DORISEA Working Paper 20

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DORISEA WORKING PAPER ISSUE 20, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 ANDREA lAUSER TRAVELING TO YÊN Tử (NORTH VIETNAM) RElIDIOUS RESURgENCE, CUltURAl NAtIONAlISm AND tOURIStIC hERItAgE IN thE ShAPINg Of A PIlgRImAgE lANDSCAPE 20

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 DORISEA WORkINg PAPER SERIES

EDITORS Peter J. Bräunlein Michael Dickhardt Andrea Lauser

BmBf Competence Network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA)

The research network “Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia” (DORISEA) is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and coordinated by the Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology at the Georg-August-University of Göttingen. Scholars from the Universities of Göttingen, Hamburg, Münster, Heidelberg and Berlin (Humboldt University) are involved in several projects that investigate the relationship between religion and modernity in Southeast Asia.

How to cite this paper: Andrea Lauser (2015): Traveling to Yên T (North Vietnam). Religious Resurgence, Cultural Nationalism and Touristic Heritage in the Shaping of a Pilgrimage Landscape. In: DORISEA Working Paper Series, ửNo. 20.

Research Network DORISEA Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia

Project Ofice georg-August-University göttingen Institut für Ethnologie Berliner Str. 28 FUNDED BY D - 37073 göttingen germany +49 (0)551 39 20153 [email protected] www.dorisea.net Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 3

ANDREA lAUSER

TRAVELING TO YÊN Tử (NORTH VIETNAM). RELIGIOUS RESURGENCE, CULTURAL NATIONALISM AND TOURISTIC HERITAGE IN THE SHAPING OF A PILGRIMAGE LANDSCAPE

ABSTRACT

Yên Tử, a well-known Sacred Mountain in northeastern Vietnam, is surrounded by primeval forest with plentiful and diverse flora. The attribution of sacred or mystical qualities to Yên Tử has a long tradition, with the mountain providing a symbol of cosmic order in Vietnamese Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Since Vietnams government launched its open-door policy in the late s, the pilgrimage centre has been given official recognition by the Ministry of Culture as a national cultural heritage site. Recently, through the construction of a cable-car system carrying pilgrims—and tourists—to the top, Yên Tử has also become one of the must do things for local and global pilgrim-tourists, attracting over one million visitors since . Looking at the pilgrimage site as a multidimensional arena, this paper focuses on the negotiation of agendas between wealth, merit-making, touristification and Allpolitical photos certification by Andrea Lauser, of national 2011, culture unless andotherwise heritage stated. in contemporary Vietnam and beyond.

INTRODUCTION

cal approach to the challenges in the new age of glo- balization Urry , (yndman-Rizik . Yet, Pilgrimage can be many—even contradictory— as Soja reminds us, in a globalised world of things at once: a personal journey of healing and mobility and decentering, centres nevertheless re- entertainment, a place and space of communitas main significant. As some comeand apart or fade away, and identity, but also of conflict and division, a cele- others emerge or are reinvented. Since pilgrimage bration of roots or homecoming and an experience is both a moving practice a localised resource of liminality and even a political movement and a of meaning, pilgrimage studies re-focusing on the memorial Eade & Sallnow , Morinis , concept of place recognizes not only that pilgrims Bauman , Coleman & Eade , Badone & but also various placemaking agencies give rise Roseman , Dallen & Olsen , Swatos . to and produce pilgrimages Reader , Eade & Many recent studies of pilgrimage have emphasized Katić . movement and motion at the expense of centre or Taking the example of the Yên Tử pilgrimage place. )n theorizing pilgrimage and spiritual jour- destination in North Vietnam, ) will tell a multilay- neys, these studies focus on identifying different ered story of a landscape that is shaped, formed, forms of embodied, imagined and metaphorical steered and controlled by diverse agencies, each motions Coleman & Eade . This shift away of which is a composite of different expressions. from the classical anthropological focus on ritual )n this sense, the complex story of the pilgrimage and communitas Turner & Turner towards landscape of Yên Tử is to be understood as a cul- movement is situated within the mobilities turn in tural process, characterized by the interaction and scholarly debates, which has emergedDORISEA asWorking a theoreti- Paper, ISSUE 20,mutual 2015, ISSN: constitution 2196-6893 of people and their historically Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 4

politically constructed environment, as well as a site of power reference a past of two heroic king dynasties, struggles and the interplay of actuality and poten- under which Chinesereligiously invasions were tiality. repelled and a so-called golden era of Vietnam- ) propose considering Yên Tử as a spatial com- ese• Buddhism was introduced. plex shaped by economic interests, state politics, religious ambitions, and individual desires. Thus, the The concrete materiality of pagodas, stu- forces of Vietnamese history, culture and religion pas, unique relics and Buddha statues are con- have actuated the sedimentation of the Yên Tử land- sidered to be highly charged with sacralized scape. The geographical as well as the historical and power. Buddhist pilgrims are therefore eager to socio-political morphology of the Yên Tử complex perform devotional practices in order to accu- are of equal analytic importance. The diverse layers • mulate merit and improve their karma. can• be described as follows: Mount Yên Tử is thus considered to be one Yên Tử is a mountainous region in the north- pilgrim destination among manyChùa (ương must do desti- eastern part of Vietnam on the border with Chi- nations in the Vietnamese pilgrimage(ùng Vương landscape, na, surrounded by primeval forest with plentiful such as the Perfume Pagoda and • and diverse flora and fauna. the temples of the (ung kings , to name only two of the most famous sites that are The landscape is surrounded by black coal visited annually by millions of local, national and stockpiles and rugged, torn-open mountainsides • by now transnational Vietnamese travellers. which encroach into the forest landscape, pay- ing witness to intense coalmining. Dating from TheseDu lịch sites areVề Cội Nguồn part of a booming tourism the beginning of French colonial domination market known as Travelling to the Nations and intensifying during the period of socialist Roots• — . industrialization, the northeastern region of Vi- etnam remains the most important and largest Yên Tử is but one of many sites of religious • coalmining area in the country. pilgrimage and/or patriotic commemoration in Vietnam which have grown into tourist attrac- Located on the adjacent west coast is the in- tions where commodified refashioning is part dustrial port city of (aiphong, while on the east of the business. Rigid distinctions between se- coast, (a Long Bay has been classified as a UN- rious and pious pilgrims always on a journey ESCO World (eritage site since . With mil- to a sacred site, and playful and curious tour- lions of annual visitors, (a Long Bay—an area of ists only on a trip to places of secular pleasure around km and more than islands— have become blurred. As both a national site of is one of Vietnams, and indeed Southeast Asias, cultural heritage and a touristic về site quê of economic most popular tourist attractions. (owever, development, Yên Tửvề nguồn has also developed into a the environmental destruction caused both by destination of a going home and re- coalmining as well as tourism threatens its re- • turning to the roots movement. moval from the UNESCO World (eritage List. )n response to this, several specific projects and While pilgrims may act like tourists, tourists plans dealing with environmental protection, and overseas Vietnamese travelling home in tourism development and conservation man- particular, may become pilgrim-tourist hybrids • agement have been launched. looking for their roots. Being on the routes is, in this case, also understood as searching for Moving inland from (a Long Bay to nearby the roots. Văn (óa Việt Du Yên Tử mountain, our perspective is directed Lịch Về Cội Nguồn towards a landscape whose temples and stupas Under the labels Vietnamese Culture and travelling to the roots there are many tour companies which run tours for Vietnamese pilgrim-tour- This has also been reflected in numerous studies within an ists, with the tour guides speakingonly in Vietnamese. emerging subfield, anthropology of pilgrimage, where sa- See among numerous others: https://sites.google.com/ cred space and other phenomena are to be found at the in- site/dulichintours/du-lich-hanh-huong/tour-du-lich-hanh- tersection of environment, religious, social, cultural, political, huong-ve-coi-nguon---yen-tu---cua-ong; https://sites.goog- and economic interests e.g. Eade & Sallnow , Coleman le.com/site/dulichnhatranggiare/du-lich-hanh-huong/du- & Eade , Badone & Roseman , Dallen & Olsen , lich-hanh-huong-ve-lai-coi-nguon-yen-tu---cua-ong; http:// Swatos , Margy , Eade, John & Mario Katić , diendan.dulichhue.com.vn/threads/hanh-trinh-ve-voi-yen- Reader . tu-coi-nguon-tam-linh./; http://www.vanhoaviet. http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/ biz.vn/; http://quehuongonline.vn/VietNam/(ome/ see items/. also: http://www.aseanreligioustours.com/index.php?op- Cf. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/. For international tion=com_content&view=section&id=&)temid=, http:// funding for environmental planning, see i.a. Research Asso- www.aseanreligioustours.com/index.php?option=com_con- ciation Mining and Environment in Vietnam supported by tent&view=category&id=&)temid= all links accessed the BMBF: http://www.rame.vn/. DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,June 2015, . ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 5

