MgO, max., 9fe 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 SO3 , max., 7o whenC3A^.59fc 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.3 2.3 when C3A^. 59ft 3.5 - 4.5 - 3.5 - 4.5 - C3A, max., 7o - 7.5 - 5.5 3.5 - 8.0 15 7 5 C3 S, max., 9*c - - - - - 35 C4AF t 2(C3A) - - - - . 25 L.O.I., max., Jo 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 Insoluble residue, max., 7o 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 Optional chemical requirements C3A, max., 7o 8 1 , 5 2 C3S t C3A, max. , 7o 58 3 Alkalis (Na2O t 0.658 K2O), max., 7o 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 (for low alkali cement) ^For moderate sulfate resistance 2For high sulfate resistance 3For moderate heat of hydration Note: C^A limit for SO3 in U.S. is S.0% Source: Canadian Standards Association and ASTM

Table 3.4b. COMPARISON OF CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS. Canada United States Type Type Factor 10 20 30 40 50 I la II Ha III Ilia IV V Physical requirements Air content of mortar, min. /max. Vb - -712 16/22 -/12 16/22 -/12 16/22 -/12 -/12 Fineness, Specific surface (nrVkg) 1 280 280 280 280 280 9o passing 45 micron sieve, min. 72 72 - - 72 Autoclave expansion, max., Vo 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 Compressive strength (MPa) at: 1 day - - 12.5 - - 12.4 10.0 - 3 days 12.5 10.0 22.0 8.5 10.5 12.4 10.0 10.3 8.3 24.1 19.3 8.3 7 days2 18.0 16.0 - - 16.0 19.3 15.5 17.2 13.8 6.9 15.2 28 days2 26.5 26.5 - 25.0 26.5 27.6 22.1 27.6 22.1 17.2 20.7 91 days - 33.0 - - - Setting times3 min., minutes 45 60 45 90 60 45 45 45 45 45 max., minutes 360 360 250 360 360 375 375 375 375 375 Heat of hydration 7 days, kJ/kg, max. - 300 275 - 290 250 28 days, kJ/kg, max. - - - - - 290 Sulphate expansion 14 days, max, 9fc - 0.050 - - 0.035 - 0.040 }Air permeability test, minutes 2 Vicat test 3Lower values prevail in the U.S. when the optional heat of hydration or sum of C3S and C^A is specified. Source: Canadian Standards Association and ASTM.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 55 Table 3.5. ANALYSES OF TYPICAL RAW MATERIALS. Lime Typical Chalk Clay stone Shale Marl raw mix SiO2 1.14 60.48 2.16 55.67 16.86 14.30 A12O3 * 0.28 17.79 1.09 21.50 3.38 3.03 Fe203 0.14 6.77 0.54 9.00 1.11 1.11 CaO 54.68 1.61 52.72 0.89 42.58 44.38 MgO 0.48 3.10 0.68 2.81 0.62 0.59 S 0.01 n.d. 0.03 0.30 nil nil SO3 0.07 0.21 0.02 nil 0.08 0.07 L.O.I. 43.04 6.65 42.39 4.65 34.66 35.86 K20 0.04 2.61 0.26 4.56 0.66 0.52 Na2O 0.09 0.74 0.11 0.82 0.12 0.13 99.97 99.96 100.00 100.20 100.07 99.99 CaCO3 97.6 94.1 76.0 79.3 ©Includes also P2O5, Ti02 and MnzO3. Source: Lea, 1970.

hydrates slowly and can lead to unsound concrete. Prob as a basis for planning and developing methods of quar lems involving limestones with excessive magnesia can rying. In general, cement plant operators require a de sometimes be solved by drilling, sampling, and selective posit with at least 50 years of readily accessible rock be quarrying. Both core and rotary drilling and sampling fore they will consider it as a source of raw material. techniques are employed to provide information about the composition and thickness of a deposit. Information RAW MATERIAL EXTRACTION obtained from exploration drilling and mapping is used Raw materials for cement manufacture are generally ob tained by quarrying the rock. Depending on the nature of the materials, the limestone may be either blasted free or ripped using heavy machinery. Shales are generally loosely consolidated and can be readily ripped, while sil ica is obtained from loose sand deposits or from the Table 3.6. DISTRIBUTION OF CEMENT RAW MATERIALS, CANADA AND UNITED STATES, 1984. crushing of sandstone. Silica and alumina are also ob tained from the excavation and washing of clays. Canada U.S. Iron ore, mill scale, gypsum and anhydrite are gener ally purchased in the open market by cement manufac Calcareous turers, as are other limestones necessary to bring the es Limestone 69.42 63.97 Cement rock 14.38 19.99 sential chemical components to the required levels. Coral - 1.05 Other n.a. 0.20 PROCESSING Argillaceous The process of cement manufacture consists of the incor Clay 0.05 4.64 poration of the raw materials to form an homogeneous Shale 3.73 2.62 Other n.a. 0.10 mixture, the burning of the mix in a kiln to form a clinker, and the grinding of the clinker to a fine powder, Siliceous Sand & calcium silicate 2.11 1.59 with the addition of a small proportion of gypsum. About Sandstone, quartzite, other n.a. 0.50 1.8 tonnes of raw materials are required to manufacture Ferrous l tonne of finished cement; 1.7 tonnes are used to make Iron ore, pyrite, mill scale 1.10 1.08 clinker, and the remaining 0.1 tonne is added during the clinker-grinding process. Other Gypsum A anhydrite 4.39 3.26 Raw material grinding takes place using either the Blast furnace slag 0.85 0.08 wet process or the dry process. In Ontario, and in North Fly ash 0.66 America generally, the dry process is predominant in Other 3.97 0.26 TOTAL 100.00 100.00 terms of clinker production capacity. Dry process plants accounted for approximately 70*^ of Canadian clinker Source: Statistics Canada, 1984. U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985. capacity and over 809fr of Canadian cement production in 1984. In the United States dry process plants were

56 Limestone Industries of Ontario responsible for approximately 609c of clinker production duced. Fuel consumption is a major expense and several in 1984. technologies have been introduced to improve energy utilization in cement manufacture. Rotary kilns are the Wet process plants vary depending on the nature of the raw materials. In the U.K. and other areas where only type of kiln used in Canadian cement manufacture. chalks and marls are used as the raw materials, these Rotary kilns are used for both wet and dry process rocks are broken up and combined in wash mills. These cement manufacture. The kiln is a refractory lined cylin usually consist of circular pits lined with bricks or con drical steel shell that rotates around an inclined axis. crete, and containing gratings in the walls through which Blended dry mix or slurry enters the upper or feed end the raw materials can pass when reduced to a sufficiently of the kiln and is conveyed by the slope and rotation to fine condition. The chalk and clay are fed in the re the firing or discharge end of the kiln. The variations in quired proportions to the wash mill together with suffi wet and dry process cement kilns are described below. cient water to form a liquid of creamy consistency that is Wet process kilns employ chains in the upper part of pumped to slurry tanks or basins. the kiln to assist in the transfer of heat from the kiln If the raw materials are harder limestones and gases to the raw materials. The slurry is dried in the up shales, the wash mill is inadequate to reduce the materi per part of the kiln and water driven off as steam and als to the required fineness. This situation generally pre then, as it descends the kiln, the dried slurry undergoes a vails in North America and is the case for Ontario ce series of reactions, forming hard granular masses known ment producers. The raw materials in such cases are as clinker in the most strongly heated part of the kiln. crushed and fed to ball mills, and water added in an The clinker is discharged into air coolers, which may amount to form a slurry. Clay, if it is used, is usually fed consist of a series of cylinders arranged around the pe to the ball mill already dispersed in the water. The fin riphery of the kiln; or onto a traveling or reciprocating ished slurry usually does not contain more than a few grate cooler where air passes through the slowly moving percent of material retained on a 170 mesh, and its water bed of hot clinker. If a traveling or reciprocating grate content varies from 3596 to 4596 with different raw mate cooling system is used, the heated air drawn from the rials. The slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins and coolers is recovered and used for the combustion of coal agitated to keep the mixture homogeneous. The propor (if a coal-fired plant) or passed back to the upper stage tion of lime in the mix is controlled by analysis and ad of the kiln for drying of the slurry. justed periodically as required. Final adjustment of com Wet process kilns are typically quite long, and may position is often obtained by blending the slurry from two be up to 213 m in length and 7.6 m in diameter. The basins, one of which is kept slightly high and one slightly long length of the kiln improves the thermal efficiency of low in lime. In some plants more elaborate blending sys the kiln and enables the exit gas temperature to be re tems are practised, using a number of slurry basins, duced to 93 0 C or even lower. blending tanks, and final storage tanks. The finished Numerous methods are used to improve the fuel-ef slurry is fed to the kiln. ficiency of wet process plants. The water content of the Dry process plants are now the most common type of slurry may be reduced by slurry filters, which are large cement plant in Canada. In the dry process the raw ma rotating discs or drums covered with filter cloth. These terials are crushed, dried in rotary driers, proportioned, devices reduce the water content to 2096-3096 from and then ground in ball mills to a fineness ranging from 3596-4596 in the filter cake. Heat transfer devices such 7596 to 9096 passing 200 mesh. The ball mills are con as spiral vanes or guides in the back-end of the kiln or tinuous in operation, receiving raw material at one end additional rotating cylinders may also be used. The slurry and discharging ground material at the other. They are is passed through these devices before being fed to the often divided into two, three, or even four compartments kiln. containing balls of different size. Two mixes, one high Dry process kilns are of two types: a short kiln with a and one low in lime, are often prepared and blended in preheater, and a long kiln similar to a wet process kiln, the required proportions in a silo with vigorous air circu but somewhat shorter and differing in that the gas exit lation. The dry powder is fed to the kiln. temperature is lowered to about 87 0 C. The temperature At many new dry process plants, roller mills are re of the clinker discharged from the kiln is thereby re placing ball mills. In roller mills, the material is dried duced and some of the clinker heat is recovered and during pulverization using waste heat from the kiln, sig used to heat combustion air inside the kiln. nificantly improving energy efficiency. Energy conservation is a major theme in dry process cement manufacture. In Canada in 1984 the average en Figure 3.3 illustrates the wet and dry processes for ergy consumption per tonne of cement was 4,931 MJ the manufacture of cement. (4.7 million Btu). This contrasts with an average energy Burning is the most important operation in the consumption of 6,714 MJ (6.4 million Btu) for U.S. ce manufacture of cement. The strength and other proper ment producers. These data show substantial declines ties of cement depend on the quality of the clinker pro from the energy consumption recorded 10 years ago in

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 57 58 Limestone Industries of Ontario both countries. Figure 3.4 illustrates changes in energy consumption in Ontario. Energy efficiency has been a major factor in the success of Ontario cement producers in penetrating the U.S. market. The most popular method of energy conservation has been to use a preheater. The suspension preheater is the most common and is composed of a system of multistage 5- cyclones and riser ducts in which the kiln feed is heated in suspension and partially calcined when it comes into BTU/tonne contact with kiln exit gases. Some preheaters are Cement 4 equipped with pre-calciners that, by using kiln exit gases (millions) together with separate burners, achieve up to 959k calci 3- nation of raw material before it enters the kiln. Thus, the preheater-precalciner system permits the use of shorter 2- kilns with less loss of heat. By the end of 1985 there were 59 suspension and 18 grate type preheaters in op eration out of a total of 275 cement kilns in the United States. Canadian cement plants operated 9 preheaters on a total of 49 kilns in 1985. The Lepol kiln is a variant of the preheater-precal 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 ciner system and uses a travelling chain grate enclosed by Year a casing which is installed in advance of the kiln. The Figure 3.4. ENERGY ANALYSIS; ONTARIO CEMENT raw materials are prepared in the form of small nodules PRODUCERS. by the addition of a small amount of water to the dry mix. The nodules are piled in a layer approximately 15 — 20 cm thick on the travelling grate which conveys them Wet process plants are generally more energy inten to the kiln. The hot waste gases from the kiln are sucked sive than dry process plants and typically require ap through the raw mix and the heat transferred. Exit gas proximately 496 more energy per tonne of clinker. How temperatures can be reduced to as low as 49 0C using this ever, dry process plants equipped with suspension system in conjunction with a short kiln having a high preheater systems will require only 7096 of the energy exit-gas temperature. required by a wet process plant. Dry process plants equipped with grate-type preheater systems require ap Ontario cement plants employ gas, oil, and coal fir ing systems, with pulverized coal now being the preferred proximately 9096 of the energy per tonne of clinker that fuel. Several companies have also investigated the use of wet process plants use. Data available for energy use in alternative fuels such as refuse, waste rubber and tires, the U.S. cement industry indicate the following for 1985: electrical insulating oils, etc. The change in the distribu Q wet process plants 6476 MJ/tonne clinker tion of fuel mix for cement production from 1980 n dry process plants 4857 MJ/tonne clinker through 1985 is shown in Figure 3.5 and Table 3.7. For no preheater 6592 MJ/tonne clinker Canada as a whole, the distribution of fuel mix was as follows: suspension preheater 4513 MJ/tonne 1974 1985 grate type preheater 6244 MJ/tonne These data are 269k less than 1972 for wet process natural gas 49.59k 37.89k plants and 1796 less than 1972 for dry process plants in petroleum products 39.79k 6.99k terms of energy consumption per tonne of clinker pro coal and coke 10.89k 55.49k duced. Source: Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Cement, 1986. Finish grinding takes place in ball mills which are similar in design to the raw mills. Clinker from storage or A similar change in fuel mix distribution has taken directly from the coolers is fed to the mills, along with place in the United States cement industry. Coal and anhydrite or gypsum in amounts up to 59k. The material coke accounted for 929k of fuel consumption on an en is ground to a particle size of approximately 10 microns. ergy content basis in 1983, and 9596 in 1985. In 1972 The fineness of the material is generally given in terms of coal and coke represented less than 39*?k of the energy the specific surface area in square metres per kilogram requirements of U.S. cement plants. Figure 3.5 and measured by the air permeability test, and is referred to Table 3.8 illustrate the distribution of energy sources for as the Blaine number. Most cements are finished to a Ontario and U.S. cement producers in 1984 and 1985. Blaine number ranging from 4200 to 4500. The fineness

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 59 Table 3.7. ENERGY ANALYSIS. ONTARIO CEMENT PRODUCERS.

Energy source Energy consumption (S) 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Coal and coke 12 .241,928 18,688, 449 20,376,991 19,286 .487 23 .326,575 31 .166,125 Natural gas 10 .231,159 10,848, 681 9,088,615 7,544 ,562 8 .451,778 8 .799,205 Light fuel oil 217,106 374, 858 313,392 296 .170 524,627 225,671 Heavy fuel oil 7 .522,686 6,333, 950 3,067,768 2,768 .052 2 ,938,060 4 .410,979 Diesel oil 618,020 939, 004 874,241 582 .423 631,314 675,875 Electricity 12 .343,839 14,033, 355 13,798,068 14,438 ,896 17 .333,984 20 .703,566 Source: "Ontario Mineral Score" , Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, 1986

Table 3.8. ONTARIO-UNITED STATES ENERGY Coal and Coke (47 07o) CONSUMPTION PER TONNE CEMENT PRODUCED, 1984-1985. 1984 Ontario U.S. Coal (t) 0.1121 0.1814 Natural gas (m3) 0.0149 5.9280 Fuel oils (1) 4.1312 1.7428 LPG (1) 0.0470 n.a. Natural Gas (13 070 ) Electricity (kWh) 136.5 154.6 1985 Light Fuel Oil K1 07o) - Coal (t) 0.1414 0.1555 Natural gas (m3) 0.0144 4.4532 Heavy Fuel Oil (7 07o) Fuel oils (1) 4.5192 1.7728 Electricity (31 07o) LPG (1) 0.0728 n.a. Diesel Oil (1 070 ) Electricity (kWh) 154.3 152.3 Source: "Ontario Mineral Score" , Ontario Ministry of Northern Figure 3.5. ENERGY COST/TONNE OF CEMENT Development and Mines, 1986 1985. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of U.S. Bureau of Mines Northern Development and Mines, 1986.

precipitators are equipped with by-pass features to en is controlled with air separators in closed circuit with the able regulation of deleterious alkali buildup Dust from grinding mills. When the proper fineness has been the finish mills is generally captured by means of bag fil achieved the cement is passed to storage silos and/or to ters and cyclone towers and charged back to the mills. the pack house for shipment in bulk by rail car, truck, and boat, or in bags. CEMENT USES Electrical energy requirements for grinding (raw and finish) averaged approximately 138 kilowatt hours per By itself, cement has very little use. However, when com ton, or about 1388 MJ per tonne of finished cement in bined with water, sand, and suitable aggregate material the U.S. in 1985. Ontario cement plants consumed ap such as crushed stone or slag, in proper proportions it proximately 154 kWh per tonne of cement production in acts as a binder, cementing the materials together as con 1985 (Table 3.8). crete; one of the most versatile building materials known. Concrete finds use in all forms of construction and in the Dust control is of major concern to the cement in manufacture of concrete products such as pipe, building dustry. In wet process plants the dust at the kiln exit var blocks, pre-stressed bridge piers and sections, etc. Ce ies up to about 59k of the clinker output and in dry proc ment can also be used in the manufacture of concrete ess plants it can rise as high as 159c. Dust is also gener (calcite) bricks which are between 209o to 309o less ex ated during the finish grinding process. pensive than clay bricks. They have been improved in Electrostatic precipitators, cyclone separators, scrub quality and colour to such an extent in recent years that bing towers and bag filters are used to trap the dust, they are very difficult to distinguish from the clay prod which is usually returned to the kiln. The dust is rela uct. Concrete bricks enjoy strong demand in Ontario, tively rich in the more volatile constituents of the charge, accounting for about 2596 of the total brick market in and this can cause problems with alkali buildup in the 1984. They are produced by several of the building ma precipitators if the limestone is high in potassium, so terials subsidiaries of the cement producers such as Can dium, and chlorine. For this reason,most electrostatic ada Building Materials (St. Marys Cement), Primeau

60 Limestone Industries of Ontario Argo Block (Lake Ontario Cement), and Richvale Build The development of new cementitous aggregates ing Materials (Lafarge Canada). such as fly ash and microscopic silica particles. The minerals help to fill the pores in the concrete and Pre-stressed and pre-cast concrete structures are en improve the bonding properties of the cement, re joying increased demand. Such structures offer engineers sulting in greater strength and reduced permeability. and contractors lower cost alternatives for engineering construction such as bridges and highway piers and for The development of very high compressive strength commercial building construction. An interesting new de concretes. Typical concretes have compressive velopment is the use of pre-cast panels faced with thin strengths of approximately 34 MPa (5,000 psi). Con veneers of building stones such as limestone or granite. cretes with compressive strengths of 69 to 103 MPa The combination of the materials allows the architect to (10,000 to 15,000 psi) are becoming common, and design a very attractive building at competitive construc concretes with strengths of at least 310 MPa (45,000 tion costs. An example of this technique is the recently psi) have been developed. Even higher strengths completed Carleton County courthouse in Ottawa, which should be possible. Higher compressive strength con is faced with limestone. cretes will permit the use of smaller columns in high rise buildings with consequent savings in space and TECHNOLOGY materials. The development of new non-calcareous concretes Technical developments related to the use of cement and such as sulphur concretes may negatively affect the concrete include the following: market for portland cement. Sulphur concrete, for The development of fibre-reinforced concretes using example, offers superior corrosion resistance in plastic, glass and ceramic-based fibres for reinforce acidic environments and can be recycled by remelt- ments. The fibres are incorporated into the concrete ing and recasting without loss of the mechanical to prevent crack propagation and increase the im properties. pact resistance of the concrete. Use of portland cement as an anti-stripping agent in - The development of synthetic chemical additives to asphalt mixes may increase the consumption of ce impart increased chemical resistance, crack resis ment and offer a lower cost alternative to sulphur in tance, impact resistance and workability. this application. The development of high-shear processing tech New cement plant technologies include the use of niques, together with rolling or pressing to remove compressed air cannons to remove material build-up pores from low- water calcium aluminate cement in cement kiln pre-heaters, and the development of pastes. The pastes contain from 59fc to 79fc organic high efficiency air separators in the grinding circuit. polymers to improve workability. The resulting paste Portland cement could be used as a sulphur removal is called macro-defect-free or MDF cement and, on agent in fossil fuel-fired power plants. The cement hardening, has a strength similar to that of would be used in place of limestone, lime or other aluminium and much lower permeability than ordi basic material, and could eventually prove to be a nary portland cement. cheaper material to use.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 61 Lime, Chemical and Metallurgical Stone

Limestone is one of the most widely used raw materials CALCINATION in industry. Starting with crude crushed stone, limestone Lime manufacture begins in the calcination, a thermal is used to produce lime which is consumed in almost process resulting in the release of carbon dioxide gas every branch of industry as a chemical and metallurgical from limestone and dolostone. It is a reversible reaction intermediate, fluxing agent, additive, soil conditioner and can be represented as follows: and stabilizer, building material, and a host of other uses. CaCO3 (limestone) + heat ** CaO (h.c. quicklime) + CO2 LIME CaCO3 .MgCO3 (dolostone) -l- heat ^ CaO.MgO (dol. lime) + 2 CO2 Lime is the product of heating calcium and/or magne sium carbonate rocks to the dissociation temperature of The three essential factors in the reaction are: the carbonates, and holding the material at that tempera 1. The stone must be heated to the dissociation tem ture for a sufficient period to release carbon dioxide. perature of the carbonates. The process is referred to as calcination. The term 2. This minimum temperature (but in practice a higher "lime" should only be applied to calcined limestone and temperature) must be maintained for a certain dura dolomitic materials, and their secondary products, hy tion. drated and slaked lime. Hydrated lime is the product of mixing calcined lime, quicklime, with water; drying the 3. The carbon dioxide gas that is evolved must be re moved. resulting product, and (possibly) regrinding. Slaked lime is the product of mixing quicklime with excess water to High calcium limestones have a dissociation tem form a slurry. perature approximately that of pure calcite, which is 898 0C at l atmosphere pressure (760 mm) for a 10096 The principal Canadian markets for lime are the CO2 atmosphere. Pure magnesium carbonate has a disso- steel industry, the pulp and paper industry, and the min ing industry. Lime is also used in water and sewage treat ment, sugar refineries, glass and chemical production, 50 fertilizer production, tanneries and in agriculture, road and soil stabilization, construction products, and other uses. 40 Lime is of two primary types. High calcium lime is Loss produced by the calcination of high calcium limestone, in weight and is by far the most important form of lime. Dolomitic "/o lime is produced by the calcination of dolostone, 30 CaCO3 .MgCO3, and is more restricted in use than high calcium lime. Dead-burned dolomite is a special form of dolomitic lime that is produced by sintering a mixture of dolostone and 59cj-109c iron oxide (mill scale) at high 20 temperatures (1650 0C) in the presence of low ash coal. The resulting product possesses good refractory proper ties and is employed as a lining in steelmaking and other Calcination of lime high temperature industrial furnaces. 10 stone at 1000 0 C in pure CO2 atmosphere

LIME MANUFACTURE 30 60 90 120 150 The manufacture of lime is accomplished by the calcina tion of crushed limestone or dolostone. Because of vari Time, minutes ations in limestone chemistry, crystal form, and other 2 and 3: dense crystalline stone physical properties, no two limestones will produce iden 4: finely crystalline stone 5, 6 and 7: fine grained crystalline stone tical limes; even when calcined under identical condi tions in identical kilns (see Figure 3.6). As a result, most Figure 3.6. VARIABLE RATES OF DISSOCIATION lime material specifications are quite general and liberal FOR DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LIMESTONE. Source in their provisions. Boy n ton, 1980.

62 Limestone Industries of Ontario elation temperature in the range 402 to 480 0 C. The pro Porosity and density of the stone. High porosity is portions of calcium and magnesium carbonates in a par associated with low shrinkage and high lime reactiv ticular dolostone will affect the dissociation temperature. ity. Dense, fine-crystalline stones tend to hard-burn A good "average" value for dissociation would be 725 0C and produce a less reactive lime with more core (un- at 760 mm pressure and lOO1^ CO2 atmosphere, with the calcined material). CaCO3 component dissociating at the higher temperature - Rate of heating and final temperature. Generally, for calcite, resulting in a dual-stage decomposition. gradual preheating and a gradual increase in calcina As a consequence, the MgO component in dolomitic tion temperature up to the point of complete disso lime is necessarily hard-burned before the CaO is ciation results in the most reactive lime. formed. This problem can be alleviated by cooling the The relationships between stone size (surface area), quicklime immediately after the CaCO3 is calcined and calcination temperature, and duration of calcination are by calcining at minimum and constant temperatures, but illustrated in Figure 3.8. for a longer duration. The heat consumed during dissociation is deter Critical parameters in the successful calcination of mined by the specific heat of the material. The theoreti limestone and dolostone are the following: cal heat requirements for dissociation of CO2 are: Regulation of CO2 partial pressure. It is essential to high calcium limestone: 1,696 MJ/tonne have rapid and continuous evolution of CO2 to re (1,458,814 Btu/ton) duce the dissociation temperature. The relationships dolostone: 1,450 MJ/tonne between temperature, pressure, and CO2 concentra (1,247,103 Btu/ton) tion are illustrated in Figure 3.7. To this heat requirement must be added the heat re - Stone size. Moderate kiln stone sizes (l 1/2 in. - 8 quired for the retention of the dissociation temperature. in. diameter) are generally required to permit rapid These values are approximately 2,900 to 3,500 MJ/tonne and thorough heating. Stone should also be relatively (2.5 to 3.0 million Btu/ton) for high calcium lime and uniform in size with a maximum size gradation of 1:3 3,025 to 3,220 MJ/tonne (2.60 to 2.77 million Btu/ton) to promote even calcination. It is desirable that for dolomitic lime. The total heat requirements are stones have relatively uniform thickness as well as therefore: length and width as the rate of calcination is directly proportional to the square of the thickness of the high calcium quicklime: 4,605 to 5,190 MJ/tonne stone. (3.96 to 4.46 million Btu/ton) dolomitic quicklime: 4,475 to 4,675 MJ/tonne (3.85 to 4.02 million Btu/ton)

Pressure LIME KILNS (mm of mercury) Figure 3.9 provides a simplified flow sheet for an inte grated lime operation. The key component of a lime 760 - 100 plant is the kiln, though few of the many types that have been developed over the past 100 years have proven to be commercial successes. All of these are variants of ver 610 — 80 tical and rotary kilns. The principal types of lime kilns are detailed below.

454 — 60 VERTICAL KILNS All modern vertical kilns are divided into four principal 310 — 40 zones: (1) stone storage; (2) preheating zone; (3) calcin ing zone; (4) cooling and discharge zone. Differences in the design of these zones constitute the "art" of vertical 152 h- 20 kiln design. Traditional vertical kilns are of the mixed feed de sign, and the gas-fired cross-flow and centre burner O 660 700 740 780 820 860 900 type. Mixed feed kilns are fired with a low-ash coal or coke which is fed to the kiln in direct association with the Temp, 0 C kiln stone. The resulting lime is generally of inferior Figure 3.7. INFLUENCE OF CO2 CONCENTRATION quality due to sulphur contamination, but the kiln offers AND PRESSURE ON DISSOCIATION TEMPERA very high thermal efficiency and generates substantial TURE OF CaCO 3 . Source Boynton, 1980. amounts of CO2 gas, which can be recovered and used in

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 63 2.0 chemical processes such as soda ash manufacture and in sugar refining. 1.8 The centre burner kiln offers greatly increased pro duction capacity and fuel efficiency over older vertical 1.6 kiln designs. The Azbe kiln uses recirculation of the hot exit gases for calcination. The cross-flow kiln passes the 1.4 gases at right angles through the stone. Union Carbide has developed a variant of the cross-flow kiln in which 1.2 Sur burner beams are used at two levels to provide more uni face form calcining. The Union Carbide design is quite popu area 1 - 0 lar in the United States. (rrWg) The latest versions of the vertical shaft kiln are of 0.8 three types: parallel-flow or Maerz kiln, double-inclined kiln, and annular or ring kiln. These kiln designs offer 0.6 very high thermal efficiency and yield a more reactive and pure lime (t-1.5% unburnt core) with lower levels 0.4 of sulphur content than mixed feed kilns. Table 3.9 pro vides a comparison of experience with various vertical 0.2 kiln designs. ROTARY KILNS 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 (871) (982) (1093) (1204) (1316) The rotary kiln is by far the most popular design in North America. Despite its higher capital cost and lower Calcination temperature ( 0 F) ( 0 C) thermal efficiency in comparison to modern vertical shaft kilns, the rotary kiln is preferred due to its ability to fire any fuel and its ability to handle a wide range of stone sizes. These factors enable rotary kiln operators to switch 2.0 fuel sources relatively easily as conditions warrant,and to reduce the build-up of unusable stone fines. The mod 1.8 ern rotary kiln is generally fired with pulverized coal, though most are also equipped with stand-by fuel facili 1.6 ties to fire oil and/or natural gas. Current designs incor porate numerous energy conserving devices such as 1.4 preheaters, internal heat exchangers, and lime coolers, etc., many of which are common to cement plant kilns. Sur- 1 ' 2 Modern rotary kilns tend to have a low length:diameter face ratio as opposed to the more traditional long rotary kiln. area 1.0 (rrWg) The short rotary kiln is generally more thermally efficient than the long rotary kiln. Energy conserving devices used 0.8 in rotary kilns are detailed below:

0.6 PREHEATERS Preheaters offer the most potential for improving thermal 0.4 efficiency in lime manufacture. The most popular forms of preheaters are the following: 0.2 n travelling grate type (AC-Lepol) O this features a travelling grate which acts as a 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 preheater and pre-calciner. The system can handle a Time of calcination, hours very broad range of stone sizes from 4 mesh to 5 cm and offers good thermal efficiency of approximately Figure 3.8. (a) RELATION OF SURFACE AREA TO 5,580 MJ/tonne (4.8 million Btu/ton). CALCINATION TEMPERATURE, (b) RELATION OF D shaft preheaters SURFACE AREA TO DURATION OF CALCINATION. Source Boynton, 1980. there are several varieties. The best performance in retrofit applications is with short rotary kilns (31m to 53 m) of approximately 1:10 diametenlength. Traditional long rotary kilns of 76 m to 136 m have

64 Limestone Industries of Ontario High-calcium and dolomitic limestone 1

j Fuel Primary crusher 1

u i b 6-8 in. limestone for vertical kilns Screening and classification 1 t Calcination 1 ^^^^^^1 (rotary and vertical kilns) 1

'' i- Secondary crushing 1 Cooling 1 IP 1 1/4-2 1/2 in. limestone for rotary kilns ir ,, Fines j """""" i ——*- By-product lime 1

Crushing and pulverizing 1 Pebble and lump quicklime Tailings High-calcium Max. size 1/4-1/2 in. Dolon dolomitic quicklime quicklim e only i ———* ——— b Hydrator 1——— Water Pressure hydrator B-*—— andfoV

,,

Separator 1 r Milling 1

'' quicklime ,, Dolomitic pressure hydrated lime drated lime

Figure 3.9. SIMPLIFIED FLOW SHEET OF INTEGRATED LIME OPERATION. Source Boynton, 1980.

been less successful. The two most popular types are hancements such as trefoils, dams and lifters, chains, by KVS, which makes standard shaft, rectangular, etc. The essential feature of all of these kiln internals is and polygon shaped units for kilns up to 900 tonnes/ that they promote greater heat exchange with the stone day capacity; and by Parsons and Kraus- Maffei. and more even heating by constantly exposing all parts of Thermal efficiencies for both designs are in the the stone to the hot gases. 4,885 to 5,580 MJ/tonne (4.2 to 4.8 million Btu/ ton) range. COOLERS Coolers provide for heat recovery and the cooling of the KILN INTERNALS lime. There are several types: Internal kiln design features promoting thermal effi - Contact or Niems coolers ciency include heat exchanger cross section design en - Planetary coolers or satellite coolers

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 65 Table 3.9. COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS OF SHAFT KILNS. Parallel Union Double Flow Regular Carbide Cross Flow Inclined Annular Regenerative Shaft Round Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Round Round Cross section area (ft2 ) 43-323 42 56 99-315 25-172 Capacity (STPD) 50-500 150-600 200 120-175 100-500 100-600 Capacity (MTPD) 45-454 136-544 181 109-159 91-454 91-544 Feed size 2-172"-8" l"-7" 3M"-3" 1/2" to 2-1/2" 3l4"-5" 3M"-7" Fuel Coke, oil, gas Oil, gas Oil, gas Coke, oil, gas Oil, gas, Oil, gas, Pulverized coal* Pulverized coal* Fuel rate (106 Btu 3.38 to 4.50 4.9 to 5.2 4.0 to 4.4 3.78 to 4.18 3.78 to 4.18 3.38 to 3.78 gross per short ton) Power (kwh/MT) 2.5-8 10-25 20-30 16-26 10-30 20-25 "Pilot installations in operation since 1981 Source: Schwarzkopf, 1981.

Rotary coolers limestones or heavily crystalline stone that thermally decrepitates. The Calcimatic kiln features a large diame - Grate coolers ter circular refractory hearth that can be operated at The most effective system for both heat recovery and various speeds up to 200 rpm; most units operate in the lime cooling appears to be the contact cooler. The other 27 to 85 rpm range. The hearth is divided into heating types of cooler are less effective in heat recovery but ap zones, and extensive instrumentation is used for precise proximately equal to the contact cooler in cooling per temperature control. The kiln can successfully calcine a formance. wide range of stone types and sizes, varying from 1/4 in. Control of kiln stone feed size is critical to successful to 4 in., with a maximum recommended gradation of operation of rotary kilns. The maximum stone size is 1:4. There is one Calcimatic unit in operation in Ontario generally 2 in., although some operators use 2 1/2 in. at BeachviLime Ltd. in Beachville, Ont. (site A-3 in the stone. The minimum size is generally 1/4 in. or 3/8 in. Aylmer District chapter, Volume III). Most plants operate with stone sizes in the range of 3/8 in. to 7/8 in.; 7/8 in. to l 5/8 in.; l in. to 2 in.; and so FORMS OF LIME on. Plants with multiple kilns may calcine two to four Quicklime is commercially available in the following different gradations of stone to minimize the production forms: of unusable stone fines. 1. Lump. Two other developments of note related to rotary Sizes range from 2 1/2 in. to 12 in., but usually a kiln operation are the development of suspension more restricted size range such as 3 in. x 6 in., preheater and flash calcining systems for lime kiln fines 4 in.x 8 in., etc. These sizes are derived exclusively and limestone spalls; and the Maerz FK calcining from vertical kilns. method for limestone fines. The latter method uses a suspension preheater but not the flash calciner. These 2. Pebble. technologies, which have been adopted from the cement Sizes range from 1/4 in. to 2 1/2 in., but actual size industry, allow lime producers to successfully calcine distribution is more precise, such as limestone fines and dust. The result is a significant in 1/4 in. x 1/2 in., 1/2 in. x l in., etc. The product is crease in the size range of stone which can be converted available from both rotary and vertical kilns and the into salable product, rather than stored as waste material Calcimatic kiln. or sold at very low prices. Both systems are also very 3. Ground. thermally efficient. Typical size range is 10096 passing 8 mesh and OTHER KILN TYPES 296-496 passing 100 mesh. It is a secondary product resulting from the screening of fines or grinding and Two other kilns used in North America are the Fluo-Sol- classifying coarser sizes. ids kiln and the Calcimatic kiln. The Fluo-Solids kiln 4. Pulverized. successfully calcines very small stone of 8-65 mesh at high energy efficiencies. The operation of the kiln is Typical size range is 10096 passing 20 mesh and based on the fluidized bed principle and requires very 8596- 9596 passing 100 mesh. It is produced by pul precise control. The kiln produces a very reactive lime verization and classification of larger size material. with almost no core, and is most successful with soft 5. Briquettes (pelletized).

66 Limestone Industries of Ontario These are produced by compressing quicklime fines fications are summarized in Table 3.10. Canadian speci in special moulding equipment, to about l in. The fications for quicklime and hydrated lime generally fol volume of production is quite small. low the prescriptions of the ASTM.

LIME HYDRATION USES

Lime hydration refers to the addition of water to quick LIME lime whereby approximately stoichiometric amounts of water and lime react to form a chemically combined dry Lime is used in an extremely diverse range of applica hydrate. It contains less than We free moisture and is tions. In industry it is the second largest volume basic handled as a dry powder. If excess water is added slaking chemical, next to sulphuric acid. It is used for neutraliza is said to take place, with the formation of a lime slurry. tion, coagulation, causticization, dehydration, hydrolyza- This product is handled as a liquid. The hydration proc tion, and absorption; in building construction as a ess is strongly exothermic. This heat may be captured for cementitious material and as a plasticizer; in agriculture use in the hydration process or used for other processes, to supply calcium and magnesium as plant nutrients and or more usually is wasted. High calcium quicklime hy for neutralization of acid soils; in highway construction drates much more readily than dolomitic lime. Special for soil stabilization and as an anti-stripping agent in as procedures and equipment are required to economically phalt. High calcium and dolomitic lime may be used in hydrate dolomitic lime. The rate of hydration is depend terchangeably for many of the listed applications. For ent upon the purity of the lime, the MgO content, the certain applications, however, there are general prefer size of the starting lime particles (smaller is faster), the ences for one type over the other, and for some of these temperature of the water, the amount of water, degree of only one type of lime can be used. Similarly, both quick agitation, and extent air-slaked lime is used. lime and hydrated lime may be used interchangeably for some applications. The selection will depend on the vol SLAKING ume requirements and storage facilities as quicklime is the more reactive material and costs less per tonne. In Lime slaking may take place in either a batch or continu other applications only quicklime or hydrated lime may ous mode. Batch slaking has largely been superceded by be specified. A brief description of the uses of lime is the continuous process. Paste slaking is the predominant provided in the following sections. method as it reduces the detention time by recovering some of the heat of hydration to increase the water tem IRON AND STEEL perature. The paste slaker also yields a more concen trated hydrate. Only large volume users such as pulp and Lime is used as a basic fluxing agent in iron and steel- paper mills employ slaking equipment today. making processes. It is used in iron making in the manu facture of sinter and in the production of self-fluxing sin DRY HYDRATION ters and iron agglomerates (pellets). In steelmaking it is used as a flux to assist in the removal of phosphorus, Hydration plants also operate in batch and continuous silica, and sulphur. The most important steelmaking modes, the latter type predominating. All hydrate pro processes using lime are the basic oxygen furnace (EOF) duction takes place in closed-circuit systems to prevent and the electric arc furnace (EAF), and their variants. recarburation. Plant layout and equipment selection var The use of lime, as opposed to limestone, in the basic ies widely. The hydrated product is generally ground in a open hearth furnace is limited and is rapidly declining as ball mill to improve the plasticity of the product. The these furnaces are being phased out in favour of the BOF most significant factors affecting hydrating plant design and EAF. are: Both high calcium and dolomitic lime are used in porosity and slaking rate of the quicklime BOFs, with dolomitic lime accounting for 20*20 to 30*20 of - chemical purity of the quicklime the total lime charge in most BOFs. Some BOFs use up - physical size and gradation of the quicklime to 50*^0 dolomitic lime in the fluxing charge. Typical size specifications for lime call for lump or pebble material. - temperature of the hydration water However, those steel plants using the more modern LD- - particle size requirement of the hydrate AC or Q-BOP BOF processes tend to prefer 200 mesh and 150 mesh material as it is injected into the melt via LIME SPECIFICATIONS lances. Quicklime accounts for most lime consumption, although hydrated lime may be used as a heat insulator Specifications for lime are quite diverse due to the vari in the ladle refining process, especially if calcium wire is ations in the starting material. The ASTM has developed used as the flux. Dead-burned dolomite is used as a re a series of specifications for both quicklime and hydrated fractory material to protect the basic lining of open lime for use in a wide range of applications. These speci hearth furnaces and of electric furnaces.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 67 w-)

n s: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lil ii i i i *~"C ' ' s ' o 6 M ^ E U C o NO .c m E 537 ^c •0 oo *o •o o "o CD o u 1 1 1 1 ON 1 1 1 1 1 1 ON ON III oo r~ oo 1 U u 0 ^ s ^^^ /-^-^ en 13 E cr o o CO x 1 1 1 ^ J V) c 1 ' ' ' 0\ 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' ON III II 1 1 •*" *C ^J U U Ut ^ E c a; '150 i .i 2 a c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 III gil 1 1 1 1 O K^ O CN) E 1 ' ttl 1 o s a, c u ? ^ E ~Q ' Q "^ 2 .ij a a C CM OJriTj' COVOCOIOVOOO 05 o OS fli ^ r-oot-- ONOONTJ-IOTJ- lo ^S o "c ?'1'1 S rt o "i O. N zx ooo onoooo b Other •0 o "3 AAA AAAAAA b u Vldllf. U.U.PL, u. a. u-, a. u- a- Z U i i i i U, VI, , , i CL, w rt U Al i 1 l l CQ CQ CQ i CQCQCQCQCQCQ l! f Ut!!!! 0 V.v-t -5^3 E5t3 E E E E E o CM •"^ -— * -i— -i-. O x •O IO CO ooo^^ E'S'S'S'S CM eg a U 1 1 1 l 1 i i i i d d i i d i ii i i *j . b E ^J^^o3S!v ^^ ^3 *3 fi* ^^ ty ty ^ TJ ;J "^ ik. k. w IK, o o r- "5 .Si 0 c m o ^^333^SrX,r*S^ j o -j -j 0.0,0.:*; a^ a^ a^ *3 a •*r o i i i 1 O 00 1 i ill 1 00 O II 1 l Q U E VO ON ON VO VO ON Z ^* ri o

o x CM CM CM CM CM O CM bf CM •0 O *O IO ^ b i 1 1 1 1 1-1 ^ 1 1 1 1 f-l | ri ri 1 1 II 1 1 2! j~ 3 J .J- o ^ 1 S .5s 2! Q x M CM CM CM CM 3" 3 b" o 0 O O O O se o in "™ C "^ 0 a h 1 1 1 1 CO CO 1 1 1 1 (S ri CO CO 1 1 II 1 1 13 •S. C CD M 3 E E j,^ *w ^ C4J ^ D x •41 ?* ii ^ P Q E o lo •o o *-X 5 -i^ o d 1 1 1 1 • III 1 1 li -i i i '3 u E (S (S TJ- cM fM \ W\ a, ^ o 2-^1 X "^ "C 3 ^ ^ CJ C-. fc cr *. "^ T" *W ^* Cil V CM U o x CM CM OS oc 03 •o r- io co CO J-S,| i 2^3 ~ — *? •^ c "^ E ~ -t: ^ E 1 1 l 1 0) (N 1 1 1 | ,-, ^ ,-H nil II 1 1 -J u * o^.ijSS! c -2 "S E U t,d d x CM CM u 2 ON CM O O j: CO 1 1 CO CO 1 III II 1 1 o U V} b 3 E 1 1 1 1 1 III ^Illi^fl

CM CM CM CM CM o O O O O O O O O b d 00 c CM l^l^t^f IO IO CO CO io o o o tt) 0 E 1 1 ON ON 1 1 1 1 ON ON III III ON CN ON ON Z ^, ~5 ^^3 ^3 o s; "S 0 S-Q ^"S"S c S~ --^ O c CM CM CM CM CM 03 H 1 1 1 1 O O 1 1 1 1 (N | O O|| II 1 1 U E ON ON ON ON ^2322-~^-Q-|c U •o . o" •^"Ss.l "s,^,^ ^^^7^ b 2 o O j 5-^-3-^-^^ -^ ^ | o X U d) O 22 Q Q . ^ "c "c "5 ^ -2,^ 55^ U li a ox d 2n:5 o x x o x o xx^x oo2''-!-1 d CM uuuuu 2u2 uuu UUU U Q 2 CQ UQ2UQ2 C/3 •3H J WO ••c E E E E ^ ^ 'c ^ 5 r- *^ -^! "^Z -Ci -C" *V ^ -V -V oo U i 1 2 ti ti "S t; ~ "5 3 -3 E ^ '~* "c -*-* -— . -~- --- -o ^-\ -j -3 -^ vj 2 *j t— oo ON IO CO CO VO VO CO 1O IO ri 10 CO CO fM (N '•O 0 w o ^CyOJOlOl ww. w ^^-2s-Cj J ^ .515^^5 •O C4 (N ^T 1-1 rr TT co oo f^ ^ U TT oo oo ww^wwOOOOO^.S^ uuuuu u uuu U UUU U U U U U U U Z ^3 C/3 u H o •~ o o o o -~ -~ 'c 'c 'c '"H "^ ^ 10 'f, .i •5 h oo oo DO) ~ O d) O (U O v3^ic;-^dci^j"c''cidC3E c3 "cc 'cc w 2 2 rt c3 'Si 'fi oo '-ft 33 o o o cu rt rt rt rt d U 00 00 C .^ C '^ f Ssss^^1!?^? 1 -S g s ri b "S S.s.l.l.-5l-cl-'S5-*| 2^ w w!!! 1 -s E w S 3635*52*5 'C E 'illS'^S 'C S t* .S .S t) o 1 11 1 U rt S o S rt -- rt 2 S l d) O) y Zl rt O I^SS^^'^^^^i^l 3 U 0 2 5 2 E.— Q.— 3 ^ 3 SiSeJ 3fJ ^^J-^J-^-- '^ rs-l' 1N*^'^' oOQtiil^Q^('x^ a d, V) -•S - a Si "rt H CD P 6aii^ S ^ ^ O O U O U ^U ^X I 5" ^"^" ^*" 68 Limestone Industries of Ontario ^ 10 10 r- oo 0) oo a ON 0 a h ^ . 10 IO c~^ oo w f" O\ fa" o

Z 10 10 ^ 1 S 1 2 ON 10 IO 1 Ok ^ Z a ON s s h Q. 10 10 ^ 1 ^ ^ ON a; d) Z Cd o fi "E o c c rt I/I '5500 o JO ^ 5 5 d) J rt o d) T3 "o 3 TT d) 00 'xT3 o is-receive d) c receivedb EH NANormalair-entra- cu RATED VO o 1 o C d) FOR[YDRATEDLIMEM; rt ^ O J2 c C207-79PECIFICATION oxidesalciumandmagnesium c (as-receivednhydratedoxides rt E, rt 3 e 6 (nonvolatilebasis),9fcmin, "3 "3 U rt rt (as-receiveddioxidearbon rt rt o i C C C C NNormalype- 0 O c VI d) d) (inhydratedoxides "3 di d) DO rt M Ci. ex PECIFICATION rt (nonvolatilebasis) rt rt rt rt INISHINGHYD d) NormaljVype- G basis),9fcmax, S "3 l l 'x 00 rtX" —v, ' T3 manufacture manufacture otherplace C .2 d) d) i S v d) rt {•8 d. E, 9fcmax, ex E, ^ g c . 6 S S 0 X rt rt ^1 rt JO rt ^ CO ©fi "rto rt ^-, rt S s JO .-i fa C/2 U U D Si X tt U U P Si

x 10 O (N 00 S ^ f- (S n 3 5 S i o io io ro o ci (S ON ri P uDC iJ H , -. ^ 0 .S IO NO 1 1 td ^ N-3 ^ C^! C* ^ 0 H cu C/) C* C?~ o D 1 " O O T3 ^— V tNI S l E (O 1 io lo CO O f- ON ri fa c -" di ^" ^o J B J rt t" ^ ^- g? TD < O Id c: s rt d) "o rt vi d) 2 *"j y, s z o 's; ^ h ^ -2rt 2S ON -0rt "i u Q O O C iij io D W S 2 g 0. ^ .-3 ^ rH 1 x o -c t; c d) ^ t"", r-1 o c " ^ — rt r1 ^ •5. T - O ** O ^ o ^ 6 1 ^ rt as r; ^ di — *O > C Q u .2^-0 'x c o Q - -— ' oo -^3 X p vi (U O ^ ^ ^ Z 0) O -- C Q Sg •Sc^c G 2 ^ T^ ^ -H — C3 C ^™T D U, O g - bO ^^^-^^^ ac o tJO T3 3 3 ^ Si rt ci o G ~* Z td H 0 JH ^ " - -^3cj O H S qrt "rto - c? -o 3-S h T3 -J 3 _ v Z r-" O "^ vC) ^ Tj ^J vO o ^ 1 gill Jill If ^s^ rt rt Q ^ rt d, | fc- u U U 3!53-a,r )-ort 0 rta) o c '3 x 5 ^ ^ M J2 w 5 ol| | ?0 ^ | ^ | J | o P Q- -j Q0 ri O'^I O c3^i O, !^i O •^ 3 C, "rt^'jnijo n y (5^ t*i 0 w U 2 U c/5 U JHT i—n i C/Jnr, U oo ^ U — 3 n H

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 69 Another technical development affecting the use of soda ash producer in Canada, is illustrated in lime in the steel industry is increased use of hot iron Figure 3.10. desulphurization and the use of magnesium as the desul Lime is also used in the production of the-following phurization agent. In hot metal desulphurization molten chemicals: iron from the blast furnace is treated prior to entering the BOF. The fluxing agent may be lime, calcium car - calcium carbide for acetylene production bide, or magnesium powder. Calcium carbide is typically - calcium cyanimide, a nitrogen fertilizer employed in Japan and Europe, although there is a trend - inorganic insecticides and pesticides such as arse- to the use of magnesium powder. In Canada and the nates, Bordeaux mixtures, and lime-sulphur sprays United States the magnesium powder is often treated and powders with a lime coating to yield a lower cost fluxing agent. - magnesium and calcium oxides and hydroxides, cal OTHER METAL SMELTING cium chloride, inorganic salts, chrome chemicals, hydroxides of lithium, barium, etc., and the purifica Lime is used as a fluxing agent to promote slag formation tion of brines for food grade sodium chloride in the smelting of copper, lead, zinc, and antimony. It is - ethylene glycol via the chlorohydrin process and the used in the flotation process for copper production for production of propylene oxide and glycol pH adjustment and as a settling agent, in the recovery of - azo dyes gold and silver in the cyanide flotation process, used in the recovery of nickel by precipitation after it is smelted. - napthol via the sulphuric acid process Lime is used in the Bayer process for the manufacture of - benzaldehyde and benzoic acid from dichlorotoluene alumina, where the lime causticizes sodium carbonate so and trichlorotoluene lutions to generate sodium hydroxide, and in the secon - precipitated calcium carbonate from soda ash manu dary desilification process. In acid-type uranium extrac tion, lime is used to neutralize waste acid liquors. Other facture or carbonation of milk-of-lime. uses of lime include the recovery of tungsten from ENVIRONMENTAL USES scheelite and the recovery of high cost flotation agents such as xanthates in zinc, nickel, and lead flotation mills. Lime is extensively used for environmental purposes. These uses include the following: PULP AND PAPER - Neutralization of waste acid liquors and gases from ferrous and non-ferrous metals smelters and refiner High calcium lime is used to causticize the "black liquor" ies; (sodium carbonate solution) to sodium hydroxide in the sulphate pulping (kraft) process. Most kraft pulp mills - Neutralization of organic and inorganic acid wastes recover the calcium carbonate sludge after the causticiz- from chemical plants, pulp and paper mills, textiles ing process by dewatering and calcining. Approximately plants, and food processing plants; 92^o to 989o of the lime is recovered, the balance being - Water softening, purification, and coagulation (tur made up by purchases of quicklime or high calcium bidity removal) for potable and process water and stone. boiler feed water; Some lime is still used in the sulphite pulping proc - Sewage treatment and phosphate removal and sew ess, although most bisulphite pulping liquors are now de age sludge neutralization and precipitation; rived by reading SO2 with limestone or other alkaline - Scrubbing of acid gas emissions from thermal power bases such as ammonia, magnesia, and soda ash. Lime is plants and boilers. also used for the production of calcium hypochlorite for pulp bleaching. These uses are more advanced in the United States than in Canada. Water, gaseous, and sewage treatment accounted for approximately 299o of U.S. demand for CHEMICAL MANUFACTURE lime in 1985 versus approximately 59c in Canada in 1983. The main differences are accounted for in scrub A diverse range of chemicals may be prepared from bing of acid gases and in sewage treatment. lime. The principal chemicals produced are the sodium alkalis (sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium GLASS AND CERAMICS hydroxide) by the Solvay process, which requires large quantities of salt brines and CO2 as well as ammonia. Dolomitic lime is used as the source of magnesium oxide The purpose of the lime is to causticize sodium carbon in glass-making. Both high calcium and dolomitic limes ate to sodium hydroxide and to regenerate the ammonia are used to manufacture special refractories and silica catalyst in the manufacture of soda ash. The process brick for use in cement kilns, steel furnaces, and other used by General Chemical Canada Ltd., the only Solvay high temperature industrial furnaces.

