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Draft Dissertation Dissention in the Ranks—Dissent Within U.S. Civil-Military Relations During the Truman Administration: A Historical Approach by David A. “DAM” Martin B.A. in History, May 1989, Virginia Military Institute M.A. in Military Studies—Land Warfare, June 2002, American Military University M.B.A., June 2014, Strayer University A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education January 19, 2018 Dissertation directed by Andrea J. Casey Associate Professor of Human and Organizational Learning The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of the George Washington University certifies that David A. “DAM” Martin has passed the final examination for the degree of Doctor of Education as of September 22, 2017. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Dissention in the Ranks—Dissent Within U.S. Civil-Military Relations During the Truman Administration: A Historical Approach David A. “DAM” Martin Dissertation Research Committee: Andrea J. Casey, Associate Professor of Human and Organizational Learning, Dissertation Director David R. Schwandt, Professor Emeritus of Human and Organizational Learning, Committee Member Stamatina McGrath, Adjunct Instructor, Department of History, George Mason University, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2018 by David A. Martin All rights reserved iii Dedication Dedicated to those who have Served honorably, Dissented when the cause was just, and paid dearly for it. iv Acknowledgments I want to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Andrea Casey, for her outstanding advice and counsel throughout this educative journey. Thank you to my dissertation committee member, Dr. Stamatina McGrath, who provided incredible methodological support throughout the dissertation process when I wanted to break from the accepted norms. Who knew that a Byzantinist could have such influence in a study of dissent in modern civil-military relations? Dr. David Schwandt, fellow veteran, packed more bang for the buck per guiding word than any professor I have ever met in my 3 years with the Executive Leadership Doctoral Program at The George Washington University. Thanks also to the outstanding ELP support staff who never seem to get enough recognition and to the librarians who mailed book after book to my home. I could not have completed this task without the assistance provided through the Veterans Administration GI Bill Chapter 33 and GWU’s participation in the Yellow Ribbon program. Thank you for your support to our nation’s veterans. I see now why GWU historically ranks as one of the more veteran-friendly institutions of higher learning. Thanks also to my Army family and the chain of command at the 97th Training Brigade, U.S. Army Command, and General Staff Officers College Instructor Brigade, for providing me the maneuvering room to finish the dissertation when I could have been working on something else. Finally, to my family: my parents, my wife Stephanie, and children Declan and Katherine. Families never get enough recognition for their sacrifice. (Even our dog Reagan chipped in, spending long hours under my chair as I typed draft after draft.) Love you all. Lesson learned: dissent is not futile, regardless of what Dad says! v Abstract of the Dissertation Dissention in the Ranks—Dissent Within U.S. Civil-Military Relations During the Truman Administration: A Historical Approach Dissent has always existed in American civil-military relations since General George Washington and his staff dissented to the Continental Congress over funding the Continental Army. More recently, former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates called for more understanding of dissent, but how dissent occurs is little understood in civil-military contexts. Organizational theorists are convinced dissent is ultimately healthy to all organizations, even civil-military ones. This study asked how dissent occurs within the civil-military relationship in positive, historical dissent events. A historiographical approach examined the chronology of dissent over desegregation of the U.S. Army before, during, and after President Truman issued Executive Order 9981, declaring “equality of treatment and equal opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin” (13 Fed. Reg. 4313, July 28, 1948). The U.S. Army continued to dissent 2 years after the order came out. Conflict theory holds conflict as influential in dissent (Coser, 1957). Hierarchy and power play important roles in dissent (Kassing, 1997, 1998, 2012, 2013). Lamb’s (2013) historical discourse analysis offered a high-level dissent analysis in civil-military relations from 1945 to 1950. The study found that dissent occurred because of conflict, yet conflict also resulted from dissent. Previous dissent research has concerned itself with dissent up the hierarchy, but this research discovered that upward, lateral, and outward dissent occurred vi simultaneously. Power patterns emerged as groups in dissent displayed, battled for, and consolidated power before a weakened, final engagement marked the terminus of open dissent. Dissent reverberated outward from political and military groups in conflict, embroiling the social group. This study contributes to dissent theory, demonstrating the influence of hierarchies and power and supporting theoretical research that dissent happens over time. Previous dissent research focused on why dissent happens. This study provided additional insight into how dissent happens, advancing civil-military theory and concluding that civil-military relations are composed of not just civilian and military authority, but a tripartite genus of political, military, and social groups. The research supports dissent as healthy to U.S. civil-military relations. vii Table of Contents Page Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Abstract of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xv List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................... xvi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 6 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 9 Research Question ............................................................................................................ 10 Statement of Potential Significance .................................................................................. 11 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 14 Summary of the Methodology .......................................................................................... 17 Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 19 Historical Background ...................................................................................................... 21 Historical Frame—Enter Truman ................................................................................ 21 Truman and Negro Equality in Civil Rights ................................................................ 23 Executive Order Defined: A Powerful Tool ................................................................ 25 The Negro Minority in the Military ............................................................................. 26 Executive Order Implemented ..................................................................................... 27 viii Truman’s Relations with the Military .......................................................................... 28 Definitions of Key Terms ................................................................................................. 30 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 33 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 33 Methods of the Literature Review................................................................................ 34 Chapter Organization ................................................................................................... 40 Dissent............................................................................................................................... 42 Origins of Seminal Dissent Research ........................................................................... 42 Definition in Research Literature ................................................................................
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