Chùa Đồng )n using the hybrid terms pilgrim/roots tour- region to China. The famousTrúc Lâm Dong Pagoda— ist and pilgrimage-roots tourism, ) want neither —which stands on its highest peak—was to embrace nor reject the notion of pilgrimage. To once the centre of the Bamboo ForestPhật many overseas Vietnamese, the fulfilment of the HoàngZen school of Vietnamese Buddhism. The school pilgrimage tour seems to be a kind of homecom- was co-founded by the so-called Buddhath King ing, suggesting a possibility of reconnection to Vi- Trần Nhân Tông in the century. Both etnamese traditions and roots. Longing for a col- under his rule and that of his descendents, hun- lective cultural identity—or belonging—is not dreds of religious buildings and temples were built. utterly dissolved by decentralization, dispersal and King Trần Nhân Tông is renowned for having led fragmentation. But in contexts of such diasporic the country to victory over the powerful invading homecomings, there is a pronounced articulation of Mongolian armies in two wars in and , belonging and roots. ) suggest that both pilgrimage aided by the legendary general Trần (ưng Đạo, who and roots-tourism are crucially bound together is now worshipped as a national hero and deity. )n and are best viewed as multi-vocal semantic sys- , he abdicated the throne to his son Trần Anh tems which bring numerous values, stereotypes, Tông to begin a new life as a Buddhist monk, re- images, ideas and sentiments into relation with one treating to the Yên Tử mountains. another Basu . According to legend, one day Trần Nhân Tông (owever, the Yên Tử pilgrimage cannot be re- sat on the peak and saw a nearby mountain cov- duced to pilgrim-roots tourism. Many more corre- ered with colourful clouds. From his followers he lations are evident in this multidimensional land- learned that the mountain was Yên Pḥ, where one scape, which can also be considered an arena of of his famous ancestors, the legendary Taoist priest competing discourses, creating hypercomplex spac- An Kỳ Sinh, was worshiped. Trần Nhân is said to es that are constantly produced, supervised and have prostrated himself and bowed towards the Yên controlled by different interests and authorities. Pḥ Mountain,Phu saying: An Kỳ Sinh is my forefather, ) This complex multidimensionality echoes con- am just hisTử descendant. (e named his mountain Yên ceptions of assemblages as multifaceted networks Pḥ ̣—Father so ) should name my mountain of persons, natural or manufactured materials, ob- as Yên Tử —Children cf. Trần Trương . jects and actions, concepts of religion and heritage Aside from the legend, Yên Tử already existed as as well as intangible values and narratives which a site for religious practice by Taoists and Buddhists are re-constructed and therefore have to be inter- before the arrival of Trần Nhân Tông. But it is not preted in their historical, social and cultural context only the spiritual genealogy of the site, located as it cf. Marcus and Saka , Latour , De Landa is close to heaven, but strategic reasons which may . have inspired Trần Nhân Tôngs to choose it. Stand- Drawing on my experience of fieldwork and ing on the peak of the mountain m above sea pilgrimage in Vietnam in - and , in this level one could look over a large north-eastern article ) am especially interested in the close con- borderland region of the country, with (a Long Bay nection between and choreography of pilgrimage, nearby and important border gates close to China. tourism, and the nation-state. Through the post- These strategic viewpoints made the mountain socialist nation-states continuous and increasing more than just a religious sanctuary, and reflect the interference, spatializing and materializing pro- close connection between Buddhism and politics at cesses take on peculiar forms seen in cultural pol- that time Nguỹn Lang . icies on heritage, the re-construction of temples, The many temples, pagodas and pilgrim stations pagodas and shrines, the recent construction of on the site today are intended as a reenactment of both a cable car system and a giant Buddha statue Trần Nhân Tôngs first pilgrimage. Today, pilgrims and in new year pilgrimage festivals and folklore wishing to relive this ancestral journey and pay re- dance performances. All of these orchestrations spect to this founding father walk at least kilo- transform the long-standing sacralized landscape metres and pass around ten pagodas and hundreds of memory into a modern space of Vietnamese national identity and vitality. flanked by (ải Dương, Bắc Giang and Quảng Ninh provinces. )t is about km northwest of Uông Bí, a provincial town in VISITING YÊN Tử MOUNTAIN—LEGENDARY Quảng Ninh province. Duc The Dao , , referring to Nguỹn Duy (inh ORIGIN, JOURNEY AND TOPOGRAPHY , , argues that An Kỳ Sinh was a Taoist priest and herbalist known for the powerfulnd herbal medicine he madephúc địaat Mount Yên Tử in the century. Like other divine mountains, Yên Tử was recorded as a land of happiness Yên Tử Mountain refers to a system of pagodas and , with a long tradition as a symbol of cosmic order in Vi- scenic spots in northeastern Vietnam in the border etnamese Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Open online access is available: http://thuvienhoasen.org/ pa/chuong-xii-tran-nhan-tong-va-thien-phai-truc- The Complex of Yên Tử Monuments and Landscape is lam and/or http://cusi.free.fr/lsp/suluan/vnpgsuluan-. located on the so-called Đông TriềuDORISEA mountain Working range. Paper, )t isISSUE 20,html 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 6

as there were quite a lot people already up there. They must have climbed in the dark. of shrines and stupas. Legendary stories endow cer- On the top at the bronze pagoda—Chùa Đồng— tain sites with special significance because they are it seemed the wind would blow everything away, in- considered as places where Trần Nhân Tông lived, cluding the chanting ladies in raincoats. This small walked, and meditated. By describing how the sites pagoda is made completely of bronze and everyone are mapped together, these narratives create a pil- tries to touch the pagoda and/or the bronze bell grimage space. next to it, hoping to get blessings from the gods, and Being on the journey wishing for a lucky year. We had to be aggressive to get close to the altars to pray. It looked surreal. It was also a little bit scary. Việt ) was quite surprised about how religious these kiềuLet us start our journey with a short account by people were, choosing to walk from the base to the Van Quoc An , a young overseas Vietnamese top in such horrible conditions. Some of them may man on his first, unforgettable trip—a kind not have been able to afford to buy tickets, as it’s of homecoming—to the Yên Tử pilgrimage site.về quite expensive , VND, about $US. Then nguồnVan Quoc An represents a certain category of pil- again, many devotees spend billions of dong both grim-tourists who set off on the way home here and at the Perfume Pagoda, as I witnessed last —returning to the source, seeking their year on my Tết festival pilgrimage, in the form of roots, origins and identity as well as hoping for fake money and fake holy stuff which is then burnt touristic adventure and new experiences on the oc- in giant incinerators after a short time of praying casion of the Tết new year festival, and the ensuing and offering. People stand in queues just to burn three-month) took a trip together with some friends to Yên pilgrimage season Lauser : these papers and the ashes fly around in the air, into Tử Pagoda, the most holy and highest pagoda in everyone’s hair, like a volcano has just erupted. the north and in fact, in the whole of Vietnam. On This is a tradition that should remain but people the way we stopped at a few temples9. When we shouldn’t burn so much in the hope that they will get finally arrived, we went straight on to Giải oan10 the same in return. It’s all very superstitious. Many Temple to pray to release whatever we had done people spent millions of dong with the burning of the wrong in the past year, before heading up to buy fake papers. cable car tickets for the next day. We decided to As the weather cleared up we had a pleasant sleep overnight on the sleeping mats in Ngoc (ai climb down, as we could take in the scenery around restaurant, right next to (oa Yên Pagoda where us and also hear the crazy music and look at the sou- we went again for a short prayer. The rules of venir shops along the way. For lunch, we ate all of the pagoda don’t allow visitors to put meat on the food which had been offered to the gods lộc— the offerings tray and my friends had to remove blessed gifts). We felt a bit drunk and sleepy after a the chicken and replace it with some more beers, few beers, but we had to finish our trip and arrived cokes, sticky rice, money, fruit, and lighted in- at the Bảo Sái Pagoda and my friends repeated the cense. same procedure with the tray and more food! We were the first at the cable car station but Thanks to the invitation to take this journey and, we weren’t the first on the top of the mountain even though I’m not a very religious person, I really enjoyed the cultural experience and hope that everyone who believes gets what they prayed for! Hope the weather is good on my second trip back next year! I really intend to repeat this experience.” ) have created Van Quoc An—and his account—as a kind of fictional collage based on materials ) collected during my pilgrimages / and as well as„Zwischen on countless Tradition internet undblog Moderne.entries, such Mein as: Leben http://cathrinka.blog.de//// in Vietnam und Drumherum“- Be- tweennui-yen-tu-berg-yen-tu-/ Tradition and Modernity. My life in Vietnam and be- This short narrative shows that there are many yond paths to the holy mountain of Yên Tử, and that the travellers are driven by very different motives. )n ad- , http://vietnamesegod.blogspot.de/search/label/Tra- dition to groups of friends or tourist groups who travel ditional%Culture; http://eyedrd.org///the-ritu- just for fun and sightseeing, pilgrimage groups are als-of-worshiping-vietnamese-nations-founders.html and others. An analysis of the increasing amount of digital testi- also formed by company employees, civil servants, as monies available online, in blogs and on youtube platforms, well as religious laywomensĐạo T́ groups Phư amongst others. could form a research area in itself. These others includeĐạo Mẫu smaller groups of followers of Quite often pilgrimages to Yên Tử are combined with visi- the Four Palace Cult Đạo Mẫủ, or Mother God- tations, prayers and rituals at the most well-known temples dess Religion , who frequently visit temples from the Trần dynasty, including Đền Kiếp Bạc and Côn Sơn lên đồng Pagoda in the (ải Dương Province, and Cửa Ông Temple in dedicated to the pantheon of in order to per- Cẩm Phả see as well my own field notes from October form rites of possession and pray for health, and for Yên Tử March . success and prosperity see also Phạm Quỳnh Phương Literally, clearing unjust charges. DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,, 2015, ff., ISSN: Duc2196-6893 The Dao , ff.. Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 7

Figure 1: Fog shrouds the way to the top.