70 Limestone Industries of Ontario Salt Brine Coke 1 Limestone 1 26 0Xo NaCI high calcium 1 300g/! Ammonia (NH 3 ) from local (recycled) wells 1 \ Ammonium Chloride Calcination 1 1 ' Lime 1 — Lime 1

onia l-*" Calcium Chloride (CaCI 2 ) 1 UU 2 | Carbonation by-product in solution; 1 * extracted and sold 1 CO 2 ' Lioht Soda Ash 1 0.5 kg/dm 3 solid in solution Sodium Bicarbonate (end product) l—J Heat I-

NaCI H 2 0

1 tonne soda ash 1 .6 tonnes salt -f- 99.3 07o - 99.5 07o Na ? CO 3 + —*- 1 tonne calcium chloride 0.250/0 - D.4% NaCr Dense Soda Ash (Na 2 CO 3 H 2 0) 1 tonne limestone * 0.OIQo/o HoO (insol.) 1 kg/dm 3 0.5 tonne NaCI 0.0020/0 Fe 2 O

Figure 3.10. SOLVAY PROCESS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF SODA ASH.

BUILDING PRODUCTS — Petroleum refining; for mercaptan removal, SO2 gas removal, lubricating grease production, "red lime Lime is used as the raw material for the manufacture of mud", drilling mud conditioning, etc.; calcium silicate building products such as sand-lime — dehairing and plumping of hides in tanneries; brick, cellular concrete blocks, and silicate concrete. These products have achieved much greater market ac — paint, pigment, and varnish manufacture; ceptance in Europe and Japan than in North America, — rubber manufacture; where concrete is the primary building material. — chemical dehydration of organic chemical com pounds. FOOD PROCESSING AGRICULTURAL USES Lime is extensively used in the food processing industry Lime is used in agriculture for soil neutralization, com as a precipitating agent and for waste disposal. The sugar posting, fertilizer manufacture, chicken litter disinfec refining industry is the major user, and many sugar mills tion, etc. These uses represent only a small portion of have captive lime plants associated with them. This is total demand. especially true of sugar beet processing plants which pro duce large volumes of acid waste and require large CONSTRUCTION amounts of lime for the clarification process. Construction uses for lime include the following: Lime is used in the production of gelatin, in dairy — masonry mortar, stucco, and base coat plaster; processing, the baking industry, fruit processing, and — hydraulic lime; controlled atmosphere apple storage. — lime-cement mortar. OTHER INDUSTRIAL USES These uses are more common in Europe than in North America. Dolomitic rather than high calcium lime Other uses of lime include the following: is generally preferred.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 71 SOIL STABILIZATION is added to the lime kiln during the calcining of the sul phite sludge. Requirements are modest and vary from Soil stabilization is a significant use of lime in the United year to year depending on the performance of the kiln States, but is a limited end-use in Canada. The lime re and the relative costs of lime and limestone. Very limited acts with most types of clay soils by agglomerating the amounts of magnesia or dolostone are used in sulphite clay particles through base exchange and chemically re- pulp mills to prepare magnesium sulphite. acting with the silica and alumina in the soil, forming complex calcium and aluminum silicates. Lime can also be used in deep soil stabilization projects such as under SODA ASH (SODIUM CARBONATE) MANUFACTURE water construction of bridge piers. In this case special injection equipment is required to inject the lime solution High calcium limestone is used in the production of soda under high pressure. Finally, hydrated lime is used as an ash by the Solvay process. The process has largely been anti-stripping agent for asphalt mixes, especially siliceous supplanted by the use of natural soda ash, trona, from aggregates. Wyoming. There is only one Canadian producer of soda ash, General Chemical Canada Ltd. in Amherstburg (site CH-1 in the Chatham District chapter, Volume III), and CHEMICAL PROCESS STONE only one remaining U.S. producer. General Chemical Crushed limestone and dolostone are used to make glass produces calcium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and a more insoluble. During the glass-making process the range of other calcium and sodium compounds or by limestone and/or dolostone acts as a flux for the melting products and co-products of the Solvay process. Ap sililca sand, forming chemically fused calcium and/or proximately 1.6 tonnes of salt and l tonne of limestone magnesium silicates. High calcium limestone is used in are required to produce l tonne of soda ash, l tonne of the manufacture of flat or window glass, while dolostone calcium chloride and 0.5 tonne of sodium chloride. The is used in the manufacture of glass containers and tum salt is recycled in the production process. blers, and in the manufacture of glass fibre. The higher MgO content in glasses made from dolostone confers METALLURGICAL STONE greater acid etching resistance and increases the thermal shock resistance of the glass. Crushed limestone and dolostone are used as a flux in ferrous and non- ferrous smelting and refining as a Limestone and dolostone used in glass manufacture cheap substitute for the more expensive lime. The crude must be low in iron, at least below Q.06% FeO. Iron lim crushed material is also preferred for technical reasons in its could be as low as Q.014% (or lower) for some glasses. some applications. The major use of crushed limestone Stone is crushed to sizes of 0.74 mm to 2.4 mm. Typical and dolostone in the metallurgical industries is in the chemical specifications are given in Table 3.11. steel industry. High calcium stone or lime are used as a flux in open hearth steelmaking, though this use is rap Table 3.11. CHEMICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR idly declining as the last two open hearth furnaces in LIMESTONE AND DOLOSTONE IN GLASS MAKING. Canada will be closed by the end of 1989 with the con version of Stelco's Hilton Works in Hamilton, Ontario, Limestone Dolostone Dolomitic and Sysco Steel in Sydney, Nova Scotia, to full Basic Lime Oxygen Furnace production. Limestone and dolostone SiO2 Q.5%-2.0% 1.09b Q.6% are also used directly in the manufacture of self-fluxing A1 203 0. 2%-QA^o 0.19o-0.39o sinter and pellets. The Iron Ore Company of Canada Fe203 0. 0590-0.15^0 0.159o-0.309o Q.2% started production of self-fluxing pellets at Wabush and TiO2 Q.01% Labrador City in 1985, using calcium limestone and CaO 53. 559^-56.090 299o-31 9o 559o dolomitic stone shipped from Ontario. Algoma Steel MgO Q.4%-1.2% 199o-22.59o 389*0 Na2O t K2O 0.039o-0.159o Corp. Ltd. produces self-fluxing sinter at its Wawa sinter As203 Q.01% plant using high calcium stone and dolostone from U.S. P205 0. 0190-0.19*0 G.10% 0.019b and Canadian sources. Dofasco Inc. produces self-flux L.O.I. 42. 096-44.090 2.09o ing pellets at the Adams Mine in Kirkland Lake and the Moisture Q.1% 0. 19o-0.59o Sherman Mine in Temagami, Ontario, for its steel pro Source: Boyton, 1980. duction facilities in Hamilton. Magnesium and calcium metal production is the PULP AND PAPER other major metallurgical market for dolostone and high calcium limestone. Timminco Ltd. produces both metals Pulp and paper mills use limestone as supplementary ma using a variant of the alumino-silicothermic Pidgeon terial to make up their lime requirements for the recaus- process at its plant at Haley, Ontario (site PE-6 in the ticization of the spent sulphite pulping liquor. The stone Pembroke District chapter, Volume II).

72 Limestone Industries of Ontario Fillers and Extenders

Fillers and extenders are finely ground mineral materials ONTARIO OCCURRENCES AND PRODUCERS used in a wide range of industrial applications. They may be used as low cost additives to increase the bulk of Ontario carbonate sources include limestone, dolostone, many commercial products, to improve the physical marble, carbonatite, marl, and vein deposits. Limestone properties of the product, or for both purposes, adding dust, produced during the quarrying and processing of important properties of their own without seriously de limestone and dolostone for cement, lime, or construc creasing the important characteristics of the product. tion aggregate, can be used as a filler in asphalt and The materials are also known as mineral extenders be other applications where colour is not important. Marl cause they extend (and usually enhance) the properties and vein calcite have been used in limited amounts in the of the products in which they are used. past, but are not being used today. Marble is the principal source of filler grade carbon There are a wide variety of extenders and fillers. The ate in Ontario, and has the greatest potential for market principal materials used are: expansion and new product development. Marble in On - carbonate materials such as calcium carbonate and tario is generally restricted to the southern portion of the magnesium carbonate Grenville area of the Precambrian Shield. - kaolin Steep Rock Calcite, a division of Steep Rock Re sources Inc., is the principal producer of carbonate fillers - barytes in Ontario*. The company operates a large, high-purity - mica calcite marble quarry at Tatlock in southeastern Ontario. Primary crushed material is transported to a modern - silica crushing and grinding plant at Perth, where material suit - talc able for a variety of end-uses is produced using both dry and wet grinding circuits. A description of the quarry and aluminum trihydrate (ATH) plant is given in site CP-25 of the Carleton Place District - glass, ceramic, and plastic beads chapter, Volume II. Previous attempts to produce filler grade calcium carbonate from other Grenville deposits, Other mineral and organic based materials may also be as well as calcite veins and marl beds, have generally used in limited quantities. been unsuccessful. These earlier investigations and work ings of deposits are described in Guillet and Kriens Carbonate-based mineral fillers and extenders are (1984), Guillet (1969), and Hewitt (1964). by far the most widely distributed and used materials, and their market has expanded rapidly in recent years. There are several producers of low grade off-white calcitic fillers in southern Ontario. BeachviLime Limited The development of processing technologies for the pro (site A-3 in the Aylmer District chapter, Volume III) duction of ultrafine grind carbonate materials, combined between Beachville and Ingersoll produces industrial fill with changes in the manufacturing processes for many ers as a by-product of limestone aggregate and glass end-use applications, has greatly extended the applica tion scope for carbonate fillers and extenders. The de grade production. The material is a coarse (200 to 325 mesh) product used in carpet backing, caulking com velopment of new markets and new products has also pounds, asphaltic roofing products, and automotive un- resulted in a considerable increase in the value-added of many carbonate derived fillers and extenders. dercoatings. Steetley Lime and Aggregates, a division of Steetley Industries Ltd. (site CB-11 in the Cambridge Carbonate fillers and extenders may be derived from District chapter, Volume III), produces dolostone fillers limestone, dolostone, marble, calcite and marl, or syn at its aggregate and pulverized stone plant near Dundas. thetically produced as precipitated calcium carbonate or The filler products are produced from fines resulting hydrated magnesium carbonate. White, high purity mar from the production of glass grade dolostone, fertilizer ble is the most common source of carbonate mineral fill diluents, and agricultural dolostone. The fillers are sold ers. Calcitic carbonates are extensively used as a paper primarily for use in asphaltic roofing. Owen Sound Dolo filler and in paint, plastics, linoleum, and rubber. Impor mite, a division of E.G. King Contracting of Owen Sound tant properties of filler grade carbonates include white (site O-10 in the Owen Sound District chapter, Volume ness, fineness, freedom from grit, low oil absorption, and particle shape. Transportation charges play a major role in determining the market opportunities available to a * At the time of printing, the operations and shares of Steep producer, as well as competition from substitute materi Rock Calcite were being purchased by MAS Minerals Corp., a als. wholly-owned subsidiary of Pluess-Stauffer AG of Switzerland.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 73 Ill) produces dolostone fillers in conjunction with glass These plants are conventional filler producers which grade dolostone. The fillers are used in asphaltic roofing meet the requirements of most consumers except those and sealer applications. requiring ultrafine particle sizes. 5. Plants producing fillers using a combination of wet EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING and dry processing techniques. 6. Plants producing ultrafine grind fillers using special Carbonate materials for filler and extender uses are nor wet grinding techniques, classifying centrifuges, and mally mined by quarrying. In the United States, how spray dryers. ever, there are a large number of underground opera tions. These underground operations generally employ These plants produce ultrafine grind products of less the room and pillar method and are usually higher cost than 5 microns particle size. operations than open pit producers. Open pit mining Recent technological developments have concen methods for fillers and extender grade materials are simi trated on improvements to both wet and dry grinding sys lar to conventional quarrying for limestone and dolos tems for the production of very fine grind materials. The tone aggregate. Selective quarrying may be required on processes employed are often proprietary and very little occasion to avoid areas of waste rock and meet the strin information is available on their exact nature. Another gent quality requirements. It is generally desirable to development of major interest is the increasing interest in have a number of working faces in the quarry to provide coated calcium carbonate using stearates or coupling flexibility to the operation and allow for blending where agents. Surface coating technology is developing rapidly quality variations occur. and is enabling filler producers to enter new markets Development of a suitable deposit should include re and/or significantly increase the value-added of their moval of overburden, including final clean-up by pick products in existing markets. Many carbonate filler pro and shovel or hydraulic washing. Extensive diamond ducers now make customized products for dedicated cus core drilling is usually necessary to adequately define the tomers. limits and quality variations of the deposit. Large uni Figure 3.11 illustrates the typical flow of carbonate form deposits may.lend themselves to contract mining. materials in either a dry or wet process plant. Primary For example, the deposit of Steep Rock Calcite at Tat- and secondary crushing generally employ the same type lock is worked only a few weeks each summer, when of equipment as is used in aggregate production. Primary sufficient crushed material is stockpiled at the Perth crushing is usually accomplished using jaw or gyratory processing plant for the year's needs. crushers. Impact crushers may be used if the material is Processing methods for carbonate fillers are depend soft and free from silica. Secondary crushing is generally ent upon the mineralogical and chemical purity of the conducted using cone or impact crushers, usually in raw material and the product quality requirements of the closed circuit with vibratory screens. Autogenous or consuming industries. Processing choices are generally semi-autogenous mills may also be used if the material is directed to producing materials suitable for the broadest suitable. possible range of applications within the market area of Tertiary crushing and primary grinding is accom the producer. Because of this there are a variety of proc plished using a variety of equipment. The choice de essing plants, which can generally be classified into six pends upon the later processing requirements. Roll categories: crushers, roller mills, cage mills, rod mills, and ball mills 1. Plants producing by-product fillers from fines gener may be used to provide feed for a fine grinding circuit or ated during the production of aggregate and other for a froth flotation circuit. non-filler products. Further processing of the material may include fine 2. Plants producing aggregate and other non-filler grinding and classification. Roller mills are typically used products, but with dedicated filler production facili to produce medium to fine filler products (up to 999o ties using dry grinding and air classification. passing 325 mesh, 44 microns). Ball mills, pebble mills, and vibratory mills are used for fine grinding. The equip These first two types of plants produce fillers of low ment is usually operated in closed circuit with air classifi quality from off- white limestone and dolostone for local ers. Conventional ball or pebble mills are used to grind markets. products ranging from 100 to 325 mesh. Vibratory mills and the new agitator mills using air classifiers and cy 3. Plants producing high quality fillers using dry grind clones or classifying centrifuges can grind to even finer ing and air classification. sizes of less than 5 microns with very tight particle size 4. Plants producing high quality fillers using wet grind distributions. Grinding aids based on organic liquids may ing, flotation, wet grinding classification using centri be employed to assist in the ultrafine grinding process fuges or cyclones, and filtration and drying. and prevent the formation of agglomerates. Surface coat-

74 Limestone Industries of Ontario Drill and Blast

Primary Crushing

l Secondary Crushing Dry Processing Wet Processing i Drying Primary Grinding

I Tertiary Crushing Flotation

I Primary Grinding Filtration Wet Grinding

l I Fine Grinding Drying Ultra-Fine Grinding (Wet)

Air Classification Dry Fine Grinding Slurry Shipping Filtration

Air Classification Medium-Fine Drying Filler Products Ultra-Fine Grinding I I Storage Bulk Storage Air Classification Storage

Ultra-Fine Fillers

Shipping Shipping

Shipping

Bulk Bagged Bulk Bagged

Bulk Bagged

Figure 3.11. CONCEPTUAL FLOWSHEET - CALCIUM CARBONATE PRODUCTION, DRY OR WET PROCESSING ALTERNATIVES. Source: Guillet and Kriens, 1984.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 75 Table 3.12. GRADE DESIGNATIONS AND TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF CALCIUM CARBONATE. Grade (ASTM-D-1199) Fine paint Coarse paint Filler Putty powder Superfine Grade I Grade II Grade II Grade III Grade IV Grade V Particle size analysis 7o Retained on 325 mesh 0.05 0.5 0.0 ^5 OO* 0.0 Particle size range (microns) 0.5-20.0 0.5-45.0 0.5 10-45.0 40.0 0.05-5.0 Specific surface diameter (maximum, microns) 2.5 6.0 9.0 12.0 1.0 Mean particle size (microns) 3.0 7.0 13.0 17.5 36.0 Hegman grind 6-6.25 4-4.25 Physical properties Oil absorption 14.0-16.0 12.0-14.0 Bulk density (Ib/ft3) 49.0 62.0 64.0 69.5 74.0 Bulking value (gal/lb) 0.0443 0.0443 0.0443 0.0443 0.0443 0.0443 Specific gravity 2.71 2.71 2.71 2.71 2.71 2.71 Specific resistance (ohms) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 PH 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 Hardness (Mohs) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Refractive index (mean) 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 Dry brightness (minimum) 96.0 94.0 93.0 85.0 90.0 96.0 Chemical composition 7o Calcium carbonate 98.00 98.00 98.00 95.00(min) 95.00(min) 98.50 7o Magnesium carbonate 0.60 0.60 0.60 3.00(max) 3.00(max) 0.60 9fc Silica 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.40 9fc Iron oxide 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02 9fc Alumina 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.20 9fc Moisture 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.15 0.02 *9?i retained on 200 mesh screen Applicable tests: Moisture: Method A of method D-281. Oil absorption: Method D-281. Coarse particles: Method D-718. Specific surface diameter: Practice D-1366. Particle size: Method D-3360. Dry brightness: Method E-97. Dispersed colour: Method D-718. Source: after Guillet and Kriens, 1984.

ings may also be employed to improve the properties of Many producers and consumers have developed ultrafine grind fillers. their own specifications for carbonate fillers based upon the results of development work which identifies superior performance characteristics for such "non-standard" SPECIFICATIONS products. It is not unusual for a filler producer to provide exclusive grades to particular customers. The most significant considerations in selecting calcium carbonate as a filler are: Particle size distribution is a critical parameter in most end-use applications. Changes in particle size dis - particle size tribution can cause a considerable change in product performance. For example, oil absorption of a filler is a - whiteness (brightness) function of its surface area. The packing density of the - mineralogical and chemical purity. particles affects oil absorption as well as the viscosity of aqueous and organic systems. Particle size control is PARTICLE SIZE therefore one of the most important factors in the suc cess of a filler manufacturer. Other significant physical Commercial grades of carbonate fillers cover the size and chemical parameters are bulk density, pH, bulking range from 100 mesh (144 microns) to the sub-micron value, specific gravity, specific resistance, hardness, and level. Five standard grades are recognized by the ASTM refractive index. under standard D-1199. Within each grade are a num ber of filler products that fall within the specifications WHITENESS published for these grades. The ASTM specifications Whiteness and brightness are closely related factors and and some examples of grades falling within each grade are important in carbonate fillers in applications such as division are provided in Table 3.12. paint, plastics, and paper. Other, less demanding, appli-

76 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 3.13. PRIMARY USES FOR CARBONATE FILLERS.

Application Function General Specifications Paint Extender of prime pigments in interior and High whiteness; controlled particle size, 44 microns to 8 exterior paint formulations. microns top size. Plastics As a resin extender in a wide range of polymer High whiteness; controlled particle size, 30 to 5 microns systems. top size; fillers treated with coatings and coupling agents are used. Paper As a filler or for paper coating. Partial High whiteness; controlled particle size, low abrasion, displacement of kaolin. very fine products with top sizes ranging from 10 to 4 microns. Putty, caulking, White, medium to fine, 90-99*?fc passing 325 mesh sealing (44 microns). Vinyl floor covering As a filler in vinyl tile. Coarse granular (-40 mesh) to fine (-325 mesh); good white colour; controlled particle size and bulk density. Carpet backing White to gray colour; 90%-999'c passing 325 mesh. Asphaltic products Filler in roofing materials and asphalt sealers. Off-colour buff to gray; coarse ranging from 809k passing 325 to 809fc passing 200 mesh. Rubber Filler pigment in footwear, automotive goods, White to off-colour; fine to medium fine products. non-reinforced rubber, wire and cable coatings. Construction Filler in jointing compounds for gypsum board. Lower grade white products; 90-959?? passing 325 mesh. Other Synthetic marble. White, coarse products; SO-85% finer than 200 mesh, and granular grades. Coal dusting. White to buff, coarse filler used in coal mining. Source: Guillet and Kriens, 1984.

cations such as asphaltic roofing and sealers, carpet applications are summarized in Table 3.13 and discussed backing, jointing and caulking compounds, etc. can util in detail in the following sections. ize off-white carbonate fillers, provided the material meets other specifications such as particle size, freedom PLASTICS from grit, oil absorption, etc. Mineral fillers are used in plastics as a resin extender and There are a variety of methods to determine bright to improve some of the physical properties of the resin. Surface coatings and/or coupling agents have been em ness and whiteness and producers usually state the ployed in the development of new grades of fillers which method used to avoid confusion. Some industry groups such as the paper industry have developed their own considerably enhance the properties of the filler. Fillers standard test procedures, and filler producers generally are now used not only as low cost bulking agents, but also to impart beneficial properties to the resin. In most employ these methods if selling to that market. cases they are now regarded as functional fillers. Calcium carbonate, however, is used to supply bulk MINERALOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PURITY at low cost and is mostly a non-functional filler. Typical Carbonate fillers should be as free as possible from dele size ranges used are in the l micron to 20 micron range. terious materials such as quartz or other abrasive parti The more expensive ultrafine sizes may be used to pro cles, arsenic, lead, water soluble salts, and dark miner vide functional properties such as improved mar and im als. If these materials are present additional and costly pact resistance, improved gloss, and improved cold flow processing may have to be conducted to produce accept properties in the compounding process. Precipitated cal able material. cium carbonate is included in the ultrafine sizes, but the volumes used are small. The main uses in plastics for calcium carbonate are USES in PolyVinyl Chloride (PVC) and thermosetting polyes ters. Calcium carbonate in PVC is found in both flexible Calcium carbonate is used as an extender and filler in a and rigid materials. Calendered or flexible vinyl for ap broad range of applications. The principal end-use mar plications such as furniture uses a 3.0 micron material at kets are plastics, paint, paper, adhesives and sealants, loadings of 1596 to 209c or 20 to 60 phr (parts per hun rubber, drywall compounds, and carpet backing. These dred of resin). Thinner vinyls use finer grades of filler.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 77 Table 3.14. SUMMARY OF APPLICATIONS FOR CALCIUM CARBONATE FILLER IN PLASTICS. Polymer Filler Level Particle Size ph r* Microns Remarks

Flexible PVC 20-60 3 Compared with coarser grades, fine fillers cause less of a decrease in physical properties and provide better performance in thinner calendered films and coatings. PVC plastisols and 20-100 wide range Coarse grades for carpet backings to ultra fine organisols precipitated grades and coated chalk whiting for thixotropic viscosity control. Coarse particles lead to lower viscosity in plastisols. Rigid PVC 1-5 2-3 Application in plastic for potable water pipe. Other pipe 40 1-3 and conduit applications. Stearate-coated grades improve melt rheology and smoothness of extrusion; uncoated grades serve as antiplate-out agents. PVC floor tile 80-400 small Finest grind is about 12 microns; size distribution is wide; colour varies with feedstock. Sheet moulding 250 3-6 Loadings are usually 250 phr for BMC, 100-150 phr compound for premix preform, and mat-over 400 phr is possible. Size distribution, and purity are selected to provide low- uniform-viscosity polyester. Marine polyester 175-200 3-5 Meets standard requirements for this application of Q.15% maximum water absorption during a 24 hour immersion. Polypropylene 43-67 1-3 For both polypropylene homopolymer and copolymers. *parts per hundred of resin Source: Guillet and Kriens, 1984.

Rigid PVC applications for calcium carbonate in part weight, surface appearance, and maturation rate of clude pipe and mouldings, windows and doors, floor tile, the mix. etc. Pipe producers currently use 2-3 micron material at Calcium carbonate may also be used as a filler in loadings of 1-5 phr for potable water pipe and up to 40 other plastics, e.g. polypropylene. Typically, poly phr for other pipe and conduit. There is a push by some propylene for automotive applications is loaded with manufacturers to increase calcium carbonate loadings in about 409c talc to increase the flexural modulus of the pipe by up to 509c, but this will require changes in gov material to approximately 600,000 psi from the unfilled ernment specifications for pipe. PVC floor tile calcium level of approximately 200,000 psi. A 409c loading of carbonate loading levels are in the range of 80 to 400 phr calcium carbonate gives a flexural modulus of about of small granular sizes (-40 to -325 mesh). In PVC plas 400,000 psi. This provides a material competitive with tisols and organosols such as carpet backing loading lev Acrylonitrile Butadzene Styrene (ABS), but at reduced els of 20 to 100 phr of (generally) 325 mesh material are cost. The use of fine grade material in polypropylene will common. also increase its impact resistance. Table 3.14 summa rizes the applications for calcium carbonate fillers in Polyesters have been the largest growth area for cal plastics. cium carbonate in plastics. Typical mineral reinforced polyester formulations contain 209c chopped glass fibres, PAINTS 359k to 409o resin, and 409k to 459c calcium carbonate Calcium carbonate is used as an extender in oil, alkyd, by weight. Calcium carbonate is used in both sheet acrylic, and latex- based paint systems. The key parame moulding compound (SMC) and bulk moulding com ters used by paint manufacturers to evaluate fillers are: pound (BMC), with higher loadings being found in BMC. The automobile industry is the principal end-user - oil absorption of these products, accounting for approximately 759o of - fineness the market, mainly for the front-end panels of cars - particle size distribution (SMC) and truck hoods, fenders and front end panels (BMC). Calcium carbonate in these applications acts - whiteness (brightness) both as a filler and to control the viscosity, shrinkage, - freedom from abrasive components such as silica

78 Limestone Industries of Ontario - pH 4. It allows for a reduction in effluent treatment as neu - water solubility tralization of effluent water is no longer required. White water from neutral and alkaline sizing opera - chemical composition tions can be recycled in the mill. - bulk density 5. Energy costs are reduced due to lower water, steam, Low oil absorption is of particular interest as this will and heat consumption. allow for higher loadings while providing otherwise 6. It provides for higher brightness and/or a reduction equivalent properties. in the use of TiO2 and optical brighteners. Coarse sized fillers of approximately 7.0 micron (44 7. It provides for higher strength paper by eliminating micron top) are used in flat (low sheen) paints. Even acid deterioration of the paper and by promotion of coarser grades, 10 mesh and down, are used in textural fibre hydration, resulting in easier processing and in paints and concrete block sealers. Semi-gloss and high creased yield. gloss paints use finer grades of fillers. For example, a typical high gloss alkyd paint will use a 3.0 micron or less 8. It provides for a more permanent paper which is less grade. Some high gloss paints use ultrafine fillers of 0.7 sensitive to ultraviolet light. micron average particle size (909o below 2 microns). Filler grade calcium carbonates have an average par These ultrafine fillers are extremely efficient extender ticle size of 1.5 to 2.0 microns. The amount of filler used pigments and have substantial dry hide characteristics on is dependent on the type of paper produced and whether their own. They have a lower oil absorption than cal it is coated or uncoated. Some types of paper such as cined kaolin and can substitute to approximately 209c for newsprint use no fillers. Uncoated paper for printing may the prime pigment, generally titanium dioxide (TiO2). have filler levels ranging from 59c to 159k. Coated papers Loadings for paints are typically up to 300 mg per litre for magazines usually have filler levels in the Wo to 99k for flat and semi-gloss paints and 100 mg per litre for range. glossy paints. Coating grade carbonates typically have particle sizes in the 0.6 micron to 0.8 micron range, with a top particle PAPER size of approximately 4 microns. High brightness (greater The use of calcium carbonate as a filler and coating ma than 92 GE) is required. Coatings, of both precipitated terial in paper manufacture is relatively new. Three de and natural carbonates as supplements to the kaolin in velopments opened up the market to natural ground cal the coating mixture, contribute to the whiteness of the cium carbonate: first, a decline in the availability of pre paper and improve the ink receptiveness and smooth cipitated calcium carbonate as the Solvay process for ness. Particle morphology can have a decided impact on production of soda ash was displaced by high quality the optical properties of the paper, with rhombohedral natural soda ash and trona. More recently, though, and scalenohedral particles exhibiting the best perform Pfizer, the largest precipitated calcium carbonate pro ance. ducer, has entered into arrangements to design, build and operate PCC plants at several paper companies. PUTTY, CAULKS, AND SEALANTS These plants utilize waste CO2 from the lime reburn kiln Calcium carbonate is widely used as a filler for putty, and other raw materials. They thus provide a ready and caulks, and sealants due to its low oil absorption, excel relatively inexpensive source of high quality filler mate lent availability, low cost, and whiteness. Calcium car rial. Second, the development of ultrafine wet grind bonates can be used at very high loadings (4096 to 509k technology to produce high solids carbonate slurry mate typical, up to 90*26 for putty) while maintaining good flow rials in the 0.6 micron to 0.8 micron size range; and and viscosity. Typical particle sizes are 2 to 3 microns for third, the switch from acid sizing using alum to neutral Grade I to Grade III products with up to 209k retained and alkaline sizing materials, thus permitting the use of on a 200 mesh screen. Sealants and caulking compounds calcium carbonate as the filler material. generally use the finer grades, while putty uses the Alkaline sizing offers a number of advantages over coarser Grade III material. acid sizing. Among these are: RUBBER 1. It permits the use of less expensive hardwood pulps, which are more affected by acid media than are soft Calcium carbonate fillers are used in soft rubber goods wood pulps. such as floor coverings and auto mats. Kaolin is the pri mary filler with calcium carbonate used as a supplement 2. It permits higher filler loadings than does acid sizing to reduce product cost. Calcium carbonate fillers may using kaolin as the filler. Loadings up to 209k higher also be used in wire and cable coatings, automotive are possible, thus reducing fibre cost. weather stripping, and some footwear applications. 3. It allows for reduced maintenance costs by the elimi Loading levels can be as high as 509k for some low per nation of corrosion causing acid constituents. formance rubber products. Grade II or Grade III prod-

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 79 ucts are used in low performance rubber products. Grade roofing, asphaltic sealers for driveways, and in automo I fillers, often with surface treated particles, are required tive undercoatings. Standards in Canada allow for load for wire and cable coatings. ings of up to 50*26 in roofing shingles while in the U.S., loadings up to 60^o in shingles are allowed. Coarse Grade CARPET BACKING III and Grade IV materials are used. The main require Carpet backing is the largest volume application for cal ments are controlled particle size, good flow properties, cium carbonate where it is used to provide body and and high bulk density. weight to the latex rubber, and can be loaded at levels up to 500 parts of filler per 100 parts of latex. Grade II and DOLOSTONE FILLERS Grade III products are used, with particle sizes ranging from less than 44 microns to grades as coarse as 109c Except for asphaltic products, dolostone fillers are not retained on a 200 mesh screen. used in North America. This is in contrast to Europe, where finely ground white dolomitic marble fillers are ex JOINTING COMPOUNDS tensively used in paints, plastics and other applications where high whiteness, low oil absorption, and low Coarse ground Grade II and Grade III calcium carbon abrasiveness are required. Possible reasons for the lack ate is used as a filler in drywall jointing compounds. of use of dolostone fillers in North America are: Typical sizes are QO-99% passing 325 mesh and coarser 200 mesh products. Loadings can be as high as 8096. - lack of detailed performance characteristics Critical characteristics of the formulated products are - ready availability of calcitic fillers colour and application behaviour such as non-sagging and non-cracking. - tradition - possible adverse chemical reaction with water to ASPHALTIC PRODUCTS form magnesium sulphate as a result of the reaction Calcium and magnesium carbonate fillers are used in of dolomite with sulphur dioxide to form sulphurous asphaltic roofing products such as shingles and rolled acid.

80 Limestone Industries of Ontario Building Stone

In recent years the building stone industry has undergone factor in the development of Ontario's limestone indus considerable development. The introduction of modern tries, has largely disappeared, although mill blocks of European cutting and polishing technology, the develop black Bobcaygeon Formation limestone are produced at ment of new fastening systems and favourable exchange the Cornwall Gravel Company Ltd. quarry at Cornwall rates have combined to make dimension stone an in (site CW-14 in the Cornwall District chapter, Volume creasingly attractive building material. While the empha II). sis has been on granite, the limestone industry has also Marble mill blocks were taken from several localities benefited from the renewed interest in building stone. in eastern Ontario in the 1960s, principally the Tatlock Building stone (also known as dimension stone) first and Sharbot Lake areas. Marble mill blocks are no became a significant industry in Ontario with the con longer produced, with most of the output being in the struction of the Welland and Rideau canals between form of pulverized stone for terrazzo chips and other 1824 and 1832. These major projects involved the ex uses from quarries in the Madoc area. However, Karnuk tensive quarrying of limestone blocks for dams, locks and Marble Industries Inc. in Cornwall does process im retaining walls. Many stone masons from Britain and ported mill blocks in a recently established, European- elsewhere were hired for this work, and a lot of them equipped plant and has conducted some exploratory settled permanently in Ontario where they encouraged work for the extraction of mill blocks. the continued use of stone in both commercial and resi The potential for building stone from Grenville mar dential construction as well as in major public works. ble in eastern Ontario has been discussed in Verschuren Early construction techniques relied on massive stone et al., (1985, p.24-34). foundations and thick stone walls for their load-bearing capability; hence, evenly-bedded Paleozoic limestones DEFINITIONS OF BUILDING STONE were most frequently used. Building stone is classified as either mill blocks or cut Parks' (1912) report on "Building and Ornamental stone. Mill blocks are large rectangular blocks of stone Stones of Canada" mentions 137 quarries actively pro measuring several metres on the side and weighing up to ducing building stone from Ontario's Paleozoic lime 40 tonnes, though typically 15 to 20 tonnes. Modern stones and dolostones and 19 building stone quarries in processing equipment and the economics of processing the Grenville marble of eastern Ontario. However, by generally demand that mill blocks be as large as possible 1912 some former building stone quarries had already to increase the overall recovery rate. For maximum switched to the production of crushed stone, as a matur quarry recovery mill blocks should be at least ing portland cement industry encouraged the increased 2 m x l m x 1.3 m and ideally 3 m x 1.3 m x 1.5 m. use of concrete and cement blocks. Goudge (1933) re Cut stone or finished stone is sawn from mill blocks ported only 14 active Ontario quarries in his report "Ca to specific size specifications. The cut stone panels may nadian Limestones for Building Purposes". In 1986 there range in thickness from 1.5 cm to 20 cm, depending on were 12 active limestone quarries producing building their use for exterior or interior requirements and the stone, but no marble quarries except those used for ter- type of sawing equipment used. Cut limestone is now razzo and landscaping chips, and white industrial fillers. most commonly employed for interior applications, al The principal limestone building stone producing ar though certain exterior uses are not uncommon. Cut eas of Ontario are the Bruce Peninsula area around stone may also be used for sills, lintels, steps, coping, etc. Wiarton and the Niagara Escarpment near Queenston Cut marble is employed for both interior and exterior and Thorold. Limestone mill blocks suitable for cut stone uses. A variety of surface finishes are available for cut were produced by Queenston Quarries at Queenston and stone; limestone is supplied with gang-sawn finish, chat by Niagara Cut Stone at a quarry near Thorold. Mill or shot-sawn finish, smooth machine finish, wet cobbed blocks are produced at various locations on the Bruce or hand finish, depending on the fineness of finish re Peninsula. The Adair Marble quarry (site O-l in the quired. Marble for interior use is generally polished, Owen Sound District chapter, Volume III) of Arriscraft while that for exterior uses has a sawn, rubbed, or honed Corporation produces mill blocks which are processed at finish. the company's plant at Cambridge (site CB-14 in the Building stones are defined under a variety of Cambridge District chapter). Thin-bedded limestone names, depending upon their use and finish. Rectangular suitable for the production of flagstone, copings, sills and blocks of stone up to 30 cm or more in length and ashlar coursing is quarried at a number of small facilities bounded by sawn, planed, or planar surfaces and used in near Wiarton and on Manitoulin Island. Building stone walls or building faces are termed "ashlar" or "coursing production in eastern Ontario, which had been a major ashlar". "Split-faced ashlar" has a natural rock face pro-

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 81 duced by splitting the rock by machine guillotine or other PROPERTIES OF BUILDING STONE methods along the line of fracture on both sides of the stone. "Rock-faced ashlar" has a natural rock face The physical properties of building stone are important in pitched by hand tooling. evaluating the quality of a building stone deposit. Some of the key considerations are: "Even-faced ashlar" uses blocks of equal height for - geological features such as character of jointing, bed each course, with the blocks of each course being equal ding, uniformity of colour and freedom from intru or unequal in length. "Random coursed ashlar" uses sion, shear zones, alteration zones and deleterious blocks of differing size and height. Both types of ashlar materials. are well represented in the limestone buildings of - chemical composition, especially as it may affect the Queen's University and the Royal Military College in weathering properties of the stone. Kingston. - petrographic examination to determine the minera Ashlar may also have a finish referred to as "pointed logical composition of the stone and its texture, grain face", "hammered face" and "pick face". The terms size, alteration and type and character of cementa correspond to the method used to develop a planar face. tion. Pointed ashlar is produced using a pointing chisel, ham - colour and uniformity of colour, especially over time. mered ashlar by the use of a hammer, and pick ashlar by - staining and efflorescence due to deleterious materi the use of a mason's pick. als such as pyrite and soluble salts. Ashlar may also have a sawn face and can be laid up - absorption and porosity of the rock, which influence with the bedding surface exposed. In this case it is the frost resistance of the rock. termed "strataface ashlar" or coursing. - durability and soundness, freeze-thaw resistance and abrasive hardness. Rubble is a term applied to irregular building stones up to about 30 cm in length. The stones are not regularly - compressive strength and transverse strength. rectangular and there is no even coursing. QUARRYING METHODS Flagstone consists of thin beds of stone 2 cm to 8 cm Geological features such as bedding, foliation, jointing, in thickness. "Regular" flagstone is rectangular in shape rift and grain are very important features to consider in with sawn or rock face edges. These are used for steps, planning a quarry operation. The thickness of the beds paths, patios, etc. "Random flagstone" is irregular in largely determines the thickness of mill blocks that can shape with rock faces and is commonly used for walks, be removed from sedimentary formations. Foliation is patios, etc. "Wall flagstone" is thin (0.5 cm to 2.5 cm) frequently present to some degree in marble. The direc natural random flagstone used for interior wall applica tion, dip, and frequency of joints is of primary impor tions. It is a variety of veneer. tance in quarry development of all stones. Spacing of vertical joints may govern the size of mill blocks which Veneer is made from thin slabs of stone from 1.5 cm can be removed and if vertical joints are spaced too to 8 cm in thickness and may be even shaped or irregu closely they may render the stone commercially useless lar. It is used as facing stone for buildings, walls, etc. The for building stone. The directions of easy breaking, rift slabs are set on edge and present their large face to the and grain, should be used in laying out the quarry plan. viewer. New technology for the manufacture of large limestone veneer faces is revitalizing this market. Thin (l There are four main quarrying methods used in Ontario cm to 2 cm thick) smooth-faced limestone veneers are building stone quarries: adhesively and/or mechanically bonded to pre-cast con 1. Hand quarrying crete panels at the stone dressing plant, and these panels are then placed in position at the building site. The result 2. Knox method is a very economic method of construction. An example 3. Channelling by drilling and broaching of this technology is the recently completed county court 4. Wire saw method house in Ottawa which is faced with "Adair Marble", a dolostone produced by Arriscraft Corporation in the HAND QUARRYING Wiarton area. Nearly all the small building stone quarries in Ontario, Other uses of building slone are for copings, steps, which produce ashlar, flagstone, sills, coping, steps, etc., sills, hearths, mantles, chimney caps, riprap and armour are operated by hand quarrying methods. Hand quarry stone, and monumental stone. Granite is the most com ing is employed where the bedding planes are relatively mon stone used today for monumental stone; limestone closely spaced, usually from 5 cm to 25 cm apart. Equip is rarely used, and marble only occasionally. ment consists of air compressor, drills, crowbars, wedges,

