The hydrogen option for energy: a strategic advantage for Quebec
Jacques Roy, Ph.D. Marie Demers, Ph.D. Full Professor Research Associate, CHUS Department of Logistics and Operations Management Université de Sherbrooke HEC Montréal
December 2019 Table of Contents
1. Executive summary...... 3 6. Flourishing external markets...... 29
2. Introduction...... 5 7. Profile of the situation in Quebec...... 39
7.1 Energy sources used in Quebec...... 39 3. Hydrogen: an energy vector...... 7 7.2 Energy dedicated to the transportation sector...... 40 3.1 A renewable and efficient energy source...... 7 7.3 Greenhouse gas emissions...... 40 3.2 Hydrogen and hydroelectricity: a winning combination...... 9 7.4 Advent of electric vehicles...... 41 3.3 Leverage for reducing GHG emissions and increasing energy efficiency....10 7.5 Incentives for running on clean energy...... 41 4. Different uses of hydrogen as an energy source...... 11 7.6 The current regulations to limit CO2 and dependence on hydrocarbons...... 43 4.1 Electric vehicles...... 11 8. Opportunity for the development of the hydrogen sector in Quebec...... 44 4.2 Hydrogen fuel cell buses...... 12 8.1 Hydrogen production...... 44 4.3 Freight transportation...... 13 8.2 The different market segments for conversion to hydrogen...... 46 4.4 Refuelling stations...... 15 8.3 New transportation infrastructure projects...... 49 4.5 Other possible applications in the transportation sector...... 17
4.6 Applications in industry...... 17 9. Conclusion, feasibility conditions and recommendations...... 51
4.7 Comparison of battery electric vehicles (BEV) 9.1 Conclusion...... 51 and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV)...... 18 9.2 Feasibility conditions and recommendations...... 51 5. Current and developing technologies...... 19 References...... 53 5.1 Hydrogen production...... 19 • Current production modes...... 19 Appendix 1: List of Hydrogène Québec coalition members...... 59 • Developing production modes...... 21
5.2 Hydrogen storage...... 23
5.3 Hydrogen distribution...... 25
5.4 Hydrogen for propulsion of vehicles...... 27
2 1. Executive summary
The energy transition to renewable, non-greenhouse As an energy vector that can be produced from many sources, hydrogen is currently the object of many research studies and multiple demonstration gas-emitting sources, has begun in several countries. projects, stimulated by industry, by governments and by organizations The development of solar, wind and hydroelectric directly dedicated to this resource around the world. But what is the situation in Quebec? energies is on the agenda, but their intermittent This document presents a status report on the use of hydrogen as an character causes difficulties adjusting supply and energy vector in the world, with emphasis on its different applications in the transportation sector as well as in industry. demand. The possibilities of transformation and It shows the advantages related to hydrogen and its role in fighting climate storage of surpluses in the form of hydrogen offer a change, because its use does not release any greenhouse gas emissions or any other by-product harmful to the environment. new avenue for reliance on clean energy. The most recent advances in hydrogen-related technologies are presented, whether for its production, storage and distribution or its role in propulsion of vehicles. The complementarity of electric battery-powered vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the focus of special attention. Four cases of countries or states that are forerunners of this conversion are then examined in more detail: California, China, Japan and Germany are already flourishing markets, whether for the deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations or the conversion of vehicles. Finally, to contribute to Quebec’s position on the question, a profile of the energy and transportation situation is drawn and government involvement in clean energy is documented. Quebec occupies an eminently favourable position in the integration of hydrogen into its energy system, due to its substantial hydroelectric resources and their losses. Some multinational companies have followed suit for production of hydrogen in Quebec for export.
3 Several measures are proposed here in the context of an approach of integrating hydrogen into transportation in Quebec. They address both the public sector and the private sector.
For the public sector: For the private sector:
• Rely on the action plans in force to extend reliance on clean • Collaborate with other stakeholders and the public sector to energy to hydrogen; help develop successful policies; • Adopt a hydrogen roadmap with objectives and targets; • Invest in hydrogen production for the purposes of use in Quebec and for export; • Encourage the hydrogen production initiatives from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity, particularly in remote • Adopt a phased conversion strategy: regions, and for export; – First convert forklifts in industry as the benefits • Stimulate R&D on hydrogen-related technologies; have already been demonstrated by private companies like Walmart and Canadian Tire; • Deploy incentives for the purchase of hydrogen vehicles, particularly those of captive fleets including taxis, delivery – Participate in the conversion of captive fleets of vehicles (taxis, vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles, and buses as delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles and well as for heavy trucks; buses) as they can be refuelled at their main station or terminal; – Put the emphasis on heavy trucks, which are • Contribute, with the private sector, to funding the gradual large GHG generators, by converting those deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations; that return to their terminal every night; • Provide a regulatory framework to ensure safe use of – Integrate hydrogen into new transportation infrastructure hydrogen; and projects like tramways and passenger trains; and • Raise public awareness about hydrogen-related issues (safety, – Participate in the construction of a network costs, benefits for the environment). of hydrogen refuelling stations.
The costs related to the energy transition to hydrogen will be high. But it can be expected that substantial benefits will result from them, both for the companies involved and for the environment and Quebec society as a whole. With its renewable resources, Quebec is advantageously positioned to initiate and benefit from this transition. 4 2. Introduction
Fossil fuels account for 82% of the world’s energy The urgency of acting to counter the impact of climate change has made it necessary to study methods in various greenhouse gas-generating consumption (Hydrogen Council, 2017a) and are fields, such as transportation. The decarbonization of the transportation sector is now on the agenda to meet the desired targets. CO is the main largely responsible for the rise in greenhouse gas 2 source of emissions responsible for global warming, and the transportation emissions, which have aggravated the environmental sector was responsible for 23% of global CO2 emissions in 2014 (Horsin Molinaro and Multon, 2018). In addition to the deleterious impact of fossil and health effects of climate change. fuels on climate, environmental degradation and air pollution, in turn, have negative impacts on the population’s health.
FIGURE 1
CO2 emissions and contribution to global warming in 2014
In % Other sectors Fluorinated gases 4 4 5 7 including 100 6 4 7 N O PFC + HFC + SF6 2 9 11 tertiary 2 % 90 5 % 23 80 Residential 33 32 28 70 Transport 60 19 CH4 19 50 10 13 20 % 8 5 Industry and 40 6 construction CO2 30 73 % Energy sector 40 43 41 except electricity 20 36
10 Electricity production 0 World China USA EU-28
Source: Horsin Molinaro and Multon, 2018.
5 During the Paris Climate Conference (COP 21) in December 2015, 195 This study’s objective is to report on the use of hydrogen as an energy countries adopted an agreement that binds them to limit the polluting source, with special attention to the applications in the transportation field. emissions contributing to climate change. The Paris Climate Agreement, The study was sponsored by Hydrogène Québec, a coalition of companies signed in 2016, encourages the continuation of efforts to limit the rise in committed to raising awareness among the Quebec population about temperatures to 1.5 degrees Celsius; it also promotes low greenhouse gas hydrogen as a fuel solution to kickstart the energy transition1. The study emissions development and seeks the achievement of a carbon-free world will enhance the comparative advantages of hydrogen for the environment between 2050 and 2100. and the economy, particularly inspired by the recent experience observed in other countries. Special attention will be paid to the situation in Quebec, Energy efficiency measures, behavioural changes intended to reduce which benefits from a strategic advantage by having hydroelectric surpluses energy consumption, and carbon pricing tools, will not achieve the desired that can be used for clean and cheap hydrogen production. The study is objectives on their own. A major transformation of the energy system is based on a fairly exhaustive analysis of the recent literature on the subject necessary to achieve low carbon emissions (Potvin et al., 2017; World and on interviews with several stakeholders and industry experts. Energy Council, 2018). The transition to renewable and low-carbon energy sources has already begun, but the rhythm of implementation in the transportation sector is mixed.
Wishing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions drastically, a coalition of 89 European cities and regions (Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) adopted this strategy in 2017 and plans to carry out development projects of around 1.8 billion euros for the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell technologies over the next five years (Ruf et al., 2018).
Canada, and particularly Quebec, occupies a favourable position for low- carbon energy development, due to its hydroelectric and biomass resources, but also due to its fossil fuel operations, which could be equipped more systematically for carbon capture and storage. Experimental projects are also underway in several Canadian provinces.
1 See appendix 1 for the names of the coalition members. 6 3. Hydrogen: an energy vector
3.1 A renewable and efficient energy source Hydrogen is the simplest, smallest and lightest element of the periodic table FIGURE 2 and the most plentiful element in the universe. However, it is rarely found Specific energy of different fuels in its pure state but is almost always bonded to other elements (such as 160 oxygen to form water (H2O), for example), which necessitates the use of technical processes to separate them. Usually encountered in its gaseous 140 141.9 form, hydrogen liquefies at a very low temperature (-253° Celsius). Due H2: (MJ/kg) to its low density, it is usually put under pressure or liquified for storage 120 33,3 kWh/kg and transport. Its liquefaction increases its density 800 times (Shell, 2017). 100
Endowed with greater energy potential than gasoline and other fuels (Jain, 80 2009; Sinigaglia, 2017; Tarascon, 2011), hydrogen can be produced 60 from many energy sources, such as biomass, wind, solar, hydroelectric 55.55 or nuclear energy, and decarbonized fossil fuels; this versatility confers 40 50.39 47. 2 7 47. 21 an undeniable advantage. Odourless, colourless and non-toxic, this gas, 20 30.0 which does not generate any carbon emissions from its combustion, is considered by some to be the most promising energy carrier for the future, 0 (MJ/kg) density Energy especially since it is inexhaustible. Hydrogen Methane Ethanol Propane Diesel Natural Gas
Among hydrogen’s other advantages, we should mention that it is easily Source: Tarascon, 2011. storable and that its possible uses are multiple (Terlouw et al., 2019; IRENA, 2018). In particular, it can be used for industrial heating, transportation, and fuel for industrial handling equipment such as forklifts, etc.
Hydrogen is omnipresent in fossil energy sources in the form of carbon- hydrogen compounds (hydrocarbons). The more hydrogen atoms the source contains relative to the number of carbon atoms (as in methane
CH4, the principal compound of natural gas), the lower the quantity of
CO2 produced during combustion and consequently, the atmospheric GHG emissions will be lower; in the case of petroleum and diesel gas, the proportion of hydrogen atoms is smaller, which will result in more GHG during combustion (Shell, 2017). 7 Hydrogen also offers an interesting flexible solution for the intermittent FIGURE 3 character inherent in renewable energy sources, such as wind and Production and utilization of hydrogen photovoltaic power (Brandon and Kurban, 2017), because it can be easily stored for subsequent use. SUPPLY Hydrogen’s long-term storage capacities are superior to those of other sources, which is an advantage when energy demand varies over time (for example, when the demand is greater in winter than in summer).
Hydrogen transported by pipeline over long distances is subject to smaller energy losses during transport, contrary to electricity, which makes it an H2 attractive option in economic terms (Hydrogen Council, 2017a).
DEMAND
Source: Horner Automation Group, website 2019.
FIGURE 4 Various technologies for electricity storage 1 year Methane
1 month Hydrogen Water 1 day pumping Redox flow CAES
NAS 1 hour
Lithium-ion battery Flywheel
Storage Period Storage Scale 1 kWh 1 MWh 1 GWh 1 TWh
Source: Iida and Sakata, 2019 8 3.2 Hydrogen and hydroelectricity: a winning combination
Currently, most of the hydrogen produced in the world (70%) comes from Hydrogen production from clean renewable hydroelectric resources like natural gas through a steam methane reforming process (Shell, 2017), those available in Quebec can also optimize the use of surplus production which produces GHG emissions. Hydrogen produced by electrolysis from of clean electricity by offering the possibility of storing the surpluses in renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, generates little or no low consumption periods to make them available in peak periods and to GHG. But the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen requires a lot of export them (Hydrogen Council, 2017a; Toyota, 2016), particularly to the electricity, which Quebec has available at a reasonable price. The use of United States, where hydrogen is generally and primarily produced from hydroelectric facilities to produce hydrogen will therefore contribute to the natural gas at the present time (Leblanc, 2018). If the electricity production reduction of the negative effects of GHG on climate. generated by the hydroelectric facilities exceeds the demand, this results in major losses. Hydrogen production can avoid these losses. Hydrogen FIGURE 5 and electricity are seen as complementary energy vectors: hydrogen can be converted into electricity and vice versa (IEA 2017). CO2 emissions depending on the energy source for vehicles 300 Hydrogen can also be produced by small hydroelectric facilities located in remote regions by taking advantage of energy surplus periods, which Upstream (fuel production pathway emissions) 250 Exhaust (vehicle emissions) can avoid transporting hydrogen over long distances (Yumurtaci and Bilgen, 2004). 200
150 FIGURE 6 e/km) 2 Hydrogen: from production to use 100 Primary Production Storage Transport Utilization 50 energy methods
0 Emissions (g CO Coal Gasification Baseline Baseline 33 % 50 % 100 % 0 % 33 % 100 % 2017 hybrid renewable renewable renewable renewable renewable renewable Biomass Gasification Gasoline Electrolysis hydrogen Natural gas reformed hydrogen
Source: Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017. Stream reform Bio-gas methods Liquification (SRM) Pipeline Storage Natural gas Stream LH2 Compression reforming CH2 In Switzerland, the deployment of a plant for hydrogen Hybrides Photovoltaic Truck production by electrolysis at the Aarau hydroelectric facility Hybride Refuelling will make it possible to supply the annual fuel consumption Wind power Electrolysis of 170 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Transport Hydropower sector (Frangoul, 2017) Source: Sinigaglia et al, 2017. 9 3.3 Leverage for reducing GHG emissions and FIGURE 8 Annual CO emissions could be reduced by 6 Gt in 2050 increasing energy efficiency 2 1 Power generation, Fuel cell electric vehicles present one of the best alternatives in terms of 0.4 buffering clean technology. When generated from renewable energy sources (wind, 4 Cars 1.7 solar or hydroelectric energy), the hydrogen used to supply fuel cell vehicles Transportation 3.2 does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions. Even when the hydrogen Trucks supplying them is produced from natural gas without carbon capture, 5 0.8 Industry energy 1.2 fuel cell vehicles generate up to 30% fewer emissions than conventional Buses 0.2 vehicles (Hydrogen Council 2017b). 6 Building heating and power 0.6 Other1 0.4 The Hydrogen Council (2017b) forecasts that the CO2 emissions attributable to the transportation sector could be reduced by 3.2 Gt by 2050 if Industry feedstock 0.7 Total 3.2 appropriate measures were put forward to promote the transition to fuel 1 Aviation, shipping, rail, material handling cell vehicles. Total 6.0 SOURCE: Hydrogen Council
Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b. FIGURE 7 Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions for 2035 mid-size car Low, Medium & High GHGs/mile for 2035 Technology, Except Where Indicated
2012 Gasoline 430 Gasoline 220 Diesel 210 Natural Gas 200 Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Corn Ethanol (E85) 170 Cellulosic E85 66 Cellulosic Gasoline 76 Gasoline 170 Cellulosic E85 50 Hybrid Electric Vehicles Cellulosic Gasoline 58 Gasoline U.S./Regional Grid 170 Gasoline Renewable Electricity 150 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Cellulosic E85 Renewable Electricity 45 Cellulosic Gasoline U.S./Regional Grid 76 (10-mile [16-km] Charge-Depleting Range) Cellulosic Gasoline Renewable Electricity 52 Gasoline U.S./Regional Grid 180 Gasoline Renewable Electricity 110 Extended-Range Electric Vehicles Cellulosic E85 Renewable Electricity 34 (40-mile [64-km] Charge-Depleting Range) Cellulosic Gasoline U.S./Regional Grid 120 Cellulosic Gasoline Renewable Electricity 39 BEV100 Grid Mix (U.S./Regional) 160 BEV100 Renewable Electricity Battery Electric Vehicles BEV300 Grid Mix (U.S./Regional) 165 (100-mile [160-km] and 300-mile [480-km]) BEV300 Renewable Electricity Distributed Natural Gas 190 Natural Gas (Central) w/Sequestration 110 Coal Gasification (Central) w/Sequestration 100 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles Biomass Gasification (Central) 73 Wind Electricity (Central) 36 Grams CO2e per mile 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 10 Source: Manley, 2014. 4. Different uses of hydrogen as an energy source
4.1 Electric vehicles Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can play an important role in the reduction of The fuel cell converts hydrogen into electricity, which will serve to propel greenhouse gas emissions because they do not produce emissions during the vehicle. The fuel cell operates continuously in the presence of hydrogen combustion, contrary to conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles. The and oxygen. deployment of these vehicles works in synergy with that of battery electric vehicles, because both types have different advantages and disadvantages and can prove complementary.