Figure : Praying on the highest peak at Chùa Đồng.

DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 8

Pilgrimage topography: following the sacred track (oa Yên

monks and guests. The current and smaller đi lễ hội Pagoda was last rebuilt by the government in . )t is As this short account demonstrates, going on pil- dedicated to the three founders of the Tr’c Lâm school: grimage literally Đồng —journeying to the festi- • Trần Nhân Tông, Pháp Loa and (uyền Quang. val includes numerous stops on route to the most Cloudy Shrine (Vân Am) important site, the pagoda at the top of Yên Tử Following the right-hand slope of the mountain is the mountain. Amongst the countless temples, pagodas where the King died in peace. and shrines in the Yên Tử landscape, the following With its back to the mountain and standing amidst pine are generally considered the most significant sta- and bamboo trees, the shrine overlooksNgọa Vân the sea. tions on the way to the peak compiled after Trần ‘One-roof Pagoda’ (Mot Mai) Trương• .Súi Tắm • Chùa Bảo Sái A little further on stands the Ruinssmall of the VanTemple Tieu lyingPagoda in the clouds, the Vọng Tiên Temple and At Bathing Brook, Trần Nhân Tông the . To the west, the washed off the dust and grime of his earthly life before • stand next to the nine-story . • immersing himself in his life asCảm a disciple th́c of the Buddha. An K̀ Sinh Further on, there is a two-metre tall stone statue At the nearby pagoda , Trần Nhân reported to be , who in the pre-Buddhist Tông was said to have had his first vegetarian • era substantiatedChùa Đồng the narrative of a divine mountain. meal of plain rice cooked with water from the • streams and vegetables gathered on the spot.Giải Oan Finally, the stands on the peak of Yên Tử Pagoda—chùa Giải Oan mountain. )t contains statues of the Buddha and the three The next crucial site in the foothills is the foundersHeaven’s of Tr’c Gate Lâm Zen School Trần Nhân Tông, Pháp Clearing Unjust Charges or Loa and (uyền Quang. The walk to the peak—the so- Salvation of Wandering Souls located near a brook called —is usually a walk in the clouds. As bearing the same name. The pagoda and the brook such, it embodies the meeting point between heaven and are associated with a narrative in which the king was earth, giving the pilgrim the physical experience of being voluntarily accompanied by royal concubines. touched by the celestial world. Living in such an environ- When he ordered them to return home, they jumped ment, my companion commented, you really feel clois- Chùa Giải Oaninto the brook to show their faithfulness to him. Some tered from the world of human beings. drowned, while others were saved by local people. was established near the brook in commemoration of a ceremony organized by the deeply • moved King to clear unjust charges against the dead. (òn Ngọc Emerald The path then leads the visitors/pilgrims(uệ Quang to the Kim tháp garden where, next to numerous small stupasTrần Nhân Tông and stelae, the main stupa, , is located. The stupa reportedly contains the ashes of . Stupas and memorial monuments with venerable relics make the power present and mediate it to the lives of Buddhist believers and practitioners. )t is this power that pilgrims hope to con- • nect with when they visit the stupas Scott , . Chùa (oa Yên Pilgrims light incense and make a short prayer at , a stupa along the trail through the middle of the Yên Tử mountain area. )t is regarded as one of the main destinations and serves as a stage

•at the(oa Yên annual festival.

Pagoda is the founding place. )nitially it was a very big pagoda, comprising several main buildings, with bell and drum towers, and living quarters for both Figure 3: Site to worship ̀ Photo: Petra Weigand hành hương An Ky The Vietnamese dictionary term for pilgrimage is đi lễ hội— —literally to walk with incense. The commonlễ Viet- namese expression, however, for going on pilgrimage is hội literally, to go for a ceremonial meeting. While con- See footnote ; see also http://www.chuyenluan.net/in- notes a religious, ceremonial activity related to the sacred, dex.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=:yen- connotes more the secular festival part, the meeting see tu-pho-tuong-an-ky-sinh-va-nhung-bi-an-cho-giai-ma- Nguỹn Duy (inh , . DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,&catid=:van-hoa-van-nghe&)temid= 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 access June . Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 9

Figure : One of many less famous relics on the way.

RELIGIOUS POLICY AS THE PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL VALUES c.f. Malarney , , ; Pelley ; Tay- lor , Lauser b, Phạm Quỳnh Phương , Endres . Rather than reiterating these debates An integral part of the modernist project of com- in detail, in this section ) will describe how religion munist politics was the attempt to disassemble re- and nationalism are intertwined in the histories ligion. The new society itself ought to be theđổi object mới of Yên Tử. )n doing so, it once again becomes clear of worship. (owever, the regime considered this that, in the study of Vietnamese religion, one has to project to have faltered in Vietnam. The navigate rampant forests of countless blurring renovation politics of the mid-s posed entities and topics which are continuously being a new challenge for the project of nation building. contested and negotiated. Since then, pilgrimage sites as well as the concept of )n Vietnam, it is important to note that one of the cultural heritage have become key elements in the most influential discourses on the concept of reli- governments nation building agenda. Pilgrimage studies show that nation building is often at stake Leopold Cadière, an influential scholar of Vietnamese reli- at pilgrimage sites, where pilgrimage shrines func- gion, used this analogy to illustrate the interwoven nature of tion as national cultural heritage, making collective religious systems: «La religion annamite, si tant est que lon puisse employer le singulier, donne une impression analogue memories more real. They are therefore often di- à celle que lon ressent quand on pénètre dans la grande rectly connected to the perception and structuring forêt de la Chaîne annamitique: de ci de là, de grands troncs of national identity e.g. Jansen & Notermans , qui plongent leurs racines à des profondeurs inconnues et soutiennent une voûte de feuillage noyée dans lombre; des Eade & Katić . The religious and cultural policies of the Viet- branches qui se recourbent vers le sol et prennent racine; des lianes qui courent dun arbre à lautre, qui naissent on ne sait namese state, their impact and their limits have o‘, et qui semblent ne pas avoir de fin; des ronces inextrica- been discussed by a growing number of scholars ble; des frondes dune finesse, dune élégance rares; de larges fleurs, des fleurs bizarres qui jonchent le sol, couvrent le som- met dun arbre dun dôme de feu, ou se tapissent à la fourche Đổi Mới Policy de deux branches; des écorces rugueuses, noires, visqueuses, qui donnent le frisson; des branches mortes; un épais tapis refers to the economic reforms initiated in dhumus, de la pourriture; partout une sèvre abondante, une with the aim of a socialist-orientedDORISEA market Working economy. Paper, ISSUE 20,vie 2015, profonde ISSN: qui2196-6893 vous submerge …. » Cadière , . Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 10