82 Limestone Industries of Ontario chisels, plugs and feathers and in some instances port rock between the holes by a broaching tool. Two to four able stone saws using diamond blades. drills are mounted on each quarry bar and clamped to drill at the required angle. The drills can then be moved The quarries of the Wiarton area quarrying the thin along the bar to drill a series of parallel holes. The chan Eramosa Member beds of the Amabel Formation employ nelling is usually carried out on the four vertical sides of portable diamond saws to cut the stone in place in the the block. If necessary horizontal holes can be drilled to quarry. The diamond saws have blades of 30 cm to 45 break out the block at the base. Mill blocks are handled cm in diameter and cuts are made as desired across a by a derrick. quarrying width of 4 to 5 m. The stone is lifted by bars and fork lift trucks. WIRE SAW METHOD KNOX METHOD The wire saw was formerly used to quarry marble at the The Knox method of quarrying was employed at Tatlock quarry of Omega Tile and Terrazzo Ltd. Sawing Queenston Quarries (site NI-4 in the Niagara District was done by a three-strand steel wire 5 to 6 mm in di chapter, Volume III). The building stone occurs in a ameter, using sand or carborundum as the abrasive. ledge 3 to 5 m thick with beds 0.3 to 2 m thick. When a Modern wire saws use a diamond wire. Wire saws are sufficient area had been stripped of the overlying rock, also used in stone dressing plants for cutting stone. the beds were examined for vertical joints which may oc Recent technological advances in drilling methods in cur 3 to 15 m apart. The Knox method requires three clude the use of jet cutting and water assisted jet cutting free faces and a bedding plane on the bottom. The free torches and the use of multiple circular saws. Quarrying quarry face is established at right angles to the jointing by methods for building stone, however, will largely con removal of a key block from one joint to the other. The tinue to rely on a considerable amount of hand labour in block to be quarried is then bounded by the free quarry order to minimize breakage of the mill blocks. face on one side and by the two joints at either end, or by one joint and an open end where the adjacent block has been removed. Quarry blocks are split off parallel to STONE DRESSING the free face by making a back-wall cut parallel to the free face at a distance of 3 to 3.5 m from the face. A In many of the small limestone quarries the stone is series of 3.5 cm holes are drilled, 3.5 to 4 m deep, on dressed by hand cutting, using hammers and chisels for 0.6 m centres in a line parallel to the quarry face at the cutting and shaping the stone. In several quarries split required distance from the face. Jackhammers or Joy faced ashlar is made by splitting the stone by guillotine, a wagon drills were used for drilling. The line of holes was hydraulic cutting machine whose cutting edge consists of from 3 to 15 m long depending on the joint spacing. a series of 2.5 cm teeth which will accommodate them selves to irregularities in the stone. Portable diamond The drill holes are reamed by a Knox bit which saws are used in some limestone quarries for cutting grooves the hole on each side in the direction along stone to desired sizes. which the break is to be made. The holes are loaded lightly with black powder and fired with caps. An air Mill blocks are cut by gang saws using either steel space is left in each hole between the charge and the blades with silica sand as the abrasive or diamond set tamping to allow the force of the explosion to be exerted saws. Diamond saws are considerably faster. Modern on a relatively side surface. Where there are horizontal gang saws may have up to 120 blades and can be oper bedding planes in the block to be quarried, a charge is ated in either the horizontal or vertical direction in a placed for each bed. fully automatic mode. The quarry block is separated from the solid ledge by Stone cutting is also carried out by circular diamond the blast and then drilled and split by plug and feather saws and by wire saws. Planing machines are employed into random mill blocks. Horizontal holes may be drilled for giving the stone a smooth finish, making special to lift the beds where necessary. Blocks are handled by shapes and mouldings. Polishing of marble is done on derricks. rubbing and polishing beds. Modern surfacing and pol ishing equipment consists of multiple-head (up to 8) grinders and polishers. This equipment is often fully CHANNELLING BY DRILLING AND automated and allows for the assembly line production of BROACHING stone pieces. The method of channelling and broaching using quarry For detailed information on a modern processing bars was formerly employed in some limestone quarries plant, refer to the description of the Karnuk Marble In in Ontario. The method involves cutting out the block by dustries Inc. plant (site CW-28) in the Cornwall District closely spaced drill holes and breaking out the web of chapter, Volume II.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 83 Pulverized Stone and Stone Chips

INTRODUCTION bisulphite solution necessary in the production of sul phite wood pulp. The solution is made by bubbling sul A relatively small but specialized market has persisted in phur dioxide gas through water towers packed with high- Ontario for many years for distinctly coloured marble purity lump limestone or dolostone. and limestone chips and, particularly, for white marble chips. Markets for these products include terrazzo, land Although whiteness is desirable, chemical purity is scaping and gardening, exposed aggregate in precast con more important. If limestone is used, the lime content crete panels, in sulphite pulp production, agricultural should exceed 53 percent, the magnesia content should limestone, stucco, cultured marble, tile grout, poultry be less than 1.5 percent, combined silica, alumina and grit, animal feed additives, and sand traps for golf iron should be less than 1.5 percent, and organic matter courses. less than 0.5 percent. If dolostone is used, the calcium carbonate content should be 54-59 percent, magnesium White Grenville marble of high chemical purity, carbonate 35-44 percent, iron and alumina not more either calcitic or dolomitic, is preferred for most uses. than l percent, and total insolubles not more than 2 per Terrazzo chips, however, are required in a variety of cent (Hewitt, 1960, p. 16). colours and are also derived from certain coloured Pa leozoic limestones. LANDSCAPING AND GARDENING White marble chips are enjoying a strong demand for TERRAZZO CHIPS decorative purposes in various gardening and landscaping Marble and limestone chips in various sizes and colours uses, such as for surface dressing on driveways and gar are used as coarse aggregates in floors and window sills, den paths, and as accent features in planters and gar particularly in offices and institutional buildings. The dens. At the retail level they are sold either in plastic chips are bonded by a fine-grained neutral or coloured bags or in bulk at most plant and garden nurseries. cementing matrix, and are generally cast in place. After Specifications are not critical. The stone can be hardening, the exposed surface is ground and polished either calcitic or dolomitic and not necessarily of high by portable electric equipment. The industry is repre chemical purity as long as it is durable and of uniform sented in Canada by The Terrazzo, Tile and Marble As whiteness. Coarse-grained marbles, although sometimes sociation of Canada with offices in Toronto. more friable, may be preferred because of the lustre on cleavage faces. Coloured impurities either as dissemi The physical properties of a number of terrazzo ag nated dark minerals, off-colour chips, or as foreign rock gregates from the Madoc area of Eastern Ontario have fragments should be minimal. Preferred chip size is been favourably compared with imported ones by Hewitt -l 1/4 in. +3M in. and to a lesser extent -3/4 in. +3/S (1964). Colour should be uniform, texture should be in. A superior product is produced by washing away any fine-grained and massive, absorption should be low, and fines adhering to the chips after crushing and screening. abrasive hardness should be sufficient to withstand what ever wear is anticipated. While siliceous minerals im POULTRY GRIT prove the abrasive hardness of a marble, they are unde sirable because of the difficulty of getting a uniform pol A substantial market exists for poultry grit, and sand for ish over the entire chip plus the increased polishing costs. tropical fish tanks, etc. Calcitic marble has generally been preferred, but dolomitic material and other less sol WHITE MARBLE CHIPS uble rocks are sometimes used. At least three grit sizes are in demand: -3/16 in. +1/8 in., -6 mesh -1-12 mesh Except for finely-ground white calcitic marble, which en and -12 mesh +40 mesh. joys a substantial market in a variety of industrial filler applications, coarser marble products have a limited STUCCO, CULTURED MARBLE, TILE GROUT market in a variety of uses. Although good whiteness is For these markets, both calcitic and dolomitic marbles generally essential, coarser marble products can be either are suitable. Whiteness and freedom from specking is es calcitic or dolomitic in composition. Some of the princi sential. Products are generally required to be ground to pal uses are outlined as follows. about 200 mesh.

PULP AND PAPER EXPOSED PRECAST AGGREGATE Blocks with diameters in the range of 20 cm to 35 cm, White marble chips with similar specifications to garden either calcitic or dolomitic in composition, are used in ing and landscaping stone are used in precast concrete the Jensen tower system for making the sulphurous acid- panels in the construction of institutional buildings. The

84 Limestone Industries of Ontario chips are normally only lightly imbedded in the concrete the chips should be free from discolouring impurities so that their exposed surfaces give an aesthetically pleas- such as iron and sulphide minerals which might stain the ing exterior wall surface. surface through subsequent weathering. In addition to the specifications previously detailed,

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 85 References Cited

Boynlon, R.S. Lea, F.M. 1980: Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, 2nd 1970: The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete; 3rd edition, Ed ed., John Wiley Si Sons, Inc., N.Y., 578p. ward Arnold, London. Goudge, M.F. Parks, W.A. 1933: Canadian Limestones for Building Purposes; Department of 1912: Report on the Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, Mines, Mines Branch, Publication No. 733, 196p. Vol. 1; Canada Mines Branch, Report No. 100, 376p. Power, T. Guillet, G.R. 1985: Limestone Specifications: Limiting Constraints on the 1969: Marl in Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Industrial Market; Industrial Minerals, Oct. 1985, p. 65. Mineral Report 28, 127 p., 7 tables, 2 figures, incl. Map 2183. Rogers, C.A. 1983: Search for Skid Resistant Aggregates in Ontario; in Pro Guillet, G.R. and Kriens, J. ceedings of the 19th Forum on the Geology of Industrial 1984: Ontario and the Mineral Filler Industry; Ontario Ministry Minerals, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral Background Pa 114, 216p. per 5, 175p. Schwarzkopf, F. Hewitt, D.F. 1981: Lime Burning Technology; 2nd edition, Kennedy Van Saun 1960: The Limestone Industries of Ontario; Ontario Department Corp., Danville, Pa., of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report No. 5, 177p. Verschuren, C.P., van Haaften, S., and Kingston, P.W. 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Part III, Marble; Ontario De 1985: Building Stones of Eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological partment of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 16, 89p. Survey, Open File Report 5556, 116p.

86 Limestone Industries of Ontario Part 4 — Production, Economics and Markets for Limestone Commodities

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 87 Limestone Aggregates

DEMAND Construction and related uses account for the majority of crushed limestone demand, generally over 909fe of the total. Reliable data on the distribution of demand within Road Metal (28 07o construction-related end uses are difficult to obtain. Asphalt (6 07o) Data derived from analysis of production reports to the Concrete Agg. (8 07o] Railroad Ballast Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources indicate that sig (3 0Xo) nificant shifts in the volume and value of production do Miscellaneous (1 07o) occur. These shifts are principally due to the effects of the business cycle on construction activity. The data Other (54 07o) showing end use demand in recent years are provided in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 and show the following: 1980 Ontario crushed stone production has remained rela 25,072,413 tonnes tively stable from 1980 to 1985, but with significant declines during the 1982-1983 recession; - The distribution of stone demand by end use has Asphalt (10 07o) also remained relatively constant, except for the in Concrete Agg. fluence of the business cycle. During the 1982-1983 Road Metal (41 07o) period the percentage of stone consumed in road-re a Miscellaneous (4 07o) lated end uses increased significantly. Other end uses declined during this period. This shift in end use consumption patterns reflects the steady demand for road building aggregates, versus the more vulnerable Other (31 07o) demand for other uses such as non- residential con Railroad Ballast (3 07o struction. 1983 20,554,586 tonnes On a regional basis there is some difference between Eastern and Central Ontario in terms of the demand for crushed limestone. Figure 4.3 illustrates 1985 demand Asphalt (11 07o) patterns for stone. As can be seen, asphalt and concrete Road Metal (27 07o) aggregate are more important products in Eastern On Concrete Agg. (11 07o) tario than in Central Ontario. However, these differences may be accounted for by reporting errors and incomplete Miscellaneous (2 07o) data. Overall, regional differences in end use distribution Railroad Ballast patterns are believed to be slight. (2 07o)

Approximately SQVo of the road building aggregate Other (48 07o) used in Ontario is crushed stone, the balance being gravel and crushed gravel. Most of the crushed aggregate 1985 25,164,779 tonnes is consumed as Granular A, asphaltic hot mix and con crete aggregate material. Very little crushed limestone in Ontario is used as sub-base. In recent years there has been an increase in the use of crushed limestone in place of sand and gravel for road building aggregate. This re Figure 4.1. ONTARIO STONE PRODUCTION BY USE. sults from cost and availability problems associated with Data source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of sand and gravel production in certain parts of the Prov Northern Development and Mines, 1981-1986 and Canadian ince as well as substitution of HL4 crushed limestone in Minerals Yearbook, 1986. place of HL3 crushed gravel for certain heavy traffic and Kingsville. Imports are almost exclusively by vessel highway applications. from the large quarries in Michigan operated by the steel Imports and exports of crushed limestone vary con companies and the Standard Aggregates Inc. Mantoulin siderably from year to year. The major importing centres Island quarry. Imports of crushed limestone have aver are in southwestern Ontario, principally Sarnia, Windsor aged 590,000 tonnes per year, but have fluctuated from

88 Limestone Industries of Ontario Asphalt 1,694 Road Metal (29 07o) Concrete Agg. 1,277 Asphalt (6 07o) Road Metal 4,739

Railroad Ballast Concrete Agg. (8 0Xo) Miscellaneous 1,814 (2*,) Miscellaneous (2 0Xo) Railroad Ballast 204 Other (54 07o) Other 8,163

1980 Central and Southwestern Regions (X1000 tonnes) 368,644,003

Asphalt 1,110 Asphalt (12 07o)

Road Metal (44 07o) Concrete Agg. (11 07o) Road Metal 1,911 p^Concrete Agg. 1,418

Miscellaneous (3 07o) Miscellaneous 74

Railroad Ballast 249 Other 3,921 l l li/ Other (27 07o) Railroad Ballast (2 07o) 1983 Eastern and Northern Ontario Regions (X1000 tonnes) 368,516,643

Asphalt (12 07o) Road Metal (27 07o) Concrete Agg. (12 07o) Figure 4.3. 1985 STONE PRODUCTION BY USE. Source: derived from Ontario Mineral Score data. Miscellaneous (3 07o) Railroad Ballast (2 07o) quarry has been successful in penetrating the US market for metallurgical stone. Data on imports and exports of Other (45 07o) crushed limestone are provided in Table 4.1.

1985 Data on total Canadian and US demand for crushed 3101,420,897 limestone are provided in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5. As can be seen, the distribution by end use is approximately the same in both countries. Demand for crushed limestone for all uses is ex pected to increase in line with road building and con Figure 4.2. VALUE OF ONTARIO STONE PRODUC TION BY USE. Data source: "Ontario Mineral Score", On struction activity. A simple linear regression model of de tario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, 1981-1986 mand is provided in Figure 4.6. This forecast predicts and Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 1986. crushed limestone production will increase from the 1985 level of approximately 45 million tonnes to a level of approximately 65 million tonnes in 1996. This repre a low of 451,000 tonnes to a high of 717,000 tonnes sents an average annual increase of S.4%. Figure 4.7 during the 1982-1985 period. provides a similar forecast for sand and gravel produc Exports of crushed limestone and dolostone have tion. As can be seen, most of the increase in crushed been from only two centres - Port Colborne Quarries stone production is attributable to the decline in sand Ltd. in Pt. Colborne, and Standard Aggregates Inc. on and gravel production. Forecasts of limestone demand Manitoulin Island. Most of the stone has been exported for chemical and metallurgical uses indicate relatively lit for construction related uses, although the Manitoulin tle change. Thus, one can conclude that the increased

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 89 Table 4.1. TRANS-BORDER MOVEMENTS OF STONE FROM ONTARIO.

(tonnes) 1982 1983 1984 1985 Agg. Chem/Met. Agg. Chem/Met. Agg. Chem/Met. Agg. Chem/Met.

Cdn.-US ports 26 ,308 203,157 518,028 299, 198 333,558 163, 400 821,775 357,831 US-Cdn. ports 451 .059 893,917 683,068 946, 150 512,544 1,127, 329 717,271 1,052,579 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986

production of crushed limestone will be primarily attrib - Forecasts of aggregate demand in the Toronto, Lon utable to the increased demand for construction- related don, Windsor and Sarnia areas (Peat, Marwick and aggregate. More detailed forecasts of the demand for Partners and M.M. Dillon Ltd. 1980) predicted de construction aggregates have been prepared in conjunc mand for crushed stone would exceed then currently tion with assessments of the supply of aggregate materi licensed reserves in the early 1990s (London area) als. These forecasts have been prepared on a provincial and approximately 2000 (Toronto area). Supply in and on a regional basis. the Windsor and Sarnia areas was already deficient. - Proctor and Redfern Ltd. and Gartner Lee Associ All of the studies indicated that supplies of crushed ates Ltd. prepared several studies of aggregate supply stone would have to be obtained from more distant and demand in the 1970s for various Ontario re sources at considerably increased costs or that new quar gions. These studies indicated that supplies of ries would have to be licensed within the regions under crushed stone from currently licensed quarries would study if transportation costs were to be minimized. be exhausted shortly after the year 2000 in many re gions of the Province.

25 t\2 0A) 21 r. 22 " 160 20 07o 20 m s33 0/ 140

120 5 0/ 15 1 0 Production (million tonnes) 100 Production 80 10 (million tons) T& 60

90/0 50/0 50/0 PI 7 07o 40 r?™ F7^ 3 "/o ffxx 2(yo 3 0Xo 3 07o 20 2^o

PH lil HI n li 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 8 1. Coarse Agg. (*1.5in.) 6. Agricultural 1. Metallurgical and 4. Asphalt Aggregate 2. Coarse Agg. Graded 7. Cement and Lime. Refractory Stone 5. Concrete Aggregate 2. Chemical Stone 6. Road Metal 3. Fine Agg. (-0.375 in.) 8. Chemical and Met 3. Pulverized Stone 7. Other Uses 4. Road Base allurgical Stone 5. Other Coarse and Fine 9. Other Uses. Agg. 1983 Production Total: 54,302,000 tonnes 1985 Production Total: 719,124,480 Tons

Figure 4.4. CANADIAN LIMESTONE AND MARBLE Figure 4.5. US LIMESTONE, DOLOSTONE AND PRODUCTION. Source: Canadian Minerals Yearbook, MARBLE PRODUCTION. Source: US Bureau of Mines 1986. Minerals Yearbook, 1985.

90 Limestone Industries of Ontario 100 -i which are available only at very high prices should not be considered to be part of the current supply base. Several studies of the supply of aggregate materials have pointed 80 - out that aggregate shortages can be expected to develop around the year 2000 in most regions of the Province due to exhaustion of currently licensed reserves. In re Projection sponse to these concerns, the Government of Ontario 60 - has implemented new land use planning guidelines de tonnes signed to protect aggregate sources from incompatible (million) uses which would prevent future utilization. The Mineral 40 H Aggregate Resources Policy Statement is designed to bal ance the need for aggregate against other land uses within the local planning framework.

20 - Possible new sources of supply of coarse limestone aggregate include Manitoulin Island and some of the quarries operated by the current cement producers such as St. Lawrence Cement Inc. at Colborne and Lake On 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 tario Cement Ltd. at Picton. The General Chemical Can Year ada Ltd. quarry at Amherstburg is also a possible major source of aggregate. To some extent, these sources have Figure 4.6. ONTARIO STONE PRODUCTION FORE been developed. For example, Standard Aggregates' CAST, SHOWING ACTUAL DATA, PROJECTION Manitoulin quarry has displaced a considerable volume AND 95-70 LIMITS. of imported stone in the Sarnia- Windsor market area. These new sources, however, will not meet requirements of all products due to either chemical or physical limita 100 l tions of the stone or high delivered costs.

80 - Upper PRODUCTION COSTS

Projection 60 - Production costs for crushed limestone are shown in Figure 4.8. In 1985 total costs of production averaged tonnes S2.367tonne. Of this cost, 40*26 was accounted for by (million) items such as explosives, spare parts, etc. Energy, princi 40 H pally diesel fuel and electricity, accounted for 149c of costs, while direct and indirect labour accounted for 3 Wo of costs. During the 1980-1985 period the fastest rising 20 - costs have been for energy and direct labour. Other costs have not changed significantly.

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 On a regional basis one can note differences in pro Year duction costs. These are shown in Figure 4.9. The differ ences are believed to originate with the differences in the Figure 4.7. ONTARIO SAND AND GRAVEL PRO relative size of quarry operations in Eastern and North DUCTION FORECAST, SHOWING ACTUAL DATA, ern Ontario versus those in Central and Southwestern PROJECTION AND 959fc LIMITS. Ontario; the average size of operation being considerably larger in the Central and Southwest regions. In terms of the distribution of costs there are relatively few differ ences between the regions except for labour, with East AGGREGATE SUPPLY ern and Northern Ontario having a significantly higher labour cost per tonne. On an overall basis the Eastern Aggregate supply must be considered in terms of the and Northern region had a production cost of S2.46 per quality of the available material, the quantity of the avail tonne, versus a cost of S2.32 per tonne for the Central able material, and the costs of the material. Aggregates and Southwest region.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 91 PRICES There are no standard prices for crushed limestone. In Indirect Labour Cost 0.117 Direct Labour Cost 0.609 addition to supply and demand factors, prices are deter mined regionally, or even locally, by production and Exec./Admin. Cost transportation costs, by the degree of processing required 0.259 for a particular end use and by the quantity of material Total Taxes 0.101 required for a particular project. Transportation costs are Energy Cost particularly significant as the choice between two com 0.330 peting sources of supply is based on the delivered price Input Supplies Cost of the stone. 0.942 Ontario 1985 Some guidance as to prices can be obtained from (Dollars per tonne) reference to Statistics Canada data which shows the fol lowing for Canadian limestone prices in 1983: End Use 1983 Price/Tonne Artificial Stone S38.00 Roofing granules 9.87 Figure 4.8. COSTS OF STONE PRODUCTION, ONT Poultry grit 19.12 ARIO 1985. Derived from "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Stucco dash 28.00 Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, 1986. Rubble & riprap 5.00 Concrete aggregate 3.79 Asphalt aggregate 4.02 Road metal 3.56 Railroad ballast 3.54 Other uses 3.33 Average value, all uses including chemical Indirect Labour Cost Direct Labour Cost 0.582 0.100 Si metallurgical 4.02

Exec./Admin. Cost As can be seen, the lower volume, more highly processed 0.259 materials attract prices considerably in excess of those Total Taxes 0.114 for other materials. Prices are expected to increase in line with production costs and the costs for quarry reha Energy Cost 0.334 Input Supplies Cost bilitation and taxes. 0.926 TRANSPORTATION COSTS 1985 Central and Southwestern Regions (Dollars per tonne) Transportation costs are a significant factor in determin ing the delivered price of stone and the markets available to a particular producer. Where access to cheap and effi Direct Labour Cost 0.764 cient transportation is available, crushed stone can be Indirect Labour Cost 0.235 delivered to sites several thousand kilometres distant at prices competitive with nearby sources. A good example Exec./Admin. Cost of this occurs in the Strait of Canso area in Nova Scotia, 0.259 Total Taxes 0.069 where the local producer has been able to ship stone to points as far as Houston, Texas and to the Caribbean Energy Cost 0.310 due to ready access to deep water shipping facilities. In Input Supplies Cost 1.007 Ontario, aggregate is moved by truck, ship and rail. Truck is by far the most important mode. The Aggregate 1985 Eastern and Northern Ontario Regions Producers Association of Ontario estimates that over 2.5 (Dollars per tonne) million deliveries to Metro Toronto were made by truck in 1986. Water-borne movements of stone are relatively minor at present but are expected to increase in signifi cance during the next decade. Rail transport of stone is Figure 4.9. COSTS OF STONE PRODUCTION BY RE rapidly declining in importance. It represents less than GION - 1985. Derived from "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario 59k of the total tonnage movement. Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, 1986. Trucking is expected to remain the dominant trans portation mode. It offers the greatest flexibility to both

92 Limestone Industries of Ontario producer and consumer in terms of frequency of delivery large investment in terminal facilities at either end to be and average load size. It also requires the least amount economic. Very few aggregate producers generate the re of fixed investment for loading and unloading facilities quired volumes to justify the expense. In addition, the and the least amount of double handling of the stone. stone must generally be moved by truck to its final desti For most quarry operators, trucking is the only possible nation. The extra handling adds considerably to the de transportation method. Representative truck operating livered cost of the stone. costs as of mid-19 8 6 for typical Ontario bulk operators are shown in Table 4.2. It is readily seen that transporta tion charges can rapidly exceed the FOB cost of the TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS stone. In general, it is difficult for a quarry operator to be successful in selling to markets beyond a radius of 100 Technological developments affecting the demand for km from his plant. aggregate include the following: Shipping costs by water are considerably below those - Increased recycling of asphaltic hot mix. Currently about 9^o of asphalt is recycled. This is expected to for trucking. For example, typical 1985 costs for shipping increase in the coming decade and to reduce the de 20,000 tonne loads from Manitoulin Island to various mand for Granular A and HL3 and HL4 material. Ontario ports, depending on the line used, were: - Development of longer lasting asphaltic mixes using Sarnia S2.73 - S3.35 per tonne new additives such as sulphur, rubber, and other Windsor S2.99 - 54.10 per tonne compounds. These mixtures are currently only in the test stage but show promise in substantially increasing Sault Ste. Marie S2.63 - S4.50 per tonne the life of pavement. Nanticoke S3.99 - S6.00 per tonne - Increased use of aggregate substitutes such as blast furnace slag and nickel slag. These materials are cur These rates are for self-unloading vessels delivering rently being used as aggregate in road building, as full loads; partial loads and drop-offs adding consider concrete aggregate and as railroad ballast. It is ex ably to the freight charges. Water-borne movement of pected supply will not increase and may even de stone is generally not practical from the upper lakes to crease due to a long-term reduction in blast furnace Lake Ontario ports due to the tolls on the Welland Canal iron production and nickel production. and the extra transit time. Nevertheless, should trucking rates continue to escalate, and should the availability of - Increased use of high alkali cements. This could cre nearby aggregate sources diminish, movement of stone ate problems due to excessive sulphate expansion of from locations such as Manitoulin Island to southern On concretes using alkali reactive aggregates. Many On tario aggregates are not suitable for use in high alkali tario ports must be considered a real possibility. cements and significant shortages of suitable aggre Rail shipping, while cheaper than trucking, is very gates could result if higher alkali cements came into inflexible. It requires very large volumes of stone and a common use.

Table 4.2. ONTARIO BULK TRUCK OPERATING COSTS, (MID-1986).

Type of Typical Annual Cost/km Cost/Tonne, km truck payload distance Paved Gravel Paved Gravel (km) roads roads roads roads 5-axle semi 22.6 l 80,000 SI. 422 SI. 662 SO. 0629 SO. 0735 trailer 160,000 SI. 201 SI. 441 SO. 0531 SO. 0638 240,000 SI. 128 SI. 368 SO. 0499 SO. 0605 7-axle semi 42.9 t 80,000 SI. 655 SI. 895 SO. 0386 SO. 0442 trailer with pup 160,000 SI. 378 SI. 621 SO. 0321 SO. 0378 240,000 SI. 284 SI. 527 SO. 0299 SO. 0356 Source: "Operating costs of trucks in Canada", Transport Canada, 1986.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 93 Cement

Ontario has five companies operating a total of seven the producers as the cheapest route to expansion and portland cement manufacturing plants with a total in increases in cement plant operating rates. This is espe stalled capacity of 6.257 million tonnes of clinker. In ad cially true in the case of expansion into the US market. dition, two slag cement manufacturing plants are oper Each of the major Ontario cement producers has signifi ated in the province. cant operations in the US which receive clinker and/or finished cement from Ontario plants. The Ontario portland cement industry is character ized by a high degree of both vertical and horizontal inte Ontario's cement industry produced 4,043,742 gration. Vertical integration refers to the ownership of tonnes in 1985 and 4,843,000 tonnes in 1986. The value aggregate, cement, ready-mix, concrete products, and of production was 5265 million in 1985 and S329 million construction companies within one corporate organiza in 1986. The industry directly employed 1,060 persons tion. Horizontal integration refers to the merging of one in 1985, and an unknown number of persons in associ cement company with another. Horizontal and vertical ated industries such as ready-mix and concrete products integration usually have the effect of increasing econo manufacture, and haulage. mies of scale and thus reducing unit costs and increasing The Ontario cement operations are listed in marketing and financing efficiencies. Vertical and hori Table 4.3. Significant characteristics of each of these zontal integration may also have the effect of reducing companies are briefly noted in the following section. competition and thus limiting price variations between competitors. ONTARIO CEMENT PRODUCERS Vertical and horizontal integration in the cement in Lafarge Canada Inc. operates two cement plants in On dustry has been prompted by the very high capital cost of tario, at Bath and Woodstock. The Bath plant has a sin new plant construction, high financing costs, the slow gle dry process kiln with a capacity for 943,000 tonnes of growth of the market, and the relatively low level of ca clinker. The Woodstock plant has two wet process kilns pacity utilization. Growth by acquisition is thus seen by with a total clinker capacity of 505,000 tonnes. Both

Table 4.3. ONTARIO CEMENT PRODUCERS, 1987.

Capacity

Plant Process & No. of Clinker Grinding Company Location Fuel type kilns ('000 tpy)

Portland Cement Producers Lafarge Canada Bath Dry, Coal, Oil, Gas l 943 1,000 preheater Woodstock Wet, Coal, Gas 505 535 Federal White Woodstock Dry, Oil 100 100 Cement Lake Ontario Picton Dry, Dry 1,419 744 Cement with preheater, Coal, Oil, Gas St. Lawrence Clarkson 2 Wet, Dry 1,700 2,400 Cement with preheater, Coal, Oil, Gas St. Marys Bowmanville Wet, Coal 2 600 790 Cement St. Marys Dry, Coal l 700 800 preheater, Wet, Coal, Oil 2* 290 Slag Cement Producers Reiss Lime Spragge 200 Standard Slag Fruitland 200 Cement Co. *0n standby, not normally used. Source: Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 1986, company contact.

94 Limestone Industries of Ontario plants obtain stone from quarries on site, the other raw ment chemicals (Euclid Chemical Canada). The com materials being purchased. pany operates cement manufacturing and grinding plants in New York and Michigan in the United States. Lafarge Canada is the largest cement company in Canada and the only company with cement production St. Marys Cement Company is a privately held, Ca facilities in all regions of the country. Through its US nadian-controlled company and operates two cement operations, General Portland Cement, Lafarge Canada is plants in Ontario. The Bowmanville wet process plant has the largest cement producer in North America. In On two kilns with a total annual clinker capacity of 600,000 tario, Lafarge Canada is integrated vertically through the tonnes, while the St. Marys operation has a newly con ownership of Standard Industries Limited (aggregates, structed (1981) single-kiln dry process plant and a two- ready-mix, concrete blocks), Permanent Concrete kiln wet process plant. The latter plant is on stand-by (ready-mix, pre-cast concrete products, concrete and does not generally operate. Total annual capacity for blocks), Canfarge Limited (construction), and Richvale the St. Marys plants is 1,590,000 tonnes. Stone for the Block and Ready-Mix and McCord Co. (concrete block, plants is obtained from quarries on site. At the time of ready-mix). The company is also involved in the rein printing the company had announced an expansion of forcing and structural steel business through its owner the Bowmanville plant. o ship of Francon Limited. St. Marys Cement is vertically integrated through its Lafarge Canada was formed as a result of the merger ownership of Canada Building Materials (ready-mix, of the Canada Cement Company Ltd. and Lafarge concrete products), Pre-Con Company (pre- stressed Coppee S.A., a large French cement producer. The ma and pre-cast concrete products and construction), Do jority ownership of Lafarge Canada is held by Lafarge minion Building Materials (ready-mix), Hancock Sand Coppee. SL Gravel (aggregates), and Hutton Transport Ltd. (bulk cement transportation). The company also owns cement St. Lawrence Cement Inc. operates the largest ce grinding plants in the United States. ment plant in Canada at Clarkson (Mississauga), On tario, with a total clinker capacity of 1.7 million tonnes Federal White Cement Limited, a privately owned from three kilns (two wet process and one dry process). company, operates a white portland cement plant at Stone for the kilns is brought by boat from a quarry at Woodstock adjacent to the Lafarge Canada plant. The Ogden Point, approximately 160 km east of Clarkson on Federal White Cement plant was designed and con the north shore of Lake Ontario. structed with the assistance of Lafarge Canada and has a kiln capacity of 100,000 tonnes per year. Stone for the St. Lawrence Cement is vertically integrated through plant is purchased from the Lafarge Canada quarry at its ownership of Dufferin Aggregates (aggregates), Duf Woodstock, or the nearby quarries of BeachviLime Ltd. ferin Construction (construction), Dufferin Concrete Products (concrete blocks, ready-mix, pre-cast and Reiss Lime Ltd. has recently started up a slag cement pre-stressed concrete products), Boehmers Concrete plant at Spragge, Ontario on the north shore of Lake (ready-mix), Custom Concrete (ready- mix, aggregates, Huron, with a capacity of 200,000 tonnes. Production is concrete products), and Peninsula Ready-Mix & Sup mainly used in backfill for the mines in Sudbury. Raw plies (ready- mix, concrete products), and other opera material for the plant is obtained from Algoma Steel in tions in the United States. The company is controlled by Sault Ste. Marie where the slag is crushed to minus the Swiss-based Holderbank Financiere group. 25mm. Reiss Lime Ltd. is 50*?k owned by Reiss Lime Inc. of the United States and 5096 by Denison Mines Ltd. of Lake Ontario Cement Ltd. operates a plant and Toronto. quarry at Picton on Lake Ontario. The plant has a clinker capacity of 1.419 million tonnes from 4 dry proc Standard Slag Cement Co., a joint venture of ess kilns, although only two generally operate. The two Lafarge Canada, Koppers Co., and Steetley Industries operating kilns have a rated capacity of 4,000 tonnes per Ltd., produces slag cement, slag aggregate, and ex day. The controlling interest in the company has recently panded slag in Fruitland, near Hamilton from steel slag. been purchased by Societe des Ciments Francais of The capacity of the plant is approximately 200,000 France, that country's second largest cement producer. tonnes per year of slag cement. Lake Ontario Cement is broadly diversified with in ONTARIO CEMENT PRODUCTION terests in aggregate production (United Aggregates Ltd. and Maitland Concrete), ready-mix concrete and con Ontario is the centre of cement production in Can crete block production (Premier Concrete, Primeau ada, accounting for 409& of clinker production capacity Argo, KVN Concrete, and Maitland Concrete), concrete and 409& of cement production. The province is geo products (Bestpipe, Duracon, Utility Vault, Soil Protec graphically situated to take advantage of the nearby US tion Systems), construction (KVN Construction), and ce market. Trends in the production of cement in Ontario

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 95 are illustrated in Figure 4.10. 1986 production totalled 6,257,000 tonnes, while grinding capacity is approxi 4,843,000 tonnes with a value of 5329 million or 570.66 mately 6,270,000 tonnes. These data should be com per tonne. From 1950 through 1986, cement production pared to 1985 and 1986 production of 4,043,742 tonnes in Ontario increased at an average annual rate of 4.2796, and 4,843,000 tonnes respectively, indicating operating and the value of that production increased at an average rates of 64.696 and 77.496 for 1985 and 1986. Operating annual rate of 8.7996. In constant 1986 dollars, however, rate data for Canada indicate that cement plant capacity the value of cement production increased at a rate of utilization has ranged from a high of 8396 in 1977 to a only 4.0196 during the 1950 - 1986 period. The price low of 4696 in 1983, and was 5796 in 1985. By way of received per tonne of production has declined slightly contrast, US finished cement plant operating rates in from 1950 through 1986 in terms of constant 1971 dol 1985 and 1986 were 73.096 and 76.096 respectively. lars from 523.70 in 1950 to 520.64 in 1986. Some of Clinker production capacity ^utilization was 7796 in 1985 these trends are illustrated in Figure 4.11, and 8596 in 1986. Operating rates for both finished ce Exports represent a significant proportion of Ontario ment production and clinker production have consis cement production, mostly destined for the US opera tently been above operating rates in Canada and Ontario tions of the Ontario cement companies. Each of the On for the past decade. Little change in this relationship is tario portland cement producers (except for Federal expected during the next several years. White Cement) has clinker grinding and/or cement ter minal facilities in the United States. In almost all cases CEMENT DEMAND these facilities are readily accessible by water transport from Ontario. Demand for cement is a function of construction activity. Cement is used in all forms of construction but is a more Canadian and specifically Ontario cement producers prominent building material in commercial and engineer have historically operated at low levels of capacity utiliza ing construction work. Table 4.4 illustrates construction tion. The 1960s and early 1970s were periods of rapid activity in Ontario and the relative importance of the expansion in Ontario cement production capacity, as was various types of construction activity. Figure 4.12 plots the late 1970s as the economy experienced rapid growth. cement production (5 value) as a percentage of construc Current Ontario clinker capacity is approximately tion materials costs. As can be seen, cement represents

80

70-

60-

50- Dollars tonnes per (millions) tonne 40

30^

XXX- 20

10

74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 O Year 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 lil Exports Domestic Year •H Current Dollars X 1971 Dollars

Figure 4.10. ONTARIO CEMENT, DOMESTIC AND Figure 4.11. ONTARIO CEMENT, COST PER TONNE EXPORT PRODUCTION. Derived from data "Ontario IN 1971 AND CURRENT DOLLARS. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Development Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and and Mines, 1987, and Statistics Canada, 1986. Mines, 1986.

96 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 4.4. ONTARIO CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY, 1980-1986. (Smillion) Type of construction 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Residential 4,229.8 4,998.8 4,475.3 5,875.4 6,313.5 7,463.2 8,775.9 Industrial 1,146.9 1,380.3 1,031.1 921.9 1,175.3 1,602.4 1,790.3 Commercial 1,682.6 1,865.3 2,166.6 2,102.6 2,612.6 3,151.4 3,546.5 Institutional 447.8 524.0 655.7 716.3 789.8 840.5 902.5 Other building 458.1 583.5 568.4 498.1 518.8 515.5 568.7 Engineering 4,042.3 4,836.5 5,510.6 4,856.5 5,359.6 5,378.9 5,394.4 Total 12,007.5 14,188.4 14,407.7 14,970.8 16,769.6 18,951.9 20,978.3 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986

between and 496 of the total cost of construction ma Data on US demand patterns by end-use for cement terials. is provided in Table 4.6. It is seen that ready-mix and Data on cement demand by type of construction ac concrete products manufacturers are by far the largest tivity is very difficult to obtain, though the results of some users of cement. Similar end-use patterns are believed to research conducted by the Canadian Portland Cement prevail for Canada and for Ontario cement consumption. Association are shown in Table 4.5. Assuming these data A forecast of cement production is provided in to be correct, the estimated distribution of cement ship Figure 4.14, based on a simple linear regression model ments in Canada and Ontario in 1985 and 1986 is as and should be regarded as indicative only. The forecast shown in Figure 4.13. predicts Ontario cement production will decrease to ap proximately 3,250,000 tonnes by 1995, but could range

900

800 2(50/0 700

600

o/'o 500 1fl tonnes (thousand) 400

300 11 0Xo 1 D90 7' !w 200 y0 4 0/ j 100 2 "/o

O fm m 11 li 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Dams and Irrigation 7, Waterworks and Sewage Railway, Telephone 8, Gas and Oil Facilities and Telecommunications 9, Institutional Marine 10, Other Engineering 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Electric Power 11 - Industrial Roads and Highways 12. Commercial Year Other Building 13. Residential 1986 Total Usage: 2,683,000 tonnes Figure 4.12. ONTARIO CEMENT, SALES AS Vo OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL COSTS. Source: "Ontario Figure 4.13. USE OF CEMENT IN ONTARIO, BY Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Development TYPE OF STRUCTURE. Source: derived from Canadian and Mines, 1986 and Statistics Canada, 1986. Portland Cement Association and Statistics Canada data.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 97 Tt o r~ I-H co t-- co CN *o cs r- I-H NO io Tt I-H t-~ ON o oo io ON OO i-H CO O OO CNOSlOCOONTt T-HIOCN i-lT-H OO IN CO i-H T-H VO IO Tt T—! lo r- •0 o i-i O CN CN C4 So\ O ON VOOCO VOIO O T-H T-H Tt T-I n Tt T-I T-H T— 1 CS T-" ri NO CO 1-H 1-H 1-H

fO r- o oo vo r~ T-H cs co cNOcoiococN r- oo Tt r-i co vo Tt OO T-H CN T-H O OO o ON •o T-ior^ooiONocOTtvovo oo Tt 10 ONlOVOTtONTt T-HlOCO T-I ri OOTtTtOO*OTt O T-H Tt ON I-H VO OO ON ON T-H CS CS ON oo oo NOl-ICO lOTt ONT-Hl-HTtl-H T-I Tt T-l 1—1 T— 1 •o co" I-H I-H

M Tt CO r-Tt^r-T-oo escott*,- ooioooN-Ttco 10 i-H rH CO I-H vo ON CN •0 cor^T-ivooocsvocovoio oo ON Tt T-H Tt r~ OO f- CO TtoOCO I-H ON Tt cN O IO ON Tt CN T-H Tt O 1-H 10 oo CS O CO T-H CN CN o\ ON F- CNVOCO C-~ VO O T-I T-I Tt T-I n Tt CN T— 1 CN T-H

*O CO 1-H ,-H

T-I oo O CN o vo Tt o\ io ON co lo oo r~ vo o r- oo r~ ON io Tt 10 i-H CN O oo ON ri IO ONONT-HOOCNCOIOOONOVO oo *0 00 oo VO r* Tt T-H CO 1-H T-H 1-H ON r- CN OCOT-ITt T-HO COCN T-H IO CO Tt 0* n CS I-H •H r- irT (S T-I T-H 1-H T-I

O IN o ON cs r- Tt oo oo ON oo co r^ Tt t~- oo oo ON Tt N co T-I OO T-H CO OO CS CO oo Tt r~T-iiooNtNcocOT-Hr~vo oo NO OO Tt Tt IO ON O Tt lOOOCO 1-HT-H OOl-ICOOTtlO CO T-H O CO cs f^ r~ •O CO CO T-H CO i-H 1-H ON ON Tt T-HCOl-HTtT-l T-HO Tt CS 1-1 IO CO 1-H •O CN T-I CS T-H ri r-" lo" CN n n n

O OO O C3 NO CN cO ON CO NO CO OO vo CO *O IO ON T-H vo C*~ CO CO T-1 CN Tt IO (S r- 10 10 0 ?I CN O OO CO T-H CO T-I CS n ri N™' ON T-H Tt O OOC~-CNC-T-I ONOO Tt CN T-HTtCO *o cs T^ tN T-H 00 VO CN i--" ~ U C C o — oo OO 00 c^ co oo co i— ii—i r* co I-H c^ r~ *o I-H T-H T—i Tt NO vo CN r- I-H co r^ lo 10 CO ON •o vocooNOONNovoo\r-r- I-H VO CN CO f^ CO Tt CO "O NOCNT-HT-H T-H r^ CO CN ON CO OO t- 1-H T-H 1-H OO CO c*~ CO T-H (S ^H CO I— 1 ON CO ON CN o (N r-- T-H r~ r-- T-I T-I TtcN T-I *o cs T— 1 CN T-H

oo oo CO (N T-H

^ CN CO CN CO CO i— i O F- TtcOfNcOIOCN CN F- oo IO F~ i— i F- 00-ON CO Tt 01 cs ^ CN co 10 ON Tt co r- oo ^ -o f"*. oo vo COVOOCOOCO OOCOtNT-l i-H CO Tt T-H Tt Tt ON IO o\ CN Tt 1-H Os r**- ON oo CN Tt ON CN CO i—i t^ CN vo T— i vovo ON T— i COi—i Tt C4 T-I OO vo Tt T-H

NO T-I O OOOTtOOIOVO NO F~ CS Tt OO O OO T-H Tt Tt F~ O *O Tt T-, tN 00 t- ^ ^ Tt o C*~ ON Tt 1— 1 C~- 1-H 1-H rH ON Tt O OONCNVOT-H r~vo co T-I TtcN CN •O CO cs oo vo CO i— 1 i— l

in VO ON TtOr^lOOcO lOfNTtcOCOTt CNCST-HOOOO(NTt t- -H 0 CO 00 ,., 00 CO ^ NO Tt O ON Tt CM ON (N T-I Q ON 10 1-H t~-oOCNvo ONOO *O T-H i-HTtCN CO vo CO n CO 'H Z oo \o ri T-T i-T U Tt NO ON (NcOr~ONoio ooocsr-ONio ocooNT-HtsooTt oo CN CN Tt T-1 OO Tt 00 •o cOOlOTtONCOTtcNOvo z r- 1-H f^ 1-HCOIOOC-~Tt CNTtCOT-H rH IOOO OOl-HTtON OO T-H C^ ON IO NO r^ co co r*** i— i oJ T-H T-H T— 1 ON o t- TtCNCNOO T-lO CO T-H T-HTtCN vo CO CS n T-I h ON NO CO CS" i-H i-H ri Z

ti 2 u o b. H .0 0 ' g CO c '^ in w to 00 4? o 00 .J 0^2 v?o) 'Z*c ^2 ~-O D c * 9 V 2 to to o Si ?-v s o -0 ^ Jp H ^ O ^ f? 'c, ~ G 3 B 2. j - o o 9 JS ^ t-. *ti ea O -i 2 Z at •a 2. ~z o 3, to -^ 0 -S 2 nn ^ ^ 2 ^ v 5 "™" ^ Kf\ *~* ^~ *H CO *— o d) fi G ^ v . '"^ ^ t3 2o ^o^'5-o-H^o-fl 8g w-. '3o, PS wS; to- ^*c. S S O to j^ .75 to p, Constr,TotalBuilding 0 G . f) v ~ ^ 00 w f-i W Z* -J5 TotaInstitutional- SeeducationalSchools 1bid)Otherinstitutional 1SirepairMaintenance W ^:j3 rt 0 E c jj APPARE4.5Table TotalConstruction 1SireligioustChurches Typeofstructure ^^•11* ^ilf 1 ^ : S K | 4' —C^X 3cy|3g|g.a , S2 -2 fco O oyo "o iir.-ii^iiri^sia^ ^ a^ S * w- s .a ^ c pll'iiiiipi 1P:-SS g S 1 CO ^ 2 H ^ S .g 3 o "~. g lsil|.fi Ililii sf-iiss 00 III 'S. Sill-Si "SsSll 3sl55lo 98 Limestone Industries of Ontario oo ,-, Tf oo n Ol VO •O n NO O4 TT Tf f- O ON t- n V) vo Tt n Tt CO ON O04" ri 04 n Tf 04

fi cOOvovocOTfOOlOl 04 oo ON CO f- n n O4 •O lo n vo n •0 IO NO O n t— ri *O ON O* ri Tt CO CN ON 01 Tt rH

04 niOcOr-iOOOOOl *O oo CO IO IO lo r- 04 04 r~ o4 NO r^ O* OO OO n CO ON O4 OO ri CO OO IO n n O4 oo io lo oo n n cO IO •O n vo n o o f- O4 Tt or- n Tt CO n O\ Ol 04 n i—i

i—i OO fOvoooooONOOoOcO O Tt Tt O ON NO O- 04 CO OO n ON Ol O4 ON O4 Tt vo ON n Tt CO 00 p^ CO oo n ON ON i— i C— n n r- ON CO ON ON, Tt Tt Ol ^5 ri Tt 01 n ON Tf n 04 n IO Ol n n 04"

O Ol O~ O CO CO IO oo n O O CO n ol *0 OO ON n lo CO oo oo CO O ri ON ri ON 00 O OO n f- O4 Tt Tt n 04 Tt Ol ri ON ri CO Ol •0 n 01 n n n rH 01

O OO cOolC^ooiOTfOTfol VO oo CO oo O vo n CO O O\ CO C"^ ON n vo CO n Tt n n lo 04 10 r- vo oi r- co o ^ Ol O4 C-- ri n IO O4 n ON ri NO oo n n co O- 04 Tt VO CO O4 Tt 04 n ^"^ ON Tt i—1 CO O4 NO n CO n n i—i w *"( O O4 C oC ** 00 0 C^vonoOOONOOcO Tt co r~ NO oi io Tt "O ON O Ol OO O NO CO n d ON VO O4 CO CO IO Tt oi oi r- co f^ CO 04 NO n n n n OO CO n n n O OO Ol Tt CO n VO Ol Tf Tt CO 04 Tt 01 ri 2 Tf CO 04 n CO n n n

r* 0 io r- o CO O4 10 t^ vo CO O4 n f- IO n lo Ol Tt •O ON Ol CO O4 f- 01 n vo n n r*-. NO n oo n •O IO ON CO vo IO n Tt O4 O n CO n n ON CO 3 04

NO NO O ON NO f- *O OO CO r- Tt n ON Ol O4 ON CO 10 oo vo oi r- co r* CO ri Tf ri CO n in n Ol ON Ol ON r- O 04 t- NO n Tt Tt Ol Tf 04 n ON 1- n CO 01 vo n n n Ol

in O- Tf n o r- o co CO lonoo^io O n Tt OO CO IO OO •O OO NO 04 n n O4 n CO Tt 10 vo 04 IO CO r- T-H ^* OO ^^ 0^ ^ IO Ol n OO O4 Ol vo ON ON IO r^ oi Tt •O O4 Ol Tt Ol ri ON T ^ CO Ol vo CO 01

0- CSno400^riON04 01 CO CO CO oo IO ON ON CO vo vo vo ON oo CO CO ol n vo O4 r~ O4 Tt OO vo O4 OO CO t-- co OO Ol ri n n NO CO n f~ CO O "0 O ON CO vo CO CO n 00 n Tf 04 n ON ^1 ri ri CO O4 NO n CO 1™H

2 2 0 — 03 CO o o H h H 1 O 1 VI H 1 E x i a

^ C Watermains,hydrantsSiservici MarineconstructionTola- Docks,piers,breakwaters,etc. 3 Highway,Siroadstreetconstr. Runways,landingfields,tarmac WaterworksStsystesewage Sewagedisposalplantssystems Waterpumpingstations,plants Railway,telephone,telegra TotalEngineeringConstruction i. Drainageditches,stormsewers IrrigationSilandreel,projects Electricconstructionpower Electricgeneratingplantspower Retainingwalls,embankments DamsStirrigationTotal- Electrictransformerstations TelephoneSitelegraphlines Table4.5.CONTINUED. Othermarineconstruction PowerSidistr.trans.lines RailwaySitracksroadbeds DredgingSipiledriving CanalsSiwaterways MaintenanceSirepair MaintenanceSirepair MaintenanceSirepair MaintenanceSirepair MaintenanceSirepair SignalsSiinterlockers MaintenanceSirepair Typeofstructure Dykeconstruction SidewalksSipaths Watertanksstorage DamsSireservoirs Loggingbooms Streetlighting Parkinglots

OS

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 99 Tt CM CO IO O CN n O ON CN CO ^H OO ^^ CO ONS CN NO n t—i c,

n oo NO n ON O CO NO CO Tt oo •O (S n lo ON Tt n ON CO Tt CN n CO ri Tt ON CO CO

M VO (S COCNTtnOnniOONOO oo NO CN n lo oo lo CN O "O CN CO CN n Tt ON 10 CN n NO n CO r-l

r-l CO CO oo ON CN ON lo CN CN NO n CO

0 CN CN CN CN lo n oo CN CN t-~ oo CO ri n c^- lo n cN n NO CN CN ON ^ CN C^ CN CO

O g ON t^ Tt O O CN n t^- Tt OO n r^ CN ON n Tt CN Tt CO n O oo r- o r-- ON n n O n CN n O CO CN CO n n CN NO —' ON CN CS t~- CN CO CO *~l

C C O ** oo IO ON OOCNCOC^COCNTtONrl CO ON n n NO co r~- ON o r- f1** CO ri IO CN n n O f- CO CO n NO ri O ON CN r~ cs CN ri r^

t- n ON CN n OO lo CO CN CO n O ON lo n d n ri

NO f^ ON n ON CN CN n n lo IO CN ON n lo ON 1-1 00 CN (N n c -2

V) t~ cs cs Tt n r-. 01 n O O CO ri n lo n NO E ON oo CO CN n ft! "^ ex.