FIGURE 9 Hydrogen technology is ready to be deployed Mass market Start of commercialization acceptability1 Today 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 Forklifts 4 Medium/large cars Transportation City buses Vans Minibuses 1 Defined as representing more than 1% Coaches of sales in a given market. Trucks Small cars5 Synfuel for freight ships 2 The market share represents the volume Trams, railways and airplanes of production using hydrogen and Passenger ships carbon to replace the raw material.
2 Refining Production of methanol, olefins et and BT using H2 and carbon 3 Using hydrogen to produce steel in low Industry Ammonia, Steel3 carbon intensive processes. feedstock methanol 4 Decarbonization of feedstock 4 The market share represents the volume 6 Building of raw material produced using low heating Hydrogen injection in natural gas networks and power carbon intensive sources. 5 Industry Medium/low industry heat 5 In France, the deployment date has energy High-grade industry heat been adjusted with respect to the 1 Power global roadmap and upscaling. generation, buffering Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b. Today 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 11 One of the first attempts to use hydrogen as a fuel in Canada occurred ZEFER, a European initiative for the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell during the Vancouver Olympic Games in 2010, when 20 buses were vehicles, in progress in three cities (Paris, London and Brussels), is currently supplied with hydrogen produced in Quebec from hydroelectric energy and testing this technology to demonstrate this option’s viability for captive transported by truck to the Whistler refuelling station (Natural Resources vehicle fleets, such as taxis, a car rental service and police cars (Green Canada, 2019). This pilot project ended in 2014. Car Congress, 2018).
Since then, several manufacturers have been involved in production of After Japan and California, Toyota is now testing its Mirai car in Quebec hydrogen fuel cell vehicles: among the leaders are Toyota with the Mirai with a demonstration fleet of 50 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles purchased model, Hyundai with the Nexo model, and Honda with the Clarity model. by the Quebec government using renewable hydrogen produced on site Depending on the model, the vehicle’s autonomy reaches between 500 with water electrolysis. and 600 km (Vorano, 2019). Automobiles account for most of the hydrogen Fuel cell technology currently would be particularly appropriate for highly fuel cell vehicles currently deployed on the road (IEA, 2019). used captive vehicle fleets, such as taxis, car rental services, delivery According to the International Energy Agency (2019), there were 11,200 services, police cars and buses, which could benefit from refuelling on automobiles and light trucks running on hydrogen fuel cells on the road their own site or at transit stations, in the case of buses. worldwide at the end of 2018. These vehicles are primarily located in the United States (California), with approximately half of the vehicles, followed by Japan with one quarter and Europe with 11%, mainly in Germany and France.
FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11 Diversification of electrified vehicle products Fuel cell electric technology explained
Fuel cell vehicle (hydrogen)
Hybrid vehicle A compact, high-efficiency, high-capacity converter newly Rechargeable hybrid vehicle developed to boost fuel cell stack voltage to 650 V. A mechanism to optimally A boost converter is used to obtain an output with higher A control both fuel cell stack voltage than the input. A nickel-metal hybrid battery which output under various stores energy recovered from operational conditions and deceleration and assists fuel cell drive battery charging stack output during acceleration. and discharging Electric vehicle Vehicle size Vehicle
A Tank storing hydrogen as fuel. The nominal working pressure is a high pressure level of 70 MPa (700 bar). Motor driven by electricity generated by fuel cell stack and A The compact, lightweight tanks feature supplied by battery. Toyota’s first mass-production fuel cell, featuring a world’s top level tank storage density. Maximum output: 113 kW compact size and world top level output density. Tank storage density: 5.7 wt % Electricity Gas, biogas, natural gas, synthetic fuel, etc. Hydrogen (154 DIN hp) Volume power delivery: 3.1 kW/L Maximum torque: 335 N-m Maximum output: 114 kW (155 DIN hp)
Travelling distance Source: Toyota, 2015. Source: Toyota-Europe, website, 2019. 12 4.2 Hydrogen fuel cell buses The first hydrogen fuel cell bus went into service in Belgium in 1994, and In terms of longevity, we can mention that four London buses have been the City of Chicago conducted a similar project the following year (Natural in operation for over 18,000 hours, 10 California buses have exceeded Resources Canada, 2019). The use of hydrogen in this transportation 12,000 hours and one bus has reached 22,400 hours (Staffell et al., sector has now reached a certain degree of maturity. Several countries 2019). In Europe, hydrogen fuel cell buses have accumulated 7 million km are actively involved in the deployment and commercialization of this type of operation. These buses have proven themselves under various climate of vehicle, particularly the United States, Canada, Japan, Germany, the and topographic conditions. United Kingdom and Brazil, according to Air Products (2019). Europe has 83 buses in operation and the United States has 55. Hydrogen tanks with a capacity of 40 kg are placed on the vehicle’s roof, thus not restricting the passenger space inside (Staffell et al., 2019). Hydrogen is stored under pressure in tanks at 350 bar (Shell, 2017).
At the end of 2018, 55 buses supplied by hydrogen fuel cells were in operation in the United States, including 25 in California (IEA, 2019). The City of Oakland, in California, has the biggest fleet in North America with 12 hydrogen buses (IEA, 2017). Worldwide, over 450 hydrogen fuel cell buses were on the road in 2017 (Hydrogen Council, 2017b) but the situation is evolving rapidly; there were over 500 at the end of 2018 (IEA, 2019).
The City of Aberdeen, in Scotland, has the largest European fleet with 10 hydrogen buses (Ballard, 2019a). In operation since 2014, these buses exceeded 1.6 million km in January 2019. Each bus is propelled by a hydrogen fuel cell module from the Canadian company, Ballard Power Systems. They use hydrogen produced by the Canadian Hydrogenics Source: Air Products, 2019. Corporation using water electrolysis.
The sector is in the midst of an expansion. South Korea plans to replace The consumption of a 12-metre bus supplied by hydrogen fuel cells was
26,000 natural gas buses with hydrogen fuel cell buses by 2030 (Hydrogen evaluated at an average of 9 kg of H2/100 km and depends on several Council, 2017b; IEA, 2017). As of the end of 2018, China had the greatest factors, including the number of passengers transported, the topography number of hydrogen fuel cell buses with 400 in demonstration projects of the land, the vehicle’s speed and the heating and air conditioning (IEA, 2019). In 2015, China also announced an order of 300 buses for requirements. The refuelling time is estimated between 5 and 10 minutes Foshan City, and Toyota is planning over 100 buses for the Tokyo Olympic (Ballard, 2019d; Lozanovski et al., 2018). More recent consumption estimates Games in 2020 (Staffell et al., 2019). Ballard Power Systems, which has are closer to 7-8 kg/100 km according to our interviews. its head office in Burnaby, B.C., is participating in the development of A comparative assessment of operating performance indicates that hydrogen fuel cells for the Foshan City project. hydrogen-propelled buses have autonomy, refuelling time and hours of At least 11 companies manufacture hydrogen fuel cell buses around the operation comparable to diesel-powered buses (Lozanovski et al., 2019). world (IEA, 2019). 13 4.3 Freight transportation
The use of fuel cells is especially relevant for long-distance transportation, October 3, 2019). It also plans to lease a large share of these trucks to the as in the case of heavy trucks (Hydrogen Council, 2017b), while electric H2 Mobility Switzerland Association, which includes the leading Swiss oil batteries would be more appropriate for trucks used in local distribution. companies, transportation and logistics companies, and players in industry
The weight of batteries is an issue with heavy duty trucks as it would limit and mass distribution. H2 Energy will be mandated for deployment of the the payload they can carry. refuelling stations and commercialization of the trucks.
In the context of the triennial AZETEC project in Alberta (2019-2022), the Hydrogen-powered trucks are in operation in several countries, including freight transportation industry is currently testing the use of hydrogen fuel Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands (IEA, 2017). In 2017, Asko – the cells to supply two heavy trucks making the trip between Edmonton and largest consumer goods wholesaler in Norway – ordered four 27-tonne Calgary and usually burning diesel (Lowey, 2019). Benefiting froma more trucks, propelled by hydrogen and produced locally by solar energy from powerful powertrain compared to diesel fuel, the trucks can haul heavier the Swedish multinational Scania; the fuel cell system is supplied by the loads and have better performance during climbing and acceleration. Canadian company Hydrogenics (Scania, 2019). Lower maintenance costs can also be forecast for trucks powered by Moreover, Cummins, a giant company specializing in truck engines, hydrogen fuel cells. announced at the end of June 2019 that it was going to acquire 80% of In France, the Perrenot transportation group, operating in mass distribution, the shares of Hydrogenics (BusinessWire, 2019). is also beginning its energy conversion to hydrogen with a first Iveco truck In June 2019, the Agence française de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise for the Carrefour retail chain scheduled for 2020 and a recent agreement de l’Énergie (ADEME) signed a three-year partnership agreement with with the American manufacturer Nikola Motors of Phoenix, Arizona, for Quebec (via Transition Énergétique Québec) pertaining to hydrogen- the delivery of 10 hydrogen vehicles (Actu-Transport-Logistique, 2019a). related technological innovations and applications. The Nikola Two model, with production scheduled for 2022, will have Other experiments with hydrogen trucks are being conducted in the markets 80 kg of hydrogen for autonomy of 800 to 1,200 km depending on the analyzed later in more detail. This is particularly the case for the Port of Los weight of the load and providing 3,000 KWh of energy, about three Angeles, in California. times more than a Tesla truck. Nikola Motors, which already has 13,000 trucks on order, also intends to deploy a network of 700 refuelling stations throughout the United States and Canada by 2028 (O’Dell, 2019).
In August 2019, the beer giant Anheuser-Busch announced an order of 800 Nikola trucks to assure delivery of its merchandise within the United
States (Fehrenbacher, 2019). The company wants to reduce CO2 emissions in its supply chain by one quarter by 2025; approximately 10% of these emissions come from transportation.
In 2019, the Korean manufacturer, Hyundai, entered into an agreement with a Swiss energy supplier (H2 Energy) for commercialization of 1,600 hydrogen fuel cell trucks by 2025 in Switzerland (Actu-Transport Logistique, 2019b). The first 50 units will be delivered in 2020 (HyundaiNews.com, Source: Business Wire, 2019 14 4.4 Refuelling stations
One of the important factors in the successful deployment of hydrogen Canada (7), South Korea (27) and China (18) (GlobeNewsWire, 2019). fuel cell vehicles is the establishment of refuelling stations for resupply The Hydrogen Council (2017a) targets 3,000 stations worldwide by 2025, throughout the territory. which would be enough to supply hydrogen to 2 million vehicles.
The most recent data indicates that at the end of 2018, 381 refuelling In Canada, a refuelling station recently opened in Quebec City. Along stations would be in operation around the world, primarily in Japan (100), with a containerized solution supplied by Toyota, the Quebec government followed by Germany (69) and the United States (63) mainly in California fleet and other fleet customers can fill with confidence knowing that a (IEA, 2019). Twelve stations are under construction in the New York – redundant fuelling operation is in place. Two stations are now in operation Boston corridor (Zurschmeide, 2018). A small country like Denmark had in B.C. with four more to be opened in this province by the end of 2020 11 stations in 2017 with another in preparation; this country is considered while two others are scheduled for the Greater Toronto Area and one for to have the most complete hydrogen network (Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017). Montreal (Vorano, 2019).
