Youth and New-New Religions Challenges for the Churches in Present-Day Japan

Martin Repp

ONE OF THE ISSUES which was brought to One might even call 1995 the "year of light by the Aum incident was the wide the younger generation in Japan" for two chasm between the younger and older gen­ reasons. The first is because the Aum inci­ erations in Japan. What suddenly became dent was carried out by young people. Aum very apparent was a formidable inability to has to be called a youth religion because of communicate across the generations. The the young age of most of its members. The frequent question asked was: How could second reason is the impressive involve­ highly educated young people act in such ment of young Japanese volunteers in relief an irrational, even barbaric way? Such an efforts following the Hanshin earthquake. inability to understand each other is very At first glance, one might be tempted to similar to our own experience as foreign assume that both occurrences represent church personnel. How often do we misun­ "good" and "bad" sides of Japanese youth. derstand what is really happening and However, if one looks more closely into become confused, annoyed, or even angry. both cases, this black-and-white distinction becomes somewhat blurred. What is com­ This is an on-going process in a foreign cul­ mon to both, I think, is that all these young ture, a common experience. It is also an people were suffering serious shortcomings opportunity to deepen our perception and in Japanese society. They wanted to make a understanding of a new environment. If we difference. In both instances, the young did do not understand the other, then we quite not remain passive, but articulated them­ often label him or her as strange or alien. selves in distinct ways, whether through But we should also look at ourselves. We involvement in religious activities or through ourselves are quite often the greatest hin­ social and relief work. Among both groups drance to understanding and cooperation. were many who suffered physical and psy­ In a similar fashion, the older generation of chological distress as a result of the pres­ Japanese society, including the churches sures of contemporary society. and established religions, did not realize In this article I would like to discuss three what was going on with their youth. In issues. First is the socio-religious situation, educational, social, political and religious or religiosity, of Japanese youth today. Sec­ institutions, the leading figures are normal­ ond, I would like to address the question of ly of the older generation, but in 1995, how the so-called New-new religions (shin­ when the Aum incident happened, these shinshukyo) respond to the religious quests older figures suddenly confronted a new of the younger generation. Apparently they and frightening reality. are able to satisfy the spiritual needs of

5 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 7997 youth much better than Christian churches coupled with the isolated state of many or other traditional religious groups do. children's lives, confined as they are to These groups seem to lack this kind of their computer-game cells, produce imma­ appeal. Finally, I would like to look briefly ture adults who lack both self-control at what conclusions may be drawn from and a firm sense of right and wrong? our findings in order to make the churches Uapan Times, May 23, 1995). more relevant to Japanese, especially the According to a survey conducted among younger generation. college students in Kyushu, some students In approaching our main topic, I would "blamed Japan's exam oriented education like to use three resources: newspaper re­ system for the criminal turn in the careers of ports, manga and anime, and reflections the Aum leaders" Uapan Times, May 19, from members of the Aum-generatio~. 1995). However, the Aum incident did not actually lead to further reflection or to any PRESENT-DAY SOCIO-RELIGIOUS SITU A TLON changes. Instead we hear of cram schools OF JAPAN'S YOUTH which are already preparing small children to enter elite kindergartens so that their future education and occupation might be Media Images secured Uapan Times, February 26, 1997). In recent years I have collected newspaper Shortly before the earthquake in the Kobe articles related to youth in Japan. Many of area in January 1995 and the gas attack in these articles center on the Japanese educa­ Tokyo in March 1995, the issue of bullying tional system, particularly bullying in was brought to public attention. In the fall of schools. More recently, there have been 1994, 13-year-old Okuchi Kiyoteru hanged articles on the telephone dating clubs of himself in Aichi Prefecture, leaving a note high school girls who engage in sex-for­ saying classmates had repeatedly dunked money with elderly men. There are also him in a river and extorted money from him. This tragic case became the starting articles on the criminal activities of the point for public discussion of bullying in young, on recent trends and youth fashions schools. Subsequently, the Justice Ministry and articles showing Japanese youth in conducted a survey in September-October search of their own identity between East 1994 according to which nearly 40 percent and West, between tradition and modernity. of junior high school students said that Finally, we find articles on spiritual mat­ they had been bullied in the past and a ters such as the search for meaning in life third of those bullied said that they or involvement in religions. endured the treatment without consulting Shortly after the Aum incident, discus­ anyone Uapan Times, April17, 1995)! sions on why it happened focused on the Certainly this bullying has various caus­ education system in Japan. It is well known es such as the need to relieve stress and that the competition at school is very severe, social pressure. It is used also as a means to and that learning is directed mainly toward gain financial income. For example, "A 17- passing school examinations. Nishizawa year-old high school student has been Junichi wrote an article entitled, "Aum and arrested and three other students taken into Japan's Exam Hell" on the "dehumanizing police custody on suspicion of extorting ¥5 education system" in Japan: million from a 16-year-old boy." According The central question is this: Does the to police sources, they were alleged to have current examination system, with its coerced "the boy into giving them an addi­ exaggerated emphasis on memorization, tional ¥7 million late last year" Uapan

6 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions

Times, February 3, 1996). The methods their classmates and friends that drives applied here clearly resemble those of the these young girls to earn money in such a yakuza (Japanese criminal syndicates). way. Here again, as in the case of bullying However, the value-system behind it-that and extortion, we observe that the basic money is the most important thing in life­ value system behind this problematic is characteristic of a large portion of Japan­ behavior is shared by the same society that ese society. One of the reasons why bullying now condemns the young girls. The media became so widespread in Japan is the are blamed for spreading the value system inability of young people to communicate that prizes making money. However, other with parents and teachers and the lack of factors such as the conformist attitude of trust in these authority figures. These stu­ students and the absence of adults as real dents seem to suffer from a high degree of authorities, especially parents and teach­ loneliness. In one case of bullying, "Although ers, have to be named (Japan Times, Febru­ the girl asked for help from her teacher and ary 7, 1997). Girls engaged in enjo kosai other school officials, their only response may earn ¥50,000 per appointment. They was to tell her that she bears part of the spend ¥400-500,000 per month on make­ blame for being bullied." According to the up, clothes, karaoke, etc., while other stu­ mother, "The teachers never informed the dents not involved may spend only about parents the girl was being bullied" (Japan ¥10,000 per month (Ibid.). Times, February 3, 1996). The Mainichi These teen girls have absorbed only too Daily News reports (September 22, 1996) well the lessons of a consumer society in that a 14-year-old boy committed suicide in which everything has a price tag and, order to escape bullying. Bullying, extor­ uninspired by the lives of their mothers in tion, suicide and finally murder are all loveless marriages with absentee hus­ committed by young people. The frightening bands, have opted to live in the moment fact is that these cases seem to occur again with all the pleasure that money can buy and again; they are not isolated incidents. (Ibid.). It seems to be one of the undercurrents of the "mental landscape" in which young peo­ In regard to criminal behavior, we read of ple grow up. increased incidents of violence, drug abuse, Another alarming trend among today's extortion and murder. We hear that police youth is to be found in the telephone dat­ broke up an extortion gang of teens sus­ ing clubs, the so-called enjo kosai. Through pected of preying upon older men by black­ telephone contacts high school girls engage mailing them for money after arranging in sex for cash with much older men. Their dates with girls (Japan Times, February 7, goal is primarily to obtain money in order to 1997). According to an editorial in the purchase expensive clothes and other goods. Japan Times (June 2, 1996), figures for drug One female student said, "Girls in my abuse among Japan's youth are alarming school tend to split up into the girls who (though not as bad as in America or have such things and girls who don't .... If Europe). The number of youths held for you have the brand-name things, you're drug abuse, especially among high school important." And, "During the bubble [econ­ students, has doubled over the last year omy] ... the media spread the idea that earn­ (Japan Times, December 21, 1996 and Feb­ ing money was a good thing" (Japan Times, ruary 8, 1997). As with bullying, consump­ October 10, 1996). We should not be quick to tion of drugs may be seen as a means of judge this in moral terms. It is the desire to alleviating the enormous pressure put on be acknowledged, respected and loved by the young. It is a form of escaping from the