-Ci

TT VO Tt vor-TtcNONOTtr-ONOO n ON Tt CN ON O\ NO IO n NO s; r- CN CN CN CS OO O* ri CO O n CS IO ri ON 2i ON CN NO CN CN fc r-4 c "3 o a o O H 0 i i C w .2 c "3 en 3 ™ C O 'c c t: o Q o Z 2 U H 3 .2 C v* s: D 0 'S "^ rf\ '— ' —— S* 00 ^ i/i ft —•2 tn C -S o v landscapsystems, imingpools,tenni; signs,guardraies, engineeringconsir ^ o 0 ci J "g g. engineeringsrc trestles,jes,overp; CanadianPortce: 4.5.CONTINle Selelssubways krepairitenance ofstructuree 10 Cfl Cfl J2 0 CJ 1-

tow 4^00.^ S ^ 2"rt C lerators shafts:

.S* -S* o 2 a. .2- ** G rt S w J3 a 10 cc*" ®* "^'"S.S .C "O e -5 id C J™ y " •~ CO 3 ^ O h h ocS cScSsJgJsSll O ffi H B. j2 co 2 it 6 2 CO 100 Limestone Industries of Ontario M M O\O)OOO\ON*OONr1Oir--OlnOOVOOOONOON o- io co o) o 01 VO OO lo 01 n ol "3 M - vot--voONVOO\oOOvoOoOO)oOlOnvoiooo OO "O rf oo O ON ON vo n CO OO vo cOOlOlCOr^vocOnncOOlr^nvovovoioiO O) ON r- 10 r- n •O oo Ol 10 O- ON o Si lOrfi-irinolOlvo 2o cOrfricOnrfolO^OlOlcOcOOl ncOoln lo r-ON ,. H

IO*O 1 nnoOoOvorfriOONOOONOOlvovo CO O) vo CO rf oo r- o ON ri IO n t* 00 w i fe^ O ri ri O O ri ri O ri ri ri VO OO ri O) n ri O n n O n O m ~ tn 0) n n O 01 O s a) 3 T3 3 ^^ 0 cj O 3 M W - H OCO 1 OnvOrfcOOQlOO)O'OrfvOONOl |O Ol OO oo IO n o- oo OO rf CO 10 n e•* C" 1r O1VO CO nrfcO OlCOO~rfo)no^rfol O) *0 0) rf n ri VO rf w ri ri P i C3 -- O II U C 7 1 1 IO)ln| |rlrlrflor-|rf| |i-l ON rf | | | ri 01 o) ON 1 CO Ol b U 4) 0 J) jj s r-I d ddddd d d r-I O O d d d do a tt i ^ o ** 0 0 JjO M - •vdBU .2 4) C C o i" T3 n x-v IOir-1 lOlcOrfONrflvoi.-iol OO Ol 1 1 1 Ol r- r- 01 1 0- 0-) H, rf n ^. n ON 01 10 O h 2 c o oo S? 01 a tt CA ea oo ea i—i Q "C

Z M n l oo ON ^ b 0 0 ^ C00c0010nnoll00lc0o)rfn001001 00 0) VO CO n o 01 10 10 10 n tx Z u ^ . ea c 3 i. a M M - ex 2 .C C io o- n 1 ON oo E o OlcOrfo^ OOcOlOnlOOONOn r^O^ON C^SSS^S^ r- oo n On o o O o 11 CO vo o b ri ri rf oo O -S rfONf-nloOOlONrfOlOOrfoonOncO rf rf CO n CO n h tn 0 O o) CO ri VO 1 "oS L. J lOOlOOlvOlOlOrfn^lollOlOOt^vOrlON 0- 10 0 ON ON 0) n O O O rf "0 5 03 y ^ ? L. tn •H on M . r- 01 o) co r- i o 00 C C 0 a^SPr^r^SoioSoiSwr^c^o^oiSr? oi 0? ^ rf K r? oo Q O n nolnn nnnol Oln CO O) ri ri n VO a 2S CO" ;* 5 u i—i 0 ga •o OlOvo^cOcOcSrfOcOOr-COOMOVOONrf CO^O^nr-rf rf vo 0- CO n r- i/T (U -c 00 ONCoiooovoo4ooo\iooovor-oio\vooooN n 10 0) CO t- vo r- co O vo O rf ON x ^ E u 5 Z ^ d C-01cOlOrfr-.rfC-rfol01ncOO-COCOvocO r- o T3 S w? 0 *0 10 vo 0 VO o) o) o o 1/3 o C 0 ^H o\ ^D O\ ^" oo ol ^" C*- *-O CO oO c*^ ^f NO *™H vi ^5 i-H ^f OO Vi C*4 *^ O vo io o io co o a c lOvoO-cOfN*00-voOJvooirfolcOONOOr-n t- 01 0 n CO rf vO Qi n rf ON rf ex H 4) 2o OlOlOlcOnn O1O) O) S Z 05 u 10 w s rfnOvVOOlOlONVOOMOOt-rfcOOlCOCOrf 00 rf .0 ON VO n 10 ON o io o) vo 00 o x fr- s; i lOlOvot~-lOCOCOONlOr--O)rfONrfoOOlOrf r^ ON r— o vo vo n 01 rf n 01 rf 3 io T" 4) no)nrinrin olnnn nn n n ri ri •5 hM ** a! O oo 4) o (2 ^^^ c Ol ON W 3 M * O •rt '* w - O w c; J* C 4) C g ONOlrfONOONOlO)'—IVOIOIOOOQIOO-VOO O OO O CO CO rf oo CO O 0) n rf ~ O Z Q ** CO ^* ior- -ONr-nooovooooNrfooiONr-coo- n vo CO r- n vo ON oo CO IO f- rf *^ K C , ^ rt C 3 SS lOQriloolvocOoliOcOcOlOO) Olcon rf rf ri n * — i CO CM oo r- K: o 5; i} - Ol "X3 v^ ON i E s C ^ r O N*J u S" OlOOOOllOOIrfrir-VOOOOCOCOCOOOlOO CO rf io o 'o io •^ J^" u ^ ON vo 0 ON n vo vOoOoOlOO--cOlOcOC--O!COoovOrHcOOlO)cO IO 10 CO 0) 01 CO VO vo VO Ol IO OO Q 00 rf •-,C s g c ^-Q Z ."i w o ^ oj oj O < "B2 tn -(A J o * C g rf 0 0) VO 10 ON CO ON rf CO CO t— h c -o4* O)r-OlC--cOrfolvovolOO)OlcO lOOVOrf a 2S Ol CO CM ri n n i— i i—i rfcon M CO 01 n rf CO rf 1 1? X ri O rf ^ vi ^ O •Q ^ ^ CU s: •^ .^ 2 "t^S "^!S t/3 '5 '3, o W -s: •a .s- "0 3 c," C -ng -Q *W ^ < "^ tn 2 S h — CO 00 ri 2 w to — ^3 C -^ o .li tt) g 5 ^ 'to tt) ^ ^ c0 1 * ^-0 0 Q ci o tt j: 1 S 1 j 8 f 1 S 1 o H 'M ^•^(0.2 4to3g 2 g t5 " -5s - nl" - 4) importedlentan U.S.Bureauce: Z g c g ^ c -a 'ornia,northern 'ornia,southern o •3 " ** * ^a oo 2 ~ g w P o O 0) ^i o .t: tu (C . rt . -H •^ S *O T3"3 ^O Tt a > Q * K NO o CC- rt C fig -^ Cd 6 rt 8 5 ^ a rf *f^ Ci Cd *rj C^ ^cd (rt^Orf aiC ^ TJ O^^C rt eS CijU C^Q 'C G ~ c 5 5 •Qtu C ^ — •jg 0051, o ^ Q S ^ ,O O ^O hj j D rt ii tn t) Q ^) t^) -3 ea tt) tt) O ^~^ ^-* .2003 C h Q llllllllllilllllli U U X U, H o- V^

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 101 5.0 - from a high level of approximately 4,400,000 tonnes to a Upper low level of approximately 2,400,000 tonnes by that date. In all cases though, cement production capacity will significantly exceed the forecast demand level. Estimates 4.0 - of US cement demand in the year 2000 range from a low of 85 million tons to a high of 115 million tons, with 100 Projection million tons being the most probable demand level. The 3.0 1 data are provided in Table 4.7. These data should be tonnes Actual compared to total US demand for cement of 91.8 million (million) tons in 1986 and US clinker production capacity of ap Lower 2.0 H proximately 90.0 million tons. It is obvious that imports will continue to fulfill a significant proportion of US ce ment demand for the foreseeable future. 1.0 - Factors which could have an impact on cement de mand, exclusive of variations in construction activity, in clude the following: 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 Year — A change in commercial construction to the use of reinforced and pre-cast concrete in place of struc tural steel. Much of the construction activity in Figure 4.14. ONTARIO CEMENT PRODUCTION southern Ontario is now of reinforced and pre-cast FORECAST, DATA, PROJECTION AND 957o LIMITS. concrete. There has been a decided shift away from structural steel construction for many large office buildings. An example is the new Scotia Plaza tower in Toronto, a 68 storey reinforced concrete building. This building would have been constructed of struc tural steel if built 20 years ago.

Table 4.7. PROJECTIONS AND FORECASTS FOR US CEMENT DEMAND BY END USE-2000. 2000 Contingency forecast for US Statistical Forecast range End use 1983 projections 1 Low High Probable (Million short tons)

Ready-mixed concrete 47 72 60 80 70 Concrete product manufacturers 8 14* 11 15 14 Highway contractors 4 O* l l l Building material dealers 5 4* 4 5 4 Other 10 14* 9 14 11 Total 74 85 115 100 1 Statistical projections, provided by the Branch of Economic Analysis, are derived from regres sion analyses based on historical time series data and forecasts of economic indicators such as GNP, and FRB index. A statistical projection of zero indicates that demand will vanish at or before the year 2000, based on the historical relationship. Projection equations with a coeffi cient of determination (R-squared) less than 0.70 are indicated by an asterisk (*). Source: US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Cement.

102 Limestone Industries of Ontario - Increased use of large reinforced pre-cast, pre- - Lower production costs than U.S plants, especially stressed structures for engineering construction for for energy and labour. US plants tend to be older bridges, highways, buildings, etc. and less efficient than Ontario cement plants. This is - Increased use of concrete products such as pipe and especially true for the plants bordering the US side blocks and development of new cement products of the Great Lakes. such as cement bricks. Cement bricks now have 2596 - A high degree of market integration. Much of On of the Ontario brick market, and are increasing rap tario's cement exports are destined for captive con idly in market share. sumption in the US. Major facilities operated in the - Increased use of cement in highway construction. At US by Ontario based cement producers are listed in present, cement is not used to any extent as the pri Table 4.9. mary road surface in Canada. This is in contrast to - Low cost water transport of clinker and cement. Ca the US, where cement is much more frequently em nadian ships are generally cheaper to operate than ployed in highway construction and repair. US ships. Specialized ships are employed on either an owned or long- term charter basis. This provides CEMENT TRADE Ontario producers a significant degree of control over transportation costs. Cement is a low cost bulk commodity and tradition ally has not traded more than about 500 km from a pro Canadian and Ontario imports of clinker, cement, ducer's plant if land transportation is required. Ontario is and concrete products primarily relate to cements not in a unique position with regard to cement trade in that produced in Canada. For example, there is no domestic the Great Lakes offer the possibility of low cost shipment manufacture of aluminous cement and limited domestic to almost all of the major markets in Ontario, and to a manufacture of refractory cements and mortars. Imports large part of the US market. of clinker are restricted to coastal regions such as the Maritimes where low ocean freight rates allow offshore Data on Canadian imports and exports of cement material to be competitive with domestic cement. The and concrete basic products are provided in Table 4.8. principal sources of imported clinker are Spain, Belgium, As can be seen, Canada is a large net exporter of and Venezuela, though the quantities imported from clinker, finished cement, and concrete products. The these countries are limited at present. United States is by far the largest customer for Canadian cement, accounting for approximately 989o to 99^o of ex The United States is now the world's largest importer ports in any given year. Contributing factors to the export of cement and clinker. Imports of cement into the US success of Canadian and Ontario cement producers are have increased rapidly in recent years, accounting for 49c the following: of US cement demand in 1982 and 199& of demand in

Table 4.8. CANADIAN CEMENT AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS TRADE. (S '000) Imports 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Clinker 30 1,963 92 2 4 2,975 Cement 8,959 32,508 14,451 16,132 16,801 16,138 White cement 603 475 694 458 547 396 Aluminum cement 2,795 2,844 926 1,173 2,005 1,999 Other cements 6,289 19,286 4,856 2,835 2,438 5,431 Cement Si concrete 2,701 3,045 2,801 4,001 4,000 4,181 basic products Total 21,377 57,561 23,820 24,601 25,795 31,120 Exports Cement 65,066 68,687 79,523 74,707 105,912 128,356 Prestressed concrete 12,393 13,605 19,051 10,976 13,131 26,100 structural products Cement cfc other 40,005 35,588 31,973 46,378 59,686 55,976 concrete basic products Total 117,464 117,880 130,547 132,061 178,729 210,432 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 103 1986. The rapid rise in imports is attributable to the fol Canada has supplied approximately 409k of US ce lowing: ment imports in the recent past. Imports from other - A strategic decision by some US producers to utilize countries such as Spain, Mexico, and Japan have been low cost imported clinker in place of high cost increasing rapidly, and the Canadian share of the market clinker produced in their own kilns. has declined accordingly. The Canadian share of the US import market stood at 52^o in 1983 and 239o in 1985. - A rapid expansion in the degree of foreign ownership However, within the area accessible by Great Lakes ves of the US cement industry, and a shift to the use of sels, US imports from Canada have increased. clinker from parent company kilns in Europe. For Table 4.10 illustrates recent patterns in US imports of eign ownership now accounts for approximately 41*26 cement and clinker. of US cement production capacity. A general lack of investment in plant modernizations The outlook for US cement and clinker imports is and expansions, resulting in higher cost domestic fa for a continuation of recent patterns. Imports are ex cilities. pected to increase in concert with US cement demand and the closure of high cost domestic production facili - A significant expansion in cement production facili ties. The recent passage of the revised U.S Surface ties in low cost countries such as Spain and Mexico. Transportation Assistance Act (Highway Act) should do Producers in these countries are seeking markets for much to stimulate demand for cement. Major US inter their product, and the United States represents the most remunerative market. state highways and bridges are in need of significant re pair in the next few years. The revised act eliminates the Buy America provisions which precluded the use of for eign cement in highway construction. Thus there are now no significant tariff and non- tariff barriers to the use of Table 4.9. US CEMENT FACILITIES OWNED BY imported cement in the US. ONTARIO-BASED CEMENT COMPANIES. CEMENT PRICES Lake Ontario Cement Recent prices for cement are illustrated in Table 4.11. Rochester Portland Cement cement terminals at Rochester and Rome, N.Y. It is seen that the average price for cement in On tario has been consistently below the average price for Aetna Cement Corp. clinker grinding and cement terminal at Essexville, Michigan Canada as a whole. The lower price for Ontario is be lieved to reflect a combination of the more competitive Universal Concrete Products nature of the Ontario market and a greater reliance on concrete pipe and products manufacturing operations in Penn standard Type I and II cements rather than the premium sylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, N. Carolina, S. Caro lina priced specialty cements. St. Marys Cement Price data for the various types of cement are not readily available for Canada or for Ontario. Price data St. Marys Wyandotte Cement Inc. clinker grinding and cement terminal at Wyandotte, Michigan for the US is given in Table 4.12. St. Marys Wisconsin Cement Inc. US prices for cement have been consistently above clinker grinding plant at Milwaukee, Wisconsin and distribu those in Ontario, the price differential sufficient to have tion terminals at Green Bay, Wisconsin and Waukegan, Illi attracted Ontario cement producers to the US market. A nois detailed analysis of cement prices in the US market area St. Lawrence Cement bordering the Great Lakes is provided in Table 4.13, the Independent Cement Corp. data indicating the marked geographic differences in ce cement plants at Catskill, N.Y. and Hagerstown, Md. ment prices. The data also indicate that Ontario cement prices are quite similar to prices in the region accessible Distribution terminals in Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, by water transport. Despite the similarity in prices On Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island tario cement producers are attracted to the US market for several reasons. Among these are: Lafarge Canada - The US market offers an opportunity to sell addi Owns General Portland Cement, second largest cement producer in tional volume at what is essentially variable cost. US, with operations throughout US. Without this additional volume most of the Ontario Huron Cement Corp. cement industry would be significantly less profitable. Source: Company reports. - The business cycles in Ontario and the US region bordering the Great Lakes have often been different.

104 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 4.10. US IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT AND CLINKER, BY COUNTRY.

(Thousand short tons and thousand dollars) 1983 1984 1985

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

Country Customs C. i. f. Customs C. i. f. Customs C. i. f.

Canada 2,201 86,198 92,851 2,945 116,815 128,920 3,393 181,117 145,005 Colombia 68 8,845 4,169 227 5,138 6,927 662 16,430 20,244 France 158 6,435 7,507 225 7,044 9,180 552 13,866 18,319 Greece - - - - 511 9,760 12,202 Japan (2) 100 118 183 5,287 7,595 1,184 28,786 37,105 Korea, Republic of 69 3,228 4,144 882 10,046 12,129 484 26,194 29,738 Mexico 826 30,844 33,539 2,003 64,574 74,877 2,502 75,755 87,839 Spain 787 28,883 29,303 1,760 49,584 61,218 3,383 80,448 103,353 Venezuela 60 1,705 2,138 1,022 25,281 32,224 1,569 38,282 50,320 Other 154 5,751 7,756 149 10,498 10,412 298 16,791 20,148 Total 4,268 161,439 181,525 8,846 294,207 343,482 3 14,487 437,429 523,773 ^Cost, insurance and freight. 2Less than 112 unit. 3Data do not add to total shown because of independent rounding. Source: Bureau of the Census, US Department of Commerce.

US IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION OF CLINKER, BY COUNTRY.

1983 1985

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

Country Customs C. i. f. 1 Customs C. i. f. Customs C. i. f.

Canada 446 14,786 16,534 485 16,947 19,406 746 22,156 25,763 France 152 6,389 7,489 225 7,491 9,180 414 9,434 11,789 Greece ------407 7,900 9,390 Japan - - - 69 2,927 2,698 291 6,897 7,840 Mexico 192 6,899 7,373 477 11,608 13,077 581 14,671 16,387 Spain 214 5,559 6,437 528 11,885 14,860 1,656 31,877 39,917 Venezuela - - - 294 5,623 7,484 290 5,570 7,022 Other - - - *141 *3,319 *3,985 248 5,062 6,305 Total2 1,006 33,688 37,784 2,215 59,801 70,635 4,683 103,067 124,418 * Revised *Cost, insurance and freight. 2Data may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding. Source: Bureau of the Census, US Department of Commerce. US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Cement, 1985.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 105 Table 4.11. CEMENT PRICES. (S/tonne) 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Canada S77.00 S77.63 S79.83 n/a n/a Ontario S54.15 561.52 S66.32 S62.89 S65.55 US (SUS/ton) S52.46 S51.43 S50.45 S52.24 S51.87 US (SCdn/tonne) S69.35 S69.97 S68.55 S74.58 S78.10

Such differences have allowed Ontario producers to Table 4.12. US CEMENT PRICES BY CEMENT TYPE. offset declines in one market with advances in the other. (SUS/tonne) - The US region bordering the Great Lakes is one of Cement Type 1984 1985 declining domestic clinker capacity. Prices are ex Types I and II S55.82 S55.35 pected to increase at a more rapid rate in the region Type III 60.02 60.10 than in Ontario. Type V 53.51 66.93 Oil Well 64.88 64.59 CEMENT PRODUCTION COSTS White 186.35 190.57 Portland slag SL Portland pozzolan 59.99 60.77 The principal cost factors in the production of cement Expansive 86.20 106.47 are fuel (4596), labour (3096), maintenance (1096), raw Miscellaneous 69.11 73.36 materials (lO'???), and overhead (596). Direct costs for Source: US Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook, Cement, Ontario cement production for the period 1980-1986 1985. It is believed similar price differentials prevail in are illustrated in Figure 4.15. Over that time period di the Ontario and Canadian cement markets. rect costs have increased by 6.39k per annum. During the same period cement prices increased at a compound an nual rate of over 496, while production increased at a rate of 2.796 per annum. These data would tend to indi cate that cement prices in Ontario respond more to cost factors than to supply/demand factors. Such a pattern is characteristic of a mature industry with significant excess capacity. Table 4.13. AVERAGE CEMENT PRICES. The Ontario cement industry has taken significant efforts to reduce its unit costs of production. For exam (SUS/tonne) ple, Lafarge Canada stated in its 1986 annual report that Type of cement and region 1984 1985 unit costs were reduced 596 in 1986 over 1985 costs, and Portland Cement that unit costs were reduced by 396 in 1985 and 496 in New York and Maine 55.26 53.10 1984. The other cement producers are undertaking simi Pennsylvania 54.13 57.26 lar cost reduction programs. Ohio 50.47 52.92 Michigan and Wisconsin 49.80 48.63 Illinois 45.61 45.24 CEMENT DISTRIBUTION Average for region 51.86 52.27 The integrated nature of Ontario's cement producers has Masonry Cement New York and Maine 71.90 73.61 had an impact on cement distribution patterns and meth Pennsylvania 77.39 76.05 ods. Whereas cement used to be shipped primarily in Ohio 88.34 104.36 small lots in bags and drums to end users, it is now pri Michigan and Wisconsin 72.81 71.95 marily shipped in bulk by ship, truck and rail car to dis Illinois n/a n/a tribution terminals and ready-mix plants owned by the Average for region* 76.94 79.00 cement companies. All of the Ontario cement producers *Excludes Illinois operate large fleets of specialized bulk trucks equipped Source: US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Cement, 1985. with pneumatic loading and discharge equipment. Rail cars are also specialized for the transport of cement, and

106 Limestone Industries of Ontario Wages 7.29 (27 0Xo) Wages 8.86 (27 0Xo)

Energy 11.48 (43 0X)) Energy 14.20 (43^0)

Supplies 8.15 (30 0Xo) Supplies 9.64 (30y0 )

Ontario 1980 Ontario 1986 (Dollars per tonne) (Dollars per tonne)

DIRECT COSTS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

(SOOO) Wages 29,634 34,896 34,360 35,203 37,229 38,464 42,889 Energy 46,702 51,387 47,681 45,230 53,361 66,130 68,753 Supplies 33,162 33,436 29,762 31,802 35,474 45,768 46,670 TOTAL 109,498 119,719 111,803 112,235 126,064 150,362 158,312 S/TONNE OF CEMENT Wages 7.286 9.214 11.426 10.998 10.391 9.511 8.856 Energy 11.483 13.569 15.857 14.130 14.893 16.353 14.196 Supplies 8.153 8.829 9.896 9.936 9.901 11.318 9.637

Figure 4.15. COST OF CEMENT PRODUCTION, ONTARIO 1980 TO 1986. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Min istry of Northern Development and Mines, 1987.

Table 4.14. ONTARIO MOVEMENTS OF CEMENT BY WATER. ('000 tonnes) Destination

Canadian Ports Foreign Ports

Origin 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Bath 174.9 308.3 204.4 262.5 238.4 163.7 52.8 63.8 20.4 31.7 32.3 18.4 Picton 256.7 218.9 202.8 252.5 304.0 285.5 556.3 545.3 366.9 449.3 526.0 507.8 Clarkson 5.0 13.2 28.8 83.5 174.5 116.0 193.0 234.2 308.2 Hamilton 5.5 3.3 1.5 18.0 Toronto 0.5 7.3 Oshawa 23.5 Windsor 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 Bowmanville 59.2 60.1 13.7 165.6 107.2 Kingston 5.3 21.8 Port Stanley 24.7 41.7 50.4 51.7 St. Catharines 1.6 Thorold 1.6 Trenton 48.7 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 107 Table 4.15. EXPORTS OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS FROM ONTARIO, METHOD OF SHIPMENT. (S'OOO) Mode 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Water 40,550 38,087 33,115 37,302 41,564 40,975 Road 21,612 24,945 29,479 32,850 38,042 64,561 Rail 3,223 6,531 7,276 7,481 8,466 9,222 Air 124 12 1 149 19 31 Other 95 121 Total 65,510 69,575 69,781 77,876 88,212 114,789 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986. are generally under long term lease. Water shipment is represent a small proportion of the shipments for all of now a major means of cement distribution in Ontario. the companies, generally less than 109k. Lafarge Canada, Lake Ontario Cement, and St. The relative importance of water transport in On Lawrence Cement operate fleets of specialized cement tario's cement industry is illustrated in Table 4.14 and carriers to move product from their plants at Bath, Pic- Table 4.15. Out of total cement production of 4,043,742 ton, and Clarkson to terminals in Ontario and the United tonnes in 1985 1,452,734 tonnes, or 3696 was moved by States. Lafarge Canada at Woodstock has used special water. For some companies such as Lake Ontario Ce ized barges and trailers to move cement via Port Stanley ment water shipment is the principal transportation on Lake Erie to its US customers. St. Marys Cement in mode. In 1985 the company shipped approximately 809c Bowmanvile has recently constructed a dock, for han of production by water. dling inbound shipments of coal and gypsum, that has Water is the principal means of transport for cement the capability of handling outbound shipments of ce exports from Ontario, with 974,675 tonnes or 9096 of the ment. Prior to the construction of the dock the Bowman- total 1985 Ontario exports of 1,085,000 tonnes of ce ville plant used the nearby port facilities in Oshawa to ment being moved by water. However, as can be seen load cement. Bulk shipments from St. Marys Cement in from Table 4.15, road transport has now become the St. Marys and Federal White Cement in Woodstock are dominant mode of shipment in terms of value of exports. by truck and rail, with truck shipments predominating. This shift in the relative importance of water and road is All of the cement plants have facilities for the packing indicative of increased exports of higher value-added and shipment of cement in bags, which now, however, concrete products.

108 Limestone Industries of Ontario Lime, Chemical and Metallurgical Stone

LIME CANADA

ONTARIO LIME PRODUCTION Ontario-based producers of lime are listed in Table 4.16. Some lime is also recovered by pulp and pa per mills during the recausticization process to recover fiSB the spent pulping liquor in sulphite pulp mills. Of the eight major lime producers in the province three operate tonnes totally captive plants while two operate combined captive (millions) and merchant plants. Stelco Inc. in Ingersoll and Dofasco Inc. (BeachviLime Ltd. and Guelph DoLime Ltd.) produce lime for their own use and for commercial sale; General Chemical Canada Ltd. operates a lime plant as part of its sodium carbonate, calcium chloride, and hydrofluoric acid production operations in Am herstburg; Timminco Ltd. calcines a high purity dolomite for use in the production of magnesium metal by the Pidgeon process at Haley; Algoma Steel Corp. Ltd. pro 70 75 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 duces lime for use in its iron and steel making operations Year at Wawa and Sault Ste. Marie; Reiss Lime Company of [/^ Net Exports |f||] Hydrated Lime |t|] Quicklime Canada Ltd. operates a lime plant at Spragge on Geor gian Bay, though it imports almost all of its stone require Figure 4.16. CANADIAN LIME PRODUCTION. Source: ments from quarries in Michigan; and Steetley Industries Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 1986. Ltd. produces dolomitic lime for use in the steel and glass industries at its plant in Dundas. Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17 illustrate changes in the production of lime in Canada and Ontario. Quicklime represents over 909k of total lime production in any given ONTARIO

Table 4.16. ONTARIO LIME PRODUCERS.

Algoma Steel Corp. Ltd. Sault Ste. Marie High calcium and dolomitic captive use General Chemical Amherstburg High calcium tonnes Canada Ltd. captive use (millions) BeachviLime Ltd. Beachville High calcium captive and market Guelph DoLime Ltd. Guelph Dolomitic (quick and hydrated) captive and market Timminco Ltd. Haley Dolomitic captive use Reiss Lime Co. Spragge High calcium of Canada Ltd. market Stelco Inc. Ingersoll High calcium captive and market 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Steetley Industries Ltd. Dundas Dolomitic market Year BeachviLime and Guelph DoLime are subsidiaries of Dofasco Figure 4.17. ONTARIO LIME PRODUCTION. Source: Inc. Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 1986.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 109 year. Ontario production represents 709fc-759fc of total uuuu Canadian production, and is the principal source of lime 3 4 0Xe m exports. Almost all exports and imports of lime are con 4500 nected with trade with the United States. There are no 4000 data available regarding dolomitic lime production. Pro 4 0/ 3500 2 ) duction capacity for lime in Canada totals approximately ? 0/ F™l 12,000 tonnes per day and, assuming an average avail ? ability of 330 days, total annual lime production capacity 3000 is approximately 3.96 million tonnes. These data indicate Production 2500 that Canadian lime producers have considerable excess (thousand production capacity and have experienced operating tonnes) 2000 rates of 509k-559fc in recent years. Most of the excess 1500 capacity is located in Ontario. 7 0Xc (3-54 1000 r^ LIME CONSUMPTION 9V 4 "Xo 500 — — — g:g —

Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.19 detail lime consumption in n Canada and the United States, and show a greater diver 1 8 sity of use in the US. The much greater use of lime in the US for environmental and soil stabilization purposes is 1. Agricultural 5. Other Uses 2. Nonferrous Smelters 6. Pulp and Paper especially noticeable. Factors affecting the use of lime in 3. Cyanide and Flotation 7. Other Industrial Canada include the following: Mills 8. Water and Sewage 4. Sugar Refineries 9. Iron and Steel - Phase-out of open hearth steel production in favour of EOF and EAF steel production. By the end of 1985 Consumption: 14,254,000 tonnes 1989 there will be no open hearth steel furnaces in operation in Canada. Lime consumption will in Figure 4.19. UNITED STATES LIME CONSUMP crease at the expense of limestone consumption in TION. Source: US Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook, 1985. the steel industry.

- Significantly less use of flue gas scrubbers for desul- phurization in Canada than in the United States; 1000 Significantly lower levels of industrial and municipal waste water treatment in Canada than in the United 800 States; - Rapid expansion of mechanical pulping technologies to replace chemical pulping, thus reducing the de 600 mand for lime. Production (thousand The most significant factor affecting demand for lime tonnes) 400 is expected to be the imposition of much more stringent air pollution standards. Mandatory requirements for 11 0Xo scrubbers to remove SO2 and NOx emissions would re 200 quire greatly increased lime production. An example of 5^0 the potential impact of more stringent standards was pro •lo/ 1 o/ vided in a study performed in the United States (Sub- I/O I/O __ Fssl hash, 1985). The study indicates complete installation of 1 23456789 scrubbers on US thermal power plants would increase lime consumption by a factor of 4.9 to 13 times the level 1. Agricultural 5. Water and Sewage 2. Sugar Refineries 6. Other Uses of use in 1982, depending upon the severity of the air 3. Cyanide and Flotation 7. Pulp and Paper quality standards. In the case of Ontario, removal of sul Mills 8. Other Industrial 4. Nonferrous Smelters 9. Iron and Steel phur emissions from flue-gases would require approxi mately 500,000 tonnes of lime per year at current sul 1983 Consumption: 2,232,000 tonnes phur dioxide generation levels. Figure 4.20 provides a forecast of Ontario lime production to 1996. The fore Figure 4.18. CANADIAN LIME CONSUMPTION. cast indicates a slight reduction in production over the Source: Canadian Minerals Yearbook, 1986. next several years. This reduction is attributable to

110 Limestone Industries of Ontario 2.5 -i

Upper 2.0 - Actual

1.5 - Projection tonnes (million) Dollars 50- 1.0 H per Lower tonne 40^

0.5 -

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Year

Figure 4.20. ONTARIO LIME PRODUCTION FORE 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 CAST, DATA, PROJECTION AND 959fc LIMITS. Year

+ Current Dollars X 1971 Dollars changes in lime demand from the major consuming in Figure 4.21. ONTARIO LIME PRODUCTION, UNIT dustries such as the steel and pulp and paper mills, and VALUE IN CURRENT AND 1971 DOLLARS. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Devel to a levelling off in demand for lime for other chemical opment and Mines, 1986. and metallurgical purposes. The upper projection as sumes increased demand for lime for environmental pur poses. in 1985. It is also known that producers located in areas providing a transportation barrier, such as New PRICES Brunswick, are able to secure significantly higher prices Prices for lime are a factor of market competition, end- than producers in a more competitive market such as use requirements, and transportation costs. In Canada southern Ontario. average prices for quick and hydrated lime are shown in Figure 4.21 details Ontario lime prices. Prices have Table 4.17. increased 10.79fc per annum since 1975 in current dollar terms but only S.5% per annum in constant 1971 dollar Significant variations in price by end-use and geo terms. The low level of real price increase and the excess graphic area are common. For example, average lime capacity in the industry has not been conducive to major prices declined from 569.20 per tonne in 1983 to 566.50 expansion and modernization projects. US prices for per tonne in 1985 in Ontario but remained stable in Al lime are listed in Table 4.18. The wide variation in price berta at 570.60 per tonne in 1983 and 570.25 per tonne by end-use is noticeable.

Lime production is a highly energy intensive business. On Table 4.17. CANADIAN LIME PRICES. average, Canadian lime producers use about 6.4 GJ of energy per tonne of production. Newer plants make use S/tonne of preheater systems, energy efficient large diameter Quicklime Hydrated Lime short rotary kilns, and modern vertical kiln designs to 1982 563.63 576.38 reduce fuel requirements. In Ontario average energy 1983 68.87 86.70 consumption per tonne of lime was 5.4 GJ (5.16 million 1984 68.75 86.13 Btu). There has been relatively little change in average 1985 68.18 n/a energy consumption per tonne of product in recent Source: Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1986 years, as illustrated by Figure 4.22. The cost of energy, however, has increased significantly, and stood at

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 111 Table 4.18. US LIME PRICES.

(SUS/ton) End-Use 1984 1985 EOF Steel 46.02 49.80 Water purification 51.38 49.88 Pulp Si paper 47.41 49.78 Sewage treatment 55.16 50.11 Alkalis 48.93 49.80 Sugar refining 67.86 49.87 Dollars Road stabilization 55.10 65.62 Pel" Masons' lime 63.68 65.59 tonne Refractory dolomite 60.35 64.69 Flue-gas desulphurization 46.47 49.80 Average for all lime 51.12 51.69 Average for quicklime 46.46 6- Chemical lime 45.88 Agriculture 49.02 4- Construction 54.88 Average for hydrated lime 67.56 2- Chemical lime 65.96 Agriculture 65.96 Construction 69.32 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 Source: US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Lime, 1985. 1981 Year

Figure 4.23. ENERGY COST/TONNE OF LIME. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Devel opment and Mines, 1986.

S19.707tonne in 1985 versus S12.247tonne in 1980. This is illustrated in Figure 4.23. In an effort to reduce fuel costs Ontario lime produc ers have switched to burning coal and coke and reduced their reliance on fuel oil. Coal and coke represented 489c of the energy requirements and 29*??? of the energy 5- dollars in 1985, versus 189o of energy requirements and 119c of energy dollars in 1980. These changes are illus trated in Figure 4.24. 4- Total direct costs for lime production in Ontario have increased at a rate of S.45% per annum during the BTU/tonne Lime 3- 1980-1985 period. Prices have increased at a rate of (millions) V.06% per annum during the same period. The distribu tion of direct production costs has remained stable at 2- 5496 for energy in 1980 and 1985; 2596 and 2396 for wages; and 2196 and 2396 for supplies in 1980 and 1985 respectively, as shown in Figure 4.25. 1- CHEMICAL PROCESS STONE Chemical process stone refers to limestone and dolostone 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 used in the production of various chemicals. It is distin guished from lime used for similar purposes in that Year chemical stone is used directly rather than separately cal cined first. The principal end-use markets for chemical Figure 4.22. ENERGY CONSUMPTION/TONNE OF process stone in Ontario are the glass industry, the pulp LIME. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of and paper industry, and in soda ash manufacture. Minor Northern Development and Mines, 1986. amounts of stone are used in paint manufacture.

112 Limestone Industries of Ontario Natural Gas (54 07o) Diesel Oil (1 0Xo) Wages 6.49 Energy 14.25 Coal and Coke (11 "/o)

Electricity (8 070 ) Supplies 5.56

Heavy Fuel Oil (26 0Xo) 1980 Ontario 1980 S20,585,175 (Dollars per tonne)

Diesel Oil (2 07o) Coal and Coke (29 0Xo) Wages 8.19 Energy 19.68

Electricity (10 07o] Supplies 8.30 Natural Gas (56 0Xo Heavy Fuel Oil (3 07o) 1985 Ontario 1985 S32,516,360 (Dollars per tonne)

Figure 4.24. ENERGY COST/TONNE OF LIME. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Devel opment and Mines, 1986. Figure 4.25. COSTS OF LIME PRODUCTION. Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Devel opment and Mines, 1986.

GLASS MANUFACTURE SODA ASH (SODIUM CARBONATE) MANUFACTURE Crushed limestone and dolostone are used in glass manu facture to make the glass more insoluble. Limestone and High calcium limestone is used in the production of soda dolostone used in glass manufacture must be low in iron, ash by the Solvay process, though this has largely been at least below G.06% FeO. supplanted by the use of natural soda ash, named trona, from Wyoming. There is only one Canadian producer of Consumption of limestone and dolostone in the Ca soda ash, General Chemical Canada Ltd. (formerly Al nadian glass industry in recent years is given in lied Chemical Canada Ltd.) in Amherstburg, and only Table 4.19. one remaining US producer. General Chemical produces Ontario glass plants were reported to have used calcium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and a range of 128,553 tonnes of Ontario limestone and dolostone in 1984 and 149,143 tonnes in 1985. Table 4.19. LIMESTONE AND DOLOSTONE PULP AND PAPER CONSUMPTION IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY.

Pulp and paper mills use limestone as supplementary ma Limestone Dolostone terial to make up their lime requirements for the recaus- ( '000 tonnes) ticization of the spent sulphite pulping liquor. Require 1979 176.2 n/a ments are modest and vary from year to year depending 1980 173.3 n/a on the performance of the kiln and the relative costs of 1981 176.1 n/a lime and limestone. Very limited amounts of magnesia or 1982 168.7 n/a 1983 175.9 n/a dolostone are used in sulphite pulp mills to prepare mag 1984 178.0 112.0 nesium sulphite. The total Canadian limestone and mag 1985 138.0 n/a nesia requirements in recent years are given in Source: Statistics Canada, 1986 Table 4.20.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 113 Table 4.20. LIMESTONE AND DOLOSTONE Table 4.22. ONTARIO MAGNESIUM AND CALCIUM CONSUMPTION IN THE PULP AND PAPER PRODUCTION. INDUSTRY. Magnesium Calcium Limestone Magnesia Year ('000 kg) (S 000) ('000 kg) (S 000) (tonnes) 1978 8,311.2 20,155.4 574.8 2,397.5 1980 25,560 7,496 1979 9,015.0 24,444.0 455.7 2,152.1 1981 22,658 9,330 1980 9,252.0 27,821.8 530.6 3,421.6 1982 97,372 4,584 1981 8,548.0 29,439.5 469.4 4,512.1 1983 114,671 2,109 1982 7,630.2 27,811.9 329.1 2,567.3 1984 n/a n/a 1983 5,980.3 21,978.1 398.9 3,306.5 1985 n/a n/a 1984 7,587.5 30,926.7 515.4 4,559.6 Source: Statistics Canada, 1986 1985 8,446.3 36,369.6 738.5 7,778.9 Source: "Ontario Mineral Score", Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, 1986.

other calcium and sodium compounds or by-products Table 4.21. STEEL INDUSTRY LIME CONSUMPTION, and co-products of the Solvay process. Production is CANADA/UNITED STATES. sold in Canada and the mid-western US. Stone require (tonnes) ments were reported to be over half a million tonnes in Canada 1983 1984 1984 and 1985. Quicklime 325 511 329 214 Other lime 205 802 242 522 Limestone 980 000 METALLURGICAL STONE United States 1984 1985 Limestone 3 481 973 3 689 676 Crushed limestone and dolostone are used as a flux in Dolostone 64 850 19 047 ferrous and non- ferrous smelting and refining as a Burnt lime 3 036 636 2 696 511 cheap substitute for the more expensive lime. The crude Other 243 983 175 051 crushed material is also preferred for technical reasons in Source: Statistics Canada, 1985 US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1985. some applications. Table 4.21 illustrates changes in the demand for limestone and dolostone in the US and Ca nadian iron and steel industries in recent years.