FIGURE 12 FIGURE 13 Hydrogen refuelling stations by country, 2018 Over 5,000 refuelling stations have been announced worldwide
Fuel cell electric cars per hydrogen refuelling station Latest announced investments Current global 5,300 100 100 in hydrogen refuelling stations announcements1 (selected countries) 80 80 ~15,000+ H Mobility UK: South Korea: 2 Needed stations up to 1,150 HRS by 2030 310 HRS by 2022 2 60 60 for roadmap China: Northeastern US: 2,800 > 1,000 HRS by 2030; 250 HRS by 2027 > 1 million FCEV 40 40 Scandinavia: ~3,000+ Japan: Up to 150 HRS by 2020 900 HRS by 2030 California: 20 20 Other Europe: 100 HRS by 2020 ~ 820 HRS by 2030 1,000 refuelling stations 2 H Fuel cell electric cars per station per cars electric cell Fuel H Mobility Germany: 0 0 2 375 Rest of United up to 400 HRS by 2023 Japan Europe Germany States France China Korea Others 2017 2020 2025 2030 1 Announcements for selected countries/regions: California, Northeastern US, Germany, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019. Norway, Spain, Sweden, UK, Dubai, China, Japan, South Korea 2 Equivalent number of large stations (1,000 kg daily capacity) In Great Britain, the opening of 65 stations is forecast by 2020, and 1,150 Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b. throughout the country by 2030 (UK H2 Mobility, 2013). New refuelling stations are planned for Germany (29), the Netherlands (17), France (12), 15 Several automobile manufacturers (Toyota) and truck manufacturers (Nikola Motors) are also actively involved in the deployment of refuelling stations. The investment cost for the deployment of a station is high. It is currently estimated at 0.6 to $2 million US for hydrogen at a pressure of 700 bar and 0.15 to 1.6 million for hydrogen at 350 bar, for stations with a capacity ranging from 50 kg of H2 per day (lower estimate) to 300 kg of H2 per day (upper estimate) (IEA, 2019). According to our interviews, it seems very difficult to build a station for under $2.5 million.
In Quebec, Harnois Énergies operates a new refuelling station where it produces hydrogen on site by electrolysis. This allows it to save on the delivery costs, which are relatively high per kg of hydrogen. However, it must be mentioned that the investment required to develop such facilities is very high. These are mainly the costs related to the electrolyzer, storage and the compressor, which explains the price tag of approximately $5 million Source: Michel Archambault. for such facilities. Out of this amount, the costs for the distributor pump only represent about $200,000. By adding the development costs of $1 million, we arrive at a total of nearly $6 million as the investment required for such a station, with a capacity of 200 kg/day. To make such an investment profitable, the two levels of government (federal and provincial) offer grants totalling nearly $4 million, $1 million from the federal government and $2.9 million from Quebec.
Beyond the costs, one of the challenges in dense cities like those of Europe is to find the space available for implementation of refuelling stations and to negotiate its use with the municipal authorities or the private owners (IEA, 2019). Another solution is the development of mobile refuelling stations. Several companies, such as Air Products in the United States, Wystrach GmbH in Europe or Hino Australia, are already experimenting with this approach.
Source: Mehta, 2018.
16 4.5 Other possible applications in the transportation sector In the United States, NASA is currently working with engineers from the University of Illinois to develop a hydrogen passenger point aircraft (Ecott, Hydrogen as an energy source can also contribute to decarbonize rail 2019). They want to use liquid hydrogen instead of gaseous hydrogen to transportation, marine transportation and aviation. Since 2018, the French avoid reliance on pressurized storage tanks. company Alstom has been testing two hydrogen-propelled trains in Germany (Hydrails), including one on the Cuxhaven-Buxtehude line in the northern part of the country (Ruf et al., 2017). According to Hydrogenics, 4.6 Applications in industry the first tests were positive and train orders are on the rise. These trains are Hydrogen has multiple industrial applications. In 2018, industry already particularly promising where the tracks are not electrified. They can travel used 55 million tonnes of hydrogen as a raw material and hydrogen itself nearly 1,000 km without refuelling. Each train uses fuel cells from Canadian is a by-product of industrial processes (Mehta, 2018). Moreover, hydrogen Hydrogenics Corporation and can transport nearly 300 passengers and is commonly used to fuel several types of equipment. reach a speed of 140 km per hour. This subject will be covered in detail later in the section on Germany. In Alberta, the material handling equipment at a Walmart distribution centre is equipped with hydrogen fuel cells. The forklifts and pallet trucks use The Germans have also developed a hydrogen aircraft with the goal of hydrogen produced by Air Liquide in Quebec and plug power GenDrive designing a 19-seat, zero-emission regional transport aircraft. The HY4 units powered by Ballard’s fuel cells, thus allowing a significant reduction first uses a lithium battery to meet the high consumption requirement during of operating costs and GHG emissions (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). takeoff. Then the fuel cell takes over during flight. The aircraft has 750 to This type of application is very useful inside factories and warehouses, 1,000 km of autonomy with a cruising speed of 145 km/h. A first flight because it avoids contaminating the indoor environment with pollutants test was conducted in 2016 (Goudet, 2016). The Airbus and Siemens resulting from the use of combustion engines; noise pollution is also reduced companies and 20 universities are behind this project. (Shell, 2017).
In Ontario, two Canadian Tire distribution centres use forklifts powered by Nuvera hydrogen fuel cells made by the American company Nuvera Fuel Cells (Nuvera Fuel Cells, 2019). In the United States, over 20,000 forklifts were powered by hydrogen at the end of 2018 (energy.gov, 2018).
Hydrogen is also most commonly used in petrochemical and chemical industry processes for the production of methanol and other chemical compounds used in paints, synthetic fibres or plastics, in the electronics
industry, in agriculture, particularly for the production of ammonia (NH3) used for fertilizer, and in the food industry, where it is used in the vegetable oil hydrogenation process, among other purposes (IEA, 2017; Shell, 2017).
In northern Quebec, a mining project (Glencore’s Raglan Mine) uses wind energy to produce hydrogen, which is then stored on the same site Source: Alstom, website, 2019. to support the mine’s operations by replacing diesel (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). 17 4.7 Comparison of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) Advantages of a fuel cell electric vehicle The two technologies are not in competition but complementary. The (Air Liquide, 2019b) : choice does not only depend on the cost but also on other factors, such as • 500 km of autonomy performance, flexibility, convenience and environmental benefits. • 5 minutes of refuelling time Hydrogen can produce more energy per unit of mass than an electric • Zero emission (CO , particles, noise) battery, which allows a vehicle equipped with a hydrogen cell to travel 2 a greater distance without refuelling and thus requires fewer refuelling infrastructures. Moreover, refuelling is quicker, which also allows the The useful life of electric batteries is affected by several factors, including refuelling station to accommodate more vehicles within a given time climate (very cold and very hot temperatures), overload, high charge/ interval (Staffell et al., 2019). discharge rates. These factors do not handicap hydrogen vehicles, whether with tanks or fuel cells (Staffell et al., 2019). Contrary to batteries, However, the user of an electric vehicle driven by a lithium battery does not the performance of hydrogen fuel cells is not reduced over time by the necessarily have to go to a refuelling station, because he can recharge it discharge/recharge cycle; the fuel cell continues to produce electricity at home, at work or while parked at a shopping centre. as long as it is supplied with hydrogen. Also, according to Hydrogenics, A hydrogen fuel cell vehicle has a lower energy efficiency than a battery contrary to batteries, fuel cells use very little rare earth materials and most electric vehicle but the hydrogen stored aboard a vehicle has a higher of them can be easily recycled. energy density per weight than batteries, which makes FCEVs more suitable for long distance travel and for heavier vehicles. Hydrogen tanks TABLE 1 and fuel cells weigh less than batteries, which is an economic advantage Comparative performance of different propulsion modes (Hydrogen Council, 2017b). Internal Fuel cell Electric battery combustion engine FIGURE 14 Types of electric vehicles available today Investment cost $ $$$ $$ Fuel cost $$ $$$ $ PEV (Plug-in Electric Vehicle) Maintenance cost $$$ $ $ BEV PHEV HEV FCEV Battery Electric Vehicle Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Infrastructure needs $ $$$ $$ Polluting emissions ••• • •
Efficiency + ++ +++ Autonomy +++ +++ + Refuelling/ +++ +++ + recharging speed Useful life +++ +++ ++ Acceleration ++ +++ +++ Source: Gaton, 2018. Source: Staffell et al, 2019. 18 5. Current and developing technologies
5.1 Hydrogen production
Current production modes
Several processes exist for hydrogen production; they vary according FIGURE 15 to the energy source used (Rosen and Koohi-Fayegh, 2016; Singh et The simplified hydrogen chain: from production to usages al., 2015; Sinigaglia et al., 2017; Staffel et al, 2019). Among the main processes we can mention: Conversion/ Uses Production Storage
Power To Industry 1. Natural gas steam reforming: under the action of steam and heat and in the Natural gas/ Methane Direct sale biomethane reforming/CCS presence of a catalyst, the methane (CH4) molecules are separated to form Power To Gas H Mix with natural gas dihydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). This is the process most commonly 2 Zero-carbon electricity Electrolysis or methanation used and is the least polluting option among fossil fuels. Power To Power Fuel cell 2. Electrolysis of water: an electric current passed between two electrodes Biomass Gasification Power To Mobility immersed in water at a high temperature dissociates the water molecule, Fischer-Tropsch or fuel cell obtaining dioxygen (O2) and dihydrogen (H2). The process requires electricity, Natural H2 but any electrical source can be used to produce hydrogen (hydroelectric, Source: IFP Énergies nouvelles, 2019. solar, wind or nuclear energy).
3. Gasification:during combustion of coal, biomass or heavy petroleum residues Steam reforming would be the least costly process and have the greatest at very high temperature and pressure, the gases released are reformed to energy efficiency, while gasification of biomass would produce the best
produce synthetic gas (syngas) composed of dihydrogen (H2) and carbon energy (magnitude measuring the quantity of energy) and hydrogen monoxide (CO). production from solar energy would have the least global warming 4. Partial oxidation: this is the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons raised to potential (Sinigaglia et al., 2017). a very high temperature to produce synthetic gas. This method, which can be accomplished with or without a catalyst, applies to heavy petroleum residues According to a literature review based on a lifecycle analysis performed and coal. The process is more versatile than reforming because it allows the by Bhandari et al. (2014), the electrolysis process from hydroelectric or use of a greater variety of fuels and the process is faster without requiring the wind energy would be one of the best hydrogen production technologies, addition of external heat. However, hydrogen obtained by this process is in a particularly due to the low potential for climate warming and acidification. lower concentration compared to natural gas reforming.
19 Given the strengths and weaknesses of each process, there is a compromise Electrolysis of water is done with electrolyzers, which are of several to be made according to the production costs, energy efficiency and types (Brandon et al., 2017). Alkaline electrolyzers and Proton exchange environmental impacts. Energy sources such as natural gas, coal and electrolyzers (PEM) are both commercially available today. Solid oxide petroleum products produce low-cost hydrogen but with many negative electrolyzers are also being developed but have not been commercialized impacts. These impacts are lessened when CO2 is captured and stored. yet (IEA, 2019). Currently, the production costs based on renewable energy sources are high. Thus, producing a hydrogen unit from water requires four times more energy than producing it from hydrocarbons.
TABLE 2 FIGURE 16 Energy efficiency and consumption for different hydrogen The hydrogen sector production processes (combined data from several studies)
Steam reforming Efficiency Energy consumption Gas Partial oxidation (lower caloric power) (kWh per kgH2) Coal
Thermal cracking Oil Methane reforming 72% (65-75%) 46 (44-51) Distribution network Electrolysis 61% (51-67%) 55 (50-65)
Coal gasification 56% (45-65%) 59 (51-74) Water electrolysis Storage Liquid form Thermochemial Biomass gasification 46% (44-48%) 72 (69-76) High pressure water decomposition Low pressure
Source: Staffell et al., 2019.
A Hydro Wind TABLE 3 Solar Fuel cell Cost of hydrogen according to different production processes Geothermal Portables (computer, phone...) Fermentation Stowable (transport) Biomass Gasification Stationary (heating systems) Processes Cost of hydrogen ($US per kg) Pyrolysis Natural gas reforming 1.03 Bio Production
of hydrogen
Natural gas + CO2 sequestration 1.22 A (microalgae, photosynthetic organisms, non Coal gasification 0.96 photosynthetic bacterias) Coal + CO sequestration 1.03 2 Source: Connaissance des énergies, 2015. Wind energy electrolysis 6.64 Biomass gasification 4.63 Biomass pyrolysis 3.8 Thermal fractionation of water 1.63 Gasoline (as reference) 0.93 Source: Hosseini and Wahid, 2016. 20 The US Department of Energy forecasts that in the near term, steam methane Production modes in development reforming will continue to be used, but that in the mid-term, hydrogen will Thermal fragmentation (or cracking) of water is also seen as a future be produced by electrolysis from wind energy and biomass gasification, pathway for large-scale hydrogen production. The process uses heat at and that in the longer term, high-temperature electrolysis and solar-based a very high temperature and chemicals to conduct a series of chemical production will be used (US Department of Energy, 2017). reactions that will break down water to produce hydrogen. The chemicals Hydrogen production from non-fossil energy sources will probably continue involved are reused in each cycle, thus forming a closed loop in which only water is consumed. to be based on electrolysis of water, because this process integrates well with renewable sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar and wind (Rosen and Photoelectrolysis is another technology in development: this process – Koohi-Fayegh, 2016). However, the possibility of using heat at very high which directly uses the sun’s rays as the only energy input – consists of temperatures as an energy source is being explored, instead of electricity, lighting a semiconductor photocatalyst submerged in water or an aqueous which is too costly. At this time, the cost of hydrogen production by electrolysis electrolyte, resulting in dissociation of the oxygen and hydrogen water is 2 to 3 times higher than that of natural gas reforming; according to molecules under the effect of photon bombardment. The cost of the IFP Énergies nouvelles (2019), access to decarbonized electricity at a materials required is currently high. competitive cost is necessary to reduce the cost of production by electrolysis.
FIGURE 17 Hydrogen production pathways
Established In 2019, Air Liquide invested in the world’s largest proton Industrial Process High-temp Coal Gasification Electrolysis With CCS exchange membrane electrolysis unit for the production of Natural Gas STCH Reforming Biomass decarbonized hydrogen. Located in Bécancour, Quebec, en Gasification Electrolysis Electrolysis Photo- (wind) (solar) PEC biological the 20-MW (or 8,000 kg/day) electrolyzer, equipped with Near-term Mid-term Long-term Hydrogenics technology, will make it possible to ensure the supply of the Air Liquide industrial and mobility market Natural Gas Electrolysis Bio-derived Microbial Biomass in North America. This production unit should reduce Reforming (Grid) Liquids Conversion
i i ed Biomass pathways Solar pathways the carbon footprint compared to traditional hydrogen
production, saving nearly 27,000 tonnes of CO2 per year. P&D Subprogram R&D efforts Estimated Plant Up to 50,000 100,000 ≥ 500,000 successfully concluded (Air Liquide, 2019a) Capacity (kg/day) 1,500
Source: US Department of Energy, 2017.