gion is linked directly with the state. )t is the ruling munist leadership was envisioned as representing party which is interested in defining the essenceand of the best of Vietnams cultural heritage. good or bad religion. Religion has played a part The interplay between politics from above and both in legitimizing and reinforcing the state local answers from below is most pointed in the in rebellions against it Soucy :. For that dynamic of desired patriotic hero worship on one reason, the state continues to monitor and attempts side, and illegitimate cults of spirit possession on to control religious activity. On the onemê hand, tín reli- the other. The re-establishment of certain festivals gion is still addressed in a Marxist and Confucian and festival sites which have themselves become rationalized rhetoric of superstition , and beloved pilgrimage sites, has been and continues to seen as something hindering the progress of the be justified through discourses on hero and ances- country. On the other hand, religion is not rejected tor worship. )n other words, celebratory traditions because it is a cornerstone in the states construc- may be officially recommenced and pilgrimage sites tion of both cultural identity and nationalism. The reestablished and legitimised through reference relationship between religion and state is thus best to an honourable hero or ancestor cf. Phạm Quỳnhnhân characterized in terms of balanced tension ibid..tín vật lịch sưPhương : ff., Nguỹn Văn (uy et.al .anh ngưỡngCorrespondingly, religion—or ratherthuần phong mỹ what is to be hùngVenerating both historical personages ṭcaccepted as good religion or legitimate beliefs ̉ or legendarytiêu bỉu heroes and heroinesthuần and beautiful customs túy is a ritual/religious practice often character- Endres , —is continuously negoti- ized as typically or authentically ated by the state, Vietnamese scholars, the media Vietnamese Nguỹn Văn (uyên , ; ; and local ritual practitioners. )ndeed, there is on- Toan Ánh , cited in Taylor , . Many going debate about whether certain religiousbản sắc tradi- of these heroic figures are associatedthe with the parde- tionsvăn hóa dân tộc are fundamental—or not—to the conception fenceexcellence of the country as well as its history . )n oth- of Vietnamese culture and national identity er words, heroes and heroines are symbols Lauser b, Lauser forthcom- of freedom, national history and cultural ing, Ngô Đ́c Tḥnh , th̀ ćng tổ tiên , Endres . identity. A dual process is thereby at work, firstly These debates have focused on, amongst others, the through the mythicization of history in which his- Đạo Mẫu [Tam Ph̉ / T́ Phưveneration of ancestors ] , and the torical figures are given extraordinary superhuman Mother Goddesses religion [of the Four Palaces]— and mythic attributes, and secondly in the histori- ̉ in more recent times. cizing of myths by which mythical figures are given During the s and s, the Communist historical roots within the story of the nation. (e- Party became increasing hard-line in cultural and roic figures become not only powerful heroes, but religious policy Endres , ff, Malarney also powerful spirits and deities. As such, these fig- . As such, many religious rituals and fes- ures were traditionally worshipped asked to pro- tivals were stopped and sacred spaces of worship vide a range of services such as to ensure peace and were converted into secular spaces. During this pe- prosperity, prevent epidemics, drought and floods, riod, the main responsibilities of cultural officials at undo injustice, and chase away ghosts and invaders Yên Tử and other sites was to keep pilgrims from Cadière . superstitious practices during the Spring pilgrim- )t is exactly these dynamic narratives and prac- age months. According to some interlocutors, the tices which are at work when we have a short look unspoken agreement had been that pilgrims were, at the history of the Buddhist Pilgrimage Center on however,Đạo T́ Phư free to do what they wanted at night. Thus, Mount Yên Tử. Duc The Dao , f. mentions many mediums and followers of the Four Palace Cult that an official investigation by the Department of ̉ continued to secretly serve the spirits Preservation and Museum to document remains in remote places. By advancing the fine Vietnam- of different historical sites was already carried out ese traditions and customs while excluding their at Mount Yên di tích lịch sử văn hoá, di sản văn hóa Tử in . As early as , Yên Tử obsolete,phong thuần ṭc my corrupt and feudal characteristics, it was qúc giawas given official recognition as a national cultural assumed that a people with pure and beautiful cus- heritage site toms ̃ would emerge Trường by the then Ministry of Culture. The min- Chinh , -; cited in Endres , . istry established a Management Committee whose Accordingly, the new culture promoted by the Com- main task was to conduct historical research, and to preserve and restore the sites and the material objects as the heritage of a heroic era of national dân tộc hoá, đại ch́ng hoá khoa học hoa The three principles: nationalisation, popularisation and history. Religious elements were resolutely adapted scientification and ́ and incorporated into this dominant discourse. )n constituted the guiding concepts of nationhood and patri- other words, as a warrior king, Trần Nhân Tông was otism, and demanded an active return to what is uniquely Vietnamese Endres , . For a detailed elaboration thần ṽ-văn-quan of Vietnamese state cultural policies and debates on culture Taylor , f. glosses them as warrior-scholar-offi- in postcolonial Vietnam, see also Pelley , chapter Na- cial spirits because of their association tional Essence and the Family State, -.DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,with 2015, the ISSN: military, 2196-6893 scholarly, and administrative domains. Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 11

lễ officially honoured as a national hero under early hộiidentity through scholarly discourse. Generally, Vi- communist rule. (owever, it was only in the s etnamese scholars agreed that ritual festivals that narratives about his life as a Buddhist monk had an important place in modern cultural life, began to reemerge in official discourse, leading to especially in the education of noble thoughts and the official establishment of the site as one of pil- feelings such as patriotism, communal spirit and grimage Duc The Dao , . cultural and artistic activities. Superstitious activ- Paradoxes of ‘conservative’ forces: coalmining, war, ities were still prohibited, but defining which ac- renovation policy tivity was superstitious varied according to context and situation see Duc The Dao , ff, Endres/ Lauser . )n this vein, the Yên Tử management committee Due to its impenetrable surroundings, Yên Tử re- organized an opening ceremony for the Yên Tử fes- mained largely isolated until . Between tival on the tenth day of the first lunar month each and , socialist industrialisation brought heavy year. During the festival, folkloristic dragon dance industry to the region. Coalmining has subsequently performances recounted the kings legendary he- led to the destruction of several stupas. Paradoxical- roic activities and emphasized how the ethnic mi- ly, it was theSự kiện Vịnh Bắc Bộ Vietnamese-American War escalating norities in the region welcomed the arrival of the further in after the so-called Gulf of Tonkin King Duc The Dao , f.. From the end of the )ncident— which, to a certain s, pilgrims no longer had to hide their activi- degree, saved the mountain and the destruction ties. Today, even state officials have ventured to par- of shrines and stupas. The massive American air ticipate in different religious practices without the attacks on the industrial plants in the Quảng Ninh fear of being fined, and without having to pretend province slowed down the expansion of coalmining. they are only attending the opening ceremonies and As the highest mountain in the region, throughout carrying out their secular duties ibid.. the war Yên Tử served as a military station for the )ndeed, today a political shift has becometh ap- air forces and became a training ground for soldiers parent. Resolution No. -NQ/TW from the Na- Duc The Dao , ff. tional Assembly of the Central Committee of the An intensification of the practice of rituals in the Communist Party of Vietnam , made on June final years of the American War led to numerous , emphasized the enhanced promotionúng nước of both government directives and circulars. After the war, nhớ nguồna national cultural industry and the fine aspects of it became even more difficult to controlđổi mới the rising religion, summed up in the metaphor of religious fervour. the commemoration of the source from When the new cultural policy of the ren- which one drinks. The development of tourism in ovation era came into full effect in the late s, line with the UNESCO world heritage conventions the doors of shrines and temples were reopened. is now formulated as the states official political Once again pagodas and sacralized sites became, program. to borrow the words of Ann Anagnost , , the vehicles of local memory that restore to local The resurgence of religious activities led to Decision of communities a sense of place marked by the sin- the VCP Political Bureau. The decision recognized that religion is a long-term issue. Beliefs and religion are the spiritual gularity of their history and their ritual traditions. needs of a group of people. Many of the religious ethics are The reassessment of Vietnamese culture was fur- very much appropriate to the cause of building a new socie- ther influenced by the United Nations Proclama- ty Quote from Nguỹn Minh Quang , . The Min- tion of the World Decade for Cultural Development istry of Culture encouraged, in cooperation with V)CAS at -, which promoted the work of preserving that time the )nstitute of Cultural Studies in (anoi, research on religious activities in order to find traits and elements of and developing cultural heritage and emphasized Vietnamese national culture. the role of cultural identity Phạm Quỳnh Phương See Article / of the new Ordinance on Belief and Religion , Đạo . th̀ ćng tổ tiên issued in Nguỹn Minh Quang . An English trans- At that time, the worship of meritorious ances- lation is also accessible on the official website of the Minis- tors became an important try of Justice—Cổng thông tin điện tử Bộ Tư pháp: http:// www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%bn%php% element in the reification of a national cultural lut/View_Detail.aspx?)tem)D=. Ngḥ quyết số -NQ/TW ngày // (ội ngḥ Trung Endres mentions a circular issued in by the Buddhist ương khóa X) về xây dựng và phát triển văn hóa, con người Association of (anoi as a reaction to the revivification of Việt Nam đáp ́ng yêu cầu phát triển bền vững đất nước, on- superstitions and depraved customs. The circular describes line access on http://.../tiengviet/tulieuvank- the pilgrims activities vividly: Besides burning votive paper ien/vankiendang/details.asp?topic=&subtopic=&lead- offerings, the faithful were inciting each other to rent cars er_topic=&id=BT June . and go on pilgrimages to the provinces, thereby misusing Xây dựng cơ chế để giải quyết hợp lý, hài hòa giữa bảo tồn, the freedom of religion and the freedom of travelling to solic- phát huy di sản văn hóa với phát triển kinh tế - xã hội. Bảo it donations, embezzle donation money, revive heretic tranc- tồn, tôn tạo các di tích ḷch sử - văn hóa tiêu biểu, pḥc ṿ es, and bribe the driver into smuggling illegal goods Endres giáo ḍc truyền thống và phát triển kinh tế; gắn kết bảo tồn, , . phát huy di sản văn hóa với phát triển du ḷch. Pḥc hồi và bảo http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res//ar.htmDORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,tồn 2015, một ISSN:số loại 2196-6893 hình nghệ thuật truyền thống có nguy cơ mai Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 12