Beauharnois, Quebec ^ coke + scrap iron u L ————— L FeSi Quarrying Silica 1-*- I sher 1— r Haley, Ontario Ball Mill 1 k b CaO+MqO Quarrying Dolomite 1-*- Crusher i-*- Kiln L*. Roller Mill i ^^IVI^ ——

V h r, - ti- n u- h MgO.CaO+F r— Ingot -*- :gSi *,. hi

Shipping LH 11 Billet *- Magnesium Crown (Mg) 1 i f " CaO - Calcium Oxide 1— Extrusion 1 L FeSi - Ferrosilicon Melting Crucible l siO 2 Silica

Figure 4.26. MAGNESIUM PRODUCTION AT TIMMINCO LTD. USING PIDGEON PROCESS. Source: company lit erature.

114 Limestone Industries of Ontario Limestone and dolostone are also used in non-fer Timminco recovers magnesium from a high quality rous smelting, but the quantities employed are relatively Precambrian dolomitic marble quarried on site; calcium low, as lime is the primary flux. Actual usage depends on from high calcium stone obtained from quarries in south the relative delivered costs of stone and lime. Ontario ern Ontario; and strontium from imported celestite. production of stone for this purpose was reported to be 143,605 tonnes in 1984 and 149,143 tonnes in 1985. Dolomitic marble requirements for magnesium pro Magnesium and calcium metal production is the duction were 106,267 tonnes in 1984 and 109,257 other major metallurgical market for dolostone and high tonnes in 1985. Data on magnesium and calcium metal calcium limestone. Timminco Ltd. produces both metals production are provided in Table 4.22. Timminco has using a variant of the alumino-silicothermic Pidgeon announced plans to increase magnesium production ca process at its plant at Haley, Ont. The Pidgeon process is pacity to approximately 15,000 tonnes per year from the illustrated in Figure 4.26. current level of 10,000 tpy.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 115 Fillers and Extenders

MARKETS period in the US. The rapid growth rates for fillers are expected to continue for the next several years. The principal end-use markets for calcium carbonate fillers are in plastics, paint, paper, adhesives and Calcium carbonate is by far the main filler used in sealants, rubber, drywall compounds, and carpet back plastics, and represents approximately 509k of the mar ing. ket for all mineral fillers and reinforcements. C.H. Kline and Co. estimates that carbonate fillers accounted for PLASTICS 662,200 tonnes of the 1,452,000 tonnes of mineral rein forcements and fillers used by the US plastics industry in The relative growth rates of resin and fillers for the 1986. 1976-1985 period in the United States are illustrated in The most important plastics markets for calcium car Figure 4.27. As shown, resin production increased S.2% bonate are PVC and thermosetting polyesters. Of the to per annum during the 1980-1985 period. During the tal volume of 662,200 tonnes of calcium carbonate con same period, the consumption of fillers and reinforcing sumed in plastics in 1986 in the US approximately 659e, materials in polymer-based materials increased at an av or 430,900 tonnes, was used in PVC. Polyesters ac erage annual rate of S.9%. Calcite itself exhibited an av counted for a further 309fc, or 198,700 tonnes. The bal erage annual growth rate of IG.4% during the 1980-1985 ance of approximately 32,700 tons was used in other plastics such as polypropylenes, polyurethanes, ABS, and phenolics. Data on consumption patterns is provided in Table 4.23. 10 8 Calcium carbonate consumption trends are expected to parallel the growth rates for the plastics. 2.32X107 Calcium carbonate in PVC is found in both flexible and rigid materials. The market for flexible PVC faces stiff competition from cheap offshore calendered vinyl 107- producers and is not expected to show much growth. Rigid PVC applications for calcium carbonate in 3.68 X10 6 2.41 X10 6 clude pipe and mouldings, windows and doors, floor tile, tons All Minerals etc. There is a push by some manufacturers to increase calcium carbonate loadings in pipe by up to 509k, but this Carbonate^..———~"^ " 1.96 X10 6 will require changes in government specifications for 10 6 - 1.20 X10 6 pipe. Glass Fiber ^—-~ 7.34 X10 5 Polyesters have been the largest growth area for cal i.00 X10 5 cium carbonate in plastics, typical mineral reinforced polyester formulations containing 409o to 459c calcium 2.01 X10 5 carbonate by weight. The automobile industry is the prin 105- cipal end-user of these products, accounting for approxi 1.25 X10 5 mately 7596 of the market, mainly for the front-end pan els of cars (sheet moulding compound (SMC)) and truck

Table 4.23. CALCIUM CARBONATE CONSUMPTION 10 4 IN PLASTICS, UNITED STATES. 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 (tonnes) Year 1983 1986

Figure 4.27. US CONSUMPTION OF RESINS AND OF PVC 268 000 431 000 FILLER, EXTENDER AND REINFORCING MINER Polyesters 100 000 199 000 ALS FOR POLYMER-BASED COMPOSITES (TONS). Others 18 000 33 000 Source: Plumpton ei al., (1987), Clifton, SME-AIME annual Total 380 000 663 000 meeting, N.Y., Feb. 1985; Dickson, Industrial Minerals, Feb. Source: Industrial Minerals, various issues. 1987.

116 Limestone Industries of Ontario hoods, fenders and front-end panels (bulk moulding JOINTING COMPOUNDS compound (BMC)). Calcium carbonate is used as a filler in drywall jointing Calcium carbonate may also be used as a filler in compounds and in 1983 approximately 445,000 tonnes other plastics; polypropylene is a major potential market, were used in this application in the United States. with calcium carbonate as a low cost replacement for talc. PRICES Prices for various grades of calcium carbonate are listed PAINTS in Table 4.24. The prices listed show that there is con siderable value-added as the fineness of the product in Calcium carbonate is used as an extender in oil, alkyd, creases and as other treatments such as surface coatings acrylic, and latex- based paint systems. The US paint are incorporated in the products. Increasing the fineness industry consumed approximately 222,200 tonnes of car of the material from an average particle size of 4 to 9 bonate fillers in 1983. The market is characterized by microns to one of 0.5 to 4 microns adds approximately slow growth, although recent technological developments 66^0 to the price of the product; manufacture of an related to product form and particle size may increase ultrafine grade in slurry form will yield more than double the level of use. the price of the medium grind product; while coated ultrafine calcium carbonates are worth approximately 4.5 PAPER times the value of a standard 325 mesh (44 micron) product. The increased value associated with the produc Calcium carbonate for use as a filler and coating material tion of ultrafine grind and surface treated calcium car in paper manufacture is a relatively new development, bonates is an obvious attraction. Nevertheless, there are with a potential annual market available in excess of only a few North American producers of ultrafine grind 450,000 tonnes in North America. In particular, the calcium carbonates, and no producers of surface treated market has been opened up by the switch from acid siz calcium carbonates in Canada. ing to alkaline sizing, permitting the use of calcium car Prices for calcium carbonate fillers and extenders are bonate as the filler material. generally quoted on an FOB producer basis. Accord ingly, transportation costs can play a major role in deter The overall cost advantages of alkaline sizing are es mining the market opportunities available to a producer. timated at approximately S20.00 per tonne. Despite the Figure 4.28 illustrates the location of producers of fine cost advantages, alkaline sizing is still not widely used in grind (below 325 mesh, 44 micron) calcium carbonate as North American paper mills, although its use is increas of 1984, and shows most of them to be concentrated in ing. the eastern part of North America. Freight costs from producing plants to consumers may offset the advantages PUTTY, CAULKS, AND SEALANTS

Calcium carbonate is widely used as a filler for putty, Table 4.24. CALCIUM CARBONATE PRICES, NEW caulks, and sealants. Consumption in the US in 1983 YORK BASIS. amounted to approximately 113,000 tonnes. (SUS/ton), May 1987 Dry, coarse (9-17 microns), RUBBER 325 mesh, bags or bulk, fob works 549.00 - S90.00 Calcium carbonate fillers are used in soft rubber goods medium (4-9 microns) 70.00 - 100.00 fine (0.5-4 microns) 123.00 - 166.00 such as floor coverings and auto mats. Kaolin is the pri Slurry, fine (2-4 microns) 125.00 - 139.00 mary filler with calcium carbonate used as a supplement ultrafine 166.00-177.00 to reduce product cost. Calcium carbonate fillers may Coated, fine (2-3 microns) 167.00 also be used in wire and cable coatings, automotive ultrafine (l micron) 228.00 weather stripping, and some footwear applications. Precipitate, technical (0.5 microns) 212.00-217.00 ultrafine (0.05-0.5 microns) 540.00 surface treated 320.00 CARPET BACKING USP, very fine, high purity 385.00 - 400.00 extra light 395.00 light to medium 400.00 Carpet backing is the largest volume application for cal heavy 445.00 cium carbonate, consuming about 475,000 tonnes in Source: Chemical Market Reporter, May 29, 1987. 1983 in the US.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 117 o i u 0 c M c i u O 3 s 6 w 6 e b M OD o I o o tt 6 a. tt O u s: o O CCarbonate 1 E (O Limestonei Carbonate: at .2 E b OD I 3 0 S •e o (0 3 i | o u o tt tt E O T3 J — o 0 E C 9 i "o '3 i o o Mit -i ^ O) o* O. w Natural a. 3 O) Calcium tt O O o .5* i j i 'x o o S 0) 2 i JE -J o H at o O en Q i z O 5 td -H W CO * IO CO C- 00 A o ^ on CO ^* H Z J '•; . u O Q ea

118 Limestone Industries of Ontario Table 4.25. CANADIAN CALCIUM CARBONATE DEMAND. (tonnes) 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Pulp & Paper 1,660 45,018 18,928 4,473 n/a Paint 30,968 22,318 18,669 22,190 18,532 Rubber (SM) 1,028 1,296 1,237 1,561 n/a Asphalt Filler n/a n/a 31,000 33,000 n/a Plastics n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Source: Statistics Canada, 1985. of using a higher quality product in some markets. For CANADIAN DEVELOPMENTS example, material from deposits in Maryland and Ver mont generally has a 3 to 5 GE brightness advantage over Significant Canadian developments related to the supply material from the area around St. Louis. Despite this of calcium carbonate fillers include the following: quality advantage, paint producers in the the Midwest - Expansion of the Steep Rock Calcite plant at Perth prefer to use local calcium carbonate due to its lower to include production of ultrafine grind products us delivered cost. Adjustment of pigment levels to over ing wet grinding technology. This is a joint venture come the brightness differential is less costly than using with Georgia Kaolin of the United States. the higher quality stone. - Development of a fine grind calcium carbonate plant by Calcite et Dolomie de Mattawin in Quebec. CANADIAN DEMAND - Development of a calcite filler plant by Calcite du Demand for calcium carbonate fillers in Canada has Nord in Quebec. been estimated at approximately 150,000 tonnes for Canadian production capacity for standard and me 1983. Domestic production has been estimated at dium grind calcium carbonate filler" grades would appear 125,000 tonnes, with exports of 25,000 tonnes and im to be sufficient at present. Canadian capacity and de ports of 50,000 tonnes. Data on end-use consumption mand for production of ultrafine grind grades still indi are incomplete, and reliable market volume determina cates room for expansion. As there is no domestic capac tions are difficult to make. Table 4.25 provides some ity for the supply of surface treated ultrafine grind cal limited information on the demand for calcium carbon cium carbonates, there would appear to be an obvious ate in some of the principal end-use markets. opportunity for enhanced value added.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 119 Building Stone

BUILDING STONE MARKETS The market for building stones has traditionally been limited by transportation charges. Until very recently, Data for Ontario limestone building stone production for relatively little building stone was shipped out of the the 1981 to 1986 period is given in Table 4.26. province. For example, in 1980 92.596 of the stone was used in Ontario. This increased to 98.896 in 1981 and Table 4.26. PRODUCTION OF LIMESTONE stood at 9196 in 1982. In 1984 and 1985, however, On BUILDING STONE. tario accounted for only 81.596 and 66.696, respectively, of building stone shipments. Production Value S/Tonne Quebec and the United States represent the most sig (tonnes) (S) nificant destinations for Ontario building limestone. In 1981 277,291 1,234,326 4.45 1985 3,220 tonnes were shipped to Quebec and 1,130 1982 130,112 998,022 7.67 1983 141,322* 1,214,209* 8.78 tonnes to the US. 1984 154,084* 1,578,594* 10.24 It is expected that markets for building stone, espe 1985 168,023 1,787,186 10.64 1986 198,847 2,424,339 12.19 cially for commercial use, will increase in the next few years as architects reacquaint themselves with the mate Source: Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. 'Estimated figures. rial and more modern production technology is installed by the stone producers. Another factor contributing to The significant increase in value in recent years is the growth in the market will be restoration of many of attributed to the strong demand for building stone facing Ontario's historic limestone buildings and public struc on commercial and multi-unit residential developments. tures such as the Rideau Canal. These trends may help to In addition, Ontario stone has been used for several restore Ontario's limestone industry to the status it once large institutional projects such as the new Canadian em enjoyed as a major source of building materials. bassy in Washington D.C. Part of the increase in value The potential for building stone from Grenville mar results from the development of new technology for the ble in Southeastern Ontario has been discussed by bonding of limestone veneers to pre-cast concrete pan Verschuren et al. (1985), who emphasize that attempts els. This allows the stone plant to produce a very high should be made to develop markets for unique Ontario value-added product, yet one which remains competitive stones rather than to reproduce popular European mar with other building systems. bles.

120 Limestone Industries of Ontario Pulverized Stone and Stone Chips

TERRAZZO CHIPS It is interesting to note that the 1965 price for a 100 Ib. bag of chips was 83 cents; the 1986 price was S7.50. The production of terrazzo chips in Ontario was started Sales in 1965 were about 5,000 tons, but were signifi by Carl Stoklosar in the early 1930s, using a small jaw cantly less in 1986. Twelve men are employed, and their crusher and screen mounted on the back of a truck, at a wages represent more than half of total operating costs. site east of Eldorado. In 1935 he took over an old slate mill which had operated in the 1920s on the east side of Highway 62 several kilometres north of Madoc, and this WHITE MARBLE CHIPS is still the main plant site for Stoklosar Marble Quarries Ltd. Two other terrazzo producers subsequently com menced production at Madoc: Hastings Marble Products White marble chips were produced in Ontario by three Ltd. and Madoc Marble Quarries Co. (Hewitt, 1964, companies in 1986. Steep Rock Resources Inc. produced p. 12), and these were merged in 1965 to form Grenville Aggregate Specialities Ltd. The sale of white Grenville a range of chip products at its Perth plant, using coarse dolomite chips for terrazzo was also started about this grained calcitic marble from its Tatlock quarry. Bolen- time from the nearby underground mine of Canada Talc ders Ltd. produced chips from its coarse-grained Industries Ltd. Grenville Aggregates continued to oper dolomitic marble at Eagle Lake near Haliburton, and ate the Hastings plant on old Highway 7 on the west Canada Talc Industries Ltd. produced fine-grained fringe of Madoc village, and in 1983 the company dolomitic marble chips from its talc mine at Madoc, prin merged with Stoklosar. In 1986 both plants were still be cipally for terrazzo. Other recent producers, currently ing operated by Stoklosar Marble Quarries Ltd., cur dormant, are mentioned by Hewitt and Vos (1972, p.6) rently the only significant producer of terrazzo chips in and Hewitt (1964, p. 12). Ontario. Domus Engineering Company of Toronto is the ex Annual consumption within reach of Ontario pro clusive sales agent for Stoklosar products in Canada. ducers is in the order of 50,000 tonnes, most of it in Sales in the United States, which once accounted for 40 neighbouring US states as far west as Chicago. Ontario percent of the company's volume but now only 5 per producers enjoy about half of this market, much of the cent, are made directly from Madoc. Prices quoted in rest being supplied by Georgia Marble Company from a 1986 were: quarry in northern New York State. Value of the chips in Products Price bulk FOB producing plant is about S20-25 per tonne. O, l, 2 S160 per ton in 50 Ib. plastic bags O, 5, 2 S150 per ton in 100 Ib. plastic bags The market for exposed aggregate is very much de 3, 5, 7 S165 per ton in 100 Ib. plastic bags All chip sizes S120 per ton in bulk pendent on prevailing fashions in architecture. In 1986, White dust S75 per ton in bulk North American demand was probably in the order of Coloured dust S60 per ton in bulk 10,000 tonnes.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 121 References Cited

Guillet, G.R. and Kriens, J. Peat, Marwick Si Partners and M. M. Dillon Ltd. 1984: Ontario and the Mineral Filler Industry; Ontario Ministry 1980: Mineral Aggregate Transportation Study: Final Report; of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral Background Paper Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral 5. Background Paper l, 133p. Plumpton, J. Cotnoir, D, and Cloutier, G. H. Hewitt, D.F. 1987: Some Technical And Market Challenges For High Value- 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Part III, Marble; Ontario De Added Industrial Minerals Production in Canada; Proceed partment of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 16, 89p. ings of 89th Annual General Meeting of CIM in Toronto, May, 1987. Hewitt, D.F. and Vos, M.A. Subhash B.B. 1972: The Limestone Industries of Ontario; Ontario Department 1985: The Lime and Limestone Market for Sulfur Removal: Po of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 39, 79p. tential for 1992; Illinois Department of Energy and Natural North, R. B. Resources, Illinois Mineral Notes 90. 1984: Calcium Carbonate - A Changing Market; Industrial Min Verschuren, C.P., van Haaften, S., and Kingston, P.W. erals, Pigments and Extenders Supplement, June 1984, 1985: Building Stones of Eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological p.43. Survey, Open File Report 5556, 116p.

122 Limestone Industries of Ontario Appendices

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 123 Appendix l Glossary Of Geological Terms

Note: The following terms were referenced from: Bates bitumen: A general name for various solid and semi- and Jackson (1980) and American Geological Institute solid hydrocarbons which are soluble in carbon bisul (1976). fide, whether gases, easily mobile liquids, viscous liq uids or solids. The term is often used interchange anhydrite: A mineral, CaSO4 , anhydrous calcium sulfate. ably with hydrocarbons. Orthorhombic, commonly massive in evaporite beds. bituminous: 1) Yielding bitumen, or having bitumen in argillaceous: Rocks or substances composed of clay min composition. This term is also commonly used for erals, or having a notable proportion of clay in their certain varieties of coal which burn freely with flame, composition, such as shale, slate, etc. although they really contain no bitumen. 2) Contain ball-and-pillow structure: A primary sedimentary struc ing much organic or at least carbonaceous matter, ture found in sandstone and some limestones charac mostly in the form of tarry hydrocarbons which are terized by hemispherical or kidney-shaped masses usually described as bitumen. 3) Having the odour of resembling balls and pillows. bitumen. bivalve: A common term for pelecypods. basement: 1) The undifferentiated complex of rocks that underlies the rocks of interest in an area. 2) The Brachiopoda: A phylum of marine, shelled animals with crust of the earth below sedimentary deposits, ex two unequal shells or valves, each of which normally tending downward to the Mohorovicic discontinuity. is bilaterally symmetrical. Also called lamp shells. In many places the rocks of the complex are igneous breccia: Fragmented rocks whose components are angu and metamorphic and of Precambrian age, but in lar and therefore, are distinguished from conglomer some places are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or even Ceno ates, and are not water-worn. A rock made up of zoic. highly angular fragments. May be sedimentary or formed by crushing or grinding along faults. bedding plane: In sedimentary or stratified rocks, the di vision planes which separate the individual layers, Bryozoa: Phylum of small colonial animals, equipped beds, or strata. with a lophophore, and that build calcareous struc tures of many kinds, mostly marine. bedding: A collective term signifying existence of beds or burrow: A cylindrical or near cylindrical tube, often laminae. Planes dividing sedimentary rocks of the filled with clay or sand, which may lie along the bed same or different lithology. ding plane or penetrate the rock, made by an animal bedrock: A general term for the rock, usually solids, that that lived in the sediment. underlies soil or other unconsolidated, superficial calcarenite: A deposit composed of cemented sand-size material. grains of calcium carbonate (CaCO3); usually a bioclastic rock: A sedimentary rock consisting of frag biosparite or a grainstone. mental or broken remains of organisms, such as calcilutite: A name for limestone and dolostone made up limestone composed of shell material. of calcareous rock flour, the composition of which is typically nonsiliceous, though many calcilutites have bioherm: A mound-like or circumscribed mass built ex an intermixture of clayey material. Grains or crystals clusively or mainly by sedentary organisms such as average 0.0625 mm in diameter. corals, stromatoporoid, algae, etc., and enclosed in normal rock of different lithologic character. calcisiltite: Limestone composed of calcareous sediment of silt size. biostrome: A bedded structure composed of shell beds, calcite: A mineral, CaCO3, hexagonal, rhombohedral, crinoid beds, coral heads, etc., which was built by trimorphous with aragonite and vaterite; the princi sedentary organisms grown and preserved in place. pal constituent of limestone. In contrast to bioherms they lack mound-like or carbonatite: Intrusive carbonate rock which are associ lens-like form. ated with alkaline, igneous intrusions in many locali bioturbation: The churning and stirring of a sediment by ties. organisms. celestite: A mineral, SrSO4 . Orthorhombic. The princi birdseye: (Texture) Microcrystalline to very fine-crystal pal ore of strontium. line limestone containing spots or tubes of crystalline Cephalopoda: Most highly developed class of mollusks calcite. that swam by ejecting a jet of water from the mantle

124 Limestone Industries of Ontario cavity through a muscular funnel. Most of those pre regularly repeating atomic arrangement that may be served as fossils had straight to symmetrically coiled outwardly expressed by plane faces. shells divided into chambers by transverse septa. dolomite: A mineral, CaMg (CO3)2, commonly with Fe chalk: A very soft, white to light grey, unindurated lime replacing Mg to produce ankerite. Hexagonal rhom stone composed of the tests of floating microorgan bohedral. It occurs in a great many crystalline and isms and some bottom dwelling forms in a matrix of noncrystalline forms in carbonate rock, and among fine-crystalline calcite. Usually siliceous. rocks of all geological ages. chert: 1) Mineral: A cryptocrystalline variety of quartz. dolostone: The name for a sedimentary rock composed Composed of inter-locking grains generally not dis- of fragmental, concretionary, or precipitated dolo cernable under the microscope. 2) Rock: A compact mite of organic or inorganic origin. siliceous rock of varying colour composed of micro eurypterid: One of a group of very large, extinct arthro organisms or precipitated silica grains. Occurs as pods related to the trilobites. nodules, lenses, or layers in limestones and shales. fault: A fracture or fracture zone along which there has conchoidal: A type of rock or mineral fractures giving been displacement of the sides relative to one an smoothly curved surfaces. Characteristic of quartz other parallel to the fracture. and obsidian. fissility: A property of splitting easily along closely conglomerate: Rounded, water worn fragments of rock spaced parallel planes. or pebbles, cemented together by another mineral flame structure: A load cast showing evidence of some substance. A cemented clastic rock containing horizontal slip. A load cast in which part of an un rounded fragments corresponding in their grade sizes derlying layer has been squeezed irregularly upward to gravel or pebbles. into the overlying layer. coquina: Limestone composed of broken shells, corals, fossil: The remains or traces of animals or plants which and other organic debris. have been preserved by natural causes in the earth's crust. coral, colonial: A coral in which the individuals are at tached together as a unit and do not exist as separate Gastropoda: A class of the phylum Mullusca; commonly animals. known as gastropods or snails. glauconite: A green mineral, closely related to the micas coral: A bottom-dwelling, sessile, marine coelenterate; and essentially a hydrous potassium iron silicate. some are solitary individuals, but the majority grow Commonly occurs in sedimentary rocks of marine in colonies; they secrete external skeletons of cal origin. cium carbonate. The calcareous skeleton of a coral or group of corals. gypsum: A mineral, CaSO4 2H2O. Monoclinic. A com mon mineral of evaporites. Used in manufacture of coralgal: Refers to carbonate sediment derived from cor plaster of Paris and drywall. Also called satin spar als and algae. (fibrous gypsum). coralline: Any organism that resembles a coral in form hematite: A mineral, Fe2O3 hexagonal rhombohedral. ing a massive calcareous skeleton or base, such as The principal ore of iron. certain algae or stromatoporoids. Pertaining to, com horn coral: A solitary coral, conical in shape, and gener posed of, or having the structure of corals, as coral ally belonging to the subclass Rugosa. line limestones. hydrocarbon: A compound containing only the two ele crenulations: Wrinkles. Small folds, with a wavelength of ments carbon and hydrogen (see bitumen). a few millimetres. inlier: An area or group of rocks surrounded by rocks of Crinoidea: A type of echinoderm consisting of a cup or younger age, e.g. an eroded anticlinal crest. "head" containing the vital organs, numerous radiat interbedded: Occurring between beds, or lying in a bed ing arms, an elongate, jointed stem, and roots by parallel to other beds of different material. which it is attached to the sea bottom while the body, stem, and arms float. interformational conglomerate: Those gravels and their indurated equivalents that often are present within a cross-bedding: The arrangement of laminations of strata formation of which the constituents have a source transverse or oblique to the main planes of stratifica external to the formation. tion of the strata concerned; inclined, often len ticular, beds between the main bedding planes. intraclast: A broad, general term for a component of a limestone, representing a torn-up and reworked crystal: A homogeneous, solid body of a chemical ele fragment of a penecontemporaneous sediment (usu ment, compound, or isomorphous mixture, having a ally weakly consolidated) that has been eroded

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 125 within the basin of deposition (such as the nearby closing sediment or rock matrix in which it is embed sea floor or an exposed carbonate mud flat) and ded. Most nodules appear to be secondary features. redeposited there to form a new sediment. oolite: 1) A spherical to ellipsoidal body (0.25-2.0 mm intraformational conglomerate: A conglomerate, the in diameter) which may or may not have a nucleus, clasts of which are derived from the formation of and has concentric or radial structure or both. It is which the conglomerate is a part. usually calcareous, but may be siliceous, hematitic, joint: Fracture in rock, generally more or less vertical or or of another composition. 2) A rock composed transverse to bedding, along which no appreciable chiefly of ooliths. movement has occurred. oolith: The individual spherite of which an oolite (rock) karst: A type of topography that is formed over lime is composed. stone, dolostone, or gypsum by dissolving or solu ostracodes: Any aquatic crustacean belonging to the sub tion, and that is characterized by closed depressions class Ostracoda, characterized by a bivalve, generally or sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage. calcified carapace with a hinge along the dorsal mar laminations: The layering or bedding less than l cm in gin. Most are of microscopic size (0.4 -1.5 mm thickness in a sedimentary rock. The more or less long) although freshwater forms up to 5 mm long distinct alternation of materials, which differ one and marine forms up to 30 mm long are known. from the other in grain size or composition. outcrop: That part of a geologic formation or structure limestone: A bedded sedimentary deposit consisting that appears at the surface of the earth. chiefly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which yields outlier: An area or group of rocks surrounded by rocks lime when burned. It is the consolidated equivalent of older age, e.g. an isolated hill or butte. of limy mud, calcareous sand, or shell fragments. parting: A small joint or bedding plane in a layer of lithographic limestone: An exceedingly fine-crystalline rock. limestone used for lithography. Texture: a term used to denote grain size in calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pelecypoda: A division (class) of uncoiled, bivalve mol- The grain size corresponds to that of clay, or less lusks, with straight intestine and sometimes with a than 0.004 mm. foot utilized in locomotion, also referred to as bi valves, commonly known as clams. marble: A metamorphic rock composed essentially of calcite and/or dolomite. pellet: Small aggregation of sedimentary material, usually fecal in origin. In size, pellets are approximately metabentonite: Metamorphosed, altered or somewhat in 0.1-0.3 mm in diameter, and in few cases are sev durated bentonite characterized by minerals that are eral mm in length. not normally found in bentonites. Does not possess the swelling and absorptive properties of bentonite. pentamerid: An articulate brachiopod assigned to the su perfamily Pentameracea; characterized in general by micrite: A limestone with very fine-subcrystalline tex large, strongly biconvex shell with a smooth, costel- ture, such as a lithographic limestone. late, or costate exterior, and by spondylium in the Mullusca: A phylum of unsegmented, invertebrate ani pedicle valve. mals that includes the gastropods, pelecypods, peridotite: A coarse-grained, ultramafic rock consisting cephalopods, etc. of olivine and pyroxene with accessory constituents. mottled: Irregularly marked with spots of different petroleum: A naturally occurring, complex liquid hydro colours. carbon that may contain varying degrees of impuri mudcrack: Desiccation crack, formed when a thin layer ties (sulphur and nitrogen) which after distillation of mud dries, usually in a polygonal pattern. yields a range of combustible fuels, petrochemicals mudstone: An indurated mud having the texture and and lubricants. composition of shale, but lacking its fine lamination petroliferous: Containing or yielding petroleum. or fissilty; a blocky or massive, fine-grained sedi platy: 1) Said of a sedimentary particle whose length is mentary rock in which the proporations of clay and more than three times its thickness. 2) Said of a silt are approximately equal. sandstone or limestone that splits into laminae having nodular: Having the shape of or being composed of nod thicknesses in the range of 2 to 10 mm. ules. Said of certain ores or strata. pyrite: (FeS2): Iron pyrites. "Fool's gold", Dimorphous nodule: A small, irregular rounded knot, mass or lump of with marcasite. Isometric, commonly in striated a mineral aggregate, normally having a warty or cubes or in pyritohedrons. Brass yellow. An impor knobby surface and no internal structure, and usu tant ore of sulfur, sometimes mined for the associ ally exhibiting a contrasting composition from the en ated gold or copper.

126 Limestone Industries of Ontario quartz: A mineral, SiO2 . Hexagonal, trigonal- stylolite: A term applied to parts of certain limestones trapezohedral. A common constituent in clastic sedi which have a column-like development; the "col ments. umns" being generally at right angles or highly in reed cast: A vertical and cylindrical cast of sand presum clined to the bedding planes, having grooved, su ably representing the filling of a mold left by a reed. tured or striated sides, and irregular cross-section. Due to pressure solution the solution contact usually reef: A rock structure, either mound-like or layered, possesses insoluble residues such as bitumen, clays, built by sedentary organisms such as corals, etc., and etc. usually enclosed in a rock of differing lithologies. subcrop: Occurrence of strata on the undersurface of an rip-up: 1) Said of a sedimentary structure formed by inclusive stratigraphic unit that succeeds an impor shale clasts (usually of flat shape) that have been tant unconformity where overstepping is conspicu "ripped up" by currents from a semi-consolidated ous. Area within which a formation occurs directly mud deposit and transported to a new depositional beneath an unconformity. In this report, usually the site. 2) Said of a clast in a rip-up structure. Paleozoic strata underlying Pleistocene deposits. ripple mark: An undulatory surface sculpture produced sublithographic: Said of a limestone whose texture ap in non-coherent granular materials by the wind, by proaches the exceedingly fine grain of lithographic currents of water, or by agitation of water in wave limestone. Also, said of the texture of such a rock. action. sucrosic (saccharoidal): A granular or crystalline texture Rugosa: See horn coral. resembling that of loaf sugar, or of the crystalline sandstone: A cemented or otherwise compacted detrital granular texture seen in some sandstones, evaporites, sediment composed predominantly of quartz grains, marbles, and dolostones. the grades of the latter being those of sand. tabulate: 1) Having tabulae, specifically said of a coral selenite: A clear, transparent variety of gypsum, CaSO4 characterized by prominent tabulae. 2H20. tentaculitids: A marine invertebrate animal character shale: A laminated sediment in which the constituent ized by radial symmetry, a small conical shell with particles are predominantly of the clay grade. transverse rings of variable size and spacing, longitu shear zone: A zone in which shearing has occurred on a dinal striae, an embryonic chamber with bluntly large scale so that the rock is crushed and brec pointed apex, and small pores in the shell wall. ciated. tetracoral: A coral with four-fold symmetry. siltstone: A very fine-grained consolidated clastic rock trace fossil: A sedimentary structure consisting of a fos composed predominantly of particles of silt grade. silized track, trail, burrow, tube, boring, or tunnel soft-sediment deformation: Deformation of sediment resulting from the life activities (other than growth) laminae and bedding due to density irregularities in of an animal, such as a mark made by an inverte the sediment over- and underlying a unit. brate moving, creeping, feeding, hiding, browsing, spicules: 1) One of the numerous minute calcareous or running, or resting in soft sediment. It is preserved as siliceous bodies, having highly varied and often char a raised or depressed form in sedimentary rock. acteristic forms, occurring in and serving to stiffen Trilobita: Class of extinct arthropods with a dorsal skele and support the tissues of various invertebrates, and ton consisting of a cephalon, thorax, and pygidium, frequently found in marine-sediment samples and in and divided longitudinally into a central axis and two Paleozoic and Cretaceous cherts. 2) The empty sili pleutral regions. ceous shell of a diatom. vug/vuggy: An empty cavity, often with a mineral lining stromatolite: Laminated, but otherwise structureless cal of different composition from that of the surrounding careous objects, commonly fossil calcareous algae. rock. Stromatoporoidea: Laminated, organic bodies made of wavy bedding: Bedding that is characterized by un calcium carbonate and probably by a hydrozoan. dulatory bounding surfaces.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 127 Appendix II Crystallinity Classification

Coarse crystalline over 5 mm Medium crystalline 1-5 mm Fine crystalline 0.2-1 mm Very fine crystalline under 0.2 mm; not detectable with the naked eye. Subcrystalline 0.05-0.2 mm; crystals detectable under l OX hand lens (^ lithographic) Microcrystalline under 0.05 mm; crystals only detectable under microscopic examination ^ lithographic).

GRAIN-SIZE CLASSIFICATION Boulder Over 256 mm Cobble 64-256 mm Pebble 4-64 mm Granule 2-4 mm Very coarse grained sand 1-2 mm Coarse grained sand 0.5-1 mm Medium grained sand 0.25-0.5 mm Fine grained sand 0.125-0.25 mm Very fine grained sand 0.0625-0.125 mm Silt 0.004-0.0625 mm Clay (mud) Less than 0.004 mm

BEDDING CLASSIFICATION Massive bedded over 100 cm Thick bedded 30-100 cm Medium bedded 10-30 cm Thin bedded 3-10 cm Very thin bedded 1-3 cm Thick laminated 0.3-1 cm Thin laminated less than 0.3 cm

128 Limestone Industries of Ontario Appendix III Bibliography

Adams, J. Bentham, K.P. 1982: Stress-relief Buckles in the Mcparland Quarry, Ottawa; 1987: Fibres in Concrete: A Solution to Cracking; Canadian Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 19, Consulting Engineer, May, 1987, p.40. p.1883-1887. Best, E.W. American Geological Institute 1953: Pre-Hamilton Devonian Stratigraphy of Southwestern Ont ario; unpublished PhD. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1976: Dictionary of Geological Terms; Revised edition, Anchor Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 231p. Books, Garden City, New York, 472p. Blair, A.M. Armstrong, O.K. and Meadows, J.R. 1965: Surface Extraction of Non-Metallic Minerals in Ontario 1988: Stratigraphy and Resource Potential of the Ermosa Member Southwest of the Frontenac Axis; unpublished PhD. thesis, (Amabel Formation), Bruce Peninsula, Ontario; Ontario University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, U.S.A. Geological Survey, Open File Report 5662, 90p. Blue, A. Baird, D.M. 1892: Structural Material; p.95-114, in First Report of the Bu 1972: Geology of the National Capitol Area; 24th International reau of Mines, Ontario Bureau of Mines, Annual Report Geological Congress (Montreal 1972), Guidebook to Ex Volume I, 253p. cursions B-23 to B-27, 32p. Bolton, T.E. Barnes, C.R. 1953: Silurian Formations of the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario; 1967: Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Environments of some Wil Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 53-23, I9p. derness (Ordovician) Limestones, Ottawa Valley, Ontario; 1957: Silurian Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Niagara Es Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, p.209-244. carpment in Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Mem oir 289, 145p. 1968: Reply: Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Environments of some Wilderness (Ordovician) Limestones, Ottawa Valley, Ont Bolton, T.E. and Copeland, M.J. ario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 5, 1972: Paleozoic Formations and Silurian Biostratigraphy, Lake p.169-172. Timiskaming Region, Ontario and Quebec; Geological Sur vey of Canada, Paper 72-15, 22p. Barnett, P.J. 1978: Quaternary Geology of the Simcoe Area, Southern Ontario; Bond, I.J., Liberty, B.A., and Telford, P.G. Ontario Division of Mines, Geological Report 162, 74p. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Brampton Area, Southern Ont 1978: Quaternary Geology, Simcoe, Southern Ontario, Ontario ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2337, scale 1:50, Division of Mines, Map 2369, Geological Series, scale 000. 1:50,000. Bond, I.J. and Telford, P.G. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Bolton Area, Southern Ontario; Barnett, R.L., Arima, M., Blackwell, J.D., Winder, C.G., Pal Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2338, scale 1:50,000. mer, H.C., and Hayatsu, A. Boynton, R.S. 1984: The Picton and Varty Lake Ultramafic Dikes: Jurassic 1980: Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, 2nd Magnetism in the St. Lawrence Platform near Belleville, ed., John Wiley Se Sons, Inc., N.Y. Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 21, p. 1460-1472. Brigham, R.J. 1971: Structural Geology of Southwestern Ontario; Ontario De Bartlett, J.R., Brock, B.S., Moore, J.M., Jr., and Thivierge, partment of Mines and Northern Affairs, Paper 71-2, R.H. HOp. 1984:—Field Trip 9A/10A: Grenville Traverse A, Cross-Sections of Parts of the Central Metasedimentary Belt; Geological Bright, E.G. Association of Canada, May 1984. 1977: Regional Structure and Stratigraphy of the Eels Lake Area, Haliburton and Peterborough Counties; p. 110-117 in Sum Bartlett, J.R. and Moore, J.M., Jr. mary of Field Work, 1977, by the Geological Branch, ed 1985: Geology of Belmont, Marmora, and Southern Methuen ited by V.G. Milne, O.L. White, R.B. Barlow, and J.A. Townships, Peterborough and Hastings Counties, Ontario; Robertson, Ontario Geological Survey, MP 75, 208 p. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5537, 236p. Burwasser, G.J. 1974: Quaternary Geology of the Collingwood-Nottawasaga Bates, R.L. and Jackson, J.A. Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 1980: Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute, 2nd P. 919, Geological Series - Preliminary Map, scale edition, Falls Church, Virginia, 749p. 1:50,000. Bennett, G., Brown, D.D., George, P.T., and Leahy, E.J. Caley, J.F. 1967: Operation Kapuskasing; Ontario Department of Mines, 1940: Paleozoic Geology of the Toronto-Hamilton Area, Ont Miscellaneous Paper 10, 98 p. ario; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 224, 284p.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 129 1941: Paleozoic Geology of the Brantford Area, Ontario; Geo 1981: Paleozoic Geology of the Kaladar-Tweed Area, Southern logical Survey of Canada, Memoir 226, 176p. Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map 1941: Port Dover, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map P.2411, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 619A, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. 1981: Paleozoic Geology of the Tichborne-Sydenham Area, 1941: Toronto-Hamilton, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map 584A, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. Map P.2413, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1941: Waterloo, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1981: Preliminary Report on the Paleozoic Geology of the Peter- 624A, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. borough-Campbellford Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5331, 84p. 1942: Huron, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 691A, 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Bath-Yorkshire Island Area, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map 1943: Palaeozoic Geology of the London Area, Ontario; Geologi P.2497, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale cal Survey of Canada, Memoir 237, 171p. 1:50,000. 1945: Owen Sound Area, Ontario, East Part; Geological Survey 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Brockville-Mallorytown Area, of Canada, Preliminary Map 45-18, scale l inch to 2 Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map miles, or 126,720. P.2495, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1945: Owen Sound Area, Ontario, West Part; Geological Survey 1:50,000. of Canada, Preliminary Map 45-18, scale l inch to 2 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Gananoque-Wolfe Island Area, miles, or 126,720. Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map 1945: Preliminary Map, Owen Sound, Ontario; Geological Sur P.2496, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale vey of Canada, Paper 45-18. 1:50,000. 1945: Windsor-Sarnia, Essex, Kent, and Lambton Counties, 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Kemptville Area, Southern Ont Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 828A, scale l ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2493, Geological inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1946: Paleozoic Geology of the Windsor-Sarnia Area, Ontario; 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Merrickville Area, Southern Ont Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 240, 227p. ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2494, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Caley, J.F. and Liberty, B.A. 1982: Preliminary Report on the Paleozoic Geology of the South 1950: Beaverton Area, Ontario, York, and Victoria Counties, ern Portion of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Southern Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Preliminary Map Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 50-11B, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. 5385, 49p. 1950: Orillia-Brechin Area, Simcoe, Ontario, and Victoria Carter, M.W. Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Prelimi 1981: Shining Tree Area, Districts of Sudbury and Timiskaming; nary Map 50-11A, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5346, 67 p., 1950: Preliminary Maps, Orilla-Brechin and Beaverton, Ontario; 2 tables, 8 figures and l map. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 50-11, 7p. Cassa, M.R. and Kissling, D.L. 1952: Fenelon Falls Area, Victoria, Peterborough, and Halibur 1982: Field Trip A-2: Carbonate facies of the Onondaga and ton Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Pre Bois Blanc Formations, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario; liminary Map 52-31A, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. p.65-97; in Geology of the Northern Appalachian Basin, 1952: Preliminary Map, Fenelon Falls-Victoria, Peterborough Western New York, E.J. Buehler and P.E. Calkin (eds), and Haliburton Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of New York State Geological Association, 54th Annual Canada, Paper 52-31, 8p. Meeting, Field Trip Guidebook, 385p.

Card, K.D. and Innes, D.G. Cirkel, F. and Bell, J.J. 1908: Non-Metallic Structural Materials, Ontario; p.657-830, in 1981: Geology of the Benny Area, District of Sudbury; Ontario Geological Survey, Report 206, 117 p. Report on the Mining and Metallurgical Industries of Can ada; Canada Department of Mines, Mines Branch, Publi Carson, D.M. cation No. 24, 972p. 1980: Paleozoic Geology of the Bannockburn-Campbellford Constable, D.W. Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Pre 1986: Report on the Calcite Property for Raretech Minerals Inc., liminary Map P.2374, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Parkin Township, Ontario; unpublished report, copy on 1980: Paleozoic Geology of the Burleigh Falls-Peterborough file, Engineering and Terrain Geology Section, Ontario Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey Pre Geological Survey. liminary Map P. 2337, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Cooper, A.J. and Plewman, R. 1980: Paleozoic Geology of the Trenton-Consecon area, Southern 1983: Optimum Usage of Stone Resources, Ridgemount Quarry, Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map Fort Erie, Ontario; p.231-244, in Proceedings of the 18lh P.2375, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Forum on Geology of Industrial Minerals, Theme: Con 1981: Paleozoic Geology of the Belleville-Wellington Area, struction Materials, edited by C.H. Ault and G.S. Wood Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary ward, Indiana Geological Survey, Occassional Paper 37, Map P.2412, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 251p.