7 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 realities of society. We read also of other girls' feeling of kegare (impurity) within forms of violence committed by youth gangs, their own family, "It's not that the father is especially by bos6zoku, the biker gangs dirty; it's that he's a stranger in the house." (Japan Times, June 14, 1996 and December This extreme fear of contamination is com­ 1, 1996). Most members are construction mented on, "When people don't trust each workers, i.e., those who occupy the lowest other, all human contact is uncomfortable position in the pyramid of Japanese society and that's the kind of age we're living in" and who, in one way or another, have to get (Japan Times, December 4, 1996). In 1996, rid of the aggression that mounts inside flash meishi (name cards) become very them. Even murders are committed by young popular among teenagers. Sometimes the people: An 18-year-old youth is held by information printed on these cards gives police for killing a 16-year-old schoolgirl in clues not only to who the girls are, but who Osaka, six 15-to-16-year-old youths are they wish they were (Japan Times, Decem­ arrested for a 16-year-old boy's murder in ber 6, 1996). Another craze has swept the Chiba to cite but two examples (Japan nation since 1996, the Tamagotch (from Times, September 22, 1996). According to tamago, or egg, plus watch), the virtual pet the Justice Ministry, about 30 percent of all on a key ring: a Tamagotch has to be fed, murders and attempted murders commit­ cleaned, played with, nursed, etc., and if ted by minors in 1995 were directed toward the owner does not care for it properly, it family members. Forty percent of these may "die" within ten or so days. Young young murderers were either bullied at people "grow attached to it as if it were a school or had family problems such as the real pet" (Japan Times, January 26, 1997). divorce of their parents (Japan Times, Already 1.35 million units of this virtual October 12, 1996). pet have been sold (Japan Times, March 15, But we should not focus only on the sex 1997). It is also reported that a yakuza gang and crime which naturally capture the atten­ member was arrested because he attempted tion of the mass media. As mentioned before, to extort a shipment of Tamagotch from a the relief work done by so many, mostly businessman (Japan Times, February. 27, young, volunteers in the aftermath of the 1997); and in another case young thieves Hanshin-Awaji earthquake was (and still stealing Tamagotch were pursued by police is) most impressive. The same can be said of who even used a helicopter for the chase the volunteers trying to clean the oil spill (Japan Times, March 2, 1997). from the shores of the Japan Sea (Japan Of the many trends and fashions among Times, January 19, 1997). We also read of the the young, which quickly change according optimistic and confident attitudes among to marketing and consumption, one under­ the young who enjoy a great deal freedom in current seems to be especially significant: their lives (Japan Times, January 1, 1997). the search for identity between tradition Among the many trends and fashions in and modernity and between East and West. vogue among young women, we find the On the one hand, Japanese young people so-called Barbie diet cultists who seek a are criticized for copying and imitating "glamour body." They direct their prayer to American fashions (Japan Times, May 22, a goddess, "In the morning, when I wake 1996). For the younger generation, the up, I hope I have a figure like yours" (Japan kimono, for example, is said to have had its Times, February 15, 1996). On the other day (Japan Times, January 4, 1997). It is hand, the newspapers report that antibacte­ reported that London has become a favorite rial goods are selling well in Japan. This is place for some 30,000 young Japanese who referred to as "germ warfare." We read of choose this town as a place to live, study

8 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions and work. One said, "I like the old build­ ple (Japan Times, January 27, 1993; cf. ings and history, which mix brilliantly Japan Times, January 17, 1993). In another with the new culture in music and street report we read, "In an international com­ fashion." One young Japanese who eventu­ parison, younger Japanese are less satisfied ally returned home commented, "They with their family life and their work life come to London thinking it's a safe place to than young people in other nations" (Japan go. But it's not. They're trapped-just in a Times, November 15, 1995). According to a different way-addicted to the fashion, survey of the Oita Prefecture Education music and freedom in this country" Uapan Association, half of all high school kids Times, November 30, 1996). For these young mull the question of suicide (Japan Times, Japanese one attraction of London consists in May 30, 1996). A recent poll says that more its mixture of old and new, tradition and than one-third of elementary and junior modernity. Certainly, this is rarely to be high school students believe "they should found at home where the old and tradition­ never have been born" (Japan Times, Feb­ al has virtually been wiped out, whether by ruary 3, 1997). These shocking reports have the widespread destruction of traditional to be read against the background of Japan's houses or by eliminating other elements of impressive economic and material success in the Japanese culture, and replaced by the the postwar decades. It is this sort of mental "new." Even the Crown Princess articulated landscape which new religions enter and this identity crisis between new and old offer meaningful life, consolation for anxi­ when she said, "At times I experience hard­ eties and healing. ship in trying to find the proper point of After the end of the student movement balance between traditional things and my in the mid-1970s, the "occult and the super­ own personality ... I believe that inside of natural" became very popular among the me-and I am sure that is true of many peo­ young Uapan Times, April21, 1995). At the ple-there are both traditional and newer same time, the media focused on psychics elements" Uapan Times, December 12, 1996). and psychic powers. "The current trend of A recent trend among Japanese is an new religious groups seem to reflect young attempt to search for their identity with people's interest in psychic powers, which their Asian neighbors, and no longer through may have sprung from their anxieties about an encounter with the West. This important life" (Japan Times, April21, 1995). On uni­ change can be observed in books, films and versity campuses, new religious groups are music Uapan Times, March 8 & 13, 1997). At trying to recruit students. Young students the same time doubts remain about how who have left family and friends and try to deep this encounter really goes (cf. Japan cope independently with a completely new Times, March 13, 1997). This is particular­ environment often feel lonely. They can ly true when one considers the fact that therefore quickly be seduced, and thus Japan has not taken enough responsibility eventually become involved in new religious for the war atrocities it committed against groups. "Many students these days easily its Asian neighbors, who still harbor deep believe in the existence of the spirit and anger and distrust. superhuman ability, and many join the reli­ Finally, let us turn to newspaper reports gious clubs" (Japan Times, September 26, dealing with issues such as religious quests 1992). In response to the question of why and the search for meaning. According to a university graduates declined promising poll conducted in 1992, purposelessness careers and chose to follow a new religion and a lack of desire to contribute to society instead, we hear, "Some students said that seem to be widespread among young pea- the Aum followers tried to fill an emotional

