The President and African Americans Evaluating Executive Orders

Home , Executive Order 8802, Executive Order 9981

A Lesson from the Education Department

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Primary sources can be documents, pictures, interviews with someone who lived through the time period being studied, or artifacts that were produced during a certain time. Instead of merely reading second- hand descriptions (secondary sources) about presidential decisions, an historian will also want to look at those people’s own writings. Executive orders are directives that the president may make without approval of the Congress, and often show his will and opinions more clearly than bills he signs into law.

OBJECTIVE: By reading two presidential executive orders and answering questions about them, students will learn about the efforts of the federal government to address discrimination in the United States before and after WWII. Students will gain a broader understanding between the theory and practice of the law.

GRADE LEVEL: 9-12

COMMON CORE STANDARDS:

ELA Anchor Standards for Reading and Writing:

CCRA.R.2 Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas.

CCRA.R.6 Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text.

CCRA.R.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.

CCRA.W.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.

CCRA.W.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

Literacy in History/Social Studies:

RH.9-10.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information.

RH.9-10.6 Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts.

RH.11-12.9 Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources.

HISTORY STANDARDS: History Thinking Standard 4—the student interrogates historical data by uncovering the social, political, and economic context in which it was created.

The President and African Americans 2 © The National WWII Museum Historical Thinking Standard 5—the student identifies issues and problems in the past and analyzes the interests, values, perspectives, and points of view of those involved in the situation.

TIME REQUIREMENT: One class period.

MATERIALS: Copies of Roosevelt’s Executive Order 8802 and Truman’s Executive Order 9981 “Evaluating Executive Orders” student worksheet Fact sheet: African Americans in World War II: Fighting for a Double Victory

KEY TERMS:  Double-Victory: the term given to the wartime civil rights campaign by African American leaders and organizations during WWII which called for the defeat of fascism and the enemy abroad and the defeat of segregation at home in the United States.  Executive Order: a directive that a U.S. president may make without the approval of Congress.  Jim Crow laws: state and local laws that were passed after the American Civil War through the 1960s which were designed to enforce segregation and discrimination against African Americans and other minorities. These laws were named after a black character in minstrel shows.  Point of view: a position from which someone or something is observed; the mental position or attitude from which a story is observed or narrated  Primary source: an original or first-hand document, story or object that was created by someone during the time period under study  Secondary source: an account, object, or interpretation of an event which was created by someone without first-hand experience of the time period under study.  Segregation: the practice or policy of creating separate facilities and laws for minorities; often refers to the system of discrimination against African Americans that was established in the South after the Civil War.  Service unit: a non-combat military group responsible for providing support services to fighting troops like construction or food preparation.

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: This lesson can correspond with the study of African American participation and roles during WWII or be used as a review of primary and secondary historical sources.

DIRECTIONS:

1. Review the terms/concepts of primary and secondary sources with your class. Introduce the lesson with a brief summary of African American experiences during WWII and highlight important ideas and vocabulary such as segregation and the “Double Victory” campaign. You may find the African Americans in WWII fact sheet and key terms list above helpful for this task. The fact sheet can be read aloud to the class or passed out for them to read on their own the night before the lesson.

2. Review the three branches of the U.S. government and ask students about how laws are made. (Bill is introduced by either the House of Representatives or the Senate and is voted upon by both Houses. The president can either sign it into law or veto it and send it back to both Houses to begin the process again.) Introduce students to the concept of an Executive Order, where a president may issue a directive without the approval of Congress.

3. Pass out copies of the Executive Orders by Roosevelt and Truman to students to read to themselves or aloud to the class. (Alternately, teachers may want to divide students into pairs or the class in half and assign them one memo to read and analyze on their own, then reconvene the entire class for a discussion of their findings.) Before they begin, ask the students: “Why might a president want to use an executive order to make a law?” Hold a short discussion about the legal language used in these orders—it may be an unfamiliar style to many students. Discuss any unfamiliar words or have students look them up in a dictionary.

The President and African Americans 3 © The National WWII Museum

4. Tell students to underline key words and important phrases while they are reading the executive orders, and to list or circle any other words that they don’t understand. They should also write the main idea of each paragraph in the left-hand margin of the executive order sheet.

5. Pass out worksheet questions for students to complete.

6. Have a class discussion based on the student’s answers. Spend extra time with questions 5, 9, and 10.

ASSESSMENT: Components for assessment include the worksheet and the class discussion.

ENRICHMENT: 1. Have students outline their own executive orders as if they were the president. These orders should focus on a national issue that they care about. Remind students that the president can only issue executive orders regarding matters within the Executive Branch of government. This will require some research into the president’s powers.

2. Students can learn more about the context of Roosevelt’s Executive Order 8802 and its implementation by exploring the propaganda and workplace realities of African Americans, women and other Americans in wartime production work. They can begin their research by visiting the online exhibit Manufacturing Victory: The Arsenal of Democracy and develop a presentation or written response to the following questions: How effective do you think EO 8802 was in reducing discrimination in the workplace during the war? What steps have been taken in recent years to achieve more equal treatment in the workplace for all Americans?