21 Biological hydrogen production (by fermentation or by biophotolysis) is also envisioned based on several substrates, whether household waste, algae, biomass or even sewage (Menia et al., 2019). It is less energy- consuming and more respectful of the environment than the conventional processes. Biohydrogen can be produced by autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms. In the first case, solar energy is converted into hydrogen by photosynthetic reactions via photosynthetic microorganism (photosynthetic microalgae or bacteria). In the second case, the organic substrates are transformed into simpler organic compounds with simultaneous production of H2; two types of heterotrophic conversion exist: photofermentation, involving photosynthetic bacteria, and dark fermentation, involving anaerobic bacteria.
Capture and storage of CO2, when hydrogen is produced from fossil energies, make it possible to limit GHG emissions. Capture consists of trapping the CO2 molecules before, during or after the fossil energy combustion stage to prevent its release into the atmosphere (connaissances des energies.org, 2019b). Once captured, CO2 can be transported by pipeline, by boat or by truck for injection into subsoil geological formations, allowing its sequestration over long periods, and even centuries.
During transport by pipeline, CO2 must be compressed to reach a quasi- liquid state; each year in the United States, over 40 million tonnes of CO2 are transported by a 4,000-km-long pipeline network (Planète ênergies,
2015). By truck or by ship, CO2 is transported in liquid form at a pressure of 15 bar and a temperature of less than 30°C. Then the CO2 can be stored in the deep saline aquifers, in hydrocarbon reservoirs or in the petroleum deposit itself. The minimum depth in the terrestrial subsoil for storage of CO2 is estimated at 800 metres.
22 5.2 Hydrogen storage
Two aspects of storage are to be considered: bulk storage and storage in Hydrogen can be cold compressed (below -123.15°C) or cryo-compressed vehicles. For bulk storage in view of long-term use, underground geological (cooled to close to the critical temperature of -253°C but remaining in formations (such as salt caverns), aquifers and depleted oil wells would be gaseous form) (Shell, 2017). Another option for storage consists of the best options (Brandon and Kurban, 2017; IEA, 2019). compressing liquid hydrogen by cooling it to the melting point; just before it becomes solid, it is transformed into a gel (slush hydrogen): it is then The most appropriate storage mode will depend on the volume of composed of equal portions of solid and liquid hydrogen and has a storage hydrogen to be stored, the duration of storage, the time required for density 16% greater than that of liquid hydrogen (Shell, 2017). discharge and the geographic availability of the different options; thus, several hours of storage are required for a refuelling station, while days or Storage by liquefaction allows the achievement of a volumetric density weeks of storage prove necessary to protect the user against the possible (0.070 kg/L) greater than that obtained by compression (0.030 kg/L) but mismatches between supply and demand. An even longer storage period nonetheless much lower than that obtained by fossil fuels (Sinigaglia et al., may be required to bridge seasonal changes in electricity supply and 2017). Liquid hydrogen is stored at a temperature below 253°C. A liquid demand (IEA, 2019). hydrogen tank must be perfectly insulated to reduce heat transfer; heat The main storage methods are compression and liquefaction. Compression transfer from the environment to the liquid increases the pressure inside in tanks is currently the most-used technology; it is also the easiest and the tank (Rivard et al., 2019). Another problem posed by liquefaction is least-costly method (Rivard et al., 2019; Sinigaglia et al., 2017). Hydrogen that 30% to 33% of the energy is expended to liquefy gaseous hydrogen can be compressed from a few tens of bar to 350 or 700 bar for transport. (Sinigaglia et al., 2017). The low storage temperature renders liquid Low-pressure (45 bar) or medium-pressure (200 - 500 bar) containers are hydrogen less attractive for mobility; the tanks must be well insulated and commonly used in industry, but high-pressure tubes and tanks (700 - 1000 thus must have very thick walls (Rivard et al., 2019). The risk of leaks is not bar) are used for refuelling stations and for vehicles (Staffell et al., 2019). to be neglected, because due to the small size of its molecule, hydrogen At 700 bar, 5 kg of hydrogen can be stored in a 125-litre tank; this is the can pass through many materials, including certain metals. Moreover, it approach preferred by the automobile manufacturers (Air Liquide, 2019c). weakens some materials, rendering them brittle. Given the high pressure and robustness required for the tank, it must be To avoid this energy expenditure, hydrogen can be incorporated into cylindrical, which renders its integration into a vehicle’s architecture more larger molecules easily transportable in liquid form, such as ammonia and difficult (Rivard et al., 2019). liquid organic hydrogen carriers, known by the acronym LOHC. These The hydrogen tanks of refuelling stations have a higher pressure than those liquids have a high hydrogen storage density, allowing safe handling of of vehicles in order to allow rapid refuelling; compressed hydrogen has only hydrogen. They are easier to transport than hydrogen but an additional 15% of the energy density of petroleum, which means that hydrogen stations step is required to release it before final consumption, which results in require more space for the same quantity of fuel (Staffell et al., 2019). additional energy and costs that must be taken into account (IEA, 2019).
23 Hydrogen storage in solid form – more specifically in the form of metal Hydrogen storage in liquid form hydrides – represents an interesting future pathway; it thus can be stored in another material to which it is chemically bonded or can be absorbed physically at densities higher than that of liquid hydrogen (Singh, 2015). For example, it can involve the formation of solid metal hydrides obtained by the reaction of hydrogen with certain metal alloys, the most promising of which are magnesium-based alloys and the alanates; however, only a low mass of hydrogen can be stored in these materials (Air Liquide, 2019b). Nonetheless, the method would offer safe, reversible hydrogen storage with an excellent energy yield (Techniques de l’ingénieur, 2011).
The researchers of the French startup HySiLabs, created in 2015 and supported by the European Commission, recently developed Hydrosil, a silicon hydride (polymer composed of silicon atoms each bonded to two hydrogen atoms). The compound is liquid and stable; it is freed from high-pressure storage and allows storage and transport of seven times more hydrogen in liquid form than in gaseous form (Olivennes, 2018). Source: France Diplomatie, 2016. Another technology envisioned consists of absorption of hydrogen molecules by a porous material, such as glass microspheres (from 5 to 200 µm in diameter). Glass microspheres offer double the storage capacity of metal hydrides per unit of mass and one and a half times their storage capacity per unit of volume (Rosen, 2016). Several absorption materials exist (adsorption is a physical process different from absorption, which is a chemical process) and the hydrogen molecules are weakly bonded on their surface, which allows them to be released easily (Sinigaglia et al., 2017).
24 5.3 Hydrogen distribution As in the case of storage, hydrogen distribution, up to the 1. Hydrogen tube trailers or container trailers for transport of compressed gas: They have a end user, is a key factor in the energy transition. Due to its maximum capacity of 1,000 kg at 500 bar. This distribution mode is used for small deliveries low density, it may be difficult to transport hydrogen over over short distances from the hydrogen production site. In Canada, producers like Air Liquide can long distances. Several transport options exist depending deliver between 250 and 380 kgs per tube trailer at 180 bars. Larger quantities can be delivered on the state in which the hydrogen is found (liquid, at 450 bars and when hydrogen is liquefied. gaseous, solid), the distance to be travelled and the scope of the demand (Afhypac, 2016; ETSAP, 2014; IEA, 2019; Singh et al., 2015; Sinigaglia et al., 2017; Shell, 2017; Staffell et al., 2019).
Source: Afhypac, 2016.
2. Tank trucks for transport of liquid hydrogen: They have a capacity of 400 to 4,000 kg of liquid hydrogen. Greater volumes can be transported than for compressed gas. They could be used to supply refuelling stations. Over long distances, it is more efficient to transport hydrogen in liquid form.
FIGURE 18 Hydrogen transport by road
Hydrogen tube trailer Container trailer Tank truck 200-250 bar, ~500 kg, 500 bar, ~1,000 kg, 1-4 bar, ~4,000 kg, ambient T ambient T cryogenic T Source: Shell, 2017. 25 3. Pipelines for gaseous hydrogen: Nearly 5,000 km of pipelines exist around the 4. Natural gas pipeline in which a low quantity of hydrogen is injected: Hydrogen world, more than half in the United States. This is little compared to the 3 million km can also be transported via the natural gas pipeline network by injecting up to for natural gas. These pipelines are usually the property of hydrogen production 20% of the volume into this network (in Germany, the limit was fixed at 10% to companies and mainly serve to supply chemical facilities and refineries. reduce the risk of damage to the natural gas installations). It is estimated that in the United States, 5% to 15% of hydrogen could be injected into natural Hydrogen distribution in gaseous form by pipeline would be the most gas without prejudice to the pipeline infrastructure or the end user. Separation affordable mode to transport large quantities of hydrogen over distances and purification technologies have been developed to extract the hydrogen less than 1,500 km. But pipelines require a high initial investment cost. For transported in this way. hydrogen transport, pipelines have a diameter of 25 to 30 cm and operate at a pressure of 10 to 20 bar. They are currently made of steel but would have Conversion of natural gas pipelines into pipelines dedicated to hydrogen better performance and a lower cost if they were fibre-reinforced polymer. It transport once the useful life of the first pipelines is over was also suggested. nonetheless remains that the energy required to compress and pump hydrogen Hydrogen storage in larger molecules easily transportable in liquid form, such is considerable. Hydrogen pipelines have a long useful life (50 to 100 years). as ammonia or liquid organic hydrogen carriers, can also serve for distribution, particularly for overseas transport (IEA, 2019). It would also be possible to transport hydrogen in the form of metal hydride. FIGURE 19 Hydrogen pipelines by country in 2017 (in kilometres) 5. Transport by boat: This is what Japan plans to do by importing liquefied hydrogen produced in Australia from lignite. Norway and British Columbia 2 608 USA have also shown interest in this method of exporting their hydrogen to Japan. 613 Belgium The question is discussed at greater length in the section on Japan.
376 Germany 6. Transport by train: Transport of hydrogen by train would also be possible, but there is very little documentation on the subject. 303 France
237 Netherlands Regardless of the distribution method used, the hydrogen conversion and 147 Canada reconversion costs must be taken into account, along with the storage and distribution costs. The existing infrastructures and safety issues must be also 258 Others considered. In some cases, the scope of these costs and the challenges Source: Shell, 2017. encountered will make it more affordable and less risky to produce hydrogen locally (IEA, 2019).
26 5.4 Hydrogen for propulsion of vehicles Currently, two technologies rely on hydrogen for propulsion of vehicles. 2. The hydrogen engine Hydrogen can supply thermal engines directly or allow production of This is an internal combustion engine that uses hydrogen as fuel. But the electricity in fuel cells adapted to electric vehicles. combustion properties of hydrogen differ from those of gasoline and diesel. It burns faster, which makes it necessary to adapt the shape of the 1. The fuel cell combustion chamber and calibrate the timing of the explosion to prevent Several fuel cell models exist, depending on the type of electrolyte they abnormal combustion. Dihydrogen (H2) reacts with dioxygen (O2), creating use. The proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) would be the an explosion (energy release) that pushes on the piston. The combustion of preferred model for mobile applications. It operates at low temperatures 1 kg of hydrogen releases three times more energy than 1 kg of gasoline, but (between 60 and 80°C), which means that it does not take time to warm hydrogen requires a higher volume. Adjustments are necessary depending up and generate electricity (Chabannes, 2019; CHFCA, 2016). It is also on whether hydrogen is used in gaseous or liquid form. Another process the smallest and lightest type of fuel cell. consists of injecting hydrogen into conventional gasoline and diesel to reduce the CO emissions (Gurz et al., 2017). The fuel cell operates contrary to electrolysis. Hydrogen injected onto 2 the anode is dissociated into protons and electrons; the electrons cannot pass through the electrolyte and go through the external electric circuit. FIGURE 20 The protons pass through an ultrafine selective membrane (the electrolyte) A PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell and recombine with the air injected onto the cathode, producing water, heat and electricity (Chabannes, 2019). This electricity serves to run the engine. The fuel cell needs an external source of supply, because it is an energy converter and not an energy source like a battery. This is where the hydrogen tanks installed in the vehicle are involved.
The proton-exchange membrane (the electrolyte) must be hydrated to operate and remain stable. The fuel cell requires the presence of a catalyst made of platinum nanoparticles; this must be rough and porous to offer the maximum hydrogen or oxygen surfaces. The platinum catalyst is costly and very sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, which makes it obligatory to reduce the presence of carbon monoxide if the hydrogen contains any.
Source: Hydrogenics, website, 2019. 27 3. The hydrogen tank Hydrogen is stored in a tank under very high pressure (700 bar) in the vehicle. For approximately 500 km of autonomy, the tank contains 5 kg of hydrogen in a volume of 125 litres and weighs about 130 kg. This is added to the weight of the fuel cell module (about 100 kg) (Chabannes, 2019). The tank is reinforced with carbon fibre with a plastic interior coating, which assures the purity of the hydrogen necessary to supply the fuel cells (Mehta, 2018).
The cost of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and their useful life are factors that can limit their competitiveness at this time. In addition to this is the rarity and cost of the platinum used as a catalyst (Chabannes, 2019). Nonetheless, it is expected that the technological advances to optimize the fuel cell’s design and the efforts to reduce the use of platinum, combined with the economies of scale generated by larger-scale production, will reduce the current costs (IEA, 2019). The automotive fuel cell cost target is between $30 and $40 US per kW, with a durability target of 5,000 to 8,000 hours (IEA, 2017).