9 jAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 hole that evolved upon reaching the long­ Manga and anime held goal of graduation. One student com­ I first realized the significance of manga mented, 'They felt isolated, since today's (comics), anime (animated features) and society is not an easy place for young peo­ other forms of youth culture for present­ ple"' (Japan Times, May 19, 1995). Similar day religion at a seminar held by the NCC reasons can be found among young house­ Center for the Study of Japanese Religions in wives who have left their old environment 1995. At that meeting, young people pre­ and are mostly left alone to cope with the sented their views on Aum and the Aum new situation of house and family. Many incident. They clarified the background of urban housewives turn "to new religions to the "mental landscape" common to many cope with the changing society" (Japan young people in Japan which is articulated Times, November 13, 1988). Students and very clearly in manga and anime. young housewives seem to make up the Manga and anime may be understood as biggest proportion of new members in new a means of communication. They express the religions such as Aum. fears, hopes and beliefs which are shared At the same time, the rise in popularity of by many readers, otherwise they would not new religions, the so-called "religion boom," enjoy such great popularity. In 1995, for seems to be accompanied by the "commer­ example, 2.3 billion manga books and mag­ cialization" of religious groups (Japan Times, azines were printed and nearly 1.9 billion February 18, 1992). Cults are thought to be were sold, making fifteen copies for each cashing in on the craving to belong (Japan Japanese (Schodt 1996, 19). The best selling Times, April 21, 1995). In recent years, manga magazine is Shiikan shonen jampu many scandals enveloping religious groups (Weekly Boys Jump); its weekly circulation have come to light. These scandals have is between five and six million copies included finances, intimidation and mur­ (Schodt 1996, 88). The reason for its suc­ der. Religion has become a business in this cess very likely lies in its editorial policy. capitalistic society. Now, consumers have The editors once asked young readers to to be protected from religious abuse. In name 1) the word that most warmed their reflecting on these abuses, we discover the heart: yiijo (friendship); 2) the thing they deep tragedy that young people, searching for felt most important: dozyoku (effort, perse­ shelter in this tough society and finding it in verance); and 3) the thing that made them the new religions, are now abused a second happiest: shari (winning, victory). These time. three words became the criteria for select­ On the other hand we read, "In princi­ ing the stories (Schodt 1996, 89)! Accord­ ple, religion gives people the power to live, ing to the editor, "The three words reflect but established religions apparently do not their positive, optimistic outlook. At Sh6- fulfill this role anymore" (Japan Times, nen Jump we don't believe in the esthetics of May 19, 1995). So, established religions, defeat." This is a "phenomenally success­ including Christianity, must also bear some ful formula" (Schodt 1996, 90). We shall responsibility for the young being led down find these values again and again in the fol­ the wrong path. However, we also have to lowing study of manga. keep in mind that "About 90 percent of In manga and anime many religious young people today appear allergic to reli­ themes can be found. These themes are not gion. But if a cult can attract the rest, it'll always easily detected or understood, find a large number of followers" (Japan because they are employed in an eclectic Times, April21, 1995). way and used in strange forms. This makes

10 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions lhem difficult to recognize, but it should new religions focus on extraordinary not prevent us from trying to look beyond the events, miracles and supernatural powers strangeness and attempting to detect the in order to deal with the pressing needs of meaning behind that which might even the present. The established religions, how­ appear offensive to our Christian faith. We ever, have more or less given up such have to decode the message behind the issues, although formerly these had also external appearance. played an important role for them. Instead, There are directly religious themes, the established religions are more con­ taken from folk religion, Shinto, Buddhism cerned with maintaining their organiza­ or Christianity, such as evil or good spirits, tions and status quo. demons, the search for a new humanity, the savior or messiah preventing the destruc­ SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT tion of the world, Armaggedon, etc. But there are also more indirectly religious One of the basic characteristics of shonen themes, such as the fight between good and manga (youth manga) is that the hero is evil or between the just and unjust. Before always a young person, a boy or girl; adults we turn to the specific religious themes, we normally represent decadence and the must paint a general picture of manga and cause of various evils. To a great extent, the the world they depict for young Japanese. story consists of the young person's devel­ In general, the reading of manga and opment by which he or she becomes a hero. anime might be criticized as escapism, and Growth is gained through physical exer­ this is surely true. It is an escape from the cise, such as the practice of traditional Chi­ daily reality we face. On the other hand, nese or Japanese martial arts as in Ranma these publications create situations in which 112, or through less conventional practices readers or viewers find themselves anew. It such as running long distances while dis­ is not only escapism; it is also a search for a tributing milk to households as in Drag­ world where things are the way they onball. But even more important is the should be as opposed to our world of injus­ "spiritual development" (Nagara 1995, 16) tice, disaster, suffering and decadence. To which the young hero has to experience in some degree, the world designed in manga order to cope with the challenges his or her and anime reflects the many problems of whole world is facing. If there is an adult our life. On the other hand, they create a character who helps the young hero develop, world to counter our ordinary world. It is it is normally someone who previously this counter-world which resembles in cer­ faced similar challenges and underwent tain ways the Heaven in which we Chris­ practices for self-development. The absence tians believe, or the Pure Land hoped for by of parents as a positive model in these many Buddhists. There is also another manga is conspicuous; instead, trustworthy commonality between manga and religion: in persons such as teachers or advisers appear. manga, as in religion, extraordinary things "The adult characters often pose the sort of are still happening, miracles which lift up calm, relaxed, humble-but-self-confident our ordinary life. With supernatural pow­ personality that the heroes learn to develop ers (chonozyoku) evil is defeated. Virtual as the story proceeds through self-mastery" reality becomes actual reality when heroes (Nagara 1995, 21). materialize themselves, as in the case of Probably the most important and most Video Girl Ai who jumps out of the televi­ common value presented in the world is sion screen, or Zenki who comes out of a that of "purity" (junsui). While performing sacred stone. In a very similar way, today's their heroic deeds, the young characters

11 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 have to develop and maintain a spiritual sage of hope and glory. Government officials purity, a pure seishin (spirit). It is becom­ are invariably corrupt in the world of ing adult that makes one corrupt and caus­ anime" (Levi 1996, 84). es one to lose one's purity. In the world of Seishin is about individuals and indi­ the adult, it is almost impossible to keep vidual cultivation. Its vision of self-mas­ this purity of heart because one has to tery through self-effort and following adapt to the situation and compromise. In one's heart does not lend itself to the Devilman we learn that only a young per­ restrictions necessary to control large son with a pure and just heart can over­ groups of society at large. For this rea­ come the demon who threatens the world son, these characters often exist within a (Nagai 1980, 132-34). Here, the hero choos­ small, tightly-knit group of friends on es a peer to help him, and this friend must the fringes of society and eventually also have a pure heart with a love for jus­ marginalize themselves through their tice, a strong will and a determination to unpredictable, makoto behavior. Mar­ overcome evil. "This broader vision of ginality and following one's heart in seishin is oriented toward individuals and shonen manga, however, does not neces­ individual self-fulfillment" (Nagara 1995, sarily equal selfishness or license for 6). "The vision of seishin in shonen mango wanton destruction .... However, the sei­ is unique in its orientation toward youth .... shin behavioral code of the heroes of It is a world where any extraneous thought shonen manga, despite the heroes' occa­ toward money, power, or love exclusively sional penchant toward violence, includes for the sake of one's base desires creates a a crucial belief in the importance of oth­ block to success and achievement. It is a ers (Nagara 1995, 20). vision that works to bring up achievers in its ways, who will inspire others to join in its THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL visions of hard work, self-mastery, and even­ tually, self-fulfillment" (Nagara 1995, 22). The field in which the young character Self-mastery, self-fulfillment and becoming proves himself or herself as hero is the bat­ an achiever (seikosha) are also important tleground between good and evil, justice topics and motifs that can be found in Aum. and injustice. This can be a fight with human beings, especially established authorities

MARGINALIZATION (police, army, etc.), but it may also be a fight with spirits, demons or other super­ In their efforts to overcome evil and injustice, natural entities. Normally, nothing less than the young heroes associate themselves with humankind and earth are at risk, and quite a small band of similar-minded peers. They frequently the hero has to acquire supernat­ all have to pay the price in social respect, ural powers. It can thus happen that he or however. They are marginalized in a soci­ she takes over the negative qualities of the ety which does not give the same high enemy. In Devilman for example, "When value to a pure and just heart. "The non­ its young hero learns that a host of demons calculating, selfless acts that are consistent are attempting to destroy mankind, he with the demands of the kokoro, performed becomes Devilman in order to combat them out of junsui, cause society to marginalize the on their terms" (Schodt 1986, 124). "In the young heroes of the shonen mango" heart of a demon," we read, "there is no (Nagara 1995, 17). "In anime, they [young love" (Nagai 1980, 80). In order to over­ people] can find an appropriately nihilistic come a demon one "has to have a good, view of the society combined with a mes- pure heart" and "One has to be a young