3. Have students listen to one or more of the following WWII oral histories about the experiences of African Americans in the military at http://ww2online.org. How do these stories inform your understanding of both executive orders, and Truman’s need to pass EO 9981, in particular?  Vernon Baker: Army, Medal of Honor recipient  Wallace Baptiste: Navy, USS Hopkins  Joseph Hairston: Army, 92nd Infantry Division (NOTE: this interview contains strong and graphic language)  William Holloman III: U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve  John Leahr: 332nd Fighter Group, Tuskegee Airman  Charles McGee: 332nd Fighter Group, Tuskegee Airman  Eugene Tarrant: Navy, USS San Francisco

4. Students can also place both presidents’ executive orders within the larger context of the Home Front by examining the experiences of African Americans and other high school students during WWII. Compare and contrast yearbooks from the Museum’s See You Next Year! High School Yearbooks website at ww2yearbooks.org. Specific yearbooks of interest include all African American Dunbar High School (Dayton, Ohio) and segregated Topeka High School (Topeka, Kansas). The latter high school and school system would be featured 10 years later in the landmark civil rights Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court case and decision in 1954.

RESOURCES: The National WWII Museum  Fighting for the Right to Fight exhibition: www.righttofightexhibit.org

The President and African Americans 4 © The National WWII Museum  The Digital Collections of The National WWII Museum: ww2online.org  Focus On: African Americans in WWII feature  Focus On: Tuskegee Airmen feature  Focus On: Vernon Baker feature  Home Front lesson plans: People of Color  Manufacturing Victory: The Arsenal of Democracy website: www.manufacturing-victory.org  See You Next Year! High School Yearbooks from WWII website: ww2yearbooks.org  Virtual Field Trip: Double Victory: African Americans in WWII

The President and African Americans 5 © The National WWII Museum Executive Order 8802 Establishing the Committee on Fair Employment Practice Franklin D. Roosevelt, The White House, June 25, 1941

Background: More than a year before the United States entered WWII the country began building up its defense capabilities. Many factories refused to hire black workers. African American civil rights leaders like A. Philip Randolph pressured President Roosevelt to address this racial discrimination. Bowing to this pressure, the president issued this executive order.

Whereas it is the policy of the United States to encourage full participation in the national defense program by all citizens of the United States, regardless of race, creed, color, or national origin, in the firm belief that the democratic way of life within the Nation can be defended successfully only with the help and support of all groups within its borders; and

Whereas there is evidence that available and needed workers have been barred from employment in industries engaged in defense production solely because of consideration of race, creed, color, or national origin, to the detriment of workers' morale and of national unity:

Now, Therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the statutes, and as a prerequisite to the successful conduct of our national defense production effort, I do hereby reaffirm the policy of the United States that there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin, and I do hereby declare that it is the duty of employers and of labor organizations to provide for the full and equitable participation of all workers in defense industries, without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin;

And it is hereby ordered as follows:

1. All departments and agencies of the Government of the United States concerned with vocational and training programs for defense production shall take special measures appropriate to assure that such programs are administered without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin;

2. All contracting agencies of the Government of the United States shall include in all defense contracts hereafter negotiated by them a provision obligating the contractor not to discriminate against any worker because of race, creed, color, or national origin;

3. There is established in the Office of Production Management a Committee on Fair Employment Practice, which shall consist of a Chairman and four other members to be appointed by the President. The Committee shall receive and investigate complaints of discrimination in violation of the provisions of this Order and shall take appropriate steps to redress grievances which it finds to be valid. The Committee shall also recommend to the several departments and agencies of the Government of the United States and to the President all measures which may be deemed by it necessary or proper to effectuate the provisions of this Order.

The President and African Americans 6 © The National WWII Museum Executive Order 9981 Desegregating the Armed Forces of the United States Harry S Truman, The White House, 1948

Background: Three years after the end of WWII, President Truman issued this executive order integrating the country’s military. With pressure from African American civil rights leaders and with recognition of the contribution that African American service men and women made during the war, Truman used his powers to reverse more than 170 years of discrimination in military.

Whereas it is essential that there be maintained in the armed services of the United States the highest standards of democracy, with equality of treatment and opportunity for all those who served in our country’s defense:

Now, therefore, by virtue of the authority invested in me as President of the United States, and as Commander in Chief of the armed services, it is hereby ordered as follows:

1. It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin. This policy shall be put into effect as rapidly as possible, having due regard to the time required to effectuate any necessary changes without impairing efficiency or morale.

2. There shall be created in the National Military Establishment an advisory committee to be known as the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, which shall be composed of seven members to be designated by the President.