28 6. Flourishing external markets
The deployment of hydrogen in the transportation sector has accelerated FIGURE 21 worldwide in the past few years, as illustrated in the following three Targets, visions and projections announced by country up to 2050 graphs pertaining to the number of vehicles in circulation and the number of refuelling stations open at the end of 2018, as well as the development Today 12,952 FCEV, 376 HRS (end of 2018) outlook in several countries. Korea 2019 This section reviews in more detail the situation in four countries or states 35 buses that are among the most advanced in the field: California, China, Japan California China Germany Hydrogen Mobility Japan Spain 2020 13,400 FCEV 5,000 FCEV 100 HRS Europe project 40,000 FCEV 500 FCEV and Germany. Some general findings can be identified from this review: 100 HRS 100 HRS 160 HRS 20 HRS
2022 Korea 1) The tangible will of each country to reduce its GHG missions drastically in the 81,000 FCEV, 310 HRS
short, medium and long term in order to comply with the Paris Agreement on California Europe France Switzerland Climate Change; 2023 37,400 FCEV, 94 HRS 291 buses (JIVE projects) 5,000 FCEV, 100 HRS 1,000 heavy duty trucks
2) The desire to opt increasingly for renewable energy; California China Europe Germany Japan 2025 200 HRS 50,000 FCEV, 300 HRS minimum 747 HRS 400 HRS 200,000 FCEV, 320 HRS 3) The massive government investment (federal and regional) in the form of 2028 France R&D funding, public-private partnerships, assistance to businesses for the 20,000 – 50,000 FCEV, 400 – 1000 HRS
development of new technologies and deployment of hydrogen refuelling CAFP/California China Germany Hydrogen Council vision Japan stations, and incentive for the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles; 2030 1,000,000 FCEV 1,000,000 FCEV 1,000 HRS Globally 10 – 15 million cars 800,000 FCEV 1,000 HRS 1,000 HRS and 500,000 trucks
4) The desire to take advantage of this new economic opportunity for domestic Korea and foreign markets; 2040 6,200,000 FCEV (5,900,000 passenger cars, 120,000 taxis, 60,000 buses, 120,000 trucks), 1200 HRS
5) The importance of corporate partnerships (and consortiums) to apply the Hydrogen Council vision 2050 400 million cars, 15 – 20 million trucks, 5 million buses expertise of each company and have more weight to acquire funds for research FCEV: Fuel cell electric vehicle HRS: Hydrogen refuelling station or deployment of technologies;
6) Collaboration with foreign companies; Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
7) The offer of incentives for the purchase of vehicles (apart from Germany);
8) The concern for attacking the problem of air pollution and its health effects at the same time; and, more specifically;
9) In the case of Japan, the will to achieve greater energy self-sufficiency. 29 FIGURE 22 Number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles worldwide, end of 2018
18 17 Germany North America 2 1 Europe France 9 1 18 42 24 23 Norway 48 U.K. U.S. 56 85 487 Denmark Switzerland 138 Netherlands Sweden 143 Austria 5899 324 Iceland Italy Belgium Canada Slovak Rep. Luxembourg Finland Spain
Asia Japan
Europe; 900 1418; 11% North China America; 2926 5917; 46% Asia; 1791 5617; 43% Korea
Total: 12,952 vehicles worldwide Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
FIGURE 23 Number of hydrogen refuelling stations worldwide, end of 2018
Total: 376 HRS worldwide North America: 70 HRS Canada; 7
Europe: 172 HRS Germany; 69 Taiwan; 1 U.S.; 63 India; 2 France; 23 Korea; 14
U.K.; 20 China; 15
Denmark; 10
Norway; 9
Spain; 6
Japan; 100
Austria; 6
Switzerland; 6
Sweden; 5 Belgium; 4 Asia: 132 HRS Italy; 4 Netherlands; 4 Iceland; 1 Costa Rica; 1
Finland; 2 U.A.E.; 1 Czech Rep.; 1 Rest: 2 HRS Australia; 1 Latvia; 1 Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019. 30 6.1 California Faced with high urban smog rates and concerned about reducing the GHG After documenting the evolutionary process of adoption of this new emissions associated with transportation (41% of all emissions in California), technology, the CaFCP partnership devised a three-phase strategy to the California authorities undertook a vast program of energy conversion develop the market for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles: to zero-emission vehicles following the adoption of the California Zero- Emission Vehicle Regulation. In January 2018, the Governor of the State 1. Stimulate the market by government funding programs capable of attracting signed an order (B-48-18) to promote the deployment of 5 million zero- private investors and define long-term policies for deployment of infrastructures; emission vehicles by 2030 and the establishment of 200 refuelling stations by 2025. Many public and private players are involved in this transition. 2. Motivate consumers by offering incentives for the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, deploy a network of refuelling stations and stimulate the supply Actively involved in the energy transition to hydrogen since 1999, the of hydrogen to make its price more affordable; California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP), a public-private partnership, has developed a vision forecasting 1 million hydrogen fuel cell vehicles on the 3. Diversify the technological applications based on hydrogen fuel cells, install road in 2030 and a network of 1,000 refuelling stations, which should hydrogen refuelling stations along freight transportation corridors and integrate make it possible to reach the vast majority of California residents, including hydrogen production and renewable electricity production to improve the 7.66 million of the 9.15 million residents of disadvantaged regions. system’s efficiency.
TABLE 4 In 2012, the California Air Resources Board adopted a series of Potential coverage of disadvantaged communities (in economic, regulations, known as Advanced Clean Cars, with the aim of controlling automobile emissions. health and environmental terms) by a network of 1,000 hydrogen refuelling stations in 2030 The California Energy Commission provided the funding for a facility allowing production of two tons per day of hydrogen from 100% renewable sources in order to supply the network of refuelling stations (California Air Resources Board, 2018). The multinational Air Liquide decided to invest over Regions $150 million US to build a plant with a capacity of 30 tons of hydrogen per day, capable of supplying 35,000 fuel cell vehicles and the 19 refuelling stations of FirstElement Fuel Inc., a major player in hydrogen distribution Stations in the in Stations future priority regions the of Population priority regions Population within road by minutes 15 within % population road by minutes 15 % population covered with which it entered into an agreement (Air Liquide, 2018; Plaza, 2018); Not 403 17, 7 0 4 , 8 4 8 26,199,288 70.3% 75% construction must start in Nevada in 2019 and be completed in 2022. disadvantaged
Disadvantaged 597 7, 6 6 3 , 418 8,883,966 23.8% 25% Currently, between 37% and 44% of the hydrogen used in transportation in California is from renewable sources (California Hydrogen Business Total 1,000 25,368,266 35,083,254 94.1% 100% Council, 2018).
Source: adapted from California Air Resources Board, 2018.
31 In May 2018, there were 4,819 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in California and 6.2 China 36 refuelling stations in operation. Another 28 stations will be added by China is not as advanced as its neighbours, Japan and South Korea, in the the end of 2020, for which funding has already been granted (California deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Contrary to the other countries Air Resources Board, 2018). In 2020, this network of 64 stations will that have put the emphasis on personal vehicles and buses, China is be accessible to one-third of California’s population within a 15-minute initially targeting the commercial vehicle market. Over 500 hydrogen fuel radius by road. The initial stations covered the Los Angeles area, but the cell trucks, including 100 midsize delivery trucks, were in operation in other major urban centres will be served by these 64 stations (Isenstadt Shanghai in 2018 (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). These trucks are and Lutsey, 2018). equipped with 30-kW hydrogen fuel cell modules from Ballard Power In December 2018, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) announced Systems (Wong, 2018). In Rugao City, 500 additional delivery vehicles a regulation (Innovative Clean Transit) requiring new buses on the market are also in operation (IEA, 2019). to be zero-emission effective from 2029 and that all buses on the road be zero-emission in 2040 (Pocard, 2019). In this way, GHG emissions should After an announced deployment in 2015, the country, as of the end of fall by 19 million metric tonnes between 2020 and 2050, the equivalent 2018, had the largest fleet of hydrogen fuel cell buses, with over 400 of the emissions of 4 million automobiles. The regulation also requires the buses in demonstration projects (IEA, 2019), mainly in Foshan City and the transit agencies to submit their hydrogen bus deployment plan within the Yunfu industrial park. These buses should have over 300 km of autonomy next four or five years. Three transit corporations operate hydrogen buses and consumption of less than 8.5 kg/100 km (Ballard, 2019b). in their fleet, although they are limited at this time (Natural Resources Moreover, a hydrogen bus production plant has opened its doors in Yunfu: Canada, 2019). 300 buses were on the manufacturer Feichi’s assembly line in November Regarding trucks, the Port of Los Angeles plans to deploy 10 hydrogen 2017 (Liu et al., 2018); the company has the capacity to produce 5,000 Class 8 heavy hydrogen trucks and two refuelling stations, assisted by vehicles per year. 50% government funding from the California Air Resources Board; the China also has the first hydrogen tramway in Tangshan City in the north of project’s partners include Toyota, Shell and Kenworth. Two other projects the country; commissioned in October 2017 and using a Ballard hydrogen concern trucks serving the Port of San Pedro Bay in Los Angeles and UPS fuel cell module, it can travel 40 km at a maximum speed of 70 km/hour delivery trucks (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). Another energy transition player we should mention is the California China has focused on the implementation of manufacturing companies Hydrogen Business Council (CHBC), which includes 100 companies producing batteries and hydrogen fuel cells. A partnership between Ballard and private agencies involved in hydrogen and which has the mission Power Systems and Synergy led to the construction of the first hydrogen fuel of advancing the commercialization of hydrogen in the energy sector to cell module factory in the Yunfu industrial park; this plant can produce 500 reduce harmful emissions and dependence on fossil energies. MW of hydrogen fuel cell units per year (Liu, 2018; Natural Resources The non-profit organizationEnergy Independence Now (EIN), with the Canada, 2019). Another partnership between Hydrogenics and SinoHytec financial support of the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation and the California was formed a few years ago (Verheul, 2019). Hydrogen Business Council, published a roadmap in May 2018, detailing a series of recommendations with the aim of promoting the production and use of hydrogen from renewable sources (Sampson, 2018). 32 To date, there has been little development of refuelling infrastructure Deficiencies in standards and regulations in the construction and operation (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). At the end of 2018, only 21 refuelling of refuelling stations would also slow infrastructure development (Verheul, stations were identified (Verheul, 2019). In the Foshan and Yunfu region, 2019). Thus, the current regulations would prevent the adoption of foreign they were nonexistent in 2015; however, since then, more than 10 are under innovations, such as the installation of very compact stations (occupying construction in Foshan and four appeared in Yunfu in 2018 (Liu et al., 2018). barely 7 m2), which can be integrated into the existing refuelling stations, Sinopec (China Petroleum and Chemical Corp.), the world’s largest refiner such as those produced by a Norwegian company; this proves impossible and owner of gasoline stations and a member of the Hydrogen Council, due to the requirement to place the compressor at least 20 m from the embarked on the construction of hydrogen refuelling stations in 2019 (Xin, station’s other components. Other regulatory problems pertain to hydrogen 2019). China recently announced the construction by 2021 of 40 hydrogen production: because hydrogen is classified as a hazardous chemical, its refuelling stations along four corridors in the Yangtze Delta; these corridors production is permitted only in chemical parks. will link the cities of Shanghai, Huzhou, Nantong, Ningbo, Rugao, Jiaxing Targeting commercial vehicles first allows China to improve its compression and Zhangiagang (Lim, 2019). In June 2019, the world’s largest hydrogen technologies and acquire experience regarding hydrogen safety. Since refuelling station opened to the public in Shanghai; with a daily capacity the routes of commercial vehicles are more predictable than automobile of over two tonnes, it can supply up to 600 vehicles per day (Hood, 2019). movements, fewer refuelling stations are necessary. Finally, this approach The deployment of hydrogen stations benefits fromstrong support from can contribute to facilitating social acceptance of hydrogen as a fuel by a local governments, which thus wish to promote the arrival of new industries public still reluctant for cost and safety reasons (Verheul, 2019). in their region and invigorate the local economy (Matsumoto, 2019). Although China is the world’s largest hydrogen producer (21 million China’s late but accelerated transition to hydrogen is encouraged by tonnes in 2016, to which are added nearly 12 million tonnes of hydrogen generous government grants to industry, R&D, passenger and freight as a by-product), most comes from fossil fuels, particularly coal by a transportation companies, and consumers themselves for the purchase gasification process (Verheul, 2019). The country has about 1,000 of vehicles (Matsumoto, 2019). The Chinese government aspires to reach gasifiers, but this use represents only 5% of total coal consumption. In 1 million hydrogen vehicles on the road by 2030 (Li, 2018). addition, coal resources are mainly concentrated in western China, while hydrogen demand is located in the east, where the big cities are found. Among the barriers to the deployment of hydrogen in transportation, There is no large-scale pipeline network connecting the two regions at technology and regulation have been indicated (Verheul, 2019). The lag present. The same geographical gap is also true for renewable energy, in compression technologies for hydrogen storage means that most of the such as solar and wind power. refuelling stations opened are at 350 bar (or 35 MPa) instead of 700 bar (or 70 MPa). It is also reported that in 2019, most of the refuelling stations are used only for demonstration projects and are not yet operating commercially.
33 6.3 Japan Wishing to reduce its almost total dependence (94%) on foreign fossil At the end of June 2018, Japan had 100 hydrogen refuelling stations (about energy sources and concerned about avoiding other nuclear disasters one-third of which were mobile, according to Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017), like Fukushima in 2011, Japan is becoming a world leader in research, the greatest number for one country, and 2,580 hydrogen automobiles, development and use of hydrogen as an energy source in several sectors, ranking second in the world after California in this regard (Ikeda, 2018). including transportation, which will allow it to increase its energy self- Due to the stricter regulations in Japan, a station costs two to three times sufficiency and reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. more than in Europe, or $4.5 to $5.4 million US. To be profitable, a station must serve approximately 900 vehicles per year (Nagashima, 2018). The country is home to two of the three leading automobile manufacturers Moreover, the safety standards in force mean that a hydrogen station active in the production of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (Toyota and Honda) and many companies that are participating in the development of requires a surrounding space larger than a gasoline station, which can hydrogen-related technologies, including Kawasaki for hydrogen transport, be very costly in a city like Tokyo, where the available space is rare and Panasonic for production of hydrogen fuel cells and Toshiba for electrolysis expensive. Finally, refuelling must be done by specialized personnel who of water (Popov, 2018). The emphasis is on the supply chain as a whole. have a permit for handling pressurized gases, and not by the customer.
In 2018, 11 companies, including automobile manufacturers, companies Toyota sold its first hydrogen bus in Japan in 2018. TheSora , equipped active in infrastructure development and investors, formed a consortium, with two 114-KW fuel cell modules on the roof, can move 79 passengers and travel 200 km with a 600-litre (23.3 kg) hydrogen tank. The company Japan H2 Mobility (JHyM), to pool private and public investments in view of increasing the number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles on the road and plans to supply 100 buses for the Tokyo region during the 2020 Olympic the refuelling stations to supply them. Since then, seven other companies Games (Nagashima, 2018). have joined the consortium (Nagashima, 2018; Natural Resources The same year, Toyota entered into the production of trucks for the 7-Eleven Canada, 2019; Popov, 2018). It wants to deploy 80 stations throughout convenience store chain, which has 20,000 establishments in Japan. With Japan by 2021. a capacity of 3 tonnes, these trucks can cover 200 km per day; two trucks Another group involved in the development and promotion of hydrogen are scheduled for 2019 (Nagashima, 2018). Toyota is also developing infrastructures is the Association of Hydrogen Supply and Utilization trucks for the export market. Technology (HySUT), with 35 members in the industrial sector, including energy companies, engineering firms, automobile manufacturers and operators of refuelling stations (Natural Resources Canada, 2018).