12 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions person who loves justice" (Nagai 1980, catching the bird and drinking his blood, 132ff). The Devilman possesses these char­ but the bird reveals itself only rarely. The acteristics, but he is also the devilman, i.e., phoenix is a supernatural force, an immortal he consists of akuma and ningen (devil and observer, an occasional protector of mankind human being) in order to overcome the and life in the universe ... " (Schodt 1996, demons with "supernatural powers" (cho­ 262). It may also be mentioned that volume noryoku) (Nagai 1980, 179, 162). 5 bears the title "Resurrection" (fukkatsu), a In the manga Zenki, the local kami (god) distinctly Christian term. uses kishin zenki, the god-devil, to subdue In Dragonball, aliens (saiyajin) threaten evil powers. For a magician, it is most the world, and even kill most of the heroes. important to have a "heart of justice" (seigi "In order to resurrect their friends, they no kokoro), and magic is not for one's own [the surviving heroes] travel to another fame and desire, but for the sake of "saving planet to obtain special wish-granting drag­ other human beings" (tanin o sukuu) (Tani onballs" (Nagara 1995, 17). They say, "We and Kuroiwa 1995, 150). are fighting for the sake of the Earth. We In the anime Vampire Princess Miyu, the have to resurrect those who died, and fight vampire girl's "bite is not lethal. ... It's worse. the Sayajin again" (Nagara 1995, 17). Miyu leaves her victims with an eternal life utterly devoid of meaning" (Levi 1996, 46); ARMAGEDDON AND SALVATION "The issue is never as simple as good versus evil" (Levi 1996, 47). Miyu is a shinma-a One of the main topics of manga and anime is that earth and humanity are threatened newly created word consisting of kami and akuma, god and devil in one. And Himiko, with extinction by a cataclysmic event, the medium who hunts Miyu, must also quite often called Armageddon, or by agents from outside, such as aliens or demons. A become a shinma in order to succeed. The hero, usually a young person who has distinction between gods and demons is attained self-mastery through physical and blurred (Levi 1996, 48). spiritual practices, finally overcomes the threat and proves to be a messianic figure, a RELIGIOUS THEMES savior of humanity and the earth. The fact One of the fundamental questions facing that this theme reappears again and again humankind is mortality. Since ancient naturally hints at deeply rooted fears among times, religion and science have engaged in Japanese, especially the young. Of course, the quest to extend the human life-span or the fear that our world is seriously endan­ achieve immortality. Modern manga and gered is not limited to Japan. anime take up this theme and blend modern The famous manga and anime Nausicati images with ancient conceptions. One of by Miyazaki Hayao is set in a future "post­ the best known manga, Hi no tori (Phoenix), nuclear-apocalypse world" (Schodt 1996, the "life work" of Tezuka Osamu (Schodt 277). In the preface Miyazaki writes, 1996, 244), the most famous manga artist in In a few short centuries, industrial civi­ Japan, is "a long running saga of reincarna­ lization had spread from the Western tion and the search for immortality" [Levi fringes of Eurasia to sprawl across the 1996, 40). "What links all the eras and char­ face of the planet. Plundering the soil of acters together is mankind's foolish quest its riches, fouling the air, and remolding for some sort of immortality, as symbolized life forms at will, this gargantuan indus­ by the pursuit of the semi-mythical phoenix. trial society had already peaked a thou­ Immortality can supposedly be obtained by sand years after its foundation: Ahead

13 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997

lay abrupt and violent decline. The The story concludes, "The ancient prophecies cities burned, welling up as clouds of were true .... There has come the advent of poison in the war remembered as the the Angel of the Light, the one who will Seven Days of Fire. The complex and lead you to the Pure Land. She who loves sophisticated technological superstruc­ the forest, and talks with the insects ... she ture was lost; almost all the surface of who calls down the wind, and rides upon it the earth was transformed into a sterile like a bird" (Miyazaki 1995, 252). The girl wasteland. Industrial civilization was has become a "messianic figure" (Schodt never rebuilt as mankind lived on 1996, 277). through the long twilight years ... (1995, 3). Referring to the anime The Crystal Tri­ As a result of environmental pollution the angle, Levi writes, "In this Indiana Jones­ "Sea of Corruption" was born, "God's pun­ style science fiction film, a Japanese archae­ ishment for our pollution of the earth" ologist searches for Jehovah's last message of (Miyazaki 1995, 89). The Sea of Corruption, hope for humanity which, as it turns out, "the new world" (Miyazaki 1995, 23), was left in the care ofHimiko, Japan's ancient threatens the earth, especially the last shaman queen.... In the end, ... Himiko stronghold, the "Valley of the Wind, ... a sacrifices her life so that she can enter Jeho­ small kingdom on the edge of the frontier, vah's spaceship and transmit the final mes­ given frail protection against the poisons of sage" (1996, 51). Self-sacrifice for the salva­ the Sea of Corruption by the constant tion of humanity is an important topic winds blowing through from the ocean" which also reappears in the history of (Miyazaki 1995, 23). The heroine of the many religions, not only Christianity. story, Nausicaa, is the young daughter of In the manga X/1999, the situation after a the frail king ofthe Valley ofthe Wind. She devastating earthquake is described. The has a tender heart towards all living beings young hero, Kamui, is said to hold "the [speaking with them as St. Francis did], but key ... to the world's future" (Clamp 1996, at the same time, she resolutely fights the 152). Can he prevent the "end of the world" enemies who threaten the last resort of from coming in 1999 (Clamp 1996, 190)? dignified life. One day, she and a young AD Police depicts events after the Sec­ boy discover in the "Climax Forest," which ond Great Kanto Earthquake of the year is the "final stage of the growth in the Sea of 2025. The previous situation is described Corruption," completely pure sand, "a world as, "A corrupt government, a growing gap of peace and purity" (Miyazaki 1995, between rich and poor ... air pollution, serious 89-90). The boy exclaims, "It's a miracle! traffic problems, high land prices, increased We're alive! There's no miasma here! It's violence, divorce, drugs, bribery, suicide, like a dream ... how could the bottom of the terrorism ... the classical symptoms of a forest could be so pure ... ?" (Miyazaki 1995, decadent megapolis" (Suzuki and Takezaki 125). And Nausicaa says, "I'm sure the for­ 1996, 71). On the surface, the quake appears est itself was created to cleanse the to be good shock therapy. The "dream of a world .. .it takes into its body the pollution new life" arose (Suzuki and Takezaki 1996, left in the soil by the old civilizations, turns 72). However, a journalist investigates the it into harmless crystals, then dies and huge multinational company Genom which turns into harmless sand." She raises the helped to rebuild the capital, and he finds question of whether "we humans are the out that this company had already tried ten real pollution ... " (Miyazaki 1995, 131). She years before the earthquake to gain control now proves to be the one who "protect[s] over Tokyo. Now, after the disaster, peo­ the whole world" (Miyazaki 1995, 216). ple's thinking and consumption are even