Thus far, ) have unfolded several layers of the Buddhism is thought of as a significant compo- Yên Tử complex, including pilgrimage activities and nent of traditional Vietnamese culture in the states individual perspectives on the meaning of the jour- official history. Buddhism is connected to two he- ney, the sacralized topography formed by specific roic dynasties, namely the Lý Dynasty - architectural points on the way and its infrastruc- and the Trần Dynasty -, which is wide- ture. The dynamics of religious and profane histo- ly considered the golden era of Vietnamese Bud- ries are influential variables and forces deeply in- dhism. As such, the Trần Dynasty is valorised as an grained in the Yên Tử mountain area. )n this sense, assertion of a distinct and strong national identity, the pilgrimage landscape of Yên Tử and its complex and regarded as essential to the modernization and story can be understood as a cultural process, char- nation-building projects Keyes et al , Cheng acterized by the interaction and mutual constitu- . tion of people and their historically constructed FollowingTrúc Nguyen Lâm Cuong Tu , , Sou- environment, as well as a site of power struggles cy , has argued that Zen Buddhism— and the interplay of actuality and potentiality. )t is referring to or the Bamboo Grove School necessary to add a further dimension essential to founded by Trần Nhân Tông—has been consid- understanding the peculiarities of the Yên Tử pil- ered the core of Vietnamese Buddhism since the grimage: the official promotion and implementa- s/s, when it underwent a revival led by a tion of cultural heritage as concept and practice, Buddhist reform movement which included some and its effects on religious traditions. nationalist and Western-educated intellectuals e.g. Mc(ale , ff., DeVido . Though Zen ‘HERITAGIZATION’ AND PILGRIMAGE-TOURISM Buddhism has had a long history in Vietnam, it has been a largely imagined history, as there has never been“… a The continuous Trúc Lâm tradition School expanded of Zen lineages: under the second Patriarch, Pháp Loa -, gaining As a destination, Yên Tử is a relative latecomer to 15,000 monks and 200 monasteries. With the Vietnams pilgrimage tourism map. )ts remoteness death of the third patriarch (uyê`n Quang - and limited accessibility left the sites shrouded in , the Tŕc Lâm school had effectively come isolation in a quite literal sense fog-shrouded, to an end. There is evidence that some of the disci- prior to being opened to visitors. The improve- ples of the first three patriarchs established scat- ment and development of transportation, especially tered groups, and there were attempts to revive through road construction and the opening of a ca- the Trúc Lâm sect, but of these attempts the his- ble car in not only made Yên Tử more accessi- torical record provides no details except a list of ble, but also changed the course of the pilgrimage. names …” (Soucy 2007, 351) This construction has led to an increase in annual visitor numbers from , in to more than one million two decades later. Not least due to the growing level of interest The invention of a contemporary Zen tradition, the in Vietnamese Zen Buddhism promoted by Thích Tr’c Lâm Neo-Zen as Soucy calls it is a new phenom- Thanh Từ as well as by the world-famous exiled Vi- enon in Vietnam even if it has adopted nationalistic el- etnamese Zen Master Thích Nhất (ạnh see Sou- ements of the former reform Buddhists. (owever, the cy , many homecoming Vietnamese integrate Zen tradition has been a prominent feature of Buddhism Yên Tử into their pilgrimage travels. Comparable in the West. Founded by Thích Thanh Từ, the new Zen to the Buddhist pilgrims duty to return to and to tradition initially attracted overseas Vietnamese who depend on the Buddha, the returning home-move- had come into contact with Western spiritualities and ment describes the dutyúng nước nhớ nguồn to return to and depend Zen teachings. These currents have now returned to on the roots. This sentiment is also expressed in Vietnam itself, and have started to change the way that the popular proverb , which Buddhism is practiced inside the country ibid.. can be translated as remember always the source The Yên Tử mountain is and was one centre of this while drinking the water from the river. tradition of Vietnamese Buddhism. The recent development of Yên Tử tourism and pilgrimage is unthinkable without the re-shaping of Zen Buddhism in the area. The một. Phát huy các di sản được UNESCO công nhận, góp phần peculiar attractions for the pilgrims, however, are not quảng bá hình ảnh đất nước và con người Việt Nam ibid.. retreat, meditation, and stillness—features common- See Duc The Dao , . For and the following ly associated with Zen Buddhism in the West—but the years see the official online newspaper of the Communist Buddhist practice of merit-making. Party of Vietnam Báo điện tử Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam: http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDetail.as- )nformation about Vietnamese Zen Buddhism and on aspx?co_id=&cn_id=h sociated monasteries and meditation centers comes from ttp://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDetail.as- the website http://www.truclamvietzen.net, developed by px?co_id=&cn_id= an overseas Vietnamese Tu Tam (oan and devotee of Master DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,Thích 2015, Thanh ISSN: Từ.2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 13

Buddhism and Merit-Making

economic reforms of the mid-s, monetary and other donations have become abundant, including According to one pilgrim ) spoke to, progress in the donation of statues worth between million following the path set out by the Buddha is faster VND and nearly billion VND US$. million . when one has met the Buddha: For us people living in the time after Buddha has left this world, visiting relics of the công đ́cBuddha have the same effect. Thus, most of the pilgrims consider pilgrimage a way of merit-making . The merit they accumulate depends on the number of pilgrimage journeys they undertake and the quality of the Buddhist religious and pilgrimage sites they visit. There is a belief that if one goes to a pilgrimage centre three times in three successive years, one will earn more merit than if one visits it in three discontinuous years. Concerning Yên Tử, a popular saying goes: You may be charitable and lead a religious life for aTrăm năm tích đ́c tu hành—Chưa về Yên Tử chưa hundred years, but if you have not made it to Yên Figure : Donation desk at the Bai Đính Tempel, Tử,thành quả tu you have not reached the highest religious bliss Bai Dinh Moutain, Ninh Bình Province . Pilgrimage to Yên Tử is a way of ac- cumulating merit. ghi công công đ́cMy female conversation partners usually de- Donations large and small are recorded as meri- scribed their religious activities as merit-makingtu torious contributions on wall-boards and tập . According to Buddhist doctrines, mer- unfold their own logics. Duc The Dao , f it can be gained only through self-cultivation reports that tensions between local people and pil- and meditation, and must be accumulated over grims have become increasingly obvious since the the coursequả vị Phật of many lives in order to move towards renovation, as more affluent pilgrims from the salvation through rebirth and achievement of Bud- city—and more recently from abroad—have more dhahood . )n practice however people disposable income to spend on donations. On some —and especially women, who form the majority of occasions, Buddhist officials have had to accept do- practitioners—focus on devotion. This means for nations they considered inappropriate in return for example that they go twice a month to pagodas to more financial support. One pagodath caretaker com- make offerings, as well as making offerings at the plained she had had to move a century statue of home altar. While they go on pilgrimages and recite Amitabha Buddha and other statues to a less prom- sutras, they also seek advice from fortune-tellers, inent position in order to make room for an ugly and makeph́c lộc thọ offerings to goddesses, spirits and ances- uninspired new statue donated by a group who tors in order to gain happiness, prosperity and lon- had contributed money to rebuild the pagoda. gevity for themselves and their fami- Thus, the impact of affluent pilgrims is visible lies. They also attend lên đồng possession rituals as and intended by them to be so. The effects of re- part of the taoistic Đạo Mẫu see also Soucy , ligious activities are directly linked to the activities Lauser forthcoming. They believe that their merit- of cultural heritage. The practices of reluctant ren- may help, for example, their parents and ancestors ovation and preservation are making way for active to achieve salvation. According to this conception, sharing their merit with husbands, children and meditation. )n the Buddhist conception, merit and demerit grandchildren helps to create successful, prosper- operate within the karmic cause-and-effect logics: Do good, ous and happy families. One woman told me she receive good; do evil, receive evil. As ) learned, making merit seems to be synonymous with being a good person. One re- wanted to make merit for her son in order to help ceives merit through acts of generosity based on reciprocal him get a scholarship to study abroad. Since her exchange. Generous giving provides not only good morals family did not care about religious practices, she and mental development that may lead to a favourable re- had to complete all rituals on their behalf. birth, but also produces material benefits within the lifetime, Both religious and laypeople individuals and including wealth and prosperity. Since Buddhist spiritual economies are based on the idea that you gain by giving associations generally consider support for pago- away, ordinary people view prosperity as a possibility to en- das—in the form of material contributions, mon- hance merit by giving money away and building even big- etary donations and donations of Buddha statues ger monuments to their faith. ) learned also that aside from —as good methods of merit-making. Since the quite classical merit-making donations such as supporting the sangha and specific pagodas, lay-group activities such as supporting flood victims are interpreted as merit-making as What Scott writes about Thailand Scott , fits well. my own experiences. Merit-making is a religious activity http://www.lookatvietnam.com///-tonne- accessible to all, unlike other specializedDORISEA practices Working suchPaper, asISSUE 20,statue-of-king-tran-nhan-tong-to-be-cast.html 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 14