The Council for a Strategy for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, created by the Japanese government, published a Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in 2014 (revised in 2016), in which it forecasts the construction of 160 refuelling stations serving approximately 40,000 vehicles by 2020; for 2025, the targets are 320 stations and 200,000 vehicles (Popov, 2018). To encourage this deployment, the government offers incentives for the purchase of automobiles and buses, as well as funds (capital and operating) to support the deployment and operation of refuelling stations (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). 34 FIGURE 24 Number of refuelling stations and hydrogen vehicles in Japan Two facilities for production of hydrogen from solar energy by electrolysis at the end of 2018 of water are in development in the Fukushima region: the first for a trial period from 2018 to 2020 in Soma and another under construction in Namie (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). The latter facility should supply the energy for the buses planned for the 2020 Olympic Games.
Source: Manthey, 2018.
To meet its energy needs, Japan also plans to import hydrogen from other countries, including Australia. Resulting from a collaboration between the Queensland University of Technology and the University of Tokyo, a first load produced from solar energy in Redlands south of the City of Area Number of retail HRSs Number of FCVs Brisbane was delivered to Japan at the beginning of 2019 (Queensland University of Technology, 2019). Norway also wants to join the ranks of Hokkaido (1) 1 16 green energy suppliers to Japan based on its hydroelectricity capability Tohoku (2) 3 44 (Lindgaard Molnes, 2019). At the beginning of 2016, Kawasaki and Kanto (3) 40 1,033 Iwatani partnered with the City of Kobe to deploy a terminal for hydrogen imports from Australia; it will be operational in 2020 (Irfan, 2016). Chubu (4) 25 1,021 Kawasaki is currently developing a tanker dedicated to liquid hydrogen Kansai (5) 12 243 transport (Kawasaki, website, 2019); with several partners, Kawasaki has Chugocu/Shikoku (6) 8 92 also started construction of a loading terminal in Australia, which will be equipped to liquefy hydrogen produced from lignite (Sampangi Archana Kyushu (7) 11 131 Rani, 2019). Operational for the pilot phase in 2021, commercial activities Total 100 2,580 should begin in the 2030s. Source: Ikeda, 2018. 35 Japan plans to import 660,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year in 2030. 6.4 Germany A British Columbia company, Hummingbird Hydrogen HH , is planning 2 Gradually abandoning nuclear energy and hoping to move in the direction production of liquid hydrogen from biomass and by electrolysis of water at of renewable energy sources from now on, Germany is the most advanced its biorefinery complex for export to Japan and South Korea (Hummingbird country in Europe for conversion to hydrogen and development of fuel cells, Hydrogen, 2019). but not specifically for the transportation sector. In 2013, the government The scenario illustrated in the Strategic Roadmap of the Council for a adopted its Mobility and Fuels Strategy, which aims to reduce GHG Strategy for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, summarizes the targets sought by emissions in all sectors; the target to achieve in 2050 is a reduction of 80% Japan by 2030 to achieve the expected 26% reduction of GHG emissions; to 95% of the levels prevailing in 1990. In 2012, the Ministry of Transport the country anticipates an 80% reduction of its emissions by 2050 (Iida and and Industry and several private sector partners (Air Liquide, Air Products, Sakata, 2019). At that date, with the achievement of this target, hydrogen’s Daimler, Linde and Total) signed a letter of intention for the deployment of share of the Japanese energy system will be 13%. Three measures are a network of hydrogen refuelling stations, thus leading to the creation of planned in the Strategic Roadmap to reduce the high cost of hydrogen: 50 stations at a pressure of 700 bar in 7 metropolitan regions and along 1) rely on the acquisition of inexpensive resources; 2) establish large-scale the country’s main corridors (CleanEnergyPartnership, 2019). supply chains; and 3) generalize the use of hydrogen in different sectors In 2015, six companies (Air Liquide, Daimler, Linde, OMV, Shell and Total) (transportation, industry, energy production, etc.). Finally, it is necessary formed the H Mobility consortium to extend the network of refuelling to mention the role of NEDO (New Energy and Industry Development 2 stations with a target of 400 stations covering the entire country by 2025 Organization) – a public R&D body funded entirely by the Ministry of (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). At the end of 2018, 60 stations were Energy, Trade and Industry (METI) – as a key player in the development of operational, thus positioning Germany second in the world after Japan. H new technologies to achieve the identified targets (Iida and Sakata, 2019). 2 Mobility owned and operated 54 of them; the consortium is targeting 100 stations for the end of 2019 (Carr, 2019). These 100 stations should make it possible to supply the vehicles of a population of up to 6 million people
according to the CEO of H2 Mobility (Kind, 2019). H2 Mobility is seeking to reduce the implementation costs by integrating the hydrogen supply into conventional gasoline stations and using 700-bar storage compressors (Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017). In northern Germany, three stations will be supplied based on wind energy (GlobeNewsWire, 2019).
Source: Kawasaki website 2019.
36 Regarding vehicles, the deployment of 646 hydrogen buses has been Germany is also involved in the development of fuel cells. In 2017, 10 funded to date (Braunsdorf, 2018). There were 16 buses in operation in German companies in the transportation sector joined the Centre for Solar November 2018. Ballard Power Systems began supplying fuel cells for Energy and Hydrogen Research to develop fuel cells up to the maturity 40 buses delivered to the cities of Cologne and Wuppertal in 2019 (Carr, stage; the aim is annual production of 30,000 fuel cell modules. Another 2019). The French company Alstom recently won a request for proposals project involving the participation of the Swedish company PowerCell to supply 27 hydrogen trains to the Frankfurt region; the 500 million euro Sweden AB and the manufacturers BMW, Daimler, Ford and Volkswagen order – 360 million of which will go to Alstom – also provides for the is also planning the development of such modules (Afhypac, 2018). supply of hydrogen, maintenance and availability of reserve capacities for Finally, in 2019, PowerCell Sweden and Bosch will combine their efforts to the next 25 years (BFMTV, 2019a). This is in addition to the two Hydrail produce hydrogen fuel cells for trucks and automobiles; the market launch trains currently being tested. It is important to note that Germany has is scheduled for 2022 (Randall, 2019). approximately 4,000 diesel trains, which could eventually be converted to hydrogen (IEA, 2017). Finally, at the end of 2018, there were also approximately 500 hydrogen fuel cell automobiles on the roads (Natural FIGURE 25 Resources Canada, 2019). Hydrogen refuelling stations in Germany at the beginning of 2019
In 2008, the federal government created the National Organisation Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology program (NOW), with the role of funding R&D projects seeking to stimulate the coordination of activities by companies, research laboratories and other public players to develop a competitive industrial sector (Afhypac, 2018). The federal funding available is 1.4 billion euros over 10 years and combines R&D and commercialization (Braunsdorf, 2018).
In 2017, the second phase of the NIP (National Innovation Programme Hydrogen and Fuel Cells) included funding of construction of new refuelling stations; 60% of the investment costs will be covered and the development of electrolyzers using green energy will be included (Afhypac, 2018b).
Hydrogen production is also part of the development strategy. In 2019, Shell and ITM Power started construction of an electrolysis plant (Refhyne project) to produce hydrogen from electricity generated by renewable energy sources in the City of Wesseling; the operations should begin in 2020 and supply 1,300 tonnes of hydrogen per year (Euractiv, 2019). In 2018, a partnership formed by Linde AG, Flachstahl GmbH and Avacon Natur Source: GlobeNewsWire, 2019. GmbH announced a project for construction of a hydrogen production plant using electrolysis from wind energy in Salzgitter (Carr, 2019). 37 In July 2019, the German Ministry of Economy and Energy announced annual funding of 100 million euros to help 20 research laboratories test the new hydrogen-related technologies in view of applications on an industrial scale (Dezern, 2019).
The technological advances currently being achieved have not been followed by the same boom in the development of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, since the German manufacturers have given priority to the development of battery-powered vehicles (Shumaker, 2018). One of the main barriers to development would be the high cost of vehicles in markets like California, because the German government does not offer purchase incentives. Nonetheless, Audi, in collaboration with Ballard Power Systems and Hyundai, has stated its readiness to participate in the development of hydrogen vehicles. The company plans to release its h-tron-quattro model in 2020, primarily targeting the Chinese market where more than 30% of Audi sales are realized (Kable, 2019). Source: Shumaker, 2018.
BMW recently announced its entry into the market for hydrogen fuel cell FIGURE 26 vehicles for the 2020s, in partnership with Toyota. (Taylor, 2019). Mercedes- Carbon footprint over the lifecycle of the Mercedes-Benz GLC Fuel Cell Benz recently developed a model unique in the world, a hybrid sport utility vehicle combining a lithium battery and a hydrogen fuel cell, the GLC Fuel H2 Mobility / Renewable H2 - H2 (natural gas) / Cell. The manufacturer specifies that the vehicle’s carbon footprint is very EU electricity mix and electricity production EU electricity mix low when it is propelled by hydrogen from renewable energy sources. The 0.5 0.5 CO2 emissions attributable to the production of hydrogen and electricity 0.2 0.5 from renewable sources are 0.5 tonnes, (Figure 26, circle in the centre) 0.3 compared to 15.4 tonnes when hydrogen originates in part from reforming 10.8 10.8 of natural gas, or 18.5 tonnes when hydrogen comes directly from natural gas (Figure 26, circle on the left) (FuelCellsWorks, 2019). The vehicle has 30.8 16.0 34.0 tonnes CO 430 km of autonomy – plus 51 km supplied by the battery – and can be tonnes CO2 2 tonnes CO2 refuelled in three minutes. Since 2019, it has been available as a rental via 15.0 4.6 7.7 Mercedes-Benz Rent at 799 euros per month in German cities already well 15.0 15.0 equipped with hydrogen refuelling station infrastructure. Car production Electricity generation Hydrogen production Values are rounded End of life
Source: FuelCellsWorks, 2019.
38 7. Profile of the situation in Quebec
7.1 Energy sources used in Quebec Quebec stands out because of the large share held by renewable energy in TABLE 5 its energy system: 49% of the total in 2016. This compares advantageously Availability of primary energy sources in Quebec, 2016 to the other OECD countries, where only Sweden exceeds this threshold, with 54% renewable energy in 2019. In Canada, as a whole, renewable Source PJ Percentage of total (%) Equivalence energy accounted for only 17.3% of the total in 2017 (Natural Resources % Canada, 2019). Oil 826 36 137 million barrels Natural gas 325 14 8.4 billion m3 FIGURE 27 Coal 13 1 0.6 million tons Share of energy from renewable sources Import = 51
% Hydro 818 36 227 TWh
13.4 % World Biomass 170 7. 5 10.2 % OECD countries only
Local = 49 Wind 126 6 35 TWh 17. 3 % Canada Total 2,278 100 Source: Ressources Naturelles Canada, website, 2019. Source: Whitmore and Pineau, 2018. Oil accounts for 36% of Quebec’s energy balance, and over three quarters of this energy source goes to the transportation sector. Hydroelectricity’s Major energy losses share was also 36%, or 818 Petajoules (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). The Less than half the energy available in Quebec in 2016 served to meet the contribution of biomass and wind energy is not negligible, at 13.5% of demand (46%) because of major losses (54%) resulting from certain system total energy. inefficiencies during transformation, transport and consumption of energy. Biofuels mainly come from forest residues but may also be derived from The transportation sector was responsible for 35% of these losses; this sector other organic materials. It should be noted that the renewable energy seems much less efficient than the others (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). comes from Quebec, while all hydrocarbons are imported (Whitmore and In the case of electricity generated in Quebec, nearly two-thirds of production Pineau, 2018). end up in losses linked to electrical systems, including transmission. Losses Quebec is the leading producer of hydroelectricity in Canada and ranks are also high for hydrocarbons. Heat produced but not completely used is second after Ontario in wind energy production (Natural Resources the main cause of energy loss. (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Canada, website, 2019). 39 7.2 Energy dedicated to the transportation sector 7.3 Greenhouse gas emissions
In Quebec, the transportation sector accounted for 30% of energy Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reached 77 Mt equivalent CO2 in consumption in 2016, almost all coming from petroleum products (97%), Quebec in 2016. Of this total, 27 Mt resulted from road transportation, while 0.4% went to electricity in this sector. including 12 Mt from freight transportation by road (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Transportation by heavy truck accounted for more than one-third of Freight transportation alone accounted for 35% of energy use. Freight GHG emissions from transportation by road. transportation is experiencing particularly strong growth: the vehicle fleet grew by 162% between 1990 and 2014 (compared to an increase of 59% for the number of personal vehicles) and reached a total of 791,000 light, FIGURE 29 midsize and heavy trucks in 2016. The distance driven by these trucks Variation of GHG emissions by sector in Quebec increased by 24% during this period (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). This between 1990 and 2016 data leads the authors of the study to conclude that “priority should be given to initiatives to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions in 8 ) the commercial transportation sector.” eq.