14 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions more controlled than before. "Not thinking, ese. Established religions have a rather neg­ [but] consuming, obeying, consuming ... " ative image as corrupt, degenerate organi­ (Suzuki and Takezaki 1996, 71). As the zations. Their adult representatives are frightening insight arises, "What if... the great hungry for power, siding with evil and con­ earthquake was produced artificially!?" tradicting the good. However, we should (Suzuki and Takezaki 1996, 75), he is killed not forget that within this (often implicit) by a man carrying a cross. Genom had built criticism of established religion, one can the central computer net of Tokyo, the also detect an authentic quest by youth for "central nervous system of the town," and genuine forms of faith and religion. was intending to gain worldwide control Manga and anime draw much material by connecting all the computer networks in for their stories from old Shinto legends the world. and myths. In general, Shinto does not The story then shifts to the so-called have the negative image that is attached to "boomers," human beings in whose brains an Buddhism. For most Japanese, "Shinto is a artificial "wall" had been implanted in order religion of life. They are born Shinto, they to prevent them from exercising free will. marry Shinto, and their loudest, most exu­ Their souls are imprisoned behind this wall. berant festivals are Shinto" (Levi 1996, 25). A leading boomer claims, however, "For We also have to keep in mind that "Most the benefit of my boomer-friends ... God has Japanese are uninterested in theology. torn down my inner wall and liberated my Their religious practices are a matter of tra­ soul. I am truly the messiah!!" (Suzuki and ditions, not reasoned analyses or beliefs" Takezaki 1996, 84). And a female boomer (Levi 1996, 24ff). confesses, "He is the great messiah who Buddhism has a "very different emotion­ will break the spell which lies on our souls al connotation" from Shinto (Levi 1996, 24). and will liberate us" (Suzuki and Takezaki "When Japanese die, they die Buddhist. 1996, 95). The "messiah" contemplates, "Is For most Japanese, Buddhism is associated it not human beings whose soul has to be with death and funerals" (Levi 1996, 25). liberated!? Should not human beings have Moreover, "Buddhist monks often play a created us, after they themselves had liber­ negative role in anime and manga" (Levi ated their own souls and had gotten to 1996, 51). In Hi no tori, for example, Gao, a know themselves better!?" (Suzuki and former mass murderer turned Buddhist Takezaki 1996, 95). As he is attacked and acolyte, flees in anger after learning how seriously wounded, he cries, "0 God, why do corrupt organized religion is (Schodt 1986, you lead me oh this way of suffering!? 0 26). "In The Crystal Triangle, Buddhist God!! Where are you!? Give me strength!! monks are revealed to be hideous, invading Give me power!!" (Suzuki and Takezaki aliens" (Levi 1996, 25). "In anime [and 1996, 79). And we are left with his ques­ manga], Zen is associated with martial arts tion, "Human beings, do you know for and occasionally with the occult" (Levi 1996, what you are searching? Do you know who 25). "Even those who are deeply committed you are, where you come from and where to the religion itself sometimes express you will go?" (Suzuki and Takezaki 1996, doubts about the integrity of Buddhist insti­ 82). tutions and professionals (monks, nuns and priests). Thus, it is not too surprising that when an esoteric Buddhist sect challenges IMAGES OF ESTABLISHED RELIGIONS Ayaka Kisaragi for the Tokyo ghost-busting Manga and anime reflect to a large extent market in Phantom Quest Corp., it turns the images of religion held by young Japan- out to not only be in league with demons, but

15 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 7997 greedy and criminal besides" (Levi 1996, seen in the same context: It is something 52). very bright. "In both The Crystal Triangle and Zenki, Buddhism is salvation as well as threat .... The Aum Generation The mistrust of Buddhism seems to be con­ fined to Buddhist practitioners and institu­ In the fall of 1995, the NCC Study Center tions. It has little to do with the religion organized a seminar on the religious situation itself" (Levi 1996, 54). However, one can­ of t.he so-called "Aum generation" during not say that the Japanese are "anti-Bud­ wh1ch young Japanese were invited to pre­ dhist" (Levi 1996, 25). sent their views on Aum and the Aum inci­ In a similar fashion to Buddhism, it can be dent. I summarize here the position of two of said, "The Japanese are not anti-Christian the speakers. as a rule, but they regard the religion ... as something exotic, inscrutable, supersti­ "THE REVENGE OF THE CHILDREN" tious, and probably linked to the occult"­ Having grown up in Hokkaido and studied supernatural powers, or a connection with in Kyoto, Maeda Daisuke felt that in "lis­ the dark and unknowable (Levi 1996, 25). tening to my friends' feelings and talking In Tokyo Babylon, for example, "Outlandish with them, I constantly had the obscure outfits with crucifixes [are] prominently feeling that although Japanese society isn't displayed" to indicate connection with the completely ruined yet, it's becoming more occult (Levi 1996, 62). Films such as The and more rotten, and it made me sick (and Exorcist probably account for the associa­ still does)" (Maeda 1997, 88). tion of such images. Church buildings can When he heard about the Aum incident also "reflect doom" (Levi 1996, 63). "The the book The Revenge of the Childre~ image of Christianity may seem odd to (Kodomotachi no fukushu) by Honda Kat­ many Americans [and Europeans], but it's suichi sprang immediately to mind. It was really no different from the image Ameri­ first published in the late 1970s or early can film-makers try to create when they use 1980s and reports cases in which children sets involving multiarmed Hindu statues to killed family members or were killed by indicate something dark and unknown." parents. Intuitively, Maeda felt that the young They "represent the exotic unknown. Anime people who had joined Aum belonged to treats Christianity, and Hinduism for that the survivors of this period. He was also matter, in much the same way" (Ibid.). Levi reminded of the novel Kaion by a then 18- therefore warns us not to "judge too hastily" year-old female high school student whose (Ibid.). pen name is Shinohara Hajime. Maeda However, the image of Christianity among comments on the situation: Japanese youth is not only negative, it is also positive as can be seen, for example, in However many times I see Taki, he looks the current popularity of Christian wed­ like a newborn foal with his spindly legs dings and Christmas Eve celebrations among shaking as he tries to stand. But however young people. It is their bright (akarui) con­ long he tries, he can't stand up by himself, notation and image that are so attractive. his legs keep folding .... He is touching, While for European and American Chris­ and certainly noble, as he tries to stand, tians, Christmas has become a family festival, but it's no good. A horse that can't for the Japanese it has become a "time of stand-a horse that can't run-can't sur­ romance" (Levi 1996, 26). The popularity vive (Maeda 1997, 89). of Japanese "Christian" weddings has to be Maeda concludes his presentation:

16 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions

In my opinion, one underlying reason ... concerning why, what was so attractive, that Aum Shinriky6 happened was the I think that it was the idea of enlighten­ world that existed in the hearts of this ment (satori) and using one's own body in generation-you can't call them young religious practices (shugyo) .... Firstly, people or children .... Speaking person­ the established religions have merged ally, I think Aum Shinriky6 was one into the everyday landscape .... Because of answer to this .... I think Aum may have this it's very difficult for ordinary young been a sort of experiment on the part of people to join them. In addition, the new such children to become adults on their religions that arose after the Second own, without any reliance on the adult World War, the so-called new religions world .... In other words, in reality it's (shinko shii.kyo) such as S6ka Gakkai, through the presence and help of adults give the impression of being centered on that children first become adults them­ this-worldly benefits (genze riyaku), selves. But the adults were mostly irre­ such as being healed from sickness or sponsible, so these abandoned children freed from poverty. Our parents' and had no choice but to become adults by grandparents' generations, who were poor themselves. So wasn't Aum a sort of at­ during and after the war, were I think tempt in which children tried to become looking during the postwar construction grownups, really an attempt, in a situation period for some sort of salvation that they could see with their own eyes. At that had not occurred before? I think it's that time this-worldly benefits were very a pity if we don't recognize this point. I much emphasized. On the contrary, we of think it's wrong, especially for people the present so-called Aum generation concerned with religion, only to rate didn't find this so attractive. Not this­ them as criminals, as journalists do, worldly benefits but enlightenment, deliv­ because they carried out the sarin attack. erance (gedatsu), to receive spiritual sal­ Certainly their attempt was a failure, but vation (seishinteki ni sukuwareru) were I think it's wrong for us not to consider what we were earnestly seeking. And what we can learn from this failure Aum placed enlightenment at the fore­ (Maeda 1997, 91). front, and furthermore one's own reli­ Maeda's analysis ofthe "mental landscape" gious practice, to obtain enlightenment (1997, 90) of the Aum generation fits well through religious practice using one's with the situation of the manga and anime. own body. It is the young who take up the challenges . . .I can go to the temple and listen to the posed by our time, and while they try to priest's sermon, and can thoroughly grow physically and spiritually in order to agree with it. Or I can go to church and master the problems they cannot rely on feel the same way about the minister's the help of adults who are too busy earning sermon too, I can understand it.. .. How­ money and the like. ever, for us, now, in this information society that overflows with opinions, such a moral proposition seems like many A VOI~E FROM THE AUM GENERATION other opinions just to be words that go Miyai Rika grew up in Osaka and studied round and round. Amid this, enlighten­ Buddhism at Osaka University. Among the ment ... that you obtain yourself through many new religious groups, Ms. Miyai felt religious practices, appeared extremely particularly attracted by Aum Shinriky6. attractive. That wasn't restricted to Aum; She wrote, the same can be said of the "personal