forms of renewal, replacement, and even drastic trys most important tourist destinations and itself change. The concept of heritage is thereby new- declared a UNESCO World (eritage Site in . ly interpreted, not from the global perspective of )n the process of Vietnams modernization, the UNESCO experts, but from local interpretations and heritagization of Yên Tử has been integrated into aspirations. broader economic policies placing greater empha- Heritage, coalmining and the heroic Buddha king sis on the tourism economy than on heavy industry. )ndeed, the declaration of (a Long Bay as a World (eritage Site marked an ideological shift towards di tích qúc gia đặc biệt participation in an exploding tourism industry . Since , Yên Tử has been recognised as a Spe- This industry concentrates particularly on herit- cial National Relic di sản thế giới tại , and age, spiritual and eco-tourism alongside trade and has been in view for nomination as a UNESCO border tourism and resort tourism. More recently, World (eritage Site Viet Nam Nation. )n Septem-- this has also started to include mining heritage beral Commission The Complex for UNESCO of Yên Tử Monuments and tourism . This seems to offer an economic alterna- Landscape was submitted by the tive to the coalmining industry, since heritage strat- to the UNESCO World egies fuel the simmering conflicts between the local (eritage Tentative List Ref.: . The State Party coalmining industry and the preservation of nation- considers the site to be cultural and natural herit- al cultural heritage, with the option of shifting the age of outstanding universal value, and therefore pendulum towards economic development through suitable for inscription on the World (eritage List. tourism. Phật (oàng With the nomination for the Tentative List, the Vi- The construction of a giant statue of the Bud- etnamese Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism dhist King Trần Nhân Tông at Yên Tử is now working with the Peoples Committees of made the landscapes material transformation into Quảng Ninh and Bắc Giang provinces to actively a pilgrimage-tourism and hence heritage site yet protect the integrity of the Complex of Yên Tử Mon- more visible. After years of negotiations, construc- uments and Landscape through a legal framework tion was underway on my last visit in . The including Law on Cultural (eritage, Law on Forest statue has meanwhile been built close to the top of Protection and Development, Tourism Law, Law on the mountain, where King-Monk Trần Nhân Tôngs Bio-diversity, etc. )n June , the Department passage to nirvana is supposed to have taken place.th of Cultural (eritage of the Ministry of Culture, Sport A commemoration festival to celebrate the and Tourism of Vietnam organized a conference anniversary of Trần Nhân Tôngs attainment of nir- where designated scholars and delegates of the Peoples Committee of Quảng Ninh, the National )n the category of natural landscape: http://whc.unesco. Commission for UNESCO, the Council of National org/en/list/, Vietnam is one of the ambitious heritage Cultural (eritage, the Government Committee for players. )t has a long list of recognized heritage sites, an im- Religious Affairs and others discussed with repre- pressive list of nominations, and an abundance of projects sentatives and experts from various organisations and activities in the process of planning. Cf. Bui (uong Giang , http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/VN/. such as )COMOS The )nternational Council on Among countless links see, for example: http://myviet- Monuments and Sites and )UCN The )nternational namnews.com////spiritual-tourism-area-to-be- Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- built-in-quang-ninh/; and https://sites.google.com/site/du- sources the necessary efforts concerning success- lichintours/du-lich-hanh-huong/tour-du-lich-hanh-huong- ve-coi-nguon---yen-tu---cua-ong with a tourist program of ful certification as a UNESCO World (eritage Site in traveling to the nations root du ḷch về cội nguộn of the Tran . dynasties (a Noi–Yên Tử–Den Cua Ong. Acceptance as a World (eritage Site would (a Long Bay, cf. Galla . boost the development of tourism already generat- )n , the Tourism Department of Quang Ninh developed ed by the proximity to (a Long Bay, one of the coun- a pilot coalmine as a further contribution to the local tourism development. There, tourists are supposed to experience the hard life of mine workers, as well as their pride in producing http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists// black gold for the country. An all-inclusive program where http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists// see tourists wear mining worker uniforms and are transported as well http://www.ninhthuantourist.com/en/local- to open-pit mines, visit a mine museum about the history of news/-trinh-unesco-dua-quan-the-di-tich-va-danh- the coal industry since the French colonial period, as well as thang-yen-tu-vao-danh-muc-du-kien-xay-dung-ho-so-di- performances of song, dance and poetry about mining liveli- san-the-gioi.html, http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/index.php/ hoods, were provided with a picnic meal at the mine and the items/, http://vov.vn/van-hoa/du-lich/unesco-dua- possibility to purchase handcrafted coal-souvenirs Cuong yen-tu-vao-danh-muc-de-cu-la-di-san-the-gioi-.vov Nguyen Duc (oa et. al. . See the official websites of the ministries The Govern- http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/Opinion// ment Committees for Religious Affairs: http://btgcp.gov.vn/ mineral-exploitation-threatens-environment-cultural-herit- Plus.aspx/vi/News//////Chuyen_gia_quoc_ age.html . te_tham_van_ho_so_danh_thang_Yen_Tu and The Ministry http://www.lookatvietnam.com///-tonne-stat- of Culture, Sport and Tourism of Vietnam, Department of ue-of-king-tran-nhan-tong-to-be-cast.html see also http:// Cultural (eritage: http://dch.gov.vn/pages/news/preview. talkvietnam.com///statue-of-king-tran-nhan-tong- aspx?n=&c= july . DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,to-be-sculpted-from---ton-gemstone/#.UEE_eBVM_e. 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 15

vana was held in . Reportedly built at a cost of pray for peace for the nation and prosperity of the billion VND, the ton, metre tall statue is people. The opening ceremony also included drum the sites heaviest and tallest bronze Buddha statue, shows, lion dances and other performances. Organ- and at a height of meters above sea level, the izers claimed that over three million pilgrims and highest bronze Buddha statue on Yên Tử Mountain. visitors would attend the three-month festival.

)ndeed, the festival was part of the stateDi sản thế pro- giới gramme tại Việt to promote Nam Yên Tử as a future UNESCO World Cultural (eritage Site in Vietnam and therefore to increase its prominence in the nationally and globally booming heritage market.quần th̉ di tích và danh thắng Yên Tử Various masterplans for preserving and developing the values of scenic Yên Tử as a relic site were discussed between August and Decem- ber at diverse working sessions,Bộ Văn hóa, Th̉ thao meetings and và Du lịch Việt Namconferences coordinated by the Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism of Vietnam Ủy ban nhân dân Figure : Donation box left or the statue, —Bộ V(TTDL together with the still under construction in 2011 (right). provincial Peoples Committee — UBND Quảng Ninh, Bắc Giang and the provincial Buddhist sangha, the Vietnam National University and the Vietnam Buddhist Academy. )t was suggest- ed that a dossierPhật (oàng be put together for an application for World )ntangible Cultural (eritage status, pro- filing the Trúc Lâm Trần Nhân Tông as a Great Man of Culture in combination with the profile and scripts of the School of Vietnamese Zen Buddhism. )n broad terms, site promoters have argued that Vietnamese Buddhism has left a rich and diverse history of material and spiritual cultural heritage. )n addition, there have been a number of workshops, meetings and discussions to prepare an application dossier for the recognition of the whole