6 2 6.1 4 FIGURE 28 2
Energy per activity sector and per type of vehicle (Mt CO Variations 0.7 Total Industry Residential, commercial & institutionnal Waste Electricity COMMERCIAL PASSENGER PERSONAL 0 TRANSPORTATION 17 % VEHICLES 48 % -1.2 Non-energy use Agriculture 0.1% -2.3 Intercity bus 4% 2% Urban transit 2% -2 -2.7
Rail (passenger) Transport Air (cargo) 0.04% Agriculture 0.3% -4 Air Rail (freight) G Comm. and (passenger) institutional N 2% Cars I Transportation 15% D 11% -6 L 26% I Marine 2% U 30%
B -7.9 Residential TOTAL TOTAL -8.5 1,734 PJ Heavy 526 PJ -8 trucks 19% Light trucks 16% (SUVs, pickups, vans) -10 Industrial 18% 34% 7 % Source: AVEQ, 2019. 5 % FREIGHT 35 % 7 % Medium trucks Motocycle and Despite a drop in GHG emissions in most sectors between 1990 and Light off-road vehicles trucks 2016, it is noted that they continue to increase in transportation (AVEQ, Note: Air, marine and rail transport data is not available by region. Data on air transport includes domestic and international 2019). GHG emissions from transportation by heavy truck increased by lines, which include the energy uses examined in the Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada (57-003-X). 156.5% between 1990 and 2015, thus overriding the observed reduction Source: Whitmore and Pineau, 2018. in emissions from transportation by automobile (TEQ, 2018). 40 7.4 Advent of electric vehicles 7.5 Incentives for running on clean energy In Canada, Quebec has the most electric vehicles (Toyota, 2016): as of In Quebec, the measures currently put forward are almost essentially June 30, 2019, there were 52,556 electric vehicles on the road, divided aimed at completely electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles. Under almost equally between completely electric vehicles (n=26,300) and plug- the Roulez vert program, the Gouvernement du Québec, since 2012, has in hybrid vehicles (n=26 256) (AVEQ, 2019). Encouraged by government offered rebates of up to $8,000 for the purchase of new or used electric incentives, their progression on the roads since their advent is evidence of vehicles and a partial reimbursement for installation of charging stations at Quebecers’ marked interest in clean-energy vehicles; the second quarter of home, at work or for multiple-unit residential buildings. Since May 1, 2019, 2019 reported a growth of 2,878 additional vehicles per month. the Federal Government has offered an additional incentive up to $5,000 for the purchase of a new electric, plug-in hybrid or hydrogen fuel cell Added to this is the number of charging stations, which stood at 4,726 vehicle (TEQ, website, 2019). stations as of June 30, 2019; this number does not include home charging stations (AVEQ, 2019). The most recent data indicates that financial The efforts are under the responsibility of several departments, and incentives have been granted for 21,265 home terminals since 2012 (TEQ, major investments are budgeted for many projects and programs: 1) the 2019, statistical data, evolution of the Roulez vert program). Transportation Electrification Action Plan 2015 - 2020; 2) the 2018 - 2023 Action Plan of the Sustainable Mobility Policy, 2030; 3) the 2013 - 2020 Climate Change Action Plan; and 4) the 2030 Energy Policy Action Plan.
FIGURE 30 FIGURE 31 Number of electric vehicles on Quebec roads as of June 30, 2019 Renewable energy targets by 2030
62,500
52,500
2016 Renewable energies 4 7. 6 % 42,500
32,500 Renewable energies 2030 60.9 % 22,500
Hydro- Biomass Decentralized energy Oil products Coal Natural gas 12,500 electricity (i.e. geothermal, solar) Source: MERN, 2016. 2,500 2013-12-17 2014-08-26 2015-05-06 2016-01-14 2016-09-22 2017-06-02 2018-02-10 2018-10-20 2019-06-30 The Transportation Electrification Action Plan has a budget of $420 million
Source: AVEQ, 2019. to deploy 35 measures intended to promote electric transportation, develop the industrial sector related to transportation electrification, and reduce GHG emissions and oil dependence. In particular, the plan provided for 41 $2.5 million to support implementation of quick charging stations along Resources Canada programs with the aim of supporting infrastructures the main road axes (MTQ, 2015). The Sustainable Mobility Action Plan has for recharging electric vehicles and for fuels such as natural gas and a $1.064-billion budget, and also includes several measures intended to hydrogen ($16.4 million in 2016, $80 million in 2017 and $130 million encourage clean energy (MTQ, 2018). in 2019). The EVAFIDI (Electric Vehicle and Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Deployment Initiative) program provides assistance representing 50% of With a budget increased to $4.86 billion in 2019-2020, the 2013- the costs of eligible projects up to a limit of $1 million per charging station. 2020 Action Plan on Climate Change is pursuing several objectives in Under this program, the Government of Canada invested $96.4 million view of increased use of clean energy: reduce fossil fuel consumption, for charging stations, $76.1 million to support demonstration projects extend reliance on renewable energy sources, accelerate transportation pertaining to charging technologies, and $10 million for the development electrification and creation of businesses in this field, and encourage R&D of binational (Canada-USA) standards for low carbon footprint vehicles on clean technologies (MELCC, website, 2019). and infrastructures (Natural Resources Canada, 2019b; Natural Resources Through its Sustainability Mobility Plan, the Gouvernement du Québec is Canada, website, 2019a). seeking, by 2020, to reach a 40% reduction in oil consumption in the Other amounts were allocated in the 2018 federal budget to support new transportation sector below the 2013 level, and a 37.5% decrease in GHG clean energy technologies, including $800 million under the Strategic emissions in the transportation sector below the 1990 level (MTQ, 2018). Innovation Fund to stimulate R&D, facilitate growth and expansion of The Transportation Electrification Action Plan aims at the following targets businesses, attract and retain large-scale investments, and ensure the for 2020: 1) reach 100,000 electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles; 2) reduce progress of industrial research, development and demonstration of GHG emissions from transportation by 150,000 tonnes; and 3) reduce technologies thanks to collaboration among the private sector, researchers litres of fuel consumed annually in Quebec by 66 million (MTQ, 2015). and non-profit organizations (Strategic Innovation Fund, 2018).
The Action Plan of the 2030 Energy Policy seeks to: 1) improve the Together with the United States, Japan, the Netherlands and the European efficiency of energy use by 15%; 2) reduce the quantity of petroleum Commission, Canada launched the New Hydrogen Initiative in Vancouver products consumed by 40%; 3) increase renewable energy production by last May. This initiative will focus on 1) deployment of hydrogen for 25%; and 4) increase bioenergy production by 50% (Énergie et Ressources current industrial applications; 2) deployment of hydrogen technologies in naturelles Québec, website, 2019). The plan provides for the deployment the transportation sector; and 3) the role of hydrogen to meet the energy of a pilot project of multi-fuel stations – including hydrogen – that will needs of communities (US Department of Energy, 2019). extend throughout Quebec by 2030; they will be installed first in regions with high potential for use (MERN, 2016).
Finally, the Energy Transition, Innovation and Efficiency Master Plan 2018- 2023 provides for the deployment of a test bench to integrate hydrogen into the transportation network, including a pilot project to introduce hydrogen- powered vehicles and develop the conditions necessary for testing of this sector (TEQ, 2018).
Under the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2016), the Canadian Government allocated funds in its 2016 to 2019 budgets for Natural Source: Marie Demers 42 7.6 The current regulations to limit CO2 and dependence on hydrocarbons
Quebec is the first Canadian province to have adopted regulations encouraging automobile manufacturers to improve their offering of zero emission vehicles. The ZEV (zero emission vehicle) standard came into force in January 2018. The subject manufacturers are obliged to accumulate credits by procuring zero emission or low emission vehicles in the Quebec market. The target credits are calculated by applying a percentage to the total number of light (passenger) vehicles sold in Quebec by a given manufacturer. The higher a vehicle’s autonomy in electric mode, the more credits the manufacturer will obtain. It is hoped that the ZEV standard will stimulate innovation and protection of better technologies (MELCC, website, 2019).
In the context of the fight against climate change, the Government of Canada announced stricter standards in 2018 for the regulation on carbon pollution by heavy vehicles. It is anticipated that the new standards that will come into effect in 2020 will allow for the reduction of CO2 emissions by approximately 6 million tonnes per year by 2030; they will apply to trucks, school buses and other heavy vehicles manufactured after 2020.
The Government of Canada also perfected the Clean Fuel Standard and proposed a regulatory approach establishing requirements for reduction of carbon intensity for liquid fuels, such as gasoline and diesel. This Standard applies to suppliers and incorporates the requirements relating to the minimum standard for renewable fuels that appear in the Renewable Fuels Regulations (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2019). It is anticipated that the Standard will come into force in 2022 for liquid fuels and in 2023 for gaseous or solid fuels. The overall objective is to achieve a GHG emission reduction of 30 megatonnes by 2030.
43 8. Opportunity for the development of the hydrogen sector in Quebec
Endowed with major renewable energy sources at of 2022. An increase in hydrogen production could have the effect of making it less expensive to produce. affordable prices, whether hydroelectric, wind energy or biomass, Quebec is well placed to benefit from Local hydrogen production in remote regions is a wise enough option to make these regions more autonomous and avoid the challenges and the energy transition regarding the reduction of GHG costs associated with energy transmission over long distances. This is emissions. Hydrogen production by electrolysis from the case at the Raglan mine in northern Quebec, which has relied on hydroelectricity surpluses observed in low consumption conversion of surplus wind energy to hydrogen, thus allowing energy periods allows a better fit between supply and demand, surplus storage for later use. Along the same lines, use of forest residues to make hydrogen would also be profitable in remote regions, where because the hydrogen produced can be stored and then forest resources are abundant. released in peak periods, thereby reducing energy losses Beyond Quebec hydrogen storage and use, exporting this clean resource, and allowing a better response to daily or seasonal which is transportable more easily than electricity and by several modes fluctuations in consumption. of transportation, offers an interesting economic opportunity, particularly with the American Northeast. At least 12 refuelling stations and two hydrogen distribution centres are anticipated, in implementation, or 8.1 Hydrogen production already in operation in several states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Given the major energy losses currently observed, it is appropriate to Island, New York, Delaware and New Jersey) (Berman, 2016). Air Liquide consider this avenue seriously. The French multinational, Air Liquide, made is a stakeholder in the deployment project for these stations and plans to a commitment with the deployment of a 8,000 kg/day hydroelectricity- export some of the hydrogen it will produce in Quebec to these markets. based hydrogen production unit in Bécancour in 2019 (Air Liquide, In 2017, Quebec produced 212 TWh of electricity, 95% of which came 2019a). It is also interesting to note that Air Liquide has acquired a 18.6% from hydroelectric sources; of the 39.6 TWh bound for export, 70% went participation in the Canadian Hydrogenics Corporation. to primarily Vermont, and also to New York State and Maine (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Therefore, an interest exists in these regions for Quebec For over 30 years, Messer Canada (formerly Linde Canada) has produced clean energy. liquid hydrogen and for 20 years compressed hydrogen at its Magog plant. The hydrogen produced there is 100% based on hydroelectricity. Like Australia and British Columbia, which plan to export hydrogen to
Finally, it was learned last May that the European company Hy2gen AG Japan by tanker, it could be appropriate for Quebec to consider this is considering constructing an industrial hydrogen production plant in mode of transportation to export hydrogen produced in Quebec to certain Varennes (Desjardins, 2019). The projected investment is approximately European countries under-endowed with renewable resources and which $120 million and the hydrogen at this plant will be produced through lag behind in the energy transition to renewable energies, particularly the electrolysis of water. The plant should be operational in the first half Netherlands, France and Belgium (Eurostat, 2019). 44 If electricity can be produced from biomass (1% of the electricity in Quebec Beyond hydrogen production in 2017), it may also be possible to produce hydrogen by thermolysis or Apart from hydrogen production, multiple business opportunities are gasification from this resource. Quebec is well positioned to develop this possible. Here are some examples. A Montreal SME founded in 2007 sector, given that its forests generate approximately 6.5 million tonnes and specializing in the manufacturing of fuel cell equipment signed an of forest biomass per year (Institut de recherche sur l’hydrogène, UQTR, agreement in 2016 with the French Air Force to develop long-range, website, 2019), that biomass already constitutes 7.5% of the energy hydrogen-powered pilotless air vehicles (McKenna, 2016). EnergyOR produced in Quebec (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018) and that the potential of perfected a 9.5-kg quadricopter that can lift a 1-kg load and that has a forest residues in Quebec is underutilized (Plourde, Radio-Canada, 2016). little over two hours of autonomy. The device is powered by a fuel cell using Often left behind after logging, these residues rot on the logging sites. an electrolyte polymer membrane. The company also produces portable The R&D Program of the UQTR’s Institut de recherche sur l’hydrogène in fuel cell units and is considering outlets in several sectors (EnergyOR, Trois-Rivières is currently working on the design of a hydrogen production website, 2019). system based on the gasification process. A company already on this Vehex, a Boucherville company, sells hydrogen generators in Quebec path in British Columbia, where forest biomass is also abundant, is and the Maritimes, made by the Canadian manufacturer dynaCert, considering exporting the hydrogen produced to Japan, illustrating the which developed the HydraGen technology: this is a compact mobile export possibilities resulting from harvesting this resource (Hummingbird electrolysis unit that allows reduction of the fuel consumption of engines in Hydrogen, 2019). the transportation sector and heavy industry, thus reducing GHG emissions and extending the useful life of these engines (VEHEX, website, 2019). FIGURE 32 Share of energy from renewable sources in the European Union
60
50 2020 target reached 2020 target 40
30
20
10
0 EU UK Italiy Spain Malta Latvia France Poland Cyprus Ireland Austria Estonia Greece Finland Croatia Lituania Sweden Belgium Czechia Portugal Bulgaria Slovenia Slovakia Hungary Romania Denmark Germany Luxembourg Netherlands Source: Eurostat, 2019. 45 8.2 The different market segments for conversion to hydrogen
Forklifts Vehicles on the road Conversion to hydrogen of forklifts, omnipresent in factories, distribution The virtual absence of hydrogen refuelling infrastructure on the Quebec centres, garages and warehouses, is undoubtedly the simplest and and Canadian road network and the imposing costs of their deployment quickest application to be produced in an energy transition perspective. work in favour of the adoption of a phased deployment strategy, especially This material handling equipment would benefit from quicker refuelling since the extent of the territory to be covered is relatively large compared to and the absence of pollutant emissions in the closed locations where they that of other countries. This approach allows gradual targeted integration are usually found. In the United States, there were over 20,000 forklifts of the refuelling stations into the network, focusing first on the vehicles that powered by a fuel cell in 2018 (U.S. Department of Energy, 2018). drive the most and/or that produce the most GHG emissions. At the IKEA distribution centre in Brossard, there are 120 forklifts (Transport In addition to reducing the irritants resulting from the low availability of Routier, 2018). Some forklifts are already powered by an electric battery, infrastructure, this would have the effect of optimizing the use of the stations as is the case for the 24 forklifts at the Jean Coutu distribution centre in deployed and familiarizing the population with this new type of energy Varennes. To our knowledge, there is no data allowing quantification of carrier, thus contributing to the improvement of its social acceptability. Once the number of forklifts in operation in Quebec. Toyota and Plug Power are a certain degree of maturity is reached in the deployment of hydrogen now involved in the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell forklifts. refuelling stations on the network, the energy transition for the public at In Balzac, Alberta, the fleet of 95 forklifts at a newWalmart distribution large would be quicker and would necessitate fewer investments. It will centre was converted to hydrogen (mostly coming from Quebec) and after then be possible to meet the needs of motorists who wish to adopt electric a four-month test period (representing 18,000 hours and 2,100 refuellings), vehicles but are unwilling to accept the constraints related to the charging productivity gains of 3.5% were observed compared to forklifts powered times of battery-powered vehicles. with an electric battery. It is anticipated that this technological change will lead to a reduction in GHG emissions of 530 tonnes per year (Ballard, Captive fleets 2019c; Liftway, 2019). Walmart also installed hydrogen forklifts at its new For vehicles, captive fleets could be targeted in a first phase because distribution centre opened in Cornwall, Ontario, in 2017. Due to their very they can be refuelled at their departure point or at a transit station in short refuelling time compared to BEV units (2-3 minutes versus 8 hours), the case of buses. This necessitates the deployment of a smaller network fuel cell forklifts are especially well suited for 24-hour/7-day facilities; of refuelling stations and thus lower initial investment costs. In addition, moreover, batteries require replacement every three to four years, adding their routes and consumption are predictable. Finally, captive fleets are replacement costs. driven more than personal vehicles, which are parked most of the time.