17 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997

development seminars," "channeling," shattered and we don't know what to and the so-called "New Age movement" do.... We suffer from the anxiety that that have flourished during the past five however much effort we make, the or ten years. Rather than a truth that's world won't change, will it; it'll just con­ handed down in words from above, we tinue on its path to destruction, won't it. come close to enlightenment through In addition, [the Japanese translation changing ourselves, and I feel very attract­ of] the Prophecies of Nostradamus came ed to that aspect. out in 1973, just when we were in ele­ Aum put forward the thesis that first mentary school, and through this the came enlightenment or self-renewal, and word "Armageddon" came into close­ that through spiritual change you would up. After that I and my friends unques­ change the world. That appeared very tioningly held the consciousness that attractive to me. They didn't emphasize soon Armageddon, the final war between Armageddon from the beginning, although good and evil, would take place. Against they did use that word. If each one of us this background were television pro­ were to change spiritually, to become grams and manga; we might call to mind more spiritual, we could avert Armaged­ the Masked Rider (kamen raidaa) and don, was the way they talked .... During Ultraman; in these, evil would invade the first half ofthe 1980s, when we were the world, aliens or "Shockers" or what­ around high school age, ... there was a ever, there was evil. Against these stood novel popular in some quarters by Hirai the Masked Rider or Ultraman, the uphold­ Kazumasa called Genma Taisen (Great ers of justice, and that was us. Each of us War With Demons; it later became an would fight and destroy evil, justice animated film [Armageddon]), which would win; ... we had some sort of idea communicated the same way of think­ that we wanted to do something for the ing. In other words, if we undertake spir­ itual training or religious practices, and sake of justice. But when we grew up, attain a certain spiritual level, this world we didn't know what justice might be, will in some way improve. The back­ and the evil in the world isn't something ground to this was our consciousness of tangible we can see. Even if we say that reality; I think that our generation has a politics is bad, assassinating the current very strong consciousness that this world prime minister isn't going to change any­ is heading for destruction .... For a long thing. In that way, there was no longer time I've felt deep anxiety that this is anything to symbolize evil. So we didn't reality. However many slogans there are know what to do with this sense of justice saying "Peace is good" or "Let's get rid that had been cultivated in us. We felt of nuclear weapons," war hasn't ceased at extreme anxiety because we no longer all, nuclear weapons haven't gone away, knew what we should do, but we always and I feel these situations [are?] pressing had the feeling that something must be in ... even though we think we'd like to wrong. So through Armageddon surely change politics for the better, in the past something would end, evil would be during the 1970s at the time of [the destroyed, if Armageddon happened we renewal of] Ampo [the U.S.-Japan Security would stand on the side of justice .... But Treaty] there may have been student vio­ in reality it didn't happen that way; we lence and many conflicts, but actually it felt that more and more [the world] was proved impossible to bring about any heading in the direction of evil and real change. So that illusion has been destruction. In other words, I think that

18 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions something like a hope for Armaged­ being severely oppressed, and then don ... was building up inside us. when they heard that forcible investiga­ At this point I'd like to return to the tions would start, then the idea of idea of the aversion of Armageddon; the destroying this world arose, is of course thesis that through enlightenment and something unacceptable and wrong but reforming oneself the world would I think I understand it a little. They were become better was put forward, and that hoping for Armageddon, in other words wasn't limited to Aum but was said in they wanted to destroy evil for the sake of many places .... The members of Aum ... justice, and they thought they wanted to thought that through practicing truth make the world better; but, as in reality they could save the world, but actually we who have been wholeheartedly seek­ the group was never accepted at all. For ing truth are being persecuted by the example, when they went to Namino vil­ world and regarded as evil, to put it lage in Kumamoto Prefecture, maybe another way, it is the society that is they themselves seriously thought that oppressing us that is evil, it is they who they were trying to build Lotus Village, as are wrong .... So, why don't we destroy they called the community where they this mistaken world, ... shouldn't we were trying to live out Aum's teachings; rather than waiting bring about Arma­ but, they were completely rejected. I geddon ourselves, and if we do then the think that they must have felt something like this sort of dissatisfaction: The estab­ world of truth can be born. I don't think lished value system always crushes our it is so strange that this kind of logic truth, crushes our sincere ideas. Actual­ emerged (Miyai 1997, 92-96). ly, I think there really is great oppres­ sion and persecution of differences from THE RESPONSE OF THE RELIGIONS the norm [in Japan]. Today, I myself, although I'm not as different from the norm as all that and I don't suffer any New-new Religions visible oppression, am somehow a little We may roughly divide the development of unhappy. When you don't fit into the new religions in modern Japan into three world's framework, ... you feel some sort phases. The first phase was the birth of new of sense of grievance or persecution ... religions in the Meiji period. Most of these ordinary people bear it and go on with are Shinto-derived, such as Tenriky6, living. However, ... [w]hen Aum tried to set up various local groups, opposition 6moto-ky6 and Konk6ky6. They resulted movements took place ... , and they were from the experiences, mostly of women, crushed. In addition, people sincerely which can be called revelations of a kami. left their homes (shukke)-leaving aside These individuals (mediums) who would the question of whether that was a good later be claimed as the founders of the reli­ thing or not-but their parents protested gions came from rural areas which had suf­ that they had been kidnapped or some­ fered greatly under the Meiji Restoration. thing. "Even though we are wholeheart­ This is because modernization was financed edly acting for the sake of truth, society to a large extent by heavy land taxes drawn doesn't accept us"-I think they must from middle- and small-sized farms. Reve­ have felt this way very strongly. That latory experiences sprang from the painful when they [Aum members] reached that psychological, social and economic suffering point, when they felt that they were of these people.

19 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 7997

The next great wave of new religions between East and West, tradition and occurred after the end of World War II, modernity, became characteristic elements of when democracy and freedom of religion these groups, especially the search for roots were enshrined in the postwar constitu­ in old Asian traditions such as Theravada tion. This period was characterized initially Buddhism, Yoga and Tibetan esoteric Bud­ by economic, social and spiritual difficul­ dhism. ties which resulted from defeat, and later Before founding Aum, Asahara was in by the economic miracle, urbanization, etc. fact a member of Agonshu for a while and it of the 1960s and onwards. Roughly speaking, seems that he had adopted many ideas and the new religions that flourished enor­ practices from Agon, such as Yoga, Ther­ mously in this period (though their roots avada Buddhist sutras, Tibetan esoteric lie much further back) are those that derive Buddhism, a Sanskrit emblem, etc. Docu­ more from Buddhism, especially the mentation from both religions show to an Lotus/Nichiren tradition. Soka Gakkai and astounding degree how they fit into the Rissho Koseikai are two representative needs and the mental landscape of the groups. They fit very well with this period of younger generation. economic growth, and as we learned from

Ms. Miyai, they were very much oriented TESTIMONIES OF AUM FOLLOWERS toward worldly benefits. However, they were also able to offer a new experience of Reading the testimonies of Aum members, community to the many young Japanese we observe that basically they were attract­ who moved from the countryside to work ed by three elements: First of all, practice in the big cities and who felt rootless owing with their body which gave them "peace of to industrialization and urbanization. mind" and extraordinary mystical experi­ A third wave of new religions, now called ences; secondly, Aum's teaching which they new-new religions or neo-new religions, claimed was logical, systematic, and in har­ began in the 1970s and 1980s when the mony with science; and thirdly, the teaching Japanese economy began to reach its peak, and practice were communicated in alan­ and when young people were asking for guage that was understandable to contem­ more than material gains, when they dis­ porary youth. covered the necessity of spirituality, and First, with respect to religious practice, the search for peace of mind. Asahara what were the reasons for joining Aum? A claimed, "We must consider ... that the exis­ doctoral student who left a good job in a tent new religions have preached worldly major trading firm confessed, "I had enough gains and profits. People who are at the of the materialistic world of business .... I mercy of afflictive desires will gladly fol­ couldn't figure out what I should do or why low such religions. But for the first time in I was there." Then he learned about Aum's Japanese history, a teaching which denies meditation techniques and tried them. Of worldly gains and profits has risen. This is this experience, he said, "I felt this bursting Aum Shinrikyo" (Asahara 1992, 39ff). Even sensation from inside. It was amazing." though this statement is historically incor­ During an intensive meditation session, he rect, there is some truth in it. To these new­ had a vision and was overjoyed: "I felt as if new religions of the third wave belong I had ascended to a higher stage. A bright groups like Agonshu, K6fuku no kagaku light fell from above and entered me" and Aum Shinrikyo. Most ofthem are Bud­ (Japan Times, June 1, 1995). dhist-oriented. In this period, spiritual One person confessed, "I was feeling attainment and the search for identity stagnant in everything and had lost interest