130 Limestone Industries of Ontario Cowan, W.R. Finamore, P.F. and Bajc, A.F. 1975: Quaternary Geology of the Woodstock Area, Southern Ont 1983: Quaternary Geology of the Fenelon Falls Area, Southern ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Geological Report 119, Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2596, Geologi 91p. cal Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1975: Quaternary Geology, Woodstock, Southern Ontario; Ont 1984: Quaternary Geology of the Orillia Area, Southern Ontario; ario Division of Mines, Map 2281, Geological Series, scale Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2697, Geological Series 1:50,000. - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Cowell, D.W. Ford, M.J. 1982: Earth Sciences of the Hudson Bay Lowland: Literature Re 1986: Industrial Minerals of the Cargill Township and Martison view ond Annotated Bibliographies; Lands Directorate, Lake Carbonatite Complexes; p. 325-330 in Summary of Environment Canada, Working Paper No. 18, 309p. Field Work and Other Activities 1986, by the Ontario Geo logical Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. White, Dickson, T. R.B. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Colvine, Ontario 1987: U.S. Plastics, A Growing Mineral Market; Industrial Min Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, 435 p. Ac erals; Feb. 1987,p. 50. companied by l Chart. Diffendal, R.F., Jr. Freeman, E.B. 1971: The Biostratigraphy of the Delaware Limestone (Middle 1978: Geology of the Greater Toronto Region; Geological and Devonian) of Southwestern Ontario; unpublished PhD. Mineralogical Associations of Canada, Joint Annual Meet Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, ing, Toronto '78, Field Trips Guidebook, p.84-92. U.S.A., 208p. Gibson, T.W. Dolar-Mantuani, L. 1906: Statistical Review of 1905; p. 1-38; in Report of the Bureau 1975: Petrography and Utilization of Paleozoic Middle Ordovician of Mines, Ontario Bureau of Mines, Annual Report, Vol Carbonate Rocks in Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of ume XV, Part I, 218p. Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 42, 59p. Gill, R. and Scott, W. 1983: A Discussion of the Paper A Chemical Approach to the 1987: The relative effects of different calcium carbonate filler pig Problem of Alkali Reactive Carbonate Aggregates by M.E. ments on optical properties; TAPPI Journal, Jan. 1987, Pagano and P.D. Cady; Cement and Concrete Research, p.93. Vol. 13, p.583. Gillespie, P. Easton, R.M. 1905: Cement Industry in Ontario; p. 118-183; in Report of the 1986: Paleoenvironment and Facies of the Apsley Formation, Bureau of Mines, Ontario Bureau of Mines, Annual Re Peterborough County; p. 141-151 in Summary of Field port, Volume XIV, Part I, 374p. Work and Other Activities 1986, by the Ontario Geological Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. White, R.B. Gittins, J., Maclntyre, R.M., and York, D. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geo 1967: The Ages of Carbonatite Complexes in Eastern Canada; logical Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, 435 p. Accompa Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 651-655. nied by l Chart. Gorman, W.A. and Code, J.A. Ehlers, G.M. and Stumm, E.C. 1972: Engineering Geology of Eastern Canada - Southern Ont 1951: Middle Devonian Columbus Limestone near Ingersoll, Ont ario; Excursion C-51b Guidebook, 24th International Geo ario; American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulle logical Congress, Montreal, 53p. tin, Volume 35, p.1879-1888. Goudge, M.F. Fahselt, D., Maycock, P., Winder, G., and Campbell, C. 1933: Canadian Limestones for Building Purposes; Department of 1979: The Oriskany Sandstone Outcrop and Associated Natural Mines, Mines Branch, Publication No. 733, 196p. Features, a Unique Occurrence in Canada; Canadian Field 1938: Limestones of Canada, Their Occurrence and Characteris Naturalist, Vol. 93, p.28-40. tics - Part IV-Ontario; Canada Department of Mines and Feenstra, B.H. Resources, Bureau of Mines, Publication Number 781, 362p. 1972: Quaternary Geology of the Niagara Area, Southern Ont ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map P.764, Grancher, R.A. Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1986: U.S. Cement: Record Demand and Basic Change; Indus 1972: Quaternary Geology of the Welland Area, Southern Ont trial Minerals, Nov. 1986, p.61. ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map P.796, Grant, T.W. and Kingston, P.W. Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1984: Geology and Geochemistry of Grenville Marble in South 1974: Quaternary Geology of the Dunnville Area, Southern Ont eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Re ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map P.981, port 5509, 297 p., 4 tables, 27 figures, 4 photos and l map scale 1:50,000. in back pocket. Ferrigno, K.F. Grant, W.T. and Owsiacki, L. 1971: Environmental influences on the distribution and abun 1987: An Evaluation of the Lake Timiskaming Paleozoic Outlier dance of Conodonls from the Dundee Limestone for Potentially Exploitable Limestone and Dolostone De (Devonian), St. Mary's, Ontario; Canadian Journal of posits; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5661, Earth Sciences, Volume 8, p. 378-386. I53p.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 131 Gratton-Bellew, P.E., Sereda, P.J. and Dolar-Mantuani, L.M. accompanying Industrial Minerals Report 23, scale l inch 1978: The Aggregate Shortage and High-alkali Cement in a to l mile, or 1:63,360. Changing Energy Situation; Canadian Journal of Civil En 1972: Paleozoic Geology of Southern Ontario; Ontario Depart gineering, vol. 5, p.250-261. ment of Mines, Geological Report 105, 18p. Guillet, G.R. Hewitt, D.F. and Vos, M.A. 1964: Fluorspar in Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, In 1972: The Limestone Industries of Ontario; Ontario Department dustrial Mineral Report 12. of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 39, 79p. 1969: Marl in Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Industrial Mineral Report 28, 127 p., 7 tables, 2 figures, incl. Map Hogarth, D.D. and Rushforth, P. 2183. 1986: Carbonatites and Fenites near Ottawa, Ontario and 1983: Mineral Resources of South-Central Ontario; Ontario Geo Gatineau, Quebec; Geological Association of Canada - logical Survey, Open File Report 5431, 155p. Mineralogical Association of Canada - Canadian Geo physical Union, Annual Meeting, Guidebook to Fieldtrip Guillet, G.R. and Kriens, J. 9B, 22p. 1984: Ontario and the Mineral Filler Industry; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral Background Paper Hon, V. 5, 175p. 1970: A Study of Some Post-Cambrian Dike Rocks in Southeast ern Ontario; unpublished BSc. Thesis, Carleton Univer Guillet, G.R. and Joyce, I.H. sity, Ottawa, Ontario, 41p. 1987: The Clay and Shale Industries of Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 157p. Hume, G.S. 1916: Paleozoic Rocks of Lake Timiskaming; p. 188-192, in Geo Gwyn, Q.H.J. and Thibault, J.J.L. logical Survey of Canada, Summary Report for 1916, 419p. 1975: Quaternary Geology of the Hawkesbury-Lachute Area, 1925: The Paleozoic Outlier of Lake Timiskaming, Ontario and Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Quebec; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 145, 129p. Map P. 1010, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Johnson, M.D. Harben, P. 1983: Oil Shale Assessment Project, Deep Drilling Results 1986: Could every Acid Rain Cloud Have A Limestone Lining?, 1982/1983, Toronto Region; Ontario Geological Survey, Industrial Minerals, Aug. 1986, p.64-68. Open File Report 5477, 17 p. Heinrich, E.W. Johnson, M.D. and Telford, P.G. 1966: The Geology of Carbonatites; Rand McNally and Com 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Kagawong Area, District of pany, Chicago, 555 p. Manitoulin; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2669, Geo Hewitt, D.F. logical Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1960: The Limestone Industries of Ontario; Ontario Department 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Little Current Area, District of of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 5, 177p. Manitoulin; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2670, Geo logical Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1964: The Limestone Industries of Ontario, 1958-1963; Ontario Department of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 13, 77p. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Meldrum Bay Area, District of Manitoulin; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2667, Geo 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Introduction Part I; Ontario logical Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Department of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 14, 43p. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Silver Lake Area, District of 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Limestone Part II; Ontario Manitoulin; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map Department of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 15, 41p. P.2668, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1964: Building Stones of Ontario - Part III, Marble; Ontario De partment of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 16, 89p. Johnson, M.D., Russell, D.J., and Telford, P.G. 1964: Geology, Gananoque Area, Ontario; Ontario Department 1983: Oil Shale Assessment Project, Volume l, Shallow Drilling of Mines, Map 2054, scale l inch to 2 miles, or Results 1981/82; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Re 1:126,720. port 5459, 20p. 1985: Oil Shale Assessment Project, Drillholes for Regional Cor 1964: Geology, Madoc Area, Ontario; Ontario Department of relation 1983/84; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Mines, Map 2053, scale l inch to 2 miles, or 1:126,720. Report 5565, 49p. 1968: Geology of Madoc and the North Part of Huntingdon Township; Ontario Department of Mines, Geological Re Kanarek, J.V. port 73, 45p. 1986: The Geology of the Adair Marble Quarry, Wiarton, Ont 1968: Madoc Township and Part of Huntingdon Township, Hast ario; unpublished M.Se. Thesis, Department of Geological ings County, Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Map Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, 2154, scale l inch to 1/2 mile, or 1:31,680. 99p. 1968: The Portland Cement Industry in Ontario; Ontario Depart Karrow, P.P. ment of Mines, Industrial Mineral Report 25, 17p. 1963: Pleistocene Geology of the Galt Area, Southern Ontario; 1968: Industrial Mineral Resources of the Hamilton Area; Ont Ontario Department of Mines, Map 2029, scale l inch to l ario Department of Mines, Industrial Mineral Report 27, mile, or 1:63,360. 26p. 1963: Pleistocene Geology of the Hamilton Area, Southern Ont 1969: Brampton Area, Southern Ontario: Industrial Minerals Re ario; Ontario Department of Mines, Map 2033, scale l sources Sheet; Ontario Department of Mines, Map 2176, inch to l mile, or 1:63,360.

132 Limestone Industries of Ontario 1963: Pleistocene Geology of the Hamilton Area, Southern Ont Leyland, J.G. and Russell, T.S. ario; Ontario Department of Mines, Map 2033, scale l 1983: Quaternary Geology of the Bath-Yorkshire Island Area, inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map 1968: Pleistocene Geology of the Guelph Area, Southern Ontario; P.2588, Geological Series - Preliminary Map, scale Ontario Department of Mines, Map 2153, scale l inch to l 1:50,000. mile, or 1:63,360. 1984: Quaternary Geology of the Sydenham Area, Southern Ont 1983: Quaternary Geology of the Cambridge Area, Southern Ont ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2587, Geological ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2604, Geological Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Series - Preliminary Map, or 1:50,000. Liberty, B.A. 1987: Quaternary Geology of the Brampton Area, Western Half, 1953: Orr Lake Area, Simcoe County, Ontario; Geological Sur Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map vey of Canada, Preliminary Map 53-16, scale l inch to l P. 3072, Geological Series - Preliminary Map, scale mile, or 1:63,360. 1:50,000. 1953: Preliminary Map, Orr Lake - Simcoe County, Ontario; Kobluk, D.R. and Brookfield, M.E. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 53-16, 4 p. 1982: Excursion 12A: Lower Paleozoic Carbonate Rocks and 1960: Belleville and Wellington map areas, Ontario; Geological Paleoenvironments in Southern Ontario; International Survey of Canada Paper 60-31, 9p. Asssociation of Sedimentologists, lith International Con 1960: Belleville Area, Prince Edward, Hastings, and Lennox and gress on Sedimentology, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, Addington Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of Can Guidebook 12A, 62p. ada, Map 45-1960, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. 1960: Rice Lake-Port Hope and Trenton Map Areas, Ontario; Koniuszy, Z. and Katona, Z.L. Geological Survey of Canada Paper 60-14, 4p. 1981: Investigation of Performance of Granular Base Aggregates 1960: Trenton Area, Northumberland, Hastings, and Prince Ed from the Dundee and Detroit River Carbonate Rocks in Es ward Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, sex County, Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Transportation Map 17-1960, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. and Communications, Engineering Materials Office, Mate 1963: Geology of Tweed, Kaladar, and Bannockburn Map Ar rials Information Report No. 50, 84p. eas, Ontario, with Special Emphasis on Middle Ordovician Koniuszy, Z. and Rogers, C. Stratigraphy; Geological Survey of Canada Paper 63-14, 1983: A Summary of Aggregate Durability Investigations of A.G. 15p. Cook Quarry, Waubaushene, Ontario; Ontario Ministry of 1963: Tweed Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map Transportation and Communications, Engineering Materi 24-1963, scale l inch to l mile or 1:63,360. als Office, Materials Information Report No. 54, 28p. 1966: Geology, Cape Croker, Ontario; Geological Survey of Can ada, Map 19-1965, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Lauzon, M. 1968: Ordovician and Silurian Stratigraphy of Manitoulin Island, 1987: Additives, Plastics Team Up In Capturing New Markets; Ontario; p.25-37, in The Geology of Manitoulin Island, Canadian Plastics; April 1987, p.20. Michigan Basin Geological Society, Annual Field Trip Lea, P.M. Guidebook, lOlp. 1970: The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete; 3rd edition, Ed 1969: Geology, Lake Simcoe Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of ward Arnold, London. Canada, Map 1228A, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. Lee, P.J. and Winder, C.G. 1969: Palaeozoic Geology of the Lake Simcoe Area, Ontario; 1967: Fabric of a Middle Ordovician Limestone at Colborne, Geological Survey of Canada Memoir 355, 201p. Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, 1971: Bath Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map p.529-540. 19-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Leyland, J.G. 1971: Gananoque Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, 1982: Quaternary Geology of the Belleville Area, Southern Ont Map 18-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2540, Geological 1971: Paleozoic Geology of Wolfe Island, Bath, Sydenham and Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Gananoque Areas, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada Paper 70-35, 12p. Leyland, J.G. and Michychuk, M. 1971: Sydenham Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, 1983: Quaternary Geology of the Tweed Area, Southern Ontario; Map 17-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2615, Geological Series 1971: Wolfe Island Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Map 20-1970, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. 1984: Quaternary Geology of the Campbellford Area, Southern 1972: Meldrum Bay Area, Manitoulin District; Ontario Division Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2532, Geologi of Mines, Map 2244, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. cal Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1984: Quaternary Geology of the Trenton-Consecon Area, Liberty, B.A. and Bolton, T.E. Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map 1971: Paleozoic Geology of the Bruce Peninsula Area, Ontario; P.2586, Geological Series - Preliminary Map, scale Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 360, 163p. Accom 1:50,000. panied by Map 1194A, scale 1:253,440.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 133 Liberty, B.A., Bond, I.J., and Telford, P.G. Miller, W.G. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Hamilton Area, Southern Ont 1904: The Limestones of Ontario; Ontario Bureau of Mines, An ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2336, scale nual Report Volume XIII, Part II, 143p. 1:50,000. Mirynech, E. and Liberty, B.A. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Orangeville Area, Southern On 1964: Field Trip No.2, Itenerary; p. 25-36, in Geology of Cen tario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2339, scale tral Ontario, edited by M.J. Copeland, American Associa 1:50,000. tion of Petroleum Geologists and Society of Econcomic Pa 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Dundalk Area, Southern Ontario; leontologists and Mineralogists, Field Trip Guidebook, Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2340, scale 1:50,000. 97p. Liberty, B.A., Feenstra, B.H., and Telford, P.G. Moore, J.M. Jr. and Morton, R.L. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Grimsby Area, Southern Ontario; 1980: Geology of the Clarendon Lake Area, Counties of Fron- Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2343, scale 1:50,000. tenac and Lennox and Addington; Ontario Geological Sur vey, Open File Report 5316, 83 p. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Niagara Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2344, scale 1:50,000. Morton, J.D., King, R.C.F., and Kalin, M. W. 1979: Quaternary Geology of the New Liskeard Area, District of Logan, W. Timiskaming; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map 1863: The Geology of Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Re P.2291, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. port of Progress to 1863, 983p. Nattress, T. Lovell, H.L. 1902: The Corniferous Exposure in Anderdon; p. 123-127, in 1977: Geology of the Englehart-Earlton Area, District of Timis Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario Bureau of kaming; Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper Mines, Annual Report for 1901, Volume XI, 309p. 69, 16p. Norris, A.W. Lovell, H.L. and Caine, T.W. 1986: Review of Hudson Platform Paleozoic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy; p. 17-42, in Canadian Inland Seas, I.P. 1970: Lake Timiskaming Rift Valley; Ontario Department of Mines, Miscellaneous Paper 39, 16 p. Martini (editor), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 494p. Norris, A.W., Sanford, B.V., and Bell, R.T. Lovell, H.L. and Frey, E.D. 1968: Bibliography on Hudson Bay Lowlands; p.47-118; in Ge 1974: Geology of Harley and Diamond Townships, District of ology of the Hudson Bay Lowlands by B.V. Sanford, A. W. Timiskaming; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2301, scale Norris, and H.H. Bostock, Geological Survey of Canada, 1:31,680. Paper 67-60, 118p. 1976: Geology of the New Liskeard Area, District of Timiskam ing; Ontario Division of Mines, Geoscience Report 144, North, R. B. 34p. 1984: Calcium Carbonate - A Changing Market; Industrial Min erals, Pigments and Extenders Supplement, June 1984, Lumbers, S.B. p.43. 1964: Preliminary Report on the Relationship of Mineral Deposits Okulitch, V.J. to Intrusive Rocks and Metamorphism in Part of the Gren ville Province of Southeastern Ontario; Ontario Department 1939: The Ordovician Section at Coboconk, Ontario; Transac of Mines, P.R. 1964-4, 37 p. tions of the Royal Canadian Institute, Vol. 22, Part 2, 1982: Geology of the Renfrew area, Ontario; Ontario Geological p.319-339. Survey, Map 2462, Precambrian Geology Series, scale Oliver, W.A., Jr. 1:100,000. 1976: Noncystimorph Colonial Rugose Corals of the Onse- 1982: Summary of Metallogeny, Renfrew County Area; Ontario quethaw and Lower Cazenovia Stages (Lower Devonian) in Geological Survey, Report 212, 58p. New York and Adjacent Areas; United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 869, 156p. Matten, E.E. 1982: A Simplified Procedure for Forecasting Demand for Min Osbourne, F.F. eral Aggregate in Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Natural Re 1931: Non-metallic Mineral Resources of Hastings County; Ont sources, Industrial Mineral Background Paper 4, 184p. ario Department of Mines, Annual Report for 1930, Vol. 39, Part 6, p.22-59. Meyn, H.D. 1968: Geology of Hutton and Parkin Townships, District of Sud Owen, E.B. bury; Ontario Department of Mines, Geological Branch, 1972: Geology and Engineering Description of the Soils in the Open File Report 5015, approx. lOOp. Welland-Port Colborne Area, Ontario (30 L714g Se 30 1977: Geology of Afton, Scholes, Macbeth, and Clement Town L714b); Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 71-49, with ships, Districts of Sudbury and Nipissing; Ontario Geologi Map 8-1971, 7p. cal Survey, Report 170, 77 p. 1972: Surficial Geology, Welland-Port Colborne, Ontario; Geo Michigan Geological Society logical Survey of Canada, Map 8-1971, scale 1:25,000. 1955: The Niagara Escarpment of Peninsular Ontario, Canada; Owsiaki, L. Michigan Geological Society, Annual Field Trip Guide 1987: Cobalt Resident Geologist's Area, Northeastern Ontario; book, 49p. p.219-232 in Report of Acitivities, 1986, Regional and

134 Limestone Industries of Ontario Resident Geologists, Ontario Geological Survey Miscellane Communications, Engineering Materials Office, Report ous Paper 134, 322p. EM-36, 72p. Pagano, M.A. and Cady, P.O. 1983: Search for Skid Resistant Aggregates in Ontario; 1982: A Chemical Approach to the Problem of Alakli Reactive p. 185-205 in Proceedings of the 19th Forum on the Geol Carbonate Aggregates; Cement and Concrete Research, ogy of Industrial Minerals, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 114, 216p. Vol. 12, p.1-12. 1985: Evaluation of the Potential for Expansion and Cracking due Parks, W.A. to the Alkali-Carbonate Reactions; Ontario Ministry of 1903: Fossiliferous Rocks of Southwest Ontario; p. 141-156; in Transportation and Communications, Engineering Materi Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario Bureau of Mines, als Office, Report EM-75, 38p. Annual Report, Volume XII, 354p. Rukavina, M. 1912: Report on the Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada, 1987: Tandem Loading Spurs Production; Rock Products, Febru Vol. 1; Canada Mines Branch, Report No. 100, 376p. ary 1987, p.75-78. 1928: Faunas and Stratigraphy of the Ordovician black shales and related rocks in Southern Ontario; Transactions of the Rushforth, P. Royal Society of Canada, Third Series, Volume 22, Section 1985: A Petrological Study of Some Intrusive Carbonate Dikes, 4, p. 39-90. near Blackburn Hamlet; unpublished B.Se. Thesis, Uni Parsons, G.E. versity of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, 51p. 1961: Niobium Bearing Complexes East of Lake Superior; On Russell, D.J. tario Department of Mines; Geological Report 3, 73 p. Ac 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Lake Timiskaming area, Timis companied by Maps 2005 to 2008, scale 1:15,840 or l inch to 1/4 mile. kaming District; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.2700, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Pauk, L. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of St. Joseph Island, Algoma District; 1984: Geology of the Dalhousie Lake Area, Frontenac and Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2835, Geological Se Lanark Counties; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5517, 116 p., 7 tables, 4 photos, incl. Map ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. P.2533. Russell, D.J. and Telford, P.G. Peat, Marwick Si. Partners and M. M. Dillon Ltd. 1983: Revisions to the Stratigraphy of the Upper Ordovician Col 1980: Mineral Aggregate Transportation Study: Final Report; lingwood Beds of Ontario - A Potential Oil Shale; Cana Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral dian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 20, p. 1780-1790. Background Paper l, 133p. Russell, D.J. and Williams, D.A. Plumpton, J. Cotnoir, D, and Cloutier, G. H. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Cobden Area, Southern Ontario; 1987: Some Technical And Market Challenges For High Value- Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2730, Geological Se Added Industrial Minerals Production in Canada; Proceed ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. ings of 89th Annual General Meeting of CIM in Toronto, May, 1987. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Golden Lake Area, Southern Ont ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2729, Geological Poole, W.H., Sanford, B.V., Williams, H., and Kelley, D.G. Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1970: Geology of Southeastern Canada; p.227-304, in Geology 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Pembroke Area, Southern Ont and Economic Minerals of Canada, R.J. W. Douglas (edi ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P. 2727, Geological tor), Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Re Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. port l, 5th Edition, 838p. Ryell, J., Chojnacki, B., Woda, G., and Koniuszy, Z.D. Power, T. 1974: The Uhthoff Quarry Alkali-carbonate Rock Reaction: a 1985: Limestone Specifications: Limiting Constraints on the Laboratory and Field Performance Study; Ontario Ministry Market; Industrial Minerals, Oct. 1985, p. 65. of Transportation and Communications, Cement-Aggre Proctor and Redfern Ltd. gate Reactions, Transportation Research Record No. 525, 1974: Mineral Aggregate Study, Central Ontario Planning Re p.43-54. gion; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Sabina, A. 1975: Mineral Aggregate Study and Geological Inventory of parts of the eastern Ontario Region; Ontario Ministry of Natural 1970: Rocks and Minerals for the Collector: Hull - Maniwaki, Resources. Quebec, Ottawa - Peterborough, Ontario; Geological Sur vey of Canada, Paper 69-50, 177p. Proctor and Redfern Ltd. and Gartner Lee Associates Ltd. 1983: Rocks and Minerals for the Collector: Kingston, Ontario to 1977: Mineral Aggregate Study and Geological Inventory, South western Region of Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Natural Re Lac St-Jean, Quebec; Geological Survey of Canada, Mis sources. cellaneous Report 32, 130p. Reinecke, L. 1986: Rocks and Minerals for the Collector: Bancroft - Parry Sound Area, and Southern Ontario; Geological Survey of 1916: Road Material Surveys in 1914; Geological Survey of Can Canada, Miscellaneous Report 39, 182p. ada, Memoir 85, 244p. 1986: Rocks and Minerals for the Collector: Buckingham - Rogers, C.A. Mount Laurier - Grenville, Quebec; Hawkesbury - Ot 1980: Search for Skid Resistant Aggregates in Eastern Ontario: tawa, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Miscellane Interim Report; Ontario Ministry of Transportation and ous Report 33, 90p.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 135 Sado, E.V., White, O.L., and Lee, P.K. Satterly, J. 1985: The Urban and Environmental Geology of the Toronto Re 1943: Mineral Occurrences in Parry Sound District; Ontario De gion; Edgeo Conference, NAGT (National Association of partment of Mines, Annual Report for 1942, Volume 51, Geology Teachers) Eastern Section Meeting, OAGEE Part 2, 86 p. Spring Conference Field Trip Guidebook, 32p. 1945: Mineral Occurrences in the Renfrew area; Ontario Depart ment of Mines, Annual Report, Volume 53, Part 3, 139p. Sage, R.P. 1968: Aeromagnetic Maps of Carbonatite-Alkalic Complexes in 1983: Geology of the Firesand River Carbonatite Complex; On Ontario; Ontario Department of Mines, Preliminary Map tario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5403, 136 p., 9 P.452 (revised). tables, 3 figures and l map in back pocket. Schoft, T.J.M. 1983: Geology of the Prairie Lake Carbonatite Complex; Ontario 1966: Conodonts of the Trenton Group (Ordovician) in New Geological Survey, Open File Report 5412, 133 p., 3 pho York, Southern Ontario, and Quebec; New York State Mu tos, 6 tables, 8 figures. seum and Science Service, Bulletin No. 405, 105p. 1983: Geology of the Cargill Township Carbonatite Complex, District of Cochrane; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Scott, D.W. Report 5400, 46 p., 2 tables, 2 figures, l appendix, l 1983: Structural Industrial Minerals in Ontario; p.20-32 in Pro map. ceedings of the 19th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 1983: Geology of the Spanish River Carbonatite Complex; On 114, 216p. tario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5416, 115 p., 2 tables and 4 figures. Scott, D.W. and Yundt, S.E. 1983: Industrial Mineral Industries (Aggregate, Stone, and Sandvik, P.O. and Erdosh, G. Glass), Field Trip B; p.23-48, in 19th Forum on the Geol 1977: Geology of the Cargill Phosphate Deposit in Northern On ogy of Industrial Minerals, edited by S.E. Yundt, Ontario tario; Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Bulle Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 111, Guidebook tin, Vol. 70, Number 777, p. 90-96. for Field Trips, 48p. Sanford, B.V. Schwarzkopf, F. 1969: Silurian of Southwestern Ontario; Geological Survey of 1980: Lime Hydration Systems; Kennedy Van Saun Corp., Dan Canada, Technical Paper No. 5, Eighth Annual Confer ville, Pa. ence, Ontario Petroleum Institute, 44p. 1981: Lime Burning Technology; 2nd edition, Kennedy Van Saun Corp., Danville, Pa., Sanford, B.V. and Brady, W.B. Segall, R.T. and Dunn, R.A. (editors) 1954: Windsor-Sarnia, Essex, Kent, and Lambton Counties, 1972: Niagaran Stratigraphy: Hamilton, Ontario; Michigan Ba Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 828A, Second sin Geological Society, Annual Field Excursion, Guide Edition, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. book, 89 p. 1955: Palaeozoic Geology of the Windsor-Sarnia Area, Ontario; Sharpe, D.R. and Edwards, W.A.D. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 278, Supplement to 1975: Quaternary Geology of the Merrickville Area, Southern Memoir 240, 65p. Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map Sanford, B.V. and Norris, A.W. P.991, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1975: Devonian Stratigraphy of the Hudson Platform, Part 1: Sharpe, D.R. and Jamieson, G.R. Stratigraphy and Economic Geology and Part 2: Outcrop 1982: Quaternary Geology of the Wiarton Area, Southern Ont and Subsurface Sections; Geological Survey of Canada ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2559, Geological Memoir 379, 124 (fc 248p. Series - Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Sanford, B.V., Norris, A.W., and Bostock, H.H. Shaw, E.W. 1968: Geology of the Hudson Bay Lowlands (Operation Winisk); 1937: The Guelph and Eramosa Formation of the Ontario Penin Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 67-69, 118p. sula; Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, Vol. 21, Part 2, no. 46, p.317-162. Sanford, B.V. and Quinlan, R.G. Siemiatkowska, K.M. 1959: Subsurface Stratigraphy of Upper Cambrian rocks in South 1978: Geology of the Endikai Lake Area, District of Algoma; western Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Ontario Geological Survey, Report 178, 79 p. 58-12, 33p. Smith, P. Sanford, B.V., Thompson, F.J., and McFall, G.H. 1964: Learning to Live with a Reactive Carbonate Rock; Sympo sium on Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reactions, Ontario Minis 1985: Plate Tectonics - A Possible Controlling Mechanism in the try of Transportation and Communications, Highway Re Development of Hydrocarbon Traps in Southwestern Ont search Record No. 45, p. 126-133. ario; Bulletin of the Canadian Society of Petroleum Geolo gists, Vol. 33, p.52-71. 1974: 15 Years of Living at Kingston with a Reactive Carbonate Rock; Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communi Sanford, J.T. cations, Cement-Aggregate Reactions, Transportation Re 1972: Niagaran-Alexandrian (Silurian) Stratigraphy and Tec search Record No. 525, p.23-27. tonics; p.42-56, in Niagara Stratigraphy: Hamilton, Ont Speed, A.A., Mason, J.K., and Vos, M.A. ario, R.T. Segall and R.A. Dunn (editors), Michigan Ba 1985: Lime Resources of the Thunder Bay Area; Ontario Geo sin Geological Society, Annual Excursion, Guidebook, logical Survey, Open File Report 5566, 173 p., l map and 89p. l appendix.

136 Limestone Industries of Ontario Stauffer, C.R. of Geology Teachers) Eastern Section Meeting, OAGEE 1915: The Devonian of Southwestern Ontario; Geological Survey Spring Conference Field Trip Guidebook, 15p. of Canada, Memoir 34, 341p. Telford, P.G. and Russell, D.J. Steele, H.M. and Sinclair, G.W. 1981: Paleozoic Geology of the Windsor-Essex and Pelee Island 1971: A Middle Ordovician Fauna from Braeside, Ottawa Valley, Area, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 211, 97 p. P.2396, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale Storey, C.C. 1:250,000. 1986: Building and Ornamental Stone Inventory in the Districts of Telford, P.G. and Tarrant, G.A. Kenora and Rainy River; Ontario Geological Survey, Min 1975: Paleozoic Geology of the Dunnville Area, Southern Ont eral Deposits Circular 27, 168 p. ario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map P.988, Storey, C.C. and Vos, M.A. Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. 1981: Industrial Minerals of the Pembroke-Renfrew Area, NTS 1975: Paleozoic Geology of the Welland-Fort Erie Area, South 31F, Part 1: Marble; Ontario Gelogical Survey, Mineral ern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map Deposists Circular 21, 132p. P.989, Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. Stumm, B.C., Kellum, L.B., and Wright, J.D. Thomson, R. 1956: Devonian Strata of the London-Sarnia Area, Southwestern 1956: Township of Bucke, District of Timiskaming; Ontario De Ontario, Canada; Michigan Geological Society, Annual partment of Mines, Map 1965a, scale l inch to 1/4 mile, Field Trip Guidebook, 2Ip. or 15,840. 1965: Casey and Harris Townships; Ontario Department of Subhash B.B. Mines, Geological Report 36, 77p. 1985: The Lime and Limestone Market for Sulfur Removal: Po tential for 1992; Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Upitis, U. Resources, Illinois Mineral Notes 90. 1964: Petrology of the Delaware and Uppermost Detroit River Swenson, E.G. Formations, St. Marys, Ontario; unpublished B.Se. The 1957: A Reactive Aggregate Undetected by ASTM Tests; Ameri sis, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, 46p. can Society for Testing and Materials, Bulletin No. 226, Uyeno, T.T. December, p.48-51. 1974: Conodonts of the Hull Formation, Ottawa Group of the Ot Swenson, E.G. and Gillot, J.E. tawa-Hull Area; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 1960: Characteristics of Kingston Carbonate Rock Reaction; Ont 248, 31p. ario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Uyeno, T.T., Telford, P.G., and Sanford, B.V. Highway Research Board, Bulletin No. 275, p. 18-31. 1982: Devonian Conodonts and Stratigraphy of Southwestern Telford, P.G. Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 332, 55p. 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Collingwood-Nottawasaga Area, Verschuren, C.P., Papertzian, V.C., Kingston, P.W., and Vil Southern Ontario; Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2341, lard, D.J. scale 1:50,000. 1986: Reconnaissance Survey of Building Stones of Eastern and 1976: Paleozoic Geology of the Guelph Area, Southern Ontario; Central Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Re Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2342, scale 1:50,000. port 5585, 302p. 1978: Silurian Stratigraphy of Niagara Escarpment, Niagara Falls Verschuren, C.P., van Haaften, S., and Kingston, P.W. to Bruce Peninsula; Geological and Mineralogical Associa 1985: Building Stones of Eastern Ontario; Ontario Geological tion of Canada Joint Annual Meeting, Toronto '78 Field Survey, Open File Report 5556, 116p. Trips Guidebook, p.28-42. 1979: Paleozoic Geology of the Cambridge Area, Southern Ont Vos, M.A. ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P. 1983, 1969: Stone Resources of the Niagara Escarpment; Ontario De Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. partment of Mines, Industrial Minerals Report 31, 68p. 1979: Paleozoic Geology of the Brantford Area, Southern On 1980: Industrial Minerals of the Alkalic Complexes; p. 179-182 tario; Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P. 1984, in Summary of Field Work, 1980, by the Ontario Geologi Geological Series, scale 1:50,000. cal Survey, edited by V.G. Milne, O.L. White, R.B. Bar low, J.A. Robertson and A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geological Telford, P.G. and Hamblin, A.P. Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 96, 201 p. 1980: Paleozoic Geology of the Simcoe Area, Southern Ontario; 1986: Precambrian Limestone Resources; p. 323-324 in Sum Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.2234, Geo mary of Field Work and Other Activities 1986, by the On logical Series, scale 1:50,000. tario Geological Survey, edited by P.C. Thurston, Owen L. White, R.B. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Colvine, Telford, P.G. and Johnson, M.D. Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 132, 435 1984: Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Southwestern Ontario; Geological p. Accompanied by l Chart. Association of Canada and Mineralogical Association of Waddington, J.B. Canada, Joint Annual Meeting, London, Ontario, Fieldtrip 1980: A Soft Substrate Community with Edrioasteroids, from the Guidebook l, 45p. Verulam Formation (Middle Ordovician) at Gamebridge, 1985: Silurian and Devonian Rocks of the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 17, Ontario; Edgeo Conference, NAGT (National Association p.674-679.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 137 Westgate, J.A. and Dreimanis, A. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Russell-Thurso Area, Southern 1967: The Pleistocene Sequence at Zorra, Southwestern Ontario; Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2717, Geologi Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 4, cal Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. p.1127-1143. Williams, D.A., Wolf, R.R., and Carson, D.M. Williams, D.A. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Cornwall-Huntington Area, in prep: Paleozoic Geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey Open File Re P.2720, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale port in preparation. 1:50,000. 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Morrisburg Area, Southern Ont Williams, D.A. and Rae, A.M. ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2722, Geological 1983: Paleozoic geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Southern Ontario; p. 107-110, in Summary of Field Work 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Winchester Area, Southern Ont 1983, edited by J. Wood, O.L. White, R.B. Barlow, and ario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2721, Geological A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Paper 116, 313p. Williams, D.A., Wolf, R.R., and Rae, A.M. Williams, D.A. and Telford, P.G. 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Arnprior-Quyon Area, Southern 1986: Paleozoic Geology of the Ottawa Area, Field Trip 8; Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2726, Geologi Guidebook, Geological and Mineralogical Associations of cal Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. Canada, and Canadian Geophysical Union, Joint Annual Meeting, 1986, Ottawa, Canada, 25p. Williams, M.Y. Williams, D.A. and Thompson, L.G.D. 1918: The Ontario Peninsula; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1715, scale l inch to 12 miles, or 1:760,320. 1986: Structural Setting of the Fluorite Vein Deposits of the Madoc area, Southern Ontario; p.347-350, in Summary of 1919: The Niagara Peninsula, Ontario; Geological Survey of Field Work and Other Activities 1986, Ontario Geological Canada, Map 1714, scale l inch to 4 miles, or 1:253,440. Survey Miscellaneous Paper 132, edited by P.C. Thurston, 1919: The Silurian Geology and Faunas of Ontario Peninsula, O.L. White, R.B. Barlow, M.E. Cherry, and A.C. Col and Manitoulin Island, and Adjacent Islands; Geological vine, 435p. Survey of Canada, Memoir 111, 195p. Williams, D.A. and Trotter, R. Wilson, A.E. 1984: Preliminary Hydrogeologic Investigation of Prince Edward 1921: The Range of Certain Lower Ordovician Faunas of the Ot County, Phase 1; unpublished report for the Prince Edward tawa Valley, with Descriptions of Some New Species; Geo Region Conservation Authority, 20p. logical Survey of Canada, Museum Bulletin 33, p. 19-29. 1937: Erosional Intervals Indicated by Contacts in the Vicinity of Williams, D.A. and Wolf, R.R. Ottawa, Ontario; Royal Society of Canada, Transactions, 1982: Paleozoic Geology of the Northern Part of the Ottawa-St. Third Series, Vol. 31, Section 4, p.45-60. Lawrence Lowland, Southern Ontario; p. 132-143, in 1946: Geology of the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland, Ontario Summary of Field Work 1982 edited by J.Wood, O.L. and Quebec; Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 241, White, R.B. Barlow, and A.C. Colvine, Ontario Geologi 66p. cal Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 106, 235p. 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Carleton Place Area, Southern Wilson, M.E. Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2725, Geologi 1940: Madoc, Hastings, Lennox and Addington Counties, Ont cal Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. ario; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 559A, scale l 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Perth Area, Southern Ontario; inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2724, Geological Se Winder, C.G. ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1954: Burleigh Falls and Peterborough Map Areas, Ontario; 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Westport Area, Southern Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 53-27, 7p. Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2723, Geological Se 1954: Burleigh Falls Area, Peterborough County, Ontario; Geo ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. logical Survey of Canada, Preliminary Map 53-27A, scale Williams, D.A., Rae, A.M., and Wolf, R.R. l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. 1984: Paleozoic Geology of the Ottawa Area, Southern Ontario; 1955: Campbellford Map Area, Ontario; Geological Survey of Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2716, Geological Se Canada, Paper 54-17, 12p. ries-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. 1955: Campbellford Area, Hastings, Northumberland and Peter 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Alexandria-Vaudreuil Area, borough Counties, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada, Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map Preliminary Map 54-17, scale 1:63,360. P. 2719, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1964: Conodont distribution in a Middle Ordovician Limestone; 1:50,000. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, 1985: Paleozoic Geology of the Hawkesbury-Lachute Area, Volume 48, 551 p. Southern Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Map 1966: Condonts from the Upper Cobourg Formation (Late Middle P. 2718, Geological Series-Preliminary Map, scale Ordovician) at Colborne, Ontario; Journal of Paleontology, 1:50,000. Vol. 40, p.46-63.

138 Limestone Industries of Ontario Winder, C.G. and Sanford, B.V. Wolf, R.R. 1972: Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Paleozoic Rocks of 1986: Paleozoic Geology of Cockburn Island, District of Southern Ontario; 24th International Geological Congress, Manitoulin; Ontario Geological Survey, Map P.2987, Geo Montreal, Canada, Field Excursion, A45-C45, Guide logical Series-Preliminary Map, scale 1:50,000. book, 73p. Wynne-Edwards, H.R. Winder, C.G., Barnes, C.R., Telford, P.G., and Uyeno, T.T. 1975: Ordovician to Devonian Stratigraphy and Conodont 1962: Geology, Gananoque, Ontario; Geological Survey of Can Biostratigraphy of Southern Ontario; p. 119-160, in Field ada, Map 27-1962, scale l inch to l mile, or 1:63,360. Excursions Guidebook, Part B: Phanerozoic Geology, P.G. 1963: Geology, Brockville-Mallorytown Area, Ontario; Geologi Telford (Editor), Geological Association of Canada, Wa cal Survey of Canada, Map 7-1963, scale l inch to l mile, terloo, 330p. or 1:63,360.

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 139 Appendix IV Inventory of All Known Paleozoic Limestone Quarries in Ontario

140 Limestone Industries of Ontario 'uT c o c "O g ra(rt b o T) o f? 3 ra b2 X m "2 P "-E E? TJ O O — - (D 3"P M *5 ra So0)"O H c 1 c bo o b -— ^f Wj (0 ^ ^ "O JC "g "g O 0) in in in o •g3w m ~-~ mS o~'go!!oo "S^P-c'S'E'SE-g'eEP'S^EP'SJ: -g JC JC JC JC JC ra ra ra o o o o o o o 5 2 5 o 8 E5 o o o ~ ra ra ra ra ra ra ra o •C — .J -1 —i ^ 5-i-JcocococoO552OO55 O5OSOOOO5OOOOlOOO5 2 ^ ^ ^ ^ 2 S 5 6 5 O O c c E E E E EE E E E 1 1 E E E E E^ E E| E E E^ ^ E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E 0 jjj 00 O v- o -^•^ooocom -r^oo -o -in - -in - -cooooinomcMoooomoco o 0 1^ T- o o co in oco 6 o l- c 00 d xr rt CC-....CD--T--O-CM ^--OO------1- CM CM rt o CO rt •* rt rt 1^ O T- CM

~7 ~7 "f ~7 ~~7 ~~7 S. ~7 ^- X-X-S-N-X- "~7 ~7 ~7 ~7 "^ ~7 ~7 ~7 "7 ~y ~~7 Z Z 4- 4- JZ- 4~ 4- 4- r — — ^- — s~ s s" ^ f f Z- ^. 4- 4- 4L. 4. 4- 4- f— 4~ — ^- z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z - Z

00000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0 o o o o o o o oooo "5 "5 "5 "? 'S "5 '5 "? "? '5 o b o b b bbbbbbbjj'J^^jj'jj^'J 111111111111111111 1 E E Z w "x i IIIIIII88888888 888888888888888888 8 8 8 8 8 888 8888 * * < CO ffi CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO

^T"~- in i 00 "00 CO O O CO CM r- CM CO T 7*1" m"^ (0 TT CM m O 1^ 3 r-cobcMO)o ocx)lfl co^7 c)CV'n c?7 C)l?T CV 00 '~ (v' cv'co T"oo'~ in ? Ci' Tt T ^ (^ uin' 2rt ^i- CM 00 CM T- ~" CO "T ^ 2- 72 ^ m -r- 2 CM CM CM CM 2oB

LL c c c c 0 0 o 0 ^ CD LL — — 0 "~ ^ _ LL LL _ _ _ LL LL — — -r CO o ~ ^ = ccX'> '> •:> 5>> = = = ^X — — > — — = >^ = = = — >SX = = X X x X X c 5 > > H zz = Q 9 X X X -* •5" "~ o 0 5 J* j? ::: H -^ o o o O ^ ea oo CO CO

III 5 g illl oooo ^^^ o o o o oooo "O "O "g a ra o "o -o ^ ^ ®^ ca jcJcJci-^o'o'ffl' a*^o**- S)*" ®*- o^. C* JC JC JC JC JC JC JC T3 O m Q) in "x2 "x2 b •o^^ nJ*o*o*0'w'P'2w c ^ 'i^o'oTB'o^Sw'Pwww "2-n c"o ci ^S CO CO c S f o* "o o o b O O 0 0 V in x w ^ ^ ra ra ra ra ra ra O 0 g LU ^lij p N N N N N N l 1 fo^llSSo Hllll^flls Is S |3 o |lll III! |^fi "S c f- ^ Z Z z "* <$$UJUJLULUZOQCQCOy;^:^ CcC .^LLUJLULU

Z Z Z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z z z Z z z z Z Z Z Z o O 0 o o ooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooo o 0 o o o o oooo 0 o in in 0 oooooooiooinmooinm oooommoomoominoooino o 8 o 8 o in o o o o o in in O f- o CO h- 0 O 00 rt a rt o co 0) h- S S CO r- N. oo rt o rt r^ "- o |s- CO CO (O •* TT CM 5T in Tf Tf TT J r^ at O) O) O) O) •* i s O) o o) o)

LU LU LU LU LU UJLULULULULULUUJUJLULULUUJUJUJ UJLULULULULULUUJLULULUUJUJUJUJUJLUUJ UJ LU LU LU UJ LU UJ UJ LU LU LU UJ VI O O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O o o O o 0 O O 0 O O T3 in 0 0 O O inooooooinoininoomo moooinoooooinooinooino o o o O o w o o 8 o o o O T- in 0) Tt- •tf CO CO CM U) CM r- 8 in 10 ^- w CO *- N- O 8 o •o- CM CM rt rt rt rt XT rt ^f o in in in U) M- TT •*

1- H- h- h- f- l-1-l-J-h-HI-HI-l-l-l-h-l-t- l-l-l-l-l-h-Kt-l-l-t-l-l-l-l-l-l-l- h- t- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- H- 1- C-- CO 00 CO 00 00 GO 00 00 CO 00 00 D

CO CO CO co OOOOOOO W3WOTCOWWWW OTTOWWOTWW OOOOOOOOOO W 0 LU LU LU UJ O yyyyyyyujLUUJUjujujLuuj LULULULULULULU^^^^^^^^^^LU x o o O O O O O OOOO 13 ZZZZZZZ^.j.^j.^.^.y^ ^.^^.^.^y^ZZZZZZZZZZ)). Z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z

2- 2 " ml 8 d b 2c OTMOT(o(nOT(0(;) ® m Q. ^ M d V) d o o O w c ra ,- o •ora d tl m oiCOCO^COCOCOCOCOCOC-CO;^ jcCO i; Q. h co 5 2 2 c w O w lj H O "^ Ir -5* O *-" ^^ w o c ^ o o t rajco5 oc? ^ g O c O .w b ra o Q) 3 ^XXXXXXX — X*-*o^*o Oc^* o o *— O .i E S W 0 t g CO 0 c 5 o c c c b o ? 5 O) SfjS 0 O) JC JC o l 555 o iiiiisiclllilll silSji^iiiiiiiiiii i O SE o o o '•o o 5 ft c coccc^cj^-g-gco-g-g-g^ -g^z-gEja-J^'o.ciccccccccc-g c Ic c J E c c c r- r~ -St Ul 0 n c "ra ra ra 3 J* j* j* j* j* T i o p Q. o o 2 c cOccc^c^wWQWwnsw ra5MO~w5ccccccccc's'0 c c ^ o c c c C c * O o —i CO CO W CO 3 3 coo 333 m 3 h- Q

0 x d .x o ra '5 " X O O x ^ ^ 0. JC ^ lio?^® wO — ni OO O 5" o ^. ^"X ,K r S O 7i "P O1 —. m W ..M O ra 0) ^ 0 O 0 g-2Z.2g .Ea ra * ^"fe^ !2 a CO x^- s !i a*|ill c^c^olo^oo O?E? | x JonesCreekQy DublinNewQy BeachvilleQy ra FairfieldEQy QuarryName BeachvilleQy x CO ForthtonQy x l o o HawkesQy BellamyQy TincapQy 0 O (A TincapQy o (A VI ra U ci w w b l N W 00

CO O) o in co r- oo CM CO CO 5S8SSoc5 g g 0- ^ 22 * 12 ^ ^ *2 g s RjgJS KicM w CM CO co co co rt rt rt rt o . 0 o o ooo2^,-J-iiiiiiii iiTiiiiTTiiiiiiiii i 1 1 7 i i i iiii .t: o 1 i i 1 i i i i i i 10:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: a: a: o: LT CC LT o: ct rr o: o: o: COZ •i: < <<<<<<

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 141 LL LL "ffi CD c 0 0 g g" ^ JO ^^—25——3'rar'ra'3S W W ffi b b ffiffiO" in CJ.w O TO S ffi |*r XX-QSTco'-O-Ba-offi^ocOTF. -5 - 5 E co ppc^^ccCjQbc-^b®-^!?^ 2 *0 rr rr flJ*Q"OQ)C~OH-P;:;*rt cCO .aQ) cn) OXl ill,- ,- II Sg S 282 1 84 ST l 1 -1 LULU.raw...^— .-1 — c, CJ*; EC 5 ~^"(fl.®.0)tnww)^'.^u)-^.^ B|J^3 - **- m .c .c i: x: IT •fi T? T? T2 T? xi .g 2f5-9o-9 ? ? 5 ^ 0.0. "9 S aa. 8.J2 8. E a"aaclaQ.Q.xixixixixixixi5xi55-^-^-^2, i) 'Sxi5 xi "a. Q. Q. Q. O. ifoooorara^yrax*^^^ ^ o ^ "S ^ o •^"5 J^^-'^®'n)"fl)'m"flj'a)"fl\'m wi fl5 c^ nJrarararara??ra'm'^:'^:rara*-raio *^*m ffi ffi ffi ffi 8 w'x'x'x'xEEffiraEraEo)ci)ffi883ffi88 :3 828--^333333EEEEEEEEE(DE333EEffiEE E 3 3333 o 2oooo<oooooou<<<<<<<<

'G C zzzzzzx^^ x >>-z ^ z > > > zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz zz Z Z Z Z * a, co 0 CD o coo)® ffi o) ffi ffi ffi ffiffifficofficoocoffiffiffiffiffiffiaiocoffiffiffiffiffiffiCBa)® ffi® ffi ffi ffi ffi ffiffiOffifficnaicncB en en co co CD ra en en en cocoCTCocncococscncncncocoCTCococncnaiCBcncncocococn en co O) O) O) CD = = = = = •o•o^^T) -o -o-o-o -o ~o ~o -o -o TJ-O-O'O-OTJ'O-OTJTJ-OTJ-OTJ-O-OTITJTJ-OTDXJ-OXI-OTJ -o ~o •o TD n -o o Jc.*.*.*j*XIXIX)Xt X) XIXIX) X) XI XI XI X) XtX)XIXlXIXIXtXIXIXtXtXIXIXIXI.aXIXIXIXIXIX)XIXIXIXI XIXI .0 XI XI XI DC i: Z w gggggEEEE E EEE E E E E E EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE|EEEE EE raE raE raE raE So cotnaacomoooo o ooo o o o o o oooooooooooooooooooooooooo oo O O O O

T) COOO C CO s -a- n ^co 2- 3 -g8-^'!?2jiiZ HS S - T ^iu, T^^toto^iO^^coto^S-^SCM^i-^co^Tjco J20| 05 CM CO O r~ ffi"o ^ c -*

x: x: m ffi LL (H Q. "a - "55 > b ., o 3-2^ W 3Qnr o ^ o X o o o o ^^ H — ::: w = o.? .e o s *- > — *? . 3 o - o w Q.