Figure 7: The completed statue of the Buddhist King http://en.vietnamplus.vn/(ome/Yen-Tu-becomes-spe- Trần Nhân Tông cial-national-relic//.vnplus Resource: http://thethaovanhoa.vn/xa-hoi/le-hoi-yen-tu--duong- For discussions on how acquisition of World (eritage sta- hanh-huong-sach-bong-hang-rong-n.htm tus has boosted the numbers of visitors and pilgrims around the world see Daly/Winter , Bendix et al. . For dis- cussion of a competitive heritage-submitting-fever on a national level see, for example: http://vov.vn/van-hoa/di-san- de-trinh-unesco-truoc-mat-chi-co-don-ca-tai-tu-. Through diverse, globally circulating media re- vov and http://www.baomoi.com/Di-san-the-gioi-o-Viet-Tín ngưỡng ports made by tourist agencies and the official Nam-noi-lo-gin-giu//.epi.th̀ ćng (ùng Vương ở Ph́ Thọ The approval of the website of the Communist Party of Vietnam, we Ancestor-Worship of (‘ng kings in Ph’ Thọ— learn that the Yên Tử festival was opened with an in- a must do pilgrimage destination in the category of intangible heritage was pro- cense offering ceremony attended by the countrys cessed and launched in cooperation with the Department of Vice President Nguỹn Tḥ Doan, representatives of Cultural (eritage, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, monks, nuns, and by with Prof. Dr. Nguỹn Chí Bền, Director of Viet Nam )nsti- followers and visitors from different corners of the tute of Culture and Arts Studies—V)CAS Ministry of Culture, country and beyond. At the festival, a wide range Sports and Tourism, and Member of National Committee of Cultural (eritage. The narrative fits the discourse of cultural of rituals and processions reportedly took place to nationalism: The (‘ng Kings veneration tradition is thus a powerful expression of the richness of Vietnamese national http://www.talkvietnam.com///nation-honors-king- history and solidarity, powerfully expressive of its peoples monk-tran-nhan-tong/, http://phatgiao.org.vn/tin-tuc// reverence for their ancestral past and vibrant cultural her- Quang-Ninh-Khai-mac-(oi-Xuan-yen-Tu--/, http:// itage. See: Nomination File Nr. for )nscription on the cattour.vn/tour/_/tour-du-lich-ha-noi-yen-tu--ngay. Representative List of the )ntangible Cultural (eritage of (u- htm manity in , seventh session Paris, December , p . http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDetail. Similar to the successful approval of the Ancestor-Worship aspx?co_id=&cn_id= DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,of (‘ng2015, ISSN:kings 2196-6893 in Ph’ Thọ see footnote . Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 16

ghi Yên Tử landscape as a World (eritage Site. These measured in US-dollars and Vietnamese đồngs, and activities finally led to Yên Tửs nomination to the its remembrance is captured in the verb record- UNESCO tentative list Ref.: . Finally, on ed. The consequent rebuilding of temples leads to November a Vietnam Cultural (eritage Con- a revitalization of related ceremonies which in turn servation Support Fund was established. One of the lead to further building and so on. funds most important projects in the coming years will be to establish a compound for cultural herit- CONCLUSION age conservation at Yên Tử Mountain and at other religious sites. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the ambitious aspirations include promoting not only tourism, mod- The complex story of the Yên Tử pilgrimage site ernization and internationalization at the Yên Tử involves many different and entangled aspects. As relic site, but also the re-construction of Yên Tử into ) have shown in my synoptic overview, Yên Tử is a a Buddhist Centre of the Vietnamese Tr’c Lâm Zen site associated with individual and collective prayer Buddhism. and merit-making, economic development and )n terms of the symbolic economy expressed tourism, and the official politics of culture and reli- by oversized statues as exemplified by the newly gion. These entanglements create tensions and am- established statue of Phật (oàng Trần Nhân Tông biguities, as well as synergies. Not least, the materi- and monumental religious buildings, the Yên Tử ality and iconicity in and of this landscape opens it landscape is at an early stage. What Askew , up for processes of signification and struggles over describes with respect to Thailand is applica- meaning. ble: the symbolic economy surrounding this reli- Yên Tử is a celebrated site in Buddhist history, gious site seems to be a system driven by a popular which was founded by the King-Monk Trần Nhân and scripturally legitimized imperative to focus Tông who is at once constructed and commemorat- devotion, merit-making and boon-seeking on sa- ed as a great national hero, a cultural figure and the cralized objects. As such, there is a concomitant founder of the Vietnamese Nation. Today, Yên Tử is imperative among institutions and enterprises to playing a new but considerable role as a sacralized continually reproduce material symbols which re- landscape of memory, and as a touristic site with quire financial offerings to permit maintenance and promising economic development potential. This further reproduction through the elaboration and pilgrimage landscape is presented to visitors/pil- expansion of ritual. grims as a place of spiritual relief, patriotism and New wealth and merit-making finds expression sacrifice, as well as a place to experience nature and materially and tangibly. That is, the rebuilding of both cultural and natural heritage. Taking in the temples and the donation of statues are conceptu- spectacular scenery on a walk through the moun- alized as meritoriousghi công services to ancestralcông spirits, tains with their steep slopes and small winding gods, and the nation. )n turn, they are recorded on paths leading to a peak enshrouded in cloud, and large boards where the merit— —is visiting ancient pagodas and shrines on the way reflects multidimensional meanings betweenvề quê religion and politics, the economic development of tourism See the Online Newspaper of the Communist Party of Vietnam: http://www.cpv.org.vn/CPV/Modules/ and the coming home movement of over- News_English/News_Detail_E.aspx?CN_)D=&CO_ seas Vietnamese expatriates. )D=; http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/ The Vietnamese state primarily orchestrates NewsDetail.aspx?co_id=&cn_id=, http:// Yên Tử as a site of national cultural heritage, where hanoi.vietnamplus.vn/(ome/De-nghi-UNESCO-vinh-danh- Trần Nhân Tông—the third King of the Trần dynas- Tran-Nhan-Tong-Yen-Tu//.vnplus. (owever the current dossier /VPVP-KGVX MOCST is still of low ty—protected the Vietnamese nation and unified profile according to Nguỹn Mạnh Thắng, Deputy General the different sects of Buddhism into a distinctive Secretary of the National Committee for UNESCO VN Phó Vietnamese Buddhism. )n accordance with state Tổng thư ký Ủy ban Quốc gia UNESCO VN. http:// propaganda, he represents a national hero-ances- www.cinet.gov.vn/articledetail.aspx?articleid=&sitep- tor, Buddhism, patriotism, national defence, and ageid=#sthash.rdBUJPT.dpbs, http://www.cinet.gov. vn/articledetail.aspx?articleid=&sitepageid=#st- development. )n rhetoric and practice, this ideolo- hash.NYbEEjm.QFSn)SY.dpbs gy is tied into a concept of cultural and/orvề nguồn pilgrim- http://quydisan.org.vn/gioi-thieu-p.html June . age tourism, andđi-về models a new form of Vietnamese As ) learned in a personal conversation with a scientific of- transnationalism in the form of a back ficer of the Department of Cultural (eritage of the Ministry of to the roots or leave and return movement. Culture, Sport and Tourism in March , important spon- sors of the Vietnam Cultural (eritage Conservation Support At the same time, the certification of cultural Fund are both the cable car company Tung Lam and espe- heritage in the service of an exploding tourism in- cially the construction company Xuân Trường Gmb( Doanh dustry creates collision and competition with the nghiệp tư nhân xây dựng Xuân Trường, which is known local coalmining industry. )n so doing, the renova- for intransparent irregularities in tenders. See also: http:// tion-era project of modernisation and economic de- ctat.vn/News///bat-thuong-nhung-ong-lon-duoc- uu-ai-du-an-ngan-ty.aspx DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20,velopment 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 through cultural heritage collides with Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 17

the project of heavy industry, central to the states state party—as well as state tourist agencies or former project of economic development through- the Ministry of Tourism and Culture. out the era of socialist industrialization.đổi mới Moreover, the emerging religious monu- As national and transnational citizens, contem- ment-landscape is based on a specific transnational porary Renovation Age Vietnamesenhớ ơn are dynamic, since, especially for diaspora Vietnam- investing heavily in the cultivation ofghi công memory: the ese, it is developing into a blurred culture/leisure/ work of rememberingvề quê moral debt , re-về homecoming destination. At the site, the complex cordingnguồn meritorious contribution , com- engagements clustering around consumption/lei- ing home and returning to the source sure time such as eating, drinking, playing games, Lauser , Jellema .công New wealth flirting interact dynamically with changing reli- also finds moral expression in the reinterpretation gio-spatial practices including blessings and visits of the centuries-old concept of —merit. The to shrines and monuments. Longstanding pilgrim- complex workings of these understandings of merit age patterns are thus being transformed by the in- in contemporary Renovation-era Vietnam need to tensification of homecoming-related travel patterns be understood as multiple, mutually-informative that have accompanied the heightened marketing of moral systems: official and unofficial, transnational, sites as a kind of spectacle. national and local, Confucian and Buddhist, revolutionary and renovated. The recent reconstruction ANDREA LAUSER is professor of anthropology in the of the Yên Tử pilgrimage landscape, with an annual Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology, festival and the new superlative Buddha statue of Georg-August-University, Göttingen. (er doctoral Trần Nhân Tông reflects processes similar to those and post-doctoral research has focused on Southeast Askew describes in Southern Thailand. )n Thai- Asia, with a special focus on power, gender, and gen- land, under a capitalist-driven money economy, eration among the Mangyan of Mindoro, the Philip- the opportunities for making and expressing merit pines, and on Filipino transnational marriage migra- expand and condense into ever-multiplying monu- tion. Between and she was part of a re- ments and symbols which become vehicles for the search project at the Max-Planck-Institute for Social endless accumulation of merit Askew , . To Anthropology, Halle, about pilgrimage and ancestor borrow“It is thea landscape words of that Askew: is nurtured and reproduced worship, and she conducted fieldwork in northern by two complementary imperatives—religious Vietnam. Since 2011 she is the spokesperson for the ‘consumers’ seek to accumulate potent blessings, research program on the dynamics of religion in and the enterprises that produce and publicize Southeast Asia (www.dorisea.net). She co-edited the these sites seek to yield material profit and in- recent volume “Engaging the Spirit World. Popular Be- come for further expansion. This process reflects liefs and Practices in Modern Southeast Asia” (2011). the acceleration of general trends towards monu- mentalism in Asia, where prosperity had helped a multi-faceted religious industry that feeds a quest CONTACT [email protected] to accumulate merit and fortune. Askew ,