Organizations These fleets include taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency Exploitation management system vehicles (police, firefighters, ambulances), intercity and intracity buses Cloud database and other service vehicles.
Data analysis Operations database
Information on Hydrogen remaining hydrogen production status Location information
Fuel Cell Forklift Diagram of management system (Toyota Industries Corporation) Source: Toyota, 2017. 46 In France, the players in the hydrogen sector decided to direct their 5,359 automobiles or light trucks in the Quebec government fleet, 2,375 development strategy to captive fleets (Breton, 2018; Mobilité Hydrogène automobiles or light trucks in the federal government fleet, 12,758 police, France, 2016). By adopting this approach to start the market, they ensure fire department or other emergency vehicles, and 879 ambulances. In that the refuelling station operates at full capacity upon its opening and addition to these captive fleets, choice targets for conversion to hydrogen reduces the need for investment and the risk that a station will be under- are the fleets of large commercial enterprises, particularly automobile or utilized. In this way, captive fleets provide leverage for the hydrogen light truck delivery vehicles, midsize or heavy trucks serving the distribution market, a market that would have less chance of taking off solely based centres and the large chain stores, the home delivery services of stores on the demand of individuals, according to the proponents. Eleven and restaurants, and mail and parcel delivery businesses. According to projects have been selected in different French regions by the Ministère Statistics Canada, in 2016 in Quebec there were 791,000 freight trucks, de la transition écologique and the Agence de l’environnement et de la including 487,000 light trucks, 221,000 midsize trucks, and 83,000 heavy maîtrise de l’énergie (ADEME) to benefit from financial support related to trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). the deployment of captive fleets of hydrogen vehicles or refuelling stations (BFMTV, 2019b). The potential investment is approximately 475 million Freight transportation euros and the prioritized vehicles are mainly taxis, household garbage Quebec energy sector experts recently targeted commercial transportation trucks, delivery services, buses and utility vehicles. as a priority area for initiatives involving energy consumption and GHG emission reduction in order to achieve the 2030 reductions targets set by the government (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). It should be noted that the number of light trucks for freight transportation grew very strongly between 1990 and 2014 (+253%); the number of heavy trucks increased by 32% during the period, and the distance travelled by each grew by 55%. In addition, in Quebec, a heavy truck travels an average of 90,622 km per year, while a personal vehicle travels 13,398 km; moreover, the average fuel consumption in litres per 100 km is three time greater for heavy trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
Truck traffic not only contributes to air and noise pollution along major road axes, but also to the deleterious effects of this pollution on the health of nearby residents. These impacts are not limited to respiratory problems but also include cardiovascular problems, cancer, premature birth and dementia (American Lung Association, 2019; Public Health Ontario, Source: Breton, 2018. 2015). In Canada, 30% of the population lives within 500 metres of a major road axis and according to a recent study conducted by a University The data available from Société d’assurance automobile du Québec of Toronto researcher, the type of vehicle would be more important than (SAAQ, 2019) for 2018 indicates that Quebec has 8,004 urban and the traffic volume as a contributor to air pollution and its harmful effects regional taxis, 3,970 buses dedicated to urban transportation under the on health: old heavy trucks running on diesel would be the main culprits ATUQ (Association du transport Urbain du Québec), 10,650 school buses, (Wang et al., 2018). 47 In Quebec, among the 791,000 vehicles dedicated to freight transportation Under consideration for hydrogen conversion incentives, Quebec in 2016, there were 83,000 heavy trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). transportation companies could also commit to this path. Few measures Despite their lower number than other trucks, they consume the most fuel of the government plans promoting clean energy specifically address the and produce the most GHG emissions, given the long distance they travel transfer to hydrogen, but some of the measures deployed could be relevant. (90,622 km/year) and their high fuel consumption (29.9 L/100 km). The conversion of this category of trucks to hydrogen emerges as an essential step in the decarbonizing of transportation.
FIGURE 33
GHG emissions from road transportation, Canada, 2014 (Mt equivalent CO2)
Motorcycles 0.4
Inter-City Buses 0.4 Source: American Lung Association, website, 2019. School Buses 0.9
Urban Transit 2.8 The 2015 - 2020 action plan priorities in favour Freight Light Trucks 13.0 of electric transportation specifically provide: Medium Trucks 22.0 1) $12.5 million for support measures for demonstration Passenger Light Trucks 33.0 projects in freight transportation;
Cars 36.1 2) $38.4 million to perfect innovative solutions for freight transportation; and 3) $10 million for support to SMEs to promote the acquisition, Heavy Trucks 36.5 implementation and commercialization of equipment and Source: Senate Canada, 2017. technologies allowing GHG emission reduction.
Several manufacturers have taken on the challenge and currently The 2013 - 2020 Climate Change Action Plan provides: manufacture hydrogen fuel cell trucks. Following the partnership agreement 1) $200 million to improve the carbon balance and with the Swiss company H2 Energy, the manufacturer Hyundai will supply energy efficiency of businesses; and 1,600 trucks to Switzerland between 2019 and 2025 and is considering 2) $77 million to reduce the environmental footprint expansion to other European countries as quickly as possible (Hampel, of road freight transportation. 2019). Toyota and Kenworth have partnered to perfect 10 hydrogen- propelled heavy trucks that will serve the Ports of Los Angeles and Long The Sustainable Mobility Action Plan Beach, California (Babcock, 2019). The Swedish manufacturer Scania provides, in its 2018 - 2023 budget: is also in the race with 26-tonne hydrogen trucks ordered by Norway; 1) $124.4 million under the Roulez vert program; Norway is also targeting 1,000 hydrogen trucks for 2023. In the United 2) $10.4 million for the multi-fuel stations pilot project; and States, the young company Nikola Motors already has orders for 13,000 3) $7.9 million for the energy management program for road vehicle fleets. hydrogen heavy trucks and semi-trailers bound for several countries. 48 8.3 New transportation infrastructure projects The Quebec City tramway Because they are not yet in the implementation phase, the new Source: Ville de Québec transportation infrastructure projects offer particularly fertile ground for integration of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Several projects are scheduled in Quebec, particularly the future Quebec City tramway and eventually the high-frequency train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor. In a tourist city with an historic character like Quebec City, where the quality of the cityscape is important, the energy supply of the hydrogen- powered tramway would eliminate the need for the currently planned, visually unsightly overhead electric power supply structures. The use of hydrogen to power the tramway would also eliminate the costs associated with construction of overhead power lines. Thus, Quebec CIty could be a leader in the adoption of this technology, while maintaining its attraction as a tourist destination. It should be noted that China inaugurated the first hydrogen-powered tramway in Tangshan City in 2017 and that this tramway has a fuel cell module made by the Canadian company Ballard (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
Hyundai Motor and its train subsidiary Hyundai Rotem are currently cooperating on the development of a hydrogen-powered tramway for Korea in 2020. The hydrogen fuel cell modules perfected by Hyundai Motor will be installed between the cars where Hyundai Rotem will develop the interface. This tramway will be able to travel 200 km with a single fuelling at a speed of 70 km/hour (Ji-hye, 2019).
49 The future high-frequency train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor In Canada, the fleet of 2,318 locomotives consumed 2 million litres of Last June, the United Kingdom tested its first hydrogen hybrid train,HydroFlex , diesel in 2016, which produced 5,964 kilotonnes of GHG emissions and a joint initiative of the Centre for Railway Research and Education of the more than 100 kilotonnes of other air contaminants (Railway Association of University of Birmingham and Porterbrook, the British railway company. Canada, 2017). This information led Transport Canada to fund a hydrogen Ballard Power Systems of British Columbia supplied the fuel cell modules train feasibility study for the Greater Toronto Area. The study, conducted (Galluci, 2019). Alstom and the British company Eversholt Rail are working by Metrolinx and published in 2018, concludes that the construction and on the design of the Breeze, a hydrogen train scheduled for 2022. Under operation of a hydrogen train network for the Go Transit interregional its industrial strategy, the British government is investing £23 million for transportation system is technically feasible and that the overall cost is hydrogen use in transportation (Wiseman, 2019). equivalent to that of a conventional suspended electrification system; its implementation presents different risks and profit levels comparable to conventional electrification (Metrolinx, 2018).
The French company Alstom is currently testing two hydrogen trains in Germany and plans to deliver 27 other hydrogen trains to that country for the Frankfurt region (BFMTV, 2019a). Canada is not absent from the project: the Ontario company Hydrogenics, recently acquired by Cummins, signed an agreement with Alstom in 2015 to supply it with 200 fuel cell modules over a 10-year period (Shirres, 2018). Because its role in this project is not negligible, Canada could benefit from the current experience to consider, in turn, the possibility of deploying a hydrogen train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor. The deployment of hydrogen trains has become an option that can be envisioned with the perfecting of hydrogen fuel cell module technology: over time, fuel cell modules have become more compact and better performing (Shirres, 2018).
In addition to reducing polluting emissions and noise pollution, trains Source: Wiseman, 2019. running on hydrogen make it possible to avoid modifying bridges and tunnels to run electric power lines along the tracks and cutting trees along the corridor. Reliance on hydrogen produced from a renewable, affordable energy source, plentiful in Quebec, also contributes to energy independence in transportation.
50 9. Conclusion, feasibility conditions and recommendations
9.1 Conclusion 9.2 Feasibility conditions and recommendations The purpose of this study was to have a better understanding of the role of hydrogen as a clean renewable energy vector in the context of greenhouse The most advanced countries in the deployment of hydrogen gas emission reduction. We saw that hydrogen production from clean in the transportation sector are all characterized by a firm renewable hydroelectric resources, like those available in Quebec, can commitment from their government, which translates into optimize the use of surplus production of clean electricity by offering the massive investments in the form of R&D funding, public- possibility of storing the surpluses in low-consumption periods to make them available in peak periods or even for export. We reviewed the different private partnerships, assistance to businesses for the hydrogen production and storage methods and the uses of hydrogen in development of new technologies and the deployment of industry and in the transportation field. We also examined the external refuelling stations, and finally, the purchase of hydrogen markets where the use of hydrogen is most advanced: California, China, fuel cell vehicles. Japan and Germany.
We then addressed the specific case of Quebec, which is distinguished Another striking feature is the creation of a consortium from other Canadian provinces and OECD countries by the large share held by renewable energy in its energy system. Nonetheless, greenhouse gas bringing together all the interested players from the private sector, whether automobile manufacturers, energy emissions (GHG) reached 77 Mt equivalent CO2 in Quebec in 2016 and, of this total, 27 Mt resulted from road transportation, including 12 Mt from producers or hydrogen fuel cell technology companies, to freight transportation by road (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). To reduce these combine expertise and acquire more weight. emissions, the governments of Quebec and Canada have adopted several measures and action plans, which were reviewed summarily in our study. However, none of these countries benefits like Quebec from Finally, we saw that Quebec is particularly well placed to benefit from the a large share of renewable energy in its energy balance. development of the hydrogen sector, specifically through the possibility of producing hydrogen by electrolysis from hydroelectricity surpluses This positions Quebec advantageously on the global observed in low-consumption periods. Quebec can also benefit from playing field in the energy transition to hydrogen, whether conversion to hydrogen in different promising market segments, including as a replacement for fossil fuels in Quebec, or for export of captive fleets (taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources. vehicles and intercity and intracity buses), forklifts, freight transportation, including heavy trucks and new transportation infrastructure projects, such as the Quebec City tramway and the high-frequency train. In a second phase, it will be possible to proceed with the development of a network of hydrogen refuelling stations to serve the motorists, notably those who are reluctant to use battery-powered electric cars. 51 With this in mind, several actions are to be considered, both in the public the additional advantages it can provide. The arguments justifying our sector and in the private sector, to take advantage of the assets available recommendations were detailed in the previous chapter. We can now to Quebec. This does not mean setting aside the current approach, which summarize the measures to be considered for this hydrogen deployment is mainly based on conversion of vehicles to electricity, but also extending strategy by dividing them into two categories: the transition to clean energy to include hydrogen and thus benefit from
For the public sector: For the private sector:
• Rely on the action plans in force to extend reliance on clean • Collaborate with other stakeholders and the public sector to energy to hydrogen; help develop successful policies; • Adopt a hydrogen roadmap with objectives and targets; • Invest in hydrogen production for the purposes of use in Quebec and for export; • Encourage the hydrogen production initiatives from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity, particularly in remote • Adopt a phased conversion strategy: regions, and for export; – First convert forklifts in industry as the benefits • Stimulate R&D on hydrogen-related technologies; have already been demonstrated by private companies like Walmart and Canadian Tire; • Deploy incentives for the purchase of hydrogen vehicles, particularly those of captive fleets including taxis, delivery – Participate in the conversion of captive fleets of vehicles (taxis, vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles, and buses as delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles and well as for heavy trucks; buses) as they can be refuelled at their main station or terminal; – Put the emphasis on heavy trucks, which are • Contribute, with the private sector, to funding the gradual large GHG generators, by converting those deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations; that return to their terminal every night; • Provide a regulatory framework to ensure safe use of – Integrate hydrogen into new transportation infrastructure hydrogen; and projects like tramways and passenger trains; and • Raise public awareness about hydrogen-related issues (safety, – Participate in the construction of a network costs, benefits for the environment). of hydrogen refuelling stations.
Active in the field for approximately 25 years, the Institut de recherche The costs related to the energy transition will be high, but we can expect sur l’hydrogène at the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR) that the resulting benefits will be substantial, both for the companies should be involved to support the deployment of the strategy. Among the involved and for the environment and Quebec society as a whole. With other players whose contribution may prove very useful, it is important to its renewable resources, Quebec occupies a favourable position to begin mention the Canadian Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Association (CHFCA), as this transition. well as Natural Resources Canada, Transport Canada and the newly- formed coalition, Hydrogène Québec. 52 References
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