•C-C-C-Cpoicnoi .0,^^^fl3(Q(Q o3o!lO*!3 33-* -- ^^^(OfOcQ bbbt "Offiffiffi "o" 52 ffiffiffi in V) a E E E S en 0)5 33 P,oS 22 0.0)0)0)0)0) 555 .2 ffi atOTiniAui ccraww "Fxirtt-s; ^"S wwraracccccc r-rarara i •t -z. s: x: *!'D'O'OT3r-,-"u)"(nO)O) O).-,- t c t ® JJ 22 5S!2S"in"OT"in"5'in'ior-r-OOIO)O),-,- ,-c O O -^ in E r- f- T~ C Illllllllls sil E 1 c 1 i 5ll33 ccc iiii||S5|||||Sgg|| |l 3 - - S Q in u) > 3 3 3 O h- •4;UJLULULUOC3lll LUZ Z ZZZ 5 LU ^ W W ZZZ^^LULULUUULULULULULUUJLULULUOO{1.ZZZZZ ZZ Z Q. O. CO

ZZZZZZZZZ Z ZZZ Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZ Z Z Z Z ooooooooo o ooo o o o o o omoooooooooooooooooooooooo oo o o o o oowoooooo o in o in o o o o o oi^oinoooomooommooooooomoooo oo in o o o o r~- to coooinmommco o TTCMO m o o CM *- tOTro)ooo ia-o)0)0)cO'-cj)CMf^'-ooocor^oocoo)intotOTt toco i^ r^ CM oS o o o 0)0)0)0)0)ooco2oo 5 coSS S ^ S S ™ ooSSoocScococoSScoSSSSct)cooocococococococoS Soo r~ oo co ao

LULULULULULULULULU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LULULULULULUUILULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULU LULU LU LU LU LU (A ooooooooo o ooo o o o o o omoooooooooooooooooooooooo oo 0 0 0 O "O ooooooooo o ooo o o o o o ocMooooooooooinooooomooooooo oo o o o o to co in co 0 h*. T— O CO N. ^ O) O ^ CO N"OCM O) 00 CM O CO inf^O^CO*" CM COO)O)COO)CMCOC\JCMCMCO*~OON-^~COin^ t~ CM^ m o CM r-- o in f^- r^ to o •*VTTrTrinininin m minin in m in to co ininTrininminininininininininininininininininininin mm in in in in 1- oococo 1" 1"^ 1""" 1" 1" *~ l~ l~^- *~ *~ ^ H h l-l-l-t-l-l-l-HHl-h-l-l-l-f-h-l-f-h-l-h-(-t-t-l-l- \- t- l- l- l- 1- D

O O O 0 0 O S m i2 S mSo 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O O 0 O S m O O 0 O O 00 O O O O Z Z Z Z Z Z ^ ^ ^ ^! ^^Z ^ Z ^ ^ x ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZ Z Z Z Z

V) Q) vi V) d i2 5 22 1 S ^ 55g o 5 2*0^2 -5 p^.-1 -1 rtw!j m — -'c 08 J5 ^ — ^***o OO — vi _'rSriri fTT3f*tn ^^- ^ . ^ ffi Oc ""oM 0)tn |3SSw."SS|S w -o ffic^oo ca^ld^S.^^ 0808 o S U) ^ ~ 0 Ea,S ra ^Sg,^ w o^2| ffi ScEE^^Eo 0 ?^^?? ^^ * ® w o" 5l|S | *b.5o m | S105 ^5 5^8=52 3 5" m E? ?! f 5 S *1 E ®0ra4c 2 Fra2 en S S -o o? ~ ^ fe TJ TJ x UJ fficn—,— ''•ora-1 -1 ^3 ra 111 o cccccoro^^ o J<0 S g ^ g OffiipOocEO|gg g co g ra5goEc-EQO-- p-c50cO s^ssS-C-c-n-^ c (-cc x ^ — ^ ^^^TW^^ Ja)Q-^^5*-^ l-9i;*- (0 5nJ^:[5^C5*-i5'j- •'III ra OOOOOdCXrhm X ^ O O -H tn -*-1 0)™O^m O .'*- 52OflJOt^-c tnC^O"OQ.,::^^OCjfl)OO ffi 55555*5*^ 2 2JOJ3) E | g 2 fo^aEi^llEoo^ 1 ^"^^^^*®^!!^^^^^ ~ w o c a Z 5; 2 -c O 33333OODQ i 5zz E ^ w i- ^oo 30-^6 s^rr^ccrr ELU S^li^i-w IWOLLOO i cow i o O O W 3

c ^ ffi 0 0 o ^ x ^ ^d-^o-- 0 0 E o u o|g0fes; ^-CM ^co#^ ^ ^ ^ 'c.ffi ^^? .9- ®ffi-RE-5o ^ *o :*-; 0 >-> ^O o 2 0 ffi ffi \\ x **E^jsO 5:S ^g 2~ ^ o^^ojco3 o ? ^ 1n-'^, 0 o^ 'COOoO^t^^^--o ^ z c 0cc O '-'^'tn " affi^ ffi ^ffi^ Oc -* -^ ra O OO"co^ -^ ^ ^R o w w 2! "^ o) ^^*** ^T)T)^Tim-— 330)O^^^'5 -^n 3s — ^ -j O ^ o Z *-o";,,— — QCO^Q. e. o"-"0 o ^ o 5 2^Oo (-' ~ oo J o *S223* (--' (-'-- :c5O ::''c OO O -n c O c \\ ra ||2||||g| | |||o| |||| gg|±|ttf||ll?||||||||||8|| p 5 a - i Z 3 0 E 3 ra 0 LL"oL~2oooO"(5 i 5zorr^ o o w ^ iLULLOWLULuQ.rrrr^rrwoooZiwoooo5^rrj zo W LU Q. > in ffi CM co •tf m ^TY'TTOOOO O OOO 0 -- J- -- -- '-•-'-'-'-'-CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO f^ II ffi . iTTTTiiii i iii i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i IT TTTT s~ *r 0 Ltrrrrrrrrcocococo co co co co co CD co co co CQCQCOCOCOCDCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCQCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCQCOCOCOCO coco CO CO CD CQ WZ commmcooooo o ooo o o o o o oooooooooooooooooooooooooo oo O O O O '

142 Limestone Industries of Ontario ffi TJ "w c c . . "i? "a "c? Q ^ "nT 7? ra VI VI in vi V) " "E"? B E"ra ^ 0 0 0 0 o c H— C O O O -1 E m E E E E C TJ TJ TJ (D TJ "0 ox) ra ra ra ra 0) i- ffi d) at ra O ij "-E lil LU ~~ " LU^"- LU~"~' LU~^ TJ TJ TJ ^ O t ^ J^ S "5 O ra| ODC 1" ffiffiffi ffiffiffi^rarara x: x: x: x: g x: O ox: Q Q O O O. O. VI (A VI ffi ffi 0.0.0.0.0 Q.Q.Q.Q. ^^ 8.RR RRRti ci R TJ TJ TJ TJ || | ||lll g|||ffi-rarara 1 0 0 ra a x: ^ TJ TJ TJ C cc c ccoooLi^L.oorac)X].ox) S SSSSiSggS 88 88 8 '88^ 88888 B y E i O 3 3 < Q QQ Q QQI-H-t-LLLLLUl-l-LUCOCOCDCQ CO Ic5 c c c c c i ^ m E 0 w EEEEEE^I o 1 c c c | o E ^ E E E E E EE E EEEEEEEEEEE^EEE in E E — ffi m CM w o o r^ -j ~ "c "c O Is- -g m •^ locMO^ - o - o m m o o loco o ^-oou)iocDoomu)o. -^--ooo CO O *~ o c cd inCMCOCMCOCM'-'- D D Tf CD D O) 3 D in "- CM co r- h- UJ CD ^- CM co co co in

j*~ - - - Z — — tj — zzzzzzzz z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z > Z Z ^ X zz z -z--z>-zzzzzz>>> y

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi d) ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi E E E E E E ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra r- TJTJTJTJTJTJTJTJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ X) TJ E E E E E E E E E EEEEE gcc c c o WJ (0 (0 o! n] (Q n} (0 n o o X)X)X)X)X1X)X)X1 XJ XI X) X) X) X) X) X) X) xi x) x) x) x: f f f ffrarararararararararaffiffiffi ffi ffi ffi EEEEEEEE E E E E E E E E E E E E ra td (0 d cd (0 flJ nj (0 nra ra raraxixixixixixixixixixit-i-i- Z" ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra x:x: x: x:x:oooooooooorarara Itt Ut OOOOOOOO O O OOO OOO OOOOOO o o o o o o o o OO O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOO

^^ca CJ) Is- ^ in CM CM m lv. op CO CM CM O in ^ ® 08 co i b T co Y in in in in S |s- b o o\ t CO ^ CO *2Z S C^CM^^^O'^SUJUJ i^^T in CM "~ -. in co - J ? CM *— CJ — T— CO CM *- '~ 4- CM 4- w CO CD *- T— CM •0- CM CM T- T- -CO

V) ra LU TJ TJ TJ in ffiuj ffiin m m = ffi P.W O CO ra ffi^3 C*5 ®CO ot^5 ^ n 5>>=5>=— 5 ~ ~ ^ ~ ~ = Q." o = J, ^55 ^ ^^ ;* 5 ~ - ir ^ S "1- QlUljsalcL^^^^-^^X X ^ > o > > of ffiO- ffiO. of of ® or or or ra

x: x: x: x: ra ra ra ra D D D 3 o o o o TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ C *- *- *- c ccccc™ ra p Q. X) XI XI X) ^ c c W ffi ffi ffi ra rarararara^ ci ^ C TJ TJ *; *; *; Ji o >>>.>.E E E E ffi ffi ffi ffi o ^ E "2 c ~ 5555^8 2 XTrn" VI w S c c c cob 0 ffi * ® o E ra o ooo ai Q) ffi ffiffitnaTffl'SS'vidrJ2.522Sow ir at ~o o T 2 c c ? 5 5 -p -S S 2 li 08 d) JJE^^ooE^tto^^E c: E -e d) ffi ffi ®^^^^ c ra ra ra ra ra - - ra ra ra .9 c c c 2 1) O O O ffi h-i < m CO CO CO m O O O CO CO CO CO < < < 2 o. CO CO CO 0- 0.0. o. Q.O-

zzzzzzzz Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z z z z Z Z Z Z ZZ Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z z z oooooooo o o ooo ooo 0 o o o o o o o o o oo o ooinominooooooooo o o o oooooooo o o ooo in o o o o o o o o 888S in o o o in in o CO 0 CO 0) f- O OJ \f o t^- r~- r- co in 0 CM -* CD T- co o in co co co in cj) in CM o) CM o r*, in m CD in h- m co CM r-- CM "- *- en CO CM T- 06 0) w TT CM o "- T- O S OOCOCOinCMCO'-CJJOOCDCM'- CM O)O)OO)OO)O)O) CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CD CO CO S CO CO CO CMCM CM CMCMooi^i^inmcor-cocoincMCM'- is. r- is. r^ m in in co co r-- r-~ N. to COCO CD COCDCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMOOO o in in88 in LULULULULULULULU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LULU LU LULUUJLULULULULULULULULULULULU LU LU LU VI OOOOOOOO o o OOO 000 0 O 0 0 O O oooooooo oin o oooinoomoooooooo 0 0 0 TJ omoooooo o o in in o OOO o m o o in o ooommooin or^ o ooincMinmN-oooooooo o o o CMCOI^COCOOCOO O 0 O) CO 1^ CM CM CO o o m *- CM co o CM m co CO O O CM CM CD CO t^- f^ CO CO CJ) O ^ CO CO •tf in Tf •tf CO o co co 5 co r^ r^ f^. co CD K T- O O CM 8 S CD CO CD f^ 1^ O) CO CO 01 O) O) O5 CJ) CJ) O) CO CJ) O O O CO CM CM CM CO CM CM CO CD toco CD cocococncj)oocoo)ooooioo *- CM o m in in in in in m in in in co co co co CO CO CO CO ^ ^ ^ CO

l-l-l-t-l-l-l-l- f- H 1- H 1- l- 1- 1- I- H H H H 1- h- 1- 1- 1- J- 1- 1- 1- l-l- 1- l-l-l-l-t-l-l-t-l-l-h-l-HI-l- t- 1- 1- CO 00 CO D

o 0 CO CO co o co o oo^ooooo O O 000 O O O O O O O O f2 ^4 ^ LU LU LU ^ LU ~ [2 o o ft o o o o o o o o o o o [2 m LU 13 ZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ^ ^z z ^ z z z z z z z z z z z ^ ^ ^

ra o c TJ 0 2 2 x I o E W -i 0 ® 1 l Q \u ffi P ffi c ffi "R . . ra ^ "ra ra ra !2 S .i ffi c: oo®2 wE^ O-cB i:i:d) -"E D ra o c :x o S2 g^ 2 E 0 t) W 0- wm mbl o gc i feD O co E s -- as ooo. SIT. c SS-81 I H- m O ^ ffi c — ^ o fi R ^*f BrunnerMoi?ii-: 18 .* c r- Townshipo! GeneralCh* AmherstQu •*o^S.io™ -z 00 -' T, Operatoror incl.Gallag Wentworth S.W.Miles GeneralCru "O ^ ^^^ Q. O — ^Q.^ "Q ^IJ^-^Q c o ~- c c c c cVHamilton unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 670026Ont iSji ra* unknown unknown unknown CO . *~ *^Eo"w S'fclm^cSJ^S^S*^ — ,- ft C *J W os o) c ^OwJcOooo^ooo^Sjsc 'c^o'c'c'c'cW f u ra a -^00o - ffi ra "^•^co 3 c Q o c ^ c c Q c c c ^ ^ Q in II

O •- co v CM 2 ct ! w O Q. O ^ O ^ m* ^ ffi . *t 5t 3C *s "1 a O - ^ o ^ C Q. VI 0 - ^ ^ O ^ Name VI X fi OOO O O Ss o o O 5* 'c Si 0 ^0 6 ^ ra ra •P C C O i. SE ? ? -: ^ 0 c a c O c 0- | i- O CO W CO O co w o 5 5 E 8) 5 * E ra fi i sS liil f f If f 55* o) r fc 0 w v, S TJ 0 c ^ ra ra ra 5 "w ra Mounth ra o a* ^ BEE — 0) 0) TJ O C TJ * d) •i: TJ c c CO (8 "ffiOOf^SxSc III c :* :* - Q. Q- o ^ c co x: Q) vi ffi o ffi 11 i ?llfll?i|lll|l| O If x:oot:2(8!iD 82 x: x: x: ra x: x: (0 (0 flj "^ ^T ? S E ai ra x: x: x: 0 coorori-LLiOQ < 0 a: cr a. I GC o: CO t- l- ^ 5 m < < o. CO J- J- CO co i o! E ^ 1 Id^Lulocol 1 ra •a- in CO K CO en o •~ CM co ^ m co -~ m CD r^ co oo "- cMco^cxico^incoi^coroOr-cMco in in in in in CO CD CD (O CO O SS8S 0 0 O O o o o ffi . ^'YYT?'?^? i i 1 1 1 1 1 i i i i i i i i ?T T TT c??? ci) ? cT) ? (??T 0 ?? 1 1 1 ±: o CQCOCOCOCOCQCOCO m m CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co m m x 1 1 1 1 I I I I li l llOOOOOOOOOOao-Q. Q. o. a COZ oooooooo O o OOO OOO O o o o o o o o o o O O O O OO O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O O O

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 143 -l om om ^T. ga 5d) d) s~ P .c iS'iair.c'oirQ-a-.if.c'g.c ooyy^oo^^^oooo 8 '*2oo32^33322'x2 o O CD O m

EE EEE EE EEEEEEE EE E E E^ E CO Tl cnCMr^COCMincO ^IEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE •-ocooooooinoinoor^TfTi-oooooooininoii--incMinoco O 00 O - 00 *- OJ -* CM CO

XXZZZZZZZZZ-Z-ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ-ZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z

0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0-0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. 0.0.0.0.0.0.0-0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0-0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. cccccccccccccccc cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc c c c c oooooooooooooooo g oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo g o o o o

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

in co in f*- CM Y i- T- *- 4- ^- w 4- ^ co ~J ^ CO CO CM CM CM CM

a w 55 .i 2 M nj : a: c b: s s ^ > ^

•o -o

d) C C C C C C TO M E E E E c c c c gr :r ~ •^ ^ cd KJ to w o o o o -S! .2 r- (O CO B) l/) d) d) -^ -C JC JC 5 d) d) d) d) ^ 5 c c c c O O w w w — — P P E E E S S IB B B B di dT dT — 555 mi; tO(OCO(0^iifl3COfd33 S" .2 o o o ZZZOOOOOO Z O O O O

Z Z Z Z zzzzzzzz Z Z Z Z Z Z o o o o 0 o o o o o o z z z o o o o o o z z in o in LO 8 o o o in in ~ ~ o o o o o o o o o CM CM cs CM r^ o co m 88 in CM T*- in *- TT co •* M- CM CO o o en CM CM CM ino ino oTf ino inO inO inS8 in LU in LU LU LU 111 LU LU LULUIULUIULULUIU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU o o O O O O o o OOOOOOOO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o in o in o o o o m oomoomoo o in o o o in o o o o o o o o in CM oo r^ CM O CO CO 00 CO O O in c- C3) O) CO O) O) CM r- TT O 00 O i- in •-'-CMCMCMCMCMcococomininininin coh-rorooO'-'-ooo'-cM'-cMCMCMOoooo'-'- - CM CM CM CO CM CO

cocowcococococococococococococyj f2o[2ooooooooooooooof2ooooo o o o o o LULULULULULUUULULULULULULULULULU ^rz^zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz^rzzzzz z z z z z

o s t 080 00 - o o g 00 ^ 08 X5 c o S! 0) w CO CO K n — S ® E J2 5ul S" O ofl ofl ~ Qj ^ V^ •5 g; w g- r w n r* 50-5" c *C C -- C 13 C CCCCCCCCCCCC c c c c c 5 e til "l 5535555555525 ? 5 5 5 5 r g 5 w w ^ ^^ * S o w g 2 o o O W O 2 o oooooooooooiso o o o o o E i: c c cccccccccccWc c c c c c i: fc -* -^ -* .^ -* ,* ' JIT j* -* j* .* C C C C -cflic— ccccccccccc c c c c c c 5 "c ~ 2 3 D D U 3 3 it D Q it

^^ 0 O O 000 g. o •02 o 'fS CD 2 Q} x co o ~ . m ~ Q) i-* -*- l 3o ! 0 |*l"^ l B 2 l l ^ l ra ra.? w 8 E.raHmW^ 5Z ^ ^, "5 ^cooQQcoh-:focaco:fcO''*5coaco co a. O CO O

m1^ mCO inO) toO to•~ i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i rrrii iiii iiiiii iiiii l l l l l 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Q.CLQ.Q.Q.Q.Q-Q.Q-Q.D-Q-CLQ.CLQ.(lQ.CLCLCLCLaQ.Q.aCLCLQ.Q.tLQ-Q. Q. Q. CL Q. CL oooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo O O O O O

144 Limestone Industries of Ontario en 5 g g g ® c .s a a a .z O rr o) oi DI nr "- x x x ra — .ffi n ra ra ra zi 3 O O O 3 E- "o (T -O -Q -O M w 0 0 0 w bE "o CD CD CD CC C UJ m LU CCCCCCC CC c c c c -ffi g o oo o .--- m o m ooooo o oo 0 0 0 0 ffi ac Jn ffi ffi ffi (DIDO) ^ffi^ffiffiffiffiffi ffi ffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi o2 O) a f" x •o x ^ •g "0 K) ra TJ o o b 3^ ffi O x c x x x XXX3OO cc O c ffiffiffi :333CCCCCOoOOOOOOX O CCCCCCCC O C O 1 1 1 I O m O LJ O O O OOOC^OQml-JlJOQ_l>>>OOO_l_J_lIiIj(rcD(rODOQtDCDCQO CD-jljLjLj'JLlljlJm-JCO m m CO ffi c l ^ in E O "j E o E E E E EE**jl;jEjj^EEE*E*EEEE|E*E*EEE*E E E E E E E E E i E E E E E E E !c c in rv o in o "^ o s! " " c\i o rv en •moin-rv-incMCDco-o-m-coino-o t-uoooooorofc-goiv o E o in co o l~ d od CM T^ d CM CM OMCM^'-'r-cb^cMT-TrcdTj: ^OTO'vrT): incdT-{o^c3)T-o)ioiv'r-c6 cMOCvi-r-cdi-iricvjo 3 co iv •~ 0 CM 0 CD TT ffi — — Z Z Z Z Z Z z>>>>>z>z.>>-->>>>>>>>->>>>->>^. zzzzzzzzzzzz Z Z Z Z Z z 0 — E E E E E E E c c ^ ^ g o o gg grarararararararararararararararararararararararararararara rararararararararanrara ra ra ra ra ra ra o ^55555555555555555555555555555 555555555555 5 CCh ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi w | | 11 | Z. w ra ra ra ra ra ra raooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooo o o o o o o O O O O 0 0 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooo o O O 0 0 o

i- O cs ^ r O CO in CO f-- in o Ttp oo c?'- flp'^" (-n '- 0xO'-lvco7cO in 7cnTl-o.^cO fHco c)J CMCMCMCn 1 iriTi-co OT*' O)O tvcococa"~ m in ^f —1 CO CM *- CM TT Q CO K^ (Q ^ — T~ T-~CMCMinCMxJ\ T—CM T~CMfrtCM T—*— *— *~ CM i CM CM *~ T—r*-eT^(W ^ ^~ *— 1 CM CO CD CM T- -~ CM

ffi ffi ffi ^ > .^ — o? ir o E* goe ffi ffi ra ra o ra F o X ^ 5 x X^cl 55^XxXx = >>>>>X>>Xv =: i ~~^X^5 "l* 5>>5 = = = — >>>> > > j X ^ O -5 -5 > 1^ > x >> |82 6 0 c o s: f~ CD^rf*^ *-*-4-"*- CT ^ffi?" ffifflffiffi n •o •o c c ^ ffi ^ ^ -P -5, -R, -S, g -Q ffi ffi ffi ffi Q. jj j5 ™ o — JD O)OO fl) D D 3 ^* _ wwjwjnjjr O)O*O)D) ^ "DCD "Offi !c CD "S "OnjnJP — — OO-— C-L-WJ(dWJ''-t 222*- 5i-^SrtrtC^fl^ OOOO*^*-i*J '*- A ^ — — en 1 3 c | 8 a. x y. E o O) CD oHilollff2|^||lll||||^lo)ra^|^xS* 2222|-M ^|j*"8ffi 1 1 e! O 3 3 3 en en en 1- O O 0 O O 0 o^SSLLirrroooCOOooootrrrDLCo^jjLuooo^^o oooozzzz^^^^ ^ ^ -i ^ OC rr

z z Z Z Z Z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz zzzzzzzzzzzz Z Z Z Z Z z o o O O 0 ooooooooooooooooooooooooomoooo oooooooooooo o o o o o o o o O 0 8 0 ininoininoooocoininooinooinooincoininoiviouioo ooomooooooom o o in o o o in in oo CO 00 ojTfTf'-oocooocMinivorvooooocoTf'-coO'-inocoeococMcoco^r COOOCBCOCOCDCMCOCMCOOO) CO in co 0 CO OJ i- 0) O •~ 0 8 8 0 5 0 OC3)CSC3)OOOOOOO)O)C3)C3)O)O)OOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO o o o o o o in in in8 in in in in in in in in in UJ UJ UJ LU LU LU LULULULUUJUJLULUUJLULUUJLUUJUJUJUJLULULUUJLUUJLUUJIUUJUJLUIU UJUJLUUJUJLULULULULULUUJ LU LU LU LU LU UJ "0en o 0 o o o o ooooooooomoooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooo o o o o o o o o o o o o oooooooinoivooooinocoinooooininoooinminin oomoooooooino 0 0 o o o in o O CM o b oQ in TT S lv O CO CO co in CO CO O TT in in in m TT Tf

1- 1- h- h- l-h-h-l-l-l-l-h-l-l-t-l-l-l-l-h-l-l-l-l-l-l-l-h-l-HI-t-t-h- h-l-t-HI-t-l-l-l-h-l-l- I- 1- (-1-1- I- 1- l- h- 00 CO CO CO CO 00 aocococococoooaococococooocococococococococococococococococo ooaocococococooococoaoco 00 CO 00 co co CO D

rvOTWwwwwwp-wcocowcococowwcowwwcowwcowcocOri noonnnnonnnn o o O O O 0 ^LUUJLULULUllJLUiiUJLUUJLULULULULULULULULLILULUUJLUllJUJUJlUix i^i^bfyiiyiiliXXbiii z Z Z Z Z Zys).s)..).v)..v ,y 2^.^-),v),.).y.),s^v(,y,)- v)- ,^yyyv),.^^yZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z

"ffi L iJ 5 0 ^ w w m O . ? ffi W . O O *- z:^,J^ .9- .JC-gffi^^CL^v: 0 0 S) ^-^ ffi 5occ.-c "fficc to c f-."fficcccfficffi bi Oco coooi:? >ooOop>oooo'-t>- oi ooo 0 wb^OO^g JOO^O-EwoOOO 11-.? 11- -? j^O^ b ^ O C .i- u. 0 1- C3 .b .b 0 r ra O .b .b .b .b ffi *~ ffi -ffi - S .b g c c c c c c co^J? — — ^ffic^: — J3.5-ffi Q-^J5J2^55-o'2-oc (0 cJC — Jrc cccccccccccc b 5 5 w o o o o li o O o o o O c c c c c^2.yjJ32ccJJiEtcJJJJ^fKiL 0.i;.y.J.yc cccccccccccc c c -^ -ff •f "c "c l c c c c c c cWffi?. . . r0 * c o . -0*^0 . - - .ajraffi.c:t: .c E -2c cc"c"ccc"cccccc c 0 3 3 3 3 3 3

c X ffi O 0 x ^ ffi X ^ O E O) CD ra O ox ox ^3 ^ffi ^ o.S- oJ? "c. X x,, s c O -^ in ^-^--^ 5 3 ffi 0 ffi n /-* .C ra ffi X ffi x ^ 1- O-^ ^^-^ r\im II ra MetcalfeQ) (Metcalfe)i CD x3 Wx -*'x~ o'n'O (-' :x * CJ O ri c — O a — x x (5- O*; ^ ^. Cumberland 1^ XQjQ*-OO(2( jsj" 2?"o — ^^-O'-x _ m o"ra xE*^OO — iz^ xx o Z i Tomlinson >O w fficen ? ^ ^-^~~"RT: ^^m-nO (^'*1'C-x fliO^'c O^oi*-xnO OO si IS ? x f II (0 II Z i (Q Q) O o Z I ^LLi:^coLu^occcrLLQ-Ooo^*co^i— co^—jcc^coOLLOcc OoowcDfrcooj— ^—i^*c ra Ij ffi x CM CO in CO tv co OOOOOOOOO'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'---'-"-C\ICMC\JC\ICNCMCMCMrO COCOCOCOCOCOOOCOCOrrrtTr Tf CO CO S CO CO (O coiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i i i i i i i i i i i r 1 T Tt II ffi . i i 1 1 T T .~ o d. Q. O. Q. n o. Q.^^^^^5^^^^^^^^^5^5^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ X COZ 0 O O O o o OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOO o o o o o o 1

Vol. l — Geology, Properties and Economics 145 i i 2 O) O) XX If (8 (8 "-EOJO

z .S 3 3 i-II E E > > > > > > E ""ilJSirtrgtrirtrtrcca: — — 3 3 O O — — — — — — •^ o -s ~ uj uj .E ® "S 5 5^ 8 E E E m u. 2 co co o O O O

E E E E E E

'-cg vo 3o

ZZZ)-XZ-ZZ-ZZ-ZZZZZZZZ^)-^ZZZZ^Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ-

li "c 'c "c c "c "c 'E "E "E "E "E "E 'c "E "E 'E "E "E "E 'E "E "E "E "E '0 '8 '000 oooooooooo oooooooooooooo 3333333333 33333333333333 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOw UJliJUJUJlI IIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIII

— O WO'-c5 •7 ^ Y co co CM(\J'-'- ) 5? J- l m f -*

x ^ 5 x x 6

o) o) o) o c (0 (O (O a)n m to en v) p a co a) rt t; S W (8 W •o 5 5 I l c c -4-* -4-* -*^ ^-. nJ \-~z.~z.t; -K x -o 'S E E

Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ zzzzzzzzz zzzzzzzzzzzzzz oomooooooooooo o o ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo inoh-oooifliooooooin (oo r--io inrocncO'-ococoO'-cocBmco (O O) IA58 in O)O)O)C^CTO)O)O) O)OOGOOOOOO)O)O)O)O)O)O) UJUJLUIUUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJUJL1JUJUJIJJUJUJUJUJ UJUJUJlilUJUJUJUJUJUJ ILIUJUJUJLUUJllJUJUJULILlJLLJLLJLiJ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O ooooinoooo~ oooooooooooooo 8 omooooinoinooooooooocoooinoifl in f^ooooio omoin inoouiinoino cococor^ooooo)C7)r^r^h-r^ooooO'-'-c\ic*)c\joO'— CMOCOCMCOCO o O'-coo^i-TtcoiococD^^tco coiocomr^o*-'-cMc\jcMC\j

l- l- l- t- l- \- t- \- l- l- h- h- l-

zzz^^z^zz^zz^zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz^ ooooooooooooo^zzzzzzzzzzzzz^! o SB —c mW ®S o c?E o, 0S S? 2 r a. * .E pi ^^L 5S ^oo * ^ CD C S C c c c c c c T3 tfl .9 ^ S 5 la ® o . (B 5 i;i2OO'D3T3O o o o o o o •Jgcccocc c c c c c c •^gji^lO^jg^ - - . - c c — c c c c c c c c O (T 3 3 CO I I 330C33O333333—II-

O O x O O co w en d) 0) 0) • l f* O CD ^ ^. CO 01 "Z c o o.^ 1 .E x * O S E o ^ O fcS-oSlfoSfos CD ^ O O O ^ •^^ M w ^^ i_ r~ LL H— L. o f 2 J: -l* ^ ^ n O a OT w w o g Ill^|^l2^2 c OT a) 0) ra " |||l|i^isRi(O 5 ® S. g l * C (O JC a C h: tr O m co o. \- .5 io^55m

co jin OOO©- ©-©- pT TpO i i i i i i i i i i i i i i OOOOOOOOOOOOOOlUllJUJUJUJUJUJ IIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIXIII

146 Limestone Industries of Ontario o l? ra o i2| CO - o o o If 0) 5 ra CB ra WUIW^^WUIUIWW f"si Hill x 2*? x x -— -— -— -— -— X x x 2 E l o: w w w o: o ram ~p Oc30~~~~~o^ u)OT ra Q; ^ s .s Js ^ — — — ra 8 3-5^^30 C 3 OOO^3333O CC ooo3o33 o 3330)0)00)33333333 33 3 E E E o Cj to m m O ea I]o commOOOOOoDlJIi mnacoOcoOU coeJOOeJO

E E g E E^ E E E|E! E E E E E E E E p in -g CD in ^ T- o -* O -* co d d D T-" ci in 3 co co 3 co 3 c in 3 3 3 CD ^ 3 CM *- COCM3C03'*'-3'-3CM'-'-'- zzzz> x - z z z z z z z z z z z z x z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z - z z z z z z z z z

ra ra ra ra ra ra C C C C C c c c c c c ra ra ra ra ra o o o o o o Ti S E E S i c i ~C 5 5 5 55 IJ5

w w j; ™ co TT 7 7 T S 2 w CO'-'-'-™'-co r^ co co /M CM S'-'-COCMOrinoco

x ^ x

.5 J? *± izo mra oocoQio'oa'EgfQ.cE E * ^ x x x 0 cD'o5555 — — C a7co'oo (Q ffi (Q (Q nf DC l oowOTiiiacoa5iDocQ.3cocowOT;^o:Eiix IIIIIUJCOCOQQQQQQQQCOCQCOOOOOO

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz o o o o o o o oooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooo o*- f-o coo o^t inh- om in mooooooooooooinoooooooooinoo oinooinoooomoooooooooooino o '— o co i— in co cocoTrcocO'-'-cocMcocMrMcocococococM'*5cocoin O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)C^O)O)O)O)O)O)O)COCOCO

UJ UJ LLJ LLJ 111 UJ UJ UJLULLIUJllJUJULlUJUJUJLUUJUJUJllJllJllJUJllJllJUJLUUJLUUJUJ UJLULIJUJUJUUUJIULIJUJLLILUUJUJUJLIJLIJLUIIJLUUJLLIUJ O O O O O O O oooooooininoooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooo o o ooo o^ inrg in in ooomooooooinooooo ooooinoooooooininoooooooom ov CMTT inM- co•fl- co tO CD CO CD CO l-h-l-l-l-l-l-l- J- h- f- l- l- I- 1- l- H l- l- t-

O O O O O O ooooooooooooooooooooooo Z Z Z Z Z Z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

^o

> U. > r ^ E 2 5 0 ^ ra E "d E c ra raO ^?^!'CO5 C c -j. c c c c I CO I OL c oE 5 5 ^ 5 5 ra > c = c w > t. ,, O O tn O O S OOO)O--,'OOQ) O c c -- c c ^ E w 5J2EJ5^E5E c5? c CD i- Q) . ra ^ ra O O izozujx So

^3 0) oo O xOO -^ *5 -^ i? O ^ ^2 ^- O ,m O O - n iS 0(30 0~ o5 oc x .2g , o s EB^ o co VI — -o®O L- I/I ra ra ra rai; I-8|1I|I "w co 3 s* -s-1- ^ s b ^ 'S 5 i: c c z^ ra ^oc)0)~ — *2~ o -c ^ O O ffi 30 O (0300)30)0)3 U OD LL O il m o a li IzZ -ICDCtOCcOl-CLCDco l- Q. CD -i *- c\j co o o l l OOOO'-'-'- '-'-'-'-'-'-CMCMCVJCMCVJCVJCMCVJ ? l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l I I I I I X -j

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 147 C *; E? t: o on "-E - 8 Q B B a 1 8) ^ •S C if B-sa** t! ci- w o. (O (0^ Xi; . tE g t^ "o ~* t! .-tzt.o.!?.;2-aoi'jzt;t:r:--t:Oooooooooo 'ZZ— m *^ o yo OB C S O Q 0) O 0) 0) C O Om O) a)> OO)(DooooOOOOO ID OO mO m o:-i m mcamOmco::icaca5(ricaa.j-j.j.j-j-i-i.j-ia-j.j

E o E E E EE E E E C C CCC OCMCM E E E o co E E E E E E E EE EEE|EEE f | E f E E E in o o o CM co *- mi^- mo^r-^oooE-^-^o-^inoco *- *- *- O) CD CM in CO CM •'f -* z z z z zz zzzzzz zz zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

ta a) m ea (O (O (Q (O (3 (O (O (O (O (0(0 (0(0(0(0(0(0(0 (0(0 (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 a 'a "d "a "a "a S-in m *rt RI (O m (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (0(0 (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 tt i; O) O) O) O) O) O) D) O) O) O) O) O) Ol O) O) O) O) O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)U)OO)O)0)O) Z w (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (O (0(0 (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 z z z z z z z z ZZ ZZZZZZZ ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

52 (D O

CM 4-

5, •s0-0 3?

^3 > Z Z i- ^ CO c (D C X - - > ^ *- (O ====XX>>>>>>5> E

c c c c O O O O C C c o .y .y .y w .y(0(0(0(0(OC CC — — -Z C i p i -^ -^ ~ *OOOOOC cc ~ w S c 0 S w t ii t: t: c O O O CO Q OZZZCOCOQ QQ

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZ Z Z o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O o o ooooooooooooooozzzzzzzzzzzzzzz o o o in o o o in o o in o in o o o o o o ooooooooooooooo is- co in in O O) CM CM o *- r-~in fs.co O) O) CD fs.

m LU UJ LU ai ai LU LU UJ UJ LU LU LU LU UJ LU LU LU LU LU LU LULU LUUJLULULULUUJUJUJLULULULULULU o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O OO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO in o o o o o in o o o in o o o o o o oo oooooooinooooooo c*) r) r- oo in oo v o 00 O) o ID in •- Is- t*- CD in in Ti- o o CM in to in (\j CD CD O) *- "- CM rs. N. oo oO 00 c\j CM oo oo en i- 00 00 00 O) O O O m 10 in in i in to in in m CD in m in m CD co CD CDCD CDCDCDCDCOCOCDCDCDCOCDCDCOCOCO

h- h- Hl-f-h-h-l-l-l-l-h-l-l-HHI-

O O O O O O O o o oooooo^oooooooo >> z >. ZZZZZZZ z z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

m o g" i- i- 73 O 0) 08 S •i o ^. O) o o iU 0 (O O) -S "o o i ^ c c c c c c 5 5 E c P 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 w o o o o o o o o c c c c c c c Cflj c c c c c P — ^ c (D C C C C C C C-j- c c c c c ir o —l D D D D D 3

ai 2 ~ o O O (5 tt) a) ^ O O S 8 c c O ^ ^ 0,^0 Si g1 r^ b cc — "~' O O O — o ffi •- O (O — ~^~~~cl.r5 — •t: -^ c w CC S1 c? ^— .b EEc T3 O T3 "CO R "flj 2 Z TODttj^njjjc 2 "S 2 S " s 5 5 b 5. E * 'C O Q O .j 'D > h- O O CO Q CLQ. CD DC DCO LUZQ^CODO m co 5 O

i i l l i i l o CMCM CMCMCMCMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOY^f' < < < < < < O i i i i i i i i z z z z z z ZZ ZZZZZZZ ZZ ZZZZZ ZZZZZZZ

148 Limestone Industries of Ontario 0 b V) a a V) ~ (n g o c ~ ra •o ra ~ ^ ~ — m 0) CD g c^O mm :± -58 8-? ^ c 0) O) ^ r: o ra ^rt t! t! "o t! ^ ^ b— —— *^ ^T^*O C)*oCI C"Q o Z o ^ ra ^ ra ES O tt) O w o nw — o t: oott) 5*2 2a) tt) •J CO ra o ra i- o a tt O) tt O o. ^ 4-tto atto) J5o)(o ra 01 •oO) < .Q V) o CO CO "O W) tt in o ra Wwtt in in ~o rn'a— — T3 r"oT T) O T3 O ra ra LU ra x. ra ora^t rarauj LUO OLU ty. - ji — c m g m "-E O O " ^8 O "n* — ^/y T) O O ^ O O ' —' *" ^~^ ^^ ' —^ ^ — ' li —i ^ ras ra| ffi - ,-- 0) ~ ^^ ra S) ra S^-" Zra ai\- ra*j*-c 'o*'*J *'O)O)O)O)D)CO^O)O) O)D) 0) ^^ Wb ^cLL co E" :x*E j* E * E I o w .2 E E > aaa -S-S-S-S g^s" CDtt - 8.8.0 So-RRR'S'S'S'S'S ttTcQ-S-S o) o'S'S "O (j) CD ea ora ra ra ra ra ra ra nr ra nr c? -5 co m -5 rr j? * in "^ -, ir jcjcjcgggg^® •^ 15 15 J': "5tc 8-S'?: ii'Sooooo*:t') oo*: '*:: go — 33 — o •^ Jg o -E M •o "t S 2 "D T3 2 "O E — E — tt) c o) o 'o 05 0) C C Q) 3 0) CD C d) 3 tt) 3 O -i-i-iOOOO-iQ 5o rr— ' o55 iQS^^^OOOOOoocoOOcocQOO O com 00 00^ > li 13 > o > > li > O > O o c c c c c c EE EE E E E i- CIEEEQE- c-c t-cc00 EEcc E EEEoEEEEEEoEgEEEEEEEEE E E E E E E E E E E o w J 0 CM ococo-*co-*-*f^in o inoco-^ooooojco-^o^mooi^cocooor^ O OJ o o * O co O co in fi CO 6 - t ^ 6^5 CMM-^3C033COCO r^ cooj^f 3oojOM--a-Tr 3in 3ocoomojT-cocO'- OJ Tf CM CO \r r- co co co co in cd iv! T- co T- ^

Z Z Z Z *-~* - >> > > Z > > * |C zzzzzzzzz Z Z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

O) Q) 0) (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra ra (0(0(0(Q(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(Q(Q(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra n ra ra Q) O (D O) S (D Q) tt) tt) tt) tt) tt) 0) C C C C C C C o (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra ra (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra ra ra ra c c c c c c 0) 0) (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 ra ra ra ra ra ra 0) 0) 0) o. o. a o. o. aa Q. Q. Q. Q. a Q. Z w (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra ra (0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0 ra ra ra ra (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (0 (Q ra ra ra ra ra ra lo zzzzzzzzz Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z z z z z z z z Z Z Z Z Z Z

in in in (s- co 0 •g 7o-T-o Cvl '~'*l^ t?c0'- oco CO W co 'V CM ^ T- O) Y co*" ;sCM 1 CO T O) "- ^ CO CO O) *~ W "~ CM *~ "* CM CO

1 g g O 08 ^ tt) L"- LL LL LL •^ ^.E 0 ,? tt) 0) 0) — co 2 O L? — — 5 = 5 o x x llx\llllll — — — LU ^ H j MI LU 5 > ^ LL S ^ c 5 O C CO tt) ^ tt) 0) 0) tt) — tt) ro. ra ra ra ^* -1 .j -i 2 ^ = CO

i 0)0)tt)Qtt)0)tt)0)tt) i: •S) W) U) in ccccccccc 0) M O* P w -* *- ** *- ^ C p ooooooooo Ameliasbui Tyendinag; 3 -Q UJ -o O FredericIN Township t p U)V)(flCOCOCOtOCOU) Cramahe Sophiasbur Grantham Grantham 8 g S o| o o*^ o o"c ra ra raj^^^^^^^^^ fl) o tt) tt) O tt) Bertie Oneida Hillier Thurlow Thurlow •^ E "o E S .c ^5 3" 5 'j5 'nj ra w ra ra burgh .C -C *- -C .C -*-1 -— - — — 333333333tt)Q)Q)tt) CD 0) l-t-Ot-l-COZZZXIXIIIIIICQOQCQCD CD CO w ir o ir zE

ZZZZZZZZZ Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z z z z z Z ooooooooo o o ooooooZooooooooooooooo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 ooooomooo o 0 inooooocooooooooomoooinoo 0 0 o in o in o o in in in o o in o o o cococot^T-cMcocoinr^ CO O CO CM CM h- CM O TT r^ co CM in co CM co in CO in^rcoo)O)O)O)inmin m O TT ^ CO co CM co r-- CM r- O) *- co in in CM in in m in h~ t**- CO O) O) O f~ CO O) T- O O o CO CO CO CO CO O) CO CO CO O) O) O O)

LULULULULULULULULU LU LU LULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULULU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU OOOOOOOOO O o OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO o o o o 0 O O 0 o o o O O O O O o T3 ooooooooo O 0 ooomooooooooooinooooinoo 0 0 0 0 O O O O o o in 00000 0 in \rco\r--oin'-O)KCOTi-coor^cMcococoi^cococM in CM m o) o) o) in co O O h- O O O) CO CM in CM CO \r\ro)i^coocMTrr^ocMCM^}-\rcococMCv(O)O)CMco CO CO in in CO CO i- 0 r- o en "- o en i- in in 8 CO CO CD CO co en i- t- i- CM CM co ^r co t TT o CO CO CO co in CM CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO l-l-l-l-h-l-l-h-t- H I- l-l-l-l-l- l~r-|-l-l-l-l-l-|-l-r-h-HI-l-l-l- 1- h- l-H t- H- 1- h- t- 1- 1- 1- 1- t- 1- 1- co CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO D

CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OOOOOOOOO o O 0000000000000000000000 O O LU LU LU LU LU LU LU S o o o o O P ZZZZZZZZZ Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ i? Z Z ^ z z z z Z in O) ^^ W) en .- CD T3 in 0) t s . tt) ^ O -t *-i 0 in 2 ra ^ S. i- .c CO c 3 in in *; 3 C o VI "vi "3 E 0) O O 4) "R 0 C .J 3 0 cS 3 .a, g S iE g * 2 0 0 - CD g i 0 tt. ^™ 0 E C w *- ^ "S ^ o 0 M 5 -6 a r. 0 c 5 Universitvk *- c ^ u Q) CJ O "0 ^ t Canadarge arland-oper *J — C m O ® Q) C *^ CD m C (Lestensen 0) c c ra Mcparland tt) ra ^ o O O -C c 1 tt) Qu;emount Woehlge ® S- w ra 3 OntarioCci C Denison o •*- "^ n ® O (D O O (0 (\ c 5 1 SO c" 2 ra o ^ 2 OLL g" c iS^b o own ? ,- o n- o ra |I5 e?| ^F|5 m p- _r -*— O 'C -"c - > S rao. - J Z ^Soi-S^SSoS H . 0 5555^5555 ^5555^5 b5 55 g. s ciSg 0) .C ^ 2 1 rara •*-ra .yf \ ~- JCra - g^ 3 a: d 0 3^03033033 m coco 33D3^3333O3333^3C03|-3O ^ C/5 ic O O CO 1- X IO -J2 X -j 1 K I O -i -j

CM "~ c

- CM ^ ^ O 2

01 ^ n" ^ ** XO^ ggc* "*t ^*. CO 5s ^ f ^ ^ ^ o 2 ^ 0 N o S ^ 3 x O ^ c O 5 r* CD in O > D ^ 0 II 1 tt *- in ^o ^ ^ E olol?f2|; X M ^050 at ^0 o 0 ra i -"ollltlplc^lli P^fii c :x o Z "*1 'x:x fO m o "c c c O C f- C o li o| Q.c o0 -^ra j;0 o |Io 8 Napanee ^ 0 1 Z 5 * 0 c n o tt) CO C 'c ra go •a c 3 c c o-O 2 llfil Z 3 sf o) o o (0 o g .y 0 ra o Q) ra 0 rrrrrrrr^rrcocQCQ CD CO COCOOHH^COHHLUL?IQ.flCQCOCo5rJ:^^ 00 CC ^^ o o 5 o Q. -l Q. o. Z rr co Z (A tt) ^* *- CM CO 'J- in co r^ CO O O i- CM CO cMcoxrmcor^cocno T— CM co^"incor^cooO'-CMco^'inco^coo)O'~c\jco^j' to co r^ co 0 0 0 O o o o 00'-'-'- II tt) . in i i i i i i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^- ~ o i T T T r T i r i 1 i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 1 l i a o. a. a Q. Q. 0. Q. Q. d Q. Q. Q. COZ ZZZZZZZZZ Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z z z z z z z z Z Z Z Z Z Z '

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 149 "ut E g CO al — D pi? aj E ffi > ojo "-E c: c ccccccccc S s . . . O O OOOOOOO.OO. tDtDeDcDpCDj-SeD 5®g,SSSS55 S S S SSS p g, ppp ppppSppppppp8)Sc!n8)8)SS®CTpo)® siS?~ o ir ir cr ir w Q- CO rr Q- bc co co ir ir o: o: o: o: o: o: ir QrLrQt^cacacacafocacQtocaAcacacqcacacocaQMcacacocacoircacanVQ: 2 — 8 8 5 5 3 5 ci ^ ^ ^ 5 5iicj5^cj5cBcj5lc5c5c5,5^a3cSalc5a3ci5cS^^^^^^^3^ 0 O O O C3 > o > o O O 00 m o o o o o o o o O C^OCJ>CQ>>>Zi>>>>CQ>>>>>>>cacOCQCQCOGacQOca>CDO c c c c c c c i E E E E EE E E E ^ Vi E E E E E E E E 0 •tf "I 0) 0 E E EEEEEEEEE||EE E EEEE|EEEEEE|OOEEEI \- c . . . o r-- ^J 00 d o 0 o d 00 in r^' * d 0- in -oooinooooin-g-goas-oooo-^ooooocD-g^-^or^o-^ (O f- TT -- T- *~ O) cb CO *- O) O) r- 00 i- *- O) (M 00 in -oin-oocMocvjooDD {o^vino(Doa^cDTrinTr^3z.DocMr-3

1~ — >- — ^ — — — ^ — ^ X — ^ — 9- X — ^ ^ > ^ > --XZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ-Z <

O 0) (D ID 0) 9 ® d) 0) m 0) CD 3J Q) 8 g m (D ffi OJCDOVffilDIDOCpffllpfflCDaiCDiDcDiDCpcDcDcpCDCDCDCDIpCDaicpffitDCD 4™. (D Q) Q) Q) V d) CD d) 0) (D CD (D d) (D o) CD CD CD CD (Dffici)fficD(DCDCDc]jfficDcDQ)CDffi®0Q)cDOO)cDOcDOO(DO)(])(DcDQ)CD O c c c C c c C C C C C C C C C C CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCPCCCCC ffi CO cO CO ffi CO CO fi CO CO CO tt *-* a a a a a a a a o. a o. a o. o. Q. Q. Q. Q. o. a Q. oonooooof^r^nr^ooooorioooooooririorionr^f^ Z w CO CO CO cO CO CO CO CO (0 cO CO ffi CO ffi ffi CO ea m CO C0c0c0c0c0ff!c0c0ff}c0c0c0(0fl!ff!c0ff]ff]c0ff!ff!c0c0c0c0ff!c0c0c0ffsn!n]n! 2o Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

O) TT CM in O) V— 00 w m 2 -. 00 T- 00 g, •X- TT (0 ^ o (3) -w ra ' ' CO o •- *M W oo l i j^ T— '~'~*~'~CT3 Cv*" "~ (\JCO*"~ T~ C\J\\JC\J'~'~C*J *~*~~,— -1 0) ™ CM 00 CM T- •tf r- o TT T~ *~ *~ (M T~ T~ Z

CD o: C 4- 4- *- 4- O C C C C 5 CD ra CD -5 2222 oo ""o Isp 0 c3 — Is ®^ — C !i — LLLLU.LL t- w - ;j^ OT Q CO *- ,- o ^ ffi ^ S ^ ^ — ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ~ ^ M ^ QC — ^ — — CDCDCDtD — — — o x Sea O CB^ -. ^ ^ J^ -* ^ rr z ^) z ^ 2222 ~~ 0^ Z i ^ CD CO CO CD LU

TD C i: JT M M "OTCO an O) T3 CO CO D D C "O H* jrt o. UJ UJ C C C c — O O jz jo O^-M O)Q)O)O)O)O)O) O) 'x. T3 1" C C C 1* — o OT f" |'^ogggggo^^^ x 553555555335.E.E.E.E.E.E.E.E ut S S 2 2 2 g 22 JSo E 222 c "O TJ OT OT OT OT aj ea tn (0 W o •G. w •E, m m m to t •^ J3g)V) E^^^^JZ 25® 0)555555J2^5SS5'O'O'O"D'D'O'D'O 5 CD s: u. O) CD 0) o, 0) 0) o *-5^x3?55o)^^^^333D333ziDzizizitDa)(i)o)cDg)a)cD o w 1 E E E o3 c C C ?g E1 o . - - O O uj LU tu LU < y b. ^ co o.jz^OT[T[rrrfrcQ^^OTOTi — t — i— ^ — i— i— i— \— \— t — i— ^— \^ f~ \— \— ^ — t — i— h~

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z z Z Z z z z Z Z Z Z z z z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz o o o o o 0 0 o 0 o o o o o 0 o o o ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo o o o o o o o o 10 o o o o in 8 o o o 88 o inoooinooooooinooooinooinoomoinooinminooo

CM T- O O O) o O) CM o o o O "- 0 *- 0 0 0 0 0) T— T- OOO'~*~'~ON.OOO)OOOOOO)O)O)O)O)OC3)O)O)O)OOOOO)O)O)C3) ra en en o oo O) 00 at O O) 01 2 2 2222 2 2 2 2222S22 O) 23S O'SSS3532 COO'2S2222 O' O)OOCOCO 2 UJ UJ LU LU UJ LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LULUliJllllllLUIUIJJliJLUllJlllLULULULULlJlJJIJJllJlUlULULUllJlJJUJLULUllJllllUl^ W O 0 0 0 0 0 0 in 0 O O O O O O O O O O o ooooooooooooooooooooooooomooooooo XI 8 o o o o o o O r-^ 0 0 O O O o o o o o in o inoinooooooinoinminooomoinooinootMininuimooo in o 10 (M 8 o CM co in m CJJ (D O) 00 10 j in O) OT O O S SSSri?SiSfTi!:SSimoiSr-iS O SSS O 'OCOU' intOtO (\if\ir?S O'?u tOOi o CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO rt CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO OCOOCNJC\JC\ICVJC\|{MC\J(MCOCOCOC*5COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO

t- l- \- t- \- 1- 1- h- 1- 1- h- H 1- h- h- 1- h- 1- 1- 1- H l-t-h-Hl-l-l-h-h-l-l-h-h-h-l-h-t-l-h-f-l-l-h-Ht-l-l-l-l-l-l-t-l- t- 03 00 CO CO OO CO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 CO GO 00 00 OO CO COOOOOOOCOOOOOCOCOOOCOOOOOOOCOOOCOCOOOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOOOOOCOOOOOOO

OT O O O O O o O O LU UJ UJ LU Q LU Q LU LU LU 2 fSofSooooooooooooooooofSoooooooooofto J3 Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z > y z y yZyZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ^ZZZZZZZZZZyZ x (D . i/i Ut J VI Q. en H ut S, ^ c- o Gananoqi.Bros.in CamdenEishipof ofAmherstiship1: Townshihborough 1 1 S 5 li* Constr.Storey McKendry4Son, Sand4Gravelds 4SonMcKendry. Aggregatestenac SonMcKendry4. 4SandGravelds o (D CanadaInc-ge Bezanson4Son ConstMcparland, Kingstonishipof McparlandConst. 06 t 1 2 o! g 53? O) Ic3 | Pf ^ c?lS O Denison ci ^O-- ""^ CD coCOtao) b h- * SS S | ea o Z 8" .o !o .i o i- C t. Q. o. X l-LLU-—l TJ rn-:-(n ccccccc cccOT.-ccccccOccccccccf5oo o C ™t^gcggg55goggg)JZ5gggg 55 5g S g 55 g^^^o w CO .E2.-o?oooooo^oo.Ecoooooo-^oooooooo5':: ':: 's -j 8 ~* IIc c Urn sictccccccScc-'j^cccccccocccccccc*1- - - w 1^2 S"0 8 ^ :tr uJ:±^ cfljt^:^:jcjeji^-j:j: 2 Sj^jcj^jc^^: fc^^^^^^r^ji . -j -j *i ! p* 0 ^ d o 2 ^ .'r^-.'scj.cccccc .cc*Occcccc®cccccccc> - -.5 0 O l- -3 -3 -J LL 1 s: l— 5 it 3^1 LL 3 C3oO3533D3DD—l33ll— 3DD3D3ODD33DZ)D3^IlO

c 0) s: OT :x 5* ^ O 00 OT x 1 l "c *~ en OT c\l i— O) OT CD o ® OT .C o -^ Q) 0) c X t- J o^:^ |*r w 1^^** CM^ *^ x -2" c c Pf^/niSt^t ^ br 1^ ^ b;^ 1!*:^**^ -^ ^^J V Ut U (O W II ^ C O o ^ c :x c X -J -1 X CO 1 c ^ O O OT tnJS1 O o *?2lScScJ^ ^^^•S^WS? | Jo-Mi c O CD S *^8l2ccO^^^oOO-s c (|) c a) 0-5i ^^cc^aO (|) C^j^ d z ^ 8 CO C 5 c g gO 0 g c OT^ O) 0 ^ 3 x jr J3 o 2 fe 2 5 S? 3 5 II C T3 ® E c C OT OT CD ^ 3- w CO co g OT a Jo O1 Q. - Tn Ol O O.P. z 3 I W 0 2 ^ ra 75 .E .E S" P O Q O 5 OT CD i O I 1 O * k ^ LU Sills E l i fllllllllllslllllllll^llllllllll OT 0) x TJ- in CD h- oo 0) 0 r- CM CO Tf m co i^ OO O) O *- CN CO ^- incor^oo*~ojco^j'incDr^ooc3)O t~c\ico^'in(or^'Ooo)O T~c\jco^'incDr*-co CM C\J CM CM (M (\J (M (M CM CM CO O CO CO II 0) . i i i i i 1 1 l 1 1 1 i i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 i iiiiTiTTTiTTiTiiiiiiiiiiTTiiiiTii 1 ~ o Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. CL Q. 0. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. 0. Q. Q. Q. 0. CLQLQ.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.O-Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.CLQ.aCLQ.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q. > OTZ Z Z Z Z Z Z z Z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ '

150 Limestone Industries of Ontario Ison "-E

E E E 5.XXXXXXXXXX E E xxxxxxxx E E w ra m in E E E E l LlCw.auuuucJuuuuu •Ouu T) O(DCOO CCC S CCCC .E.C: C .E c o5 fee .EE.E C .E.EE.E S E 5* LJ > >_l -iLj-j'Jj-j-iLi-J -i li _l> c c E E E g E EEEEEEEEEE EE E E E E l |E EEEEEEEE E E E^ in p p p -g -* p ppininpppo) in p p^ c\i ^ d 3 d c\j d ^ •^ 3 3to cM^'dddddd ^ d COCM

ZZZZ2 Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z -Z Z Z Z zz Z Z ZZ ZZZZZZZZ Z Z ZZ

CO CD c c c c c ea m a) A at c ccccccccccccccc cc a. a. a a a A rt A A A a. aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aa Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZ ZZ ZZZZZZZZ Z Z

O) in o ^oo (O ' ^o ™ to co c\i

z a: - - CO ^

O O

zzzzz z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z zz z z z z z ZZZZZZZZ Z Z 0000 ooooooooooooooo oo o o - - - - o in in in oooooinoooooooom o in in o 0 o O) CO O) -* O (DOCOCOin'-tOCOCOCMtD^rOJ'-CO COO) co in o 8 CO (O ^ co Ti- t*, o '-acoaocM'-'-'-CMt^rocM'-o co CM in co CM GO o) o O) O) f^ co 00 00 CO 00

LULUUJLUL1JUJUJLUUJLULLJUJLIJUJLU LLJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ UIUIUJUJUJUJUJUJ ai LLJ QQOOOQQQOQQQpp" o o O O o o o o o o o o o in o o o o o in o o in o in S o o o o o in o in o -. f\l O CO •- co oj (\j in (o CM in o) r^ w co co O) c\j c\j CO CO CNJ cocococococococo co co

o o o o o o o o o o o o o oooooooo o o o o zzzzz oz ooooooooooooooozzzzzzzzzzzzzzz z z z z z z z z zzzzzzzz z z z z

c c c c c cccocccccccccc cccccccc l 115 l l 5 3 5 5 S 5 c c c c c CCCCCCCCCC(j;C -* -* J* -* -* j*^:*-*.*.*.*.*:cccccccc c c c c c CCCCCCCCCC -C cccccccc 33333 3333333333-33 li 33333333

O9- O™ i? !2 O O ~ ® ^C O O ' ^ O A A ^ ±! CD CO X X CO O * "O T3 O O ? ? E E O O E o o ~ u m w w . . . C ffi CD CD in en S E E x x C 0) (D (D "O 0) 2 O ( A in w V) k. E E w 5 f f JC CO (D Q) A S o ffi o CO Q Q Q O O 5 o. CD Q. (M CO

** o ...... Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Q. Q. o. a o. a 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0. Q. Q. o. a COZ ZZZZZ zzzzzzzzzzzzzzz z z z z z z zzzzzzzz Z Z z z

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 151 to c 0 c ffi g O) •j± ^ 3-, W P M ra g en .0 X ft TD O "-E "j C C C C C C c c — ffi O.-OOOO O. 0 0 ffi ® ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi jjj ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi 0^ 0) 0) 3- 3- E 5 E E E E rarara rarararararara ra ra ra ra rara rarafQnrcrtMnjtrfraMnrra 3-. 3s ra ra ra ra 3 tototo toeototntntntn to to to tn w ~5 ^^OOOOO^O"-^ ra ra o: tt DC DC DC DC rt TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD il TD^D.Q = 2^nnnC-.O=C_ S E "5 "5 3 "3 — 3 333 8 CCC CCCCCCC C C C C CCD CCQ3oOOOffiO^ffi 3 3 oii m a ^ COo COo 0 > o Lj-i-i -j -i -i 3 LJ LJ lj -i -i -i lj _l> _l_lmOcocococo>mO> o O O O J 0 c cc cccccc c i c c c ^ 10 o o O W E o E EEEOO^E E E E E EE |EEE||||EEE| E E E E E E —— Q) I E in -* o o o o -^ -* ^ in o o CM o o m -^oooo-g-^-^-^ocom^ -^ o ^ CO ±c o o -* O ooo *~ c c c . O 3 T- oi O O 3 3 V O O O CM "- CM CO 3CMCOCO3333^CMC03 3 CM 3 cd 3 CD •~ 3 3 Tt c\i CM d 5^ O'— ZZZ ZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZ z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZ

O) ffi ffi ffiffiffiffiffiffio ffi ffi ffi q) aa ffiffifflffiffiffiajcDffiffifflffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi O) Q) *rf ffiffiffi ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffiffi ffiffiffiffiO)Q)(])Q)ffiffiffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi g ffi S Q) G) O CCC CCCCCCC C C C C CC CCCCCCCCCCCC c c C C c c C c c CCC (T* '^- ra ra ra S ra ra ra ra ra ra fi! flj (\J o. a o. o. a o. a a o. o. o. o. o. o. a. o. a.a.aa.a.a.a.a.aa.a.a. o. a a a Q. Q. o. Q. Q. 0, Q. Q. Q. z^ ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra oj wj wi ^Q ZZZ ZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZ

0 - 0) 0) CO CO en co , , S ^coco.oo^ o CM uj S wog S-SSSitS^SS.- *- en CM CM CM (M i- ^ in in

ffi ffi 0 3- J5 ^J ffi ffi L-i-i-Xi-s,- jjj -ft "ra c 0 if * cn^^J^j^ — - — - — - 0- m .^ .i (2 g, 5 .g S ffi. 1 o

o ^ ^ 5 5 > > ^ > > TD = = — O OO ^ O o *~ "~ ZoZoflogl^o'o-ffi^ra'o" — — — o TD

OZLULU CO CO CO LU CD Z ^j ^j v. ^ o 0

-C.C.C.C.C.C.C.C.C 1 l i i i 1 i 1 1 i i i O)O)D)O)D)CnO)O)O) en tn tn to en en en tn tn tn en to en to 333333333 "o _ _ _ _ .Q ,Q .Q Q Q n n nnTDTDTDTDTDTDTDTDTD-— O O O O O O O O .0 0 O O 0 a *^I -^ *^; ^ to tn tn tn tn tntn tntoccccccccc^ !c III | X 5, X X -S, X 3s 3s3sOOOOOOOOO.g ffi ffi ffi -offi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD TD ffi .c ffi.c ffi.C ffi -C ffi -C ffi-C ffi SZ c ooo o o" o o o o J 5 J 5 2 ^^ 4?SJi.c.i.c.c.i.I.c.c2r Si-1- "ra "ra "ra "m f S 5 S 5 *^ ^^000000000"-!:"LL?LL? it? it? LL? it? LL? Lt?LL? lt?lt?Lt? o — 3 -- 3 iii i 5 5 5 5 5 co co co co co zz zzbrcciTirLrLrcrira: z.2 Zn Zn zE zE zE coE con con con

ZZZ ZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z z Z Z Z Z Z z z ZZZ 000 OOOOOOO 0 0 0 0 00 OOOOOOOOOOOO o o o o 0 0 o o o o ooo ooo moooooo o o in in o m oioooinooinoooo o o 0 0 o Q in 0 en o 000 oo CM Tt CM CM in oo co in in o co CM CM '-t*. TtcoeoTtTtTtinoooooocMr^ co en CM O) CM CM en h~ ;o Tt o 0 CM CO Tt CO CO co en fs- fs. fs. fs. fs. co co co co co co co co co co rs. fs. cois.*— r-ooooooocn en o o O O O) O) O O CO CO CO CO co co co co co co co co co co co co co co coco cooocncnoocncncncncnco CO 00 o o O) OO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO

LU LU LU LULULULULULULU LU LU LU LU LULU LULULULULULULULULULULULU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU en OOO OOOOOOO 0 0 0 0 00 OOOOOOOOOOOO 0 0 O O 0 O o O o o OOO TD o o in ooomooo in o in o oo oooooooinoomo o in 0 in O O 0 0 0 0 OOO incom o)O)ocoioino r^ fs. fs. oo fs. o in Tt Tt *— i/) Tt in fs- o *— *— fs. co r- o 00 o in O CO co en in b O CM 00 K O COCOCO COCMCMCMCMCMO CO CO CO CO 0000 TtTtCOTtTtTtTtTtCOTtTtTt in in o co en Tt in Is- 0 co co oo cocococooococo co oo co co coco cOoOcocOoOoococooooOoOcO oo co co CO 00 CO o CO CO 00 co co co

l-l-t- h-l-h-l-l-t-l- h- 1- H 1- \- \- i-r-t-r-f-f-l-r-l-l-i-h- 1- 1- 1- h- I- t- 1- 1- 1- 1- I- h- 1- I- CO CO 00 CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO COCOOOCOCOOQOOOOCOCOCOCO co co 00 00 CO 00 CO 00 00 CO 00 CO 00

c o OOO OOOOOOO O O O O O [g OOOOOOOOOOOO 0 O O O 0 0 o o O 0 OOO l3 ZZZ ZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z Z y ZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZ

tn en c c v- o o ffi c 00 O TD TD to C C O c ra ra 0 — w ra c c c ffi c c c c c c CCC o J* 555 5555555 5 5 5 5 5^ 55555555^^55 5 5 c 555 w OOO OOOOOOO O O O O O^ OOOOOOOOOOOO O 0 o o o o o l i ooo CCC CCCCCCC C C C C CO CCCCCCCC.-CC c c ^ c c CCC a CCC CCCCCCC C C C C C"? CCCCCCCCv-r^ cc c c c c c c c c CCC o 333 3333333 3 3 3 3 3l 33333333II33 3 3 3 i 3 3 3 3 3 333

c ^ ffi 3- O j^ ^ CO CM - Q 3s Q. E **** Q, O E O 3s ^ CM 00 ffi in CD co O) OOOO 5x ^ ^5-1 *^ - 0 * * * c CM * ffi COI^CO OXXXSs^^ ^ m O " * cO g -tfocM^*1 li E Jt^^t ^.aj^.a).?** * ^ -p * OQ ^CB t-^^^^ 0 o * OOO ra * 0 3s o O O O o 1 Z O a O ffi ffi ffi ffi en to in o OOO O>>>> oo o g ^ o oo -aSo^arjQQ^fto 0 O 0) 3s ffi x ffi ffi ffi 333 c ffi c c c c 1 l SI SI .C II 5 a O) ra ra ra ra ra Q- TD TD TD (Q ^ o, a. Q. Q. 0- 3 CCC Z 3 ooo o|||^^^ ^ ra g ^ || gra^.o||||ra^-g,2 S S ffi c ra ra ra ra ra -o ra ra ra O Q. Q. b. Q-OOOOSS 2 CO Q. 2 ^ ^ CO^GCGCCOCOCOCO^ZlLO o z co ^ Z Z Z Z Z < CO CO CO to ffi incor^ coo)o--CMcoTr in CD s- oo oo •-CMCOTJ-UICDI^OOOO'-CM CO -J- in (D (S. CO en o •- CM oo Tt in •-'-'- ----CMCMCMCMCM CM CM CM CM CMCO OOOOOOOOCOCOCOOOCOTfTl-Tr Tt Tf Tt m in in in in in II ffi . III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i l 1 1 1 1 i i i i i i *r o 0.0.0. 0-0.0.0.0.0-0. a Q. a Q. CLQ, Q.Q-Q.aCLQ.Q.Q.Q-Q.Q.Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. 0. Q. O. 0. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. ^~ COZ ZZZ ZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZ Z Z Z Z z Z Z z Z Z ZZZ '

152 Limestone Industries of Ontario Formation(s)cal

Members)

c c c c o ^..^^..... L .^.^...... oo..oo ...... ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi J? tt A ir o: cc o: rr rr o: DC DC DC GC LrccbcccirbcccLrtrirkocbrbrbrDCccocbrocurtrccirtririf A^OCO: A'^wocDCccbcocGcira: 2 u ffi 0 DDaaaaaDrjzjsijrjaDararjiJDrjrJZJsnDSoo^^ooffi^-3 -3 -3 -3 ^-3 ^ m ooocJC5c^c^c3c^ooc!Joo(^(^c^O(^c!5C!5oooooocQcDc^otncQ>ooooc3CJOc^ c c c c c c c c E E E E E E E E E E E O OE||EEEEEEEEEEEEEOEEEEEEEE|EEE|EEEEEEEEEE| o in o o fh0 00 O O O O 0) o JC -go-^-ginoooooooooooo-goinoooooo-^oino-^oooooooooincM-^ CM o 3 TT CM 0 CM 00 CM 00 o D 300 3 H'tfOtM'-OT-T-CMO*-'-'*'- S'-'-'-CMCMCMCMO D'-CMCM 3r^OOmcO'-inOCM-*in 3

DistrictNo.Lie(*)ness Z Z Z Z z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z zzz-zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

ffi ffi ffi ffi c c c c c c c c c c c C cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc tt A Q. a o. Q. Q. O. a a a a a a a a aa.aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa.aa. QuarryConeMNRSiteNameOperatorOwnerUTMCoordsTownshipLotActiveThick-MNRGeologor tt tt A A A A A A A A A A A A Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ

CO CM i- CO Tf CM in T~ 00 TT TT (M CM CM 00 1-

c

LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LULULULULULULULULULULUCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

Adolph1881050N 9200NCamde burgh burgh 7650NCamde 22800NCamde 23955NCamde 22700NCamde 7250NCamde E E E )7900NCamde g^gggg^ggggffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiT:^^^ Camde1921SOON

Fredericks-lNP-157HawleyQy1ST350900ESunknownNO4896000N Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZcZ 0 0 0 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo o o o ooomininoooooooooinmoooooooooooinooinooinoinoinoino NP-156OntarioSFredericksLennoxG.S.QyHydroNO1ST350900E4890050N

0) 0) 0) 01 0) 0) m en 0) 0)

8T341950E' 8T341800E' LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LU LULUUJIULULULULULUIUIULULULULULULUUJLULULULUUJLULUUJUJLUUJIULUUJUJLULULULULULU o o o o o o O 0 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo o in in o o o in in oinininoiooinoinminooifloooooooooooininininoooooinooooinmoo •^ TT •— OO ^" O) 00 00 CO OO CO CO co co co co cooooooooocooooooocococooococooooooocococooooocooooocooooocooococooooooooooocooooooo

00 CO 00 00 00 CO 00 CO ao 00 00 OOCOOOOOCOCOOOOOOOOOOOGOOOOOOO 00 OOOOOOGOOOOOOOGOOOOOOOCOCOCOOOCOOOGOOOOOOOCOOOOOOO

O 0 0 0 O O O O O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

0 d "ffi o ~ o c O CO rf ffi w oes o c c c c c c c c c c fficccccccccccccoccccccccccccccccccccccccccc 5 5 5555 o ^55555555555551.555555555555555555555555555 o o o o o o o o V) ijOOOOOOOOOOOOOfflOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO i! f j^ccccccccccccc-^ccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

ffi O) c

A OX n - CM -d- 1 00 ffi CentrevilleQy161ffun 65CentrevilleQyff2un 't '~ OJ ^*2 ^^^^* ^" JZ 1-;* CM>,>>, O c 60CroydonQy2ffun 63MoscowQyff1un 64MoscowQy2ffun 62EnterpriseQyun :xx x^.^xxx'~ cv' c1 xx^OxXNjn '* ~" * * O ^OOO a) II ® x AA •^v*"^! — :tfc:lt ^''DXO OOffi Oa)0)0) ^ ^ X ^ 0 d II A A 5 5 5 E E E'i^'if'if E E E-— E P •*j **~* *-* — —- ^*^ ffi"^ a~^— in ^~ ~^~ ^~ ^ — •^-^--^- — ^ ^~ ^ z is^ffiffiffiAAAAAAAAA5AA^jC^.Q.Q5o'OAA(C^(flEAAA^EEE"ffiOmc COCOZZZOOO>->->-OOOCOOO>$>>>IQ.OcDZclDS<

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 153 333333333333333333333333333333333:3333333333333333333 3333

EEEEEEEE OO^IOOOOO 3 O) (M 3U1-* 3r- 3mCO*-CMOr-T-(\|c'J'-tMO 3 CM O 3 3 CM O 3C\JCM'-OTl-O)'- 3(\)CMO'-CO'-OOC')COCVIOO

ZZZZZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZ

w w l— l-h.k.k.l-k.h~k.h.l-L.l-L-L.^^^k-l-k.k.l—Wk~k-l- (8 W W W W (B W W CB (B W CB W W (B IB IB (8 SI (O CB (8 (8 IB 18 (O (B (B CB . . -. -. -. . -. .. -. ,. . . -. -. ,. -. -. . ,. -. ,. ,. -, -...... ,. 55 *W*|*|W|*WWWWWWaWWW*WWWflrtWWWWWWW*W|W|rtW|WWWW*W|WWWWWW|WWW

^ T ^ - co w

l o g l g g g g g g co m co .52 J2 w m o "to to 55 — ^^"5 — — "* > ===->5>=>=== ==>QQQ QQ >QQ>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>QQQ

zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo inoinooiooooou)ooooir)oooooinoooou)oooooininu)ooou)ooooou)oooo

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

ccccccccccccccccc cccccccc C C C C C CCCCCCCCCC*C CD CD c c c c c 5 5 5555 5 m 5 w M 5 5 5 5 5 o5 o5 o5 o5 ~. o o o o o . o c c o o o o o c c c c c . C C C C C C CO C ^ -— C C. C C C — ItXiJtJtlClC — ^jf^fjfjfjf^ ^ ^ .* jt j* je jt ^: ji j: . -* ~n ~n -* -^ -* -^ -^ -CCCCCCCCC cccccccc c c c c c c c c c c ^ c O O c c c c C 33333333333333 3333333333 33333333 333333 3333^3 O O 3 3 3 3 3

•r- CM ^ o O eg ^ * "5 (A •- CM CO M- :*"x"' to r^ n * O o o 5t ^. ^ X X ^ x " W " CM CO t CM ffi ' O t O O O 3 rt ^ 0 atat O t at * t i- 2-* * E " x ^ ^ o^ x x 0|~x ^ ** , •z CD CO O at t at at O ^ X (D /V ^ ^ 55 |ooo ooooo n Q- Q. i 2 -l. O o 0 ® x^^^ x:x:x O O ^R 58 E Oo0 . O n Q) ~l C 4) r- x ^ X x W o 0 i: ^ J, ^ ^ x Sif c *J c x jg ^-O 00 0 00 ,. o ® *- *- o o * * * E E o O O O O w ^8 si-l 005* S * io -"xooo^^^ ? S o c c g 5 o CD co CD *g) CO CO Q ^ ^ m m O "T'K-K'K"'* 18 3 O m ^ Q Q ^ ^ to in to E w o *- O ~ Q C O O o S S -Q ill vi vi v* W CO *-* t: i! c c c i- u. "D f P l E i sE2-B-e- c gg l c fe| l E 1H11! ui w z: ~ ^ "Ml * "i; s IB -CWWWaOO E E o, j* JDa ^o jD en g silt t: s y co 5. o "R^ w 18 -c o-^ W ".8 5 ^ j* ^ ^^000 ^ rt rt a. w Z w OojwicyjorwQC -l -J CO OCOCOCOCYJCJOO II W CO Ei co co O U- U- H. U. 5 it < < •^5 l ^ ^ O O O

l i l l i i i l i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i aaQ.Q.a.aaa.(La.Q.aCLQ.aaa.CLa(LQ.aQ.Q.CLQ.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.O.a.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.QLQ.Q.Q.a.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.Q.aCLll.Q.Q.zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

154 Limestone Industries of Ontario "•E si O 0) O) IT ir o: if GCGCGCifGCOrCCGCGCGCEGCCCGCQCbCGCGCE bcocGcarccoroca: 8 333 3333333333333333333 33333333 3333333C3 333 *^l o OOO OC3OOOOOOOO(3OOOC3OOOO oooooooo OOOOOOOI3O O COCOOOOU><

E E^ E E E ^EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEgE EEEEgEgEE E EEEOEEEE C) p ^ CD CD CD -ppppT-pppppppppp inoo-*cocooo O CM r- CM O *" -inrvcococoddddindcOVcdcd I-VT c\ 3 t 3 co

zzz zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz zzzzzzzz zzzzzzzzz Z ZZZZZZZX

njnjiuvgTOnjiucumiwnjwajnjwni W TO W W W TO W IV TO (8 cd CO (d (8 (8 W . a a a aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaa Z" a a A roronjroronirororocoioiorototororonjra rawnJfOfllnjBJnJ ZZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZ z z zzzzzzzo

en o "V cococMinincotococo '-CgJ. CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM H T CM (M CO CO Tf C\J CO CO

Jco JJco 2" S 0 *- 3 E" ,-3 flj O Of c c c c 2- ™ °%= = = ^ * fljUji-GCOCGCCCOCGC w O ^ZCOCOCOCOCO O O o UJ

TJ "O TJ T3 T) TJ TJ TJ "O "D "O T3 T3 C C C C C C C jC C- wC wC wC C ec ccccccccccccccc aj JO JO JA ^(0 JA J(0 S oo ooooooooooooooo 333333 CToio)oioioio*oic3iDioioio*oio)12J2i!j2 J2J2J212j3fSJSiS 'o'o'o'o'o'o'o ccccccccccccccc^SSt: StlSCSitJtit: 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.

oZZZ o ~ zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz zzzzzzzz ZZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZ 0000000000000000000 88S888 QQ ooooooooo~ inoooooom oinoooininooooooooo CMo oin *-8- ooomoinooooooooointnoin i- r- CM *— co co CD co CM ooo t— *— T— o o o d o iv en O O) O) O) O) O) O) GO GO

UJQJUJliJUJUJliJUJUJllJUJUJllJUJLLIUJUJUJUJ QJtiJtiJUJUJUJUJliJ UJUJUJUJUJliJUJlIJUJ HI lil LLJLUUJUJLULUUJL1J oooooooo ooooooooo O O O O O O O o in o ooooinomininoinoooooino minmminoino ooooooomm 8 w o o in o o in CO CO (O IVT-5COOCMCMCMO)CMO)CMCOO'-in'-O co^ccMN-Ttco'-' cMO(orvivo)ino 00 00 O cftooO'-'-'-'-ooojflOcoflOO'-cvjcoco COCOf'-C^ COOO'JCO O)COCOOO CO CO CO CO COCOCOCOCO^COCOCMCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO cocococococococo h-l-^l-l-f-HI- l-l-l-l-l-Hl-l-l-

ooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO ooooooofg zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz ZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZ zzzzzzz^

ccccccccccocc --CCCCCCC 3 3 3 -J -J 3 3333333333033 33333333 333333333

v- CM CO -* t at at at - o O O ea, 5 * E . -1 o, x ^ - •D ^^ O O l Q w w 5 O o -5 o t: "^"1 - i! - CO -S c o E OS ss|1*1 (A tt) 0,0, S S 2 -2 5 t o o o . E -E 5 l 8 l * 5 5 o. co -i t- < in 10 co ~. ~. O) O) O) O) O) O) o o . O -- T- CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM CO CO CO CO CO CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOi- I l l l l l l O .t: o Q. Q. 0- Q.Q.Q.Q.OLCLCLCLCLCLCLCLCLCLQ.CLCLCLQ. 0.0-Q.O.Q.O.Q.O- Q.a.a.Q.o-0-cLcLo. Q. GL O- Q. Q. Q. Q. l WZ Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ zzzzzzzz zzzzzzzzz ZZZZZZZO

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 155 O O "i "i TO TO o o o o o o o o o S S EEE E E "-E o) ra -o? UJ 111 LU LU LU LLJ c^fc l,S" l. J w w c " CD c c ^- -^ ~cb -^ — "CD ~co ~~^ "~^ _ "5 — - 1" — — 3 — .CB o9^oo)cD^Q)^ffia)j:j:cDocD . . — v Q) JZ i- ^~- CQCQ'OCDfDIDCDd) .t:.Qo.±:-Q-Qo-"O-Q-Q Q. a. -o ~ -O Q.Q..QO- JD*; JD Q. CO W en d) s Q) d) w c "2 "~ W W c nJ^ c ^ *C^o. TO^Q. TO TO "-j "qj TO c *0 a *r~ TO"rt\*OTOTO-Ctr*— '^- E E EEE 2 E"5 2 E E"5 E"5 E E 3 3 E 5 E E w E3^BBESc5o3 r'b. c j? y. o m 2.

EEEJJEEEf. E E E EEEEEEEE EEE EE EEE E E o (D co - -*t O O LO CM LO i- . CM o o o o o •tf -* 00 *- CO in LO cd 00 00 ^- CO

>2>>>->-> X22 2 -22222Z222 222 222222 22 Z>->>2Z 22 >222Z222Z

T)T3T)r- t- r- TIX)'Dt- t- r- -DTJ'Or- t- e- "OTJe- r- "or- m m m m CCCCCCCC cccccccccc c c c c c c U/ w W W CD cocococococococo COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO COCOCO COCOCOCOCOCO COCO COOOOOO Od) CCCCCCCC DC 5 c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c .Q n .a .o .Q ooooooooo 2 w S E E E E E Illlllll 1111111111 l l l l l l II H EEEEEEEEE OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOO O O O O O O O O olS.S.S.1 Q. CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO

i— 00 *— 00 O) l l l l l LO o o r- o CD i^

GC S O W "C 'C l,g wCO DC O s s l^^ 1^ w w 0|- gco'5 E = ^^ rfX x x xR x^ x5 > > ^^x x ^.i >= i = i-^8 0 Xco^^coE^^x- O 2 o

5 g E E rarorara (D -Q ra XI JD CD — *- ~7 ~7 c U) *- ~ i 2 l l l ^ ^ CD CO CD O O l 2 Q. -z.~z.-z. 22ZZ2222 222222Z222 222 222222 2 2 222222 2 2 222222222 ~ oooooooO OOO OOOOOOOOOO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ooooooooo LO LO O LO LO O LO O O LO OLOOOOOOOOO o o o o o o o o O O LO O O O OOOOOOOLOLO LO CO CM CM CD CM" CM 1^ LO O CD CDCOLOCON.COOOOCD O CO C\J CD t^ CM oo in LO CM 00 h- CD i- CO LO LO LO O) •sr CM rg *- LOLOCOCOCOCMO-M-CMLO CD *- CO C3) 00 CO CM LO O LO CD CO CO 00 N- LOLOLOLOLOLO-'l-COCOCO-. . -. -. ,. -. - -. . -, -. -. CO O) O 00 00 CO O) CO CO Tf OM 03 TJ-LO coLOLOio^f-srTi-coLO O) O)O)O) O) O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O)O) O)O) O) 00 O) 00 00 00 CO CO O) O O O O O

UJUJLULULULLILUIU LUUJLULUUJUJLULULUUJ LU LU UJ LU LLJ LLI LLJ LU LU UJ UJ LULUUIUJUJLLJLULUUJ OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOO OOO O O O O O O OOOOOOOOO LOOOOlOtOOO LoooooomcMOo ooo O O O LO O O OOOOOOOOO o co T*- CM -- r^ o o in o o o LO^'CO^J'N-r^CMN-O'" '"LOCO o \r c\j m LO CM COCOCOOOCDOCROOCnO OOO LO in in oo LO •'T TT

I-I-H I- H J- l- l- t- 00 CO CO CO 00

COCOCOCOCOCO LULULULULULLl LU ^ ^ LU ^OOOOOOOOO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o o ffioooooooo ^-^-^- > ^ZZZZZZZZZ z z z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z z z z z z z z z ^zzzzzzzz

O) O O F o ™ ^ W TO d) i: i; o 0 2 m 'o O) DC O O "CB O O , COu.cn cc:I- ccc .^o 5 5 5 l" ^ 5 5 * l" 5 o 5 2 8*S3?5 CCDOOOOOOQ3 O O O t) o w o 8 o coocncccccc.o c c c ~ S - S s: *- S , co j: -p c ^ CD jt o w 5 r S 5 c ^2 .^"c"ccc"cw QSOOOOLULU I OCO_J333333> iol ico 3

o "J c^^^u-s ^ O 0 E"g bdOOwx o '5 ^-oo o c5 O E l- ^ o * o E ffi ai "5 ci -t CD O 2 O ^ j,, —1 U = 'E o ^^ ^ TO w ro w o) g ^00 o o 2 O fe -l -J ffi -5 o 5 o z: (B .^' i- CD ^ C TO CO ^ ~ Irt 'crt (5 p OD P vi O TO -s; O C Q. -— TO TO Z CL c E nl 3 TO TO |r d) o o n ir V- — -~ o o -c d) .cs S 5 l 111 o w 0) O DC O O l- CO Q li I CO CO O ^ CO O O co O m o O. LL O O U- CO O Q- S

*- CM CO h- 00 CD O O O O O i i i i i i i i i l l i l i i l i llllll LU l l l l l l l l l l OOOOOOOO OOO O OOOOOOOOOO OOO OOOOOO OO Q.CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO

156 Limestone Industries of Ontario or ^ T) "5 "w o o O c c oil O O of "•E 3 C c c c c c raCC CD o) o) oo)O)O)O)O)O)Q) 3 RJ 3 D 2 D3DDD33D *i " " " (O y W (O W CQ —i o^ w S S Sra 2" 2" O) O) 0) 0) 0) Q) W (O 5 * 0)^0)0)0)^0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0) -CO-C.C-CT2.C-C.C.C.C.CJC.C E^EEEiEEEEEEEE

^ w EEo EEEEEOEEEEEE|E!| E E E E E •y o u) in in LO o

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z >>-ZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ> Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZ

E EEEEEEEEEEEE ooooooooooooooooooogooooooooooooooooooojj CDcncDcnc&cncDOcncncn Z" COCOCOCyjCOCOOTC/lCflCOCOCOWWCOWCOCOCOl-iliiiiiiliiiiliiiiif f-HI-t-l-

WO x =

iiiiiniii

I I Z X I CO O OOOO

Z Z Z Z Z ZZZZZZZZZZZZ oooooooooooooooooooozzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz o in o o o zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzooooooooooooooom oooooooooooo omoiflooinoooooooooooooovi^- ooooininomooooooor^ ooooooooooom O'-OCOOOOC3)CMCMI~-COI^COOO oooooomiO'-cM'-oo toioto(^r^co(otoiflTr--cn-*rTrto\rcocoococo(o TTIOCMOOO

UJUJUJLLJLULULULULULULLILULULULUUJLULUUJLiJ LU LLJ LU LU LU LUUJLULULULULULULULULUUJLUUJLULU LULULULULULULUUULULULULU OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOO oooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooinoooooooooin m in in o o ooooininooooomooinin OOOOOOOOOIOOO

l-l-h-l-l- l-l-l-l-l-l-l-l-l- l- t- h- l- l- t-

OOOOSOOO^OOOOOOOOOOO OO OOOOf^OOOOOOOOOO^ OOOOOOOOOOOO zzzz^zzz^zzzzzzzzzzz z z z z z z z z z z z z z z ZZZZZZZZZZZZ

Eo 0 0 o

" 2 2 S E

.

,x > o ^-l-^-Ima:>oa: O 5 LL

CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCCCCCCOC ^CMCO ^.n^^COOO^CMCO^^CD^COO, TTTTTTTTT^^^^^^ ^^^^^ I l l l l l WWWWWOTOTWCOC/JOTCOCOWWOTCflWCOI- h- 1- 1- h- h- h-l-Hh-l-H ^ ^ 5^5^ 5^ 5^5^ 5^

Vol. I — Geology, Properties and Economics 157 c

bl u. g 1" m m m o 1 A A A 8 | 3 (O 0 Q Q ^ j b jz0) i m E E ^ O w E o o E E o o o V) r~f c CO V CM T— CM co jQ E 3 Ir z Z Z Z Z o — a ^ A E E E E E E (D *.f A A A A A •^ O .C .C sz C. JC 01 o: 5 O f .S f z.? •D ^ 1 ^ ^ ^ Q D. (A CO

0) in in o co (D CM O o c

A E ? b o — -8 > ^ g X X X 1 o Eo 1 to A H 5 i A •o E TJ Q. (A ~ A A 0) 01 m (A 'c "c C in m o X) A A o o b t- I 03 CO Q Q C 5 0) •o "55 Z Z Z Z Z 0) o o o o o 0) in o o o m 'o in CO o o o S 00 o o 0 CO 0 00 0) 5 0) (A A 00 r- f-- CO * E .^ "1 Q. UJ UJ UJ UJ UJ "5 ID •oV) o o o o o 5 o o 0 0 o CO 3** l o CM CM TT r 8 00 O) t- A 8 00 00 1 s CO ? 0 T3 X C A •^ a^ 1 1- 1- b 1- i- H H o E c in ^S D D A "*" rn i 1 in in A (A o O O O O ~jz D in 'i S 'S~i S l 13 Z Z b A d) c A oQ DUJ o^ Oti l d d CO C C o o O) t o a ** -T "f-^- lAu1- B CO CO A le "o O in ^ g ^ cc l 0) b J i c O d Q) 0) o ^" UJ 1 O 5 "A o 4) Z z ffi r: S i CO Q. ^ A b 0 A T3 T3 c E b X in 1 Z C CD A A 5 C in V D l -_ 1 A TJ A Antho c uarrie c E ^— A A A J* a SI i c CT— b o 55 55 D c = b CT o (A "O (A C 0) A I S Sin o A c A 0) O *- in g 1 S? •^ O o A "c O 0) 0) ^E 0) 1 A^ S 0) *- CM w 0 O) x) c ^ .b c: II 0) x o "C C A x O b s O 0 O W w A O A "o V) o Z x in (A 5^.2 0) x Thames Marble inventor II Cromar A A iwner/opt mination A (B T3 C Z a V) 0 55 55 1 0) o V) * c in (D i^ CO O) 0) II oj sz o . \- 1- i 1 i 1 1 0 Q SI \ i 1 f 158 Limestone Industries of Ontario