)nstead of describing these new kinds of monumental landscape Askew also mentions, for in- stance, the proliferation of Buddhist-Taoist theme parks as a clear expression of sheer profit-seeking and spectacle-driven consumerism, he proposes to conceive“A deep of themand persisting as a spiritual-material belief in merit-accumu- nexus: lation and the efficacy of merit transference, together with the complementary disposition to materialize merit and venerate sacred objects, is central to popular and scripturally-supported Buddhist belief systems, and this has been so from the earliest times.” (ibid.)

)t is evident that this process engages the ener- gies of religious foundations, local communities and provincial authorities—in dialogue with the central DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 18

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Making of Modern Vietnam.

Postmodern(onolulu: Geographies: University The http://btgcp.gov.vn/Plus.aspx/vi/News////// ofReassertion (awaii Press. of Space in Critical Social Theory. Chuyen_gia_quoc_te_tham_van_ho_so_danh_thang_Yen_Tu Soja, Edward. . http://cattour.vn/tour/_/tour-du-lich-ha-noi- yen-tu--ngay.htm London: Verso Press,Consuming . Urban Culture in http://dantri.com.vn/xa-hoi/nuom-nuop-nguoi-hanh- Soucy,Contemporary Alexander. Vietnam . Pilgrims and pleas- huong-ve-yen-tu-truoc-gio-khai-hoi-.htm ure-seekers. )n http://dch.gov.vn/pages/news/preview.aspx- , edited by Lisa B.W. ?n=&c= Drummond and Mandy Thomas, -. Lon-http://diendan.dulichhue.com.vn/threads/hanh-trinh- don and New York: Routledge Curzon. ve-voi-yen-tu-coi-nguon-tam-linh./ Soucy, Alexander. . Nationalism, Moder- Globalismhttp://en.vietnamplus.vn/(ome/Yen-Tu-becomes-spe - nityand andthe Re-enchantment.Re-establishment Religion of the in Tr’cPost-revo- Lâm Thiềncial-national-relic//.vnplus lutionaryBuddhist VietnamSect in Northern Vietnam. )n http://eyedrd.org///the-rituals-of-worshiping-vietnamese-nations-founders.html , editedThe Buddhaby Philip Side: Taylor, Gender, - http://giadinh.net.vn/xa-hoi/khai-hoi-xuan-yen-tu-vao- .Power, Singapore: and Buddhist )SEAS Practice Publishing. in Vietnam. ngay--.htm Soucy, Alexander. . http://hanoi.vietnamplus.vn/(ome/De-nghi-UNESCO- (ono- vinh-danh-Tran-Nhan-Tong-Yen-Tu//.vn- lulu: University ofDORISEA (awaii WorkingPress. Paper Series plus Soucy, Alexander. . Altered Space for a New http://myvietnamnews.com////spiritual- Zen in Vietnam. On the Road to Being, tourism-area-to-be-built-in-quang-ninh. There:No. . Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late http://phatgiao.org.vn/tin-tuc//Quang-Ninh- Swatos,Modernity. Jr., W.(., ed. . Khai-mac-(oi-Xuan-yen-Tu--/ Goddess on the Rise: Pilgrimage http://quehuongonline.vn/VietNam/(ome/ and Popular Leiden: Religion Brill. in Vietnam. http://quydisan.org.vn/gioi-thieu-p.htm Taylor, Philip. . http://quydisan.org.vn/gioi-thieu-p.html (onolulu: Uni- http://talkvietnam.com///statue-of-king-tran- Tourism,versity of Religion (awaii Press.& Spiritual Journeys. nhan-tong-to-be-sculpted-from---ton-gemstone/#. Timothy, Dallen J. and Daniel (. Olsen, eds. . UEE_eBVM_e Nếp Cũ: Tín Ngưỡng Việt Nam London: http://thethaovanhoa.vn/xa-hoi/le-hoi-yen-tu- Routledge. -duong-hanh-huong-sach-bong-hang- Toan Ánh. . [Old rong-n.htm Ways: Vietnamese religious beliefs]. (o Chi http://vietnamesegod.blogspot.de/search/label/Tradi- Minh City: (o Chi Minh City Publishing (ouse. tional%Culture Trần Trương. . Ch‘a Yên Tử. Ḷch Sử Truyền http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/ Thuyết Di Tích Danh Thắng. Nhà xuất bản văn items/ hoá—Thông Tin. (̀ Ṇ). http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/index.php/items/ Trần Trương. . Phật (oàng Trần Nhân Tông. http://vov.vn/van-hoa/di-san-de-trinh-unesco-truoc- Truyện Ḷch Sử. NhàSelected xuất writings.bản văn hoá—Thông mat-chi-co-don-ca-tai-tu-.vov. Tin. (̀ Ṇ). http://vov.vn/van-hoa/du-lich/unesco-dua-yen-tu-vao- Trường Chinh. . (anoi:Image andThe danh-muc-de-cu-la-di-san-the-gioi-.vov PilgrimageGioi Publishers. in Christian Culture: Anthropological http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ Turner,Perspectives. Victor and Edith Turner. . http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/VN/. http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists// Mobilities. New York: Columbia University http://www.aseanreligioustours.com/index.php?op- Press. tion=com_content&view=section&id=&)temid=. Urry, John. . Cambridge, UK: Polity. http://www.baomoi.com/Di-san-the-gioi-o-Viet-Nam- noi-lo-gin-giu//.epi. Online links (all accesses re-checked on July http://www.chuyenluan.net/index.php?option=com_ 2015): content&view=article&id=:yen-tu-pho- tuong-an-ky-sinh-va-nhung-bi-an-cho-giai-ma- &catid=:van-hoa-van-nghe&)temid=. http://www.cinet.gov.vn/articledetail.aspx?arti- http://.../tiengviet/tulieuvankien/vank- cleid=&sitepageid=#sthash.rdBUJPT. iendang/details.asp?topic=&subtopic=&lead- dpbs. er_topic=&id=BT http://www.cinet.gov.vn/articledetail.aspx?arti- http://.../tiengviet/tulieuvankien/vank- cleid=&sitepageid=#sthash.NYbEEjm. iendang/details.asp?topic=&subtopic=&lead- QFSn)SY.dpbs er_topic=&id=BT http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDe- tail.aspx?co_id=&cn_id=. DORISEA Working Paper, ISSUE 20, 2015, ISSN: 2196-6893 Competence Network DORISEA – Dynamics of Religion in Southeast Asia 21

http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDe- tail.aspx?co_id=&cn_id=. http://www.cpv.org.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDe- tail.aspx?co_id=&cn_id=. http://www.cpv.org.vn/CPV/Modules/News_English/ News_Detail_E.aspx?CN_)D=&CO_)D=. http://www.lookatvietnam.com///-tonne- statue-of-king-tran-nhan-tong-to-be-cast.html. http://www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%bn% php%lut/View_Detail.aspx?)tem)D=. http://www.ninhthuantourist.com/en/local-news/- trinh-unesco-dua-quan-the-di-tich-va-danh-thang- yen-tu-vao-danh-muc-du-kien-xay-dung-ho-so-di- san-the-gioi.html http://www.rame.vn/ http://www.talkvietnam.com///nation-honors- king-monk-tran-nhan-tong/. http://www.truclamvietzen.net. http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res//ar. htm. http://www.vanhoaviet.biz.vn/. https://sites.google.com/site/dulichintours/du-lich- hanh-huong/tour-du-lich-hanh-huong-ve-coi-nguon- --yen-tu---cua-ong. https://sites.google.com/site/dulichnhatranggiare/ du-lich-hanh-huong/du-lich-hanh-huong-ve-lai-coi- nguon-yen-tu---cua-ong.

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