3. The Committee is authorized on behalf of the President to examine into the rules, procedures and practices of the armed services in order to determine in what respect such rules, procedures and practices may be altered or improved with a view to carrying out the policy of this order. The Committee shall confer and advise with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Army, the Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Air Force, and shall make such recommendations to the President and to said Secretaries as in the judgment of the Committee will effectuate the policy hereof.

4. All executive departments and agencies of the Federal Government are authorized and directed to cooperate with the Committee in its work, and to furnish the Committee such information or the services of such persons as the Committee may require in the performance of its duties.

5. When requested by the Committee to do so, persons in the armed services or in any of the executive departments and agencies of the Federal Government shall testify before the Committee and shall make available for use of the Committee such documents and other information as the Committee may require.

6. The Committee shall continue to exist until such time as the President shall terminate its existence by Executive Order.

The President and African Americans 7 © The National WWII Museum The President and African Americans Evaluating Executive Orders Student Worksheet

Directions: After reading the two executive orders, answer the following questions. Some questions will require you to use your knowledge of the time period in addition to the material included. If you use quotes, be sure to put quotation marks around them and cite them properly.

1. True or false: according to Executive Order 8802, in 1941 it was the policy of the United States to encourage everyone in the country to help win the war no matter who they were or where they came from.

2. Who is President Roosevelt referring to when he speaks of the detriment (negative impact) of workers’ morale—whose morale is suffering?

3. What gives President Roosevelt the authority to establish the Committee on Fair Employment Practice?

4. In what areas does Executive Order 8802 bar discrimination?

5. Was Executive Order 8802 successful? What other primary sources from the early 1940s could you use to defend your answer?

6. Why does President Truman declare that it is important to desegregate the armed forces?

7. When does Truman’s policy go into effect?

8. Who will oversee the desegregation of the armed forces and how will they do it?

9. Was Executive Order 9981 successful? What other primary sources could you use to defend your answer?

10. What are the pros and cons of using this type of primary source for historical research?

The President and African Americans 8 © The National WWII Museum African Americans in World War II Fighting for a Double Victory

African Americans served bravely and with distinction in every theater of World War II, while simultaneously struggling for their own civil rights at home. Although the United States Armed Forces were officially segregated until 1948, WWII laid the foundation for post-war integration of the military. When the U.S. entered the war in 1941, more than 2.5 million African Americans registered for the draft. By 1945, over 1 million African Americans would be serving in uniform on the Home Front, in Europe, and the Pacific (including thousands of African American women in the Women’s auxiliaries).

During the war years, the segregation practices of civilian life spilled over into the military. The draft was segregated and more often than not African Americans were passed over by the all-white draft boards. Pressure from the NAACP led President Roosevelt to pledge that African Americans would be enlisted according to their percentage in the population. Although this percentage, 10.6%, was never actually attained in the services during the war, African American numbers grew dramatically in the Army, Navy, Army Air Force, Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard.

While most African Americans serving at the beginning of WWII were assigned to non-combat units and relegated to service duties, such as supply, maintenance, and transportation, their work behind front lines was equally vital to the war effort. Many drove for the famous “Red Ball Express,” which carried a half million tons of supplies to the advancing First and Third Armies through France. By 1945, however, troop losses virtually forced the military to begin placing more African American troops into positions as infantrymen, pilots, tankers, medics, and officers in increasing numbers. In all positions and ranks, they served with as much honor, distinction, and courage as any American soldier did. Still, African American MPs stationed in the South often could not enter restaurants where their German prisoners were being served a meal.

On D-Day, the First Army on Omaha and Utah Beaches included nearly 2,000 African American troops. This number included a section of the 327th Quartermaster Service Company and the 320th Anti-Aircraft Barrage Balloon Battalion, which protected troops on the beach from aerial attack. Soon the all-black 761st Tank Battalion was fighting its way through France with Patton’s Third Army. They spent 183 days in combat and were credited with capturing 30 major towns in France, Belgium, and Germany. For this, the 761st Tank Battalion received the Presidential Unit of Citation for “extraordinary heroism.”

The Army Air Force also established several African American fighter and bomber groups. The famous “Tuskegee Airmen” of the 332nd Fighter Group became part of the 15th Air Force, flying ground support missions over Anzio and escorting bombers on missions over Southern Italy. During the war, they flew over 1,500 missions. Bomber crews often requested to be escorted by these “Redtails,” a nicknamed acquired from the painted tails of Tuskegee fighter planes. Approximately 150 Tuskegee Airmen died in training and in combat.

Stephen Ambrose identified the lamentable American irony of WWII, writing, “The world’s greatest democracy fought the world’s greatest racist with a segregated army” (Ambrose, Citizen Soldier). During the global conflict, African American leaders and organizations established the “Double V” campaign, calling for victory against the enemy overseas and victory against racism at home. This new black consciousness and the defiant rejection of unjustifiable racism planted important seeds for the post-War civil rights movement.

The National WWII Museum honors the contributions of African Americans in World War II.