20 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions in the worldly way of life. I felt I needed Another Aum member expressed serious something that would give me strong men­ concern about society: "I feel anger has tal satisfaction, and realized that this thirst served to give certain rights in social prob­ could not be healed by devoting myself to lems such as the discrimination against the work or by enjoying myself" (Asahara blacks in South Africa or North America. 1993, 161). When I watched children die miserably in a A young man testified, "I was able to meet film about the Vietnam War I couldn't help with the supreme guru, Master Shako Asa­ feeling angry because I felt powerless to do hara in this life. His great power has given anything about it. In my opinion this kind of me peace of mind and many wonderful anger at society is inevitable as long as we mystical experiences" (Asahara 1993, 207). have human feelings" (Asahara 1993b, 129). And he concluded, "An ordinary man was I, Concern is also voiced about society but thanks to the Great Guru I was able to from a psychological aspect. One woman grow mentally and spiritually" (Asahara wrote, "Before joining Aum I was always 1993, 208). afraid of showing my real self to other peo­ Among the basic problems of human ple and was always conscious of other peo­ existence and society are egoism and ego­ ple's eyes. I was always hiding myself centrism. Aum offered practical ways to because I wanted other people to have a overcome them. J6yu Fumihiro, who until better image of me, or not dislike me .... I the beginning of 1995 headed the Russian was never free from worries" (Asahara Aum branch and after the police raids in 1993a, 164). After having a conversation March was called home to represent the with Asahara, she said, "He understands group in public, wrote, "I would like to do me better than I do myself and always gives my best to lead others to practice who are me the right advice" (Asahara 1993a, 165). vexed with ego like myself.... I would like to She is certainly not the only young person to do my best in cooperating with salvation suffer from loneliness in our society. activities the master is planning to do in This quotation leads to the next issue, order to avoid a war" (Asahara 1988, 158). the problem of how to communicate reli­ Other believers also frequently voiced their gion adequately and understandably. To feel desire to extinguish "egocentric behavior," to understood and to understand are two sides overcome "egocentric desires" and "ego­ of the same coin. A young woman wrote, centric clinging" (As ahara 1993, 163, 277, "The teaching of Aum Shinrikyo was very 279). easy to understand and I found answers to With respect to the problem of social many questions I had, including the mean­ marginalization and the creation of a new ing of life which I had been searching for a community, which also appeared as an long time" (Asahara 1993a, 164). The doc­ important theme in shonen manga, we read toral student quoted above mentioned his the following statement by a young woman, reason for being attracted to Asahara: "I "All people at Aum were always cheerful admire the supreme master... because he and never said bad things about others, tells us things nobody else could explain so which was quite unlike ordinary society .... clearly and logically" (Japan Times, June 1, I could actually see that it was brighter than 1995). the other places outside" (Asahara 1993, Many of Aum's followers were young 166). Here, we see the creation of a new academics attracted by a teaching which community at the margins of society. It was claimed to be religious and scientific at the given the name of the ideal Buddhist land same time. Having suffered personally Shambala. under this dichotomy which society does

21 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 not allow to be discussed in schools, mes­ with the law and was imprisoned in 1953. sages such as these must have come as a Then, he discovered the Kannon-gyo (Kan­ great relief: "Buddhism is a science because non Sutra) in 1954. Out of this experience it explains logically," and, "Buddhist teach­ developed a religious group, Kannon ings are supported with logic and logic Jikeikai, which changed its name to Agonshii should explain any kind of phenomena­ in 1978. It became famous for the hoshi this is the view of Master Asahara" (Asa­ matsuri (star festival), a fire rites festival, hara 1992b, preface). which is held every year on Japan's Nation­ Finally, returning to the problem of youth al Foundation Day (February 11) in and manga/ anime and making a connection Yamashina, near Kyoto. Agonshii claims to between manga/anime and Aum, I would have "more than 300,000 followers, some like to quote from the recent book Dreamland 40 percent of whom are between the ages of Japan by an American specialist in manga, 20 and 40" (Snyder 1990, 24). If this figure is Frederik Schodt. Concerning AUM Comics correct, why is Agon so attractive to young he writes that one reason for Aum's success people? Hopefully, the following section "was its ability to package its ... message in an will give some clues. I have chosen five attractive fashion .... Anime and manga­ topics that appear frequently in Agon's own because they are so popular, because they can writings and also in secondary literature: 1) be used to dramatize and exaggerate infor­ religious practice between self-effort and mation and simplify a complex reality, and relaxation; 2) "purification" of individual because they are often rendered in a cute ... and society; 3) "harmony" between tradi­ style-were the perfect vehicle for the cult to tion and modernity; 4) "unification" of East proselytize" (Schodt 1996, 230). He writes and West: nihonjinron and kokusaika; and 5) further, "I was most impressed by Spirit warning of a global disaster that is predict­ Jump, ... manga filled with true stories of ed to occur in 1999. how various disciples had become disillu­ sioned with their ... spiritually empty lives EFFORT AND RELAXATION IN PRACTICE in modern Japan, joined the cult, and found happiness .... All [stories] are remarkably Agon offers its believers various forms of high in quality" (Schodt 1996, 232). religious practices that use the body, But manga and anime were not only including Yoga. One interesting aspect of instrumental in conveying Aum's message; Agon is that in its practice it stresses both they had already played a significant role effort and relaxation. On the one hand we in forming Aum's teaching and practice. hear: To become Buddha or gain enlighten­ Schodt writes, "Asahara was known to have ment (jobutsu) is not easy; "it requires great been a big fan of robot manga and animation effort and perseverance" (Agonshii 1994, as a child and to have dreamed of one day 9). Or at the end of his sermon, Kiriyama building a 'robot empire.' ... Several ideas and calls on the congregation to shout together: keywords in the group's ideology-references "Let's do it! I will certainly succeed! I am to 'Armageddon,' 'earthquake bombs', 'cosmo­ blessed with very good luck! I will certain­ cleaner' ... -had their roots in popular anime ly do well! I will definitely win! (Saa yaru­ and manga stories ... " (Schodt 1996, 47). zo! Kanarazu seiko suru! watakushi wa totemo un ga ii no da! Kanarazu umaku iku! Zettai ni katsu!)" (Reader 1988, 244). AgonshU On the other hand, Agon also responds Agonshii was founded by Kiriyama Seiyii to the needs caused by the stress of modern (1921- ). As a young man he ran into trouble work. A Ginza meditation center was

22 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions

founded in order to serve as a "spiritual porary. It is fully equipped to prepare men oasis in a concrete jungle" (Agonshii 1994, and women for the challenges of the 21st 32). This and other meditation centers have century" (Agonshii 1994, 1). With respect a double function: "The yang, or 'plus,' room to our particular concern today we hear, is designed to remove excess energy through "Why is [this] religion so popular, especial­ meditation, thus eliminating stress and ten­ ly with the young? Kiriyama Seiyu says it sion. The yin, or 'minus,' room helps med­ is because the Agon Shu 'creatively com­ itators gain energy when morning's work bines the old and new, the personal and the has depleted them" (Snyder 1990, 25). social, the philosophical and the practical, the mental and the physical, private "PURIFICATION" OF INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY achievement and public good ... the best ele­ ments of religion, self-help and a global The pattern of thinking that societal change commitment to mankind" (Snyder 1990, can only take place through personal trans­ 24). formation is also found in Agon. "The spir­ Emphasis is particularly laid on an issue itual purification of the individual leads on characteristic of traditional culture and necessarily to the spiritual purification of religion, not only in Japan, but also in society" (Agonshii 1994, 10). And Kiriyama Christian countries: the belief that ances­ says, "Moral and spiritual progress must tors need to be cared for by the living and catch up with technological development. that our fate is somehow determined by the We believe that the personal development ancestors. From here results a mutual rela­ we encourage will not only bring personal tionship between the living and the dead: fulfillment and success to the individuals "To purify the living is to liberate the spir­ concerned. It will also free their minds and its of the dead: to purify the dead is to lib­ hearts from self-destructive desire and erate the living" (Agonshii 1994, 10). excessive attachment to material things. It Kiriyama said: will create superior minds that contribute I have to say that if there is to be religion to world peace" (Agonshii 1994, 12ff). Here in the fullest sense, then it must be able to again, the theme of purity appears. The save the spirits, or the souls, of the term stems from Shinto, although it does departed who have gone before us .... It not necessarily have the same meaning in will be impossible to save the suffering which the term is used in youth culture. people in this world as long as these There is also the topic of "personal devel­ people continue to be influenced in a opment" that is such a crucial issue in sho­ negative and harmful way by the nen manga and anime. anguished and tormented spirits of the departed .... If, however, we keep thinking "HARMONY" BETWEEN TRADITION AND MODERNITY only of the stability and well-being of Another important theme, the tension be­ our own world and neglect the spiritual tween tradition and modernity, also appears world and the spiritual needs of our ances­ in Agonshii as a topic reflected on. "Agon tors, then we have no hope of achieving a Shu presents the true and original teaching truly peaceful world here on earth for of the Buddha and does this in a way that ourselves and our descendants. The responds to the needs of men and women world's misery, sufferings, and violence today. Profoundly rooted in the insights have spiritual roots (Agonshii 1994, 13). and wisdom of ancient Buddhism, Agon Agonshii also initiated a Movement for Shu is at the same time thoroughly contem- Spiritual Purification whose members visit

23 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 battlegrounds in East and Southeast Asia world, as, for example, the ways of prose­ and pray for those who died during World lytizing by new religions abroad show. War II (Agonshu 1994, 36ff). WARNING OF GLOBAL DISASTER 11 UNIFICATION" OF EAST AND WEST As has already been seen, one outstanding One important topic in Japan is the search for characteristic of the mental landscape of identity in the tension between East and the Japanese young is the fear of a global West. Again, this is taken up by Agonshi:L disaster. In the early 1970s, the prophecies "The Agon Shu Buddhist Association orig­ of Nostradamus were translated into Japan­ inated in Japan, but its concerns and its ese. The idea of Armageddon was adopted vision are global in scope. Agon Shu takes its from these prophecies, and the belief that a inspiration from the Lord Buddha. It encour­ disaster will occur around the turn of the ages everyone freely to embrace the path to millennium became very popular in Japan. liberation and salvation that the Buddha Agonshu was probably the first of the new revealed and taught. Agon Shu believes that religions which subsequently absorbed this this is the only sure way to personal ful­ idea. In 1981 Kiriyama published a book fillment and to peace and harmony among with the title 1999-nen karuma to reisho the peoples and nations of the earth" (Agon­ kara no dasshutsu (1999: Salvation from shu 1994, 1). Karma and Spiritual Impediment). This book Agonshu is a new religion and as such was followed by others, and the topic was needs authoritative legitimation. Its ideas are also taken up by Aum and K6fuku no not taken from Japanese Buddhism, which is Kagaku. When asked about the purpose of disparaged as representing a later develop­ his book 1999: The Destruction of the ment, but are mainly derived from South Earth, Kiriyama replied, Asian and Tibetan Buddhism which is Even though it is fiction, I try to use the thought of as being original and true to the novel to convey the teachings of the Bud­ teachings of Buddha himself. A Buddha dha and to warn the Japanese people of relic, the busshari, was acquired from Sri the dangerous world in which we live Lanka (cf. Agonshu 1994, 15ff) and the today. The plot of the book is that some main temple in Yamashina is thought of as people destroy a nuclear power plant "Sahet Mahet" (Agonshu 1994, 14), meaning and this leads to the destruction of the the "revived holy land of Buddha" (Bud­ Earth by contamination. Unfortunately, dha no yomigaeta seichi). In such a way, it is not pure fantasy. Such an event Japan becomes the new center from which could happen in the fragile, volatile Buddhism will spread out and save the world we have created. world (Reader 1988, 252). Such a way of Q: Do you feel that if mankind contin­ thinking, of course, reveals itself as a very ues on its present course we will have provincial and nationalistic idea. It repre­ destroyed ourselves by 1999? sents nihonjinron, the rhetoric of Japanese A: Unless we take the kind of mutual uniqueness, which has to be validated by action that we have been discussing kokusaika, or "internationalization." Such today (Snyder 1990, 26). a discourse is meant to serve the goal of Here again, as in the case of the idea that finding an identity in the modern world changing society depends on changing the (Reader 1988, 257), but unfortunately cannot individual, we observe a conditional way succeed because it remains centered on of thinking: If we change and take action, Japan. It does not really open up to the we can avoid the doom predicted by Nos-

24 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions tradamus and the world will be saved. "Our objective is to create superior minds Also, the eclectic character characteristic of that will produce technology non-damag­ all new religions can be detected: Bud­ ing to the environment, contribute to world dhism and the millennia! thought of peace and relate to one another as friends Judaeo-Christian origin are easily mixed. and fellow travelers on the spaceship What are the solutions Agon suggests? A Earth" (Snyder 1990, 25). New religions in quotation which I find very impressive says, present-day Japan are expressing exactly The tragedy of modern society is that the the same hopes as many young people: science and technology we humans have both are really looking for a savior for our created ha[ve] already far surpassed our world. own innate and limited human abilities, and we are no longer able to control our The Christian Churches' Lack of Response own creations. This is the cause of the rampant destruction of the environment Having looked at the situation of young we face today. Moreover, this world society people in Japan from different angles, and of ours, bloated and crazed with power, having seen some of the responses of new has now started to destroy the treasured religions such as Agonshii. and Aum, we social institutions of the past: our ethical finally have to ask: how do Christian systems, our morals, and even our reli­ churches relate to the challenges faced and gions. We may take some comfort in the posed by the younger generation? In a gen­ belief of future technological solutions of eral way, I shall try to compare these chal­ our environmental problems; but there lenges with the characteristics and activi­ is no way that we are going to be able to ties of the churches as far as they are construct a new code of ethics, a new known to me. The following section there­ system of morality, a new set of social fore consists of suggestions and assump­ standards, to replace what we are now tions. The emphasis of my presentation is in the process o[f] destroying. World soci­ on its description and analysis of the pre­ ety is heading straight toward total break­ sent situation of the young generation. Con­ down. Homo sapiens has reached his clusions for the churches drawn from these limit. What we need now is the appear­ will naturally differ according to individ­ ance of a new type of human being, a ual standpoint. creature with super-human abilities If we look at the major tensions for the [chojin-teki no.zyoku] who can control our younger generation within Japanese society runaway world (Agonshii. 1989, 10ff). noted above, the specific profile of the Kiriyama envisages a homo excellens, a church in this landscape becomes clear. I "superior man" who will appear from shall try to locate where the churches lie in among his students (Agonshii. 1989, 11). A the polarities: first, between East and West similar idea can be found in KOfuku no which in Japan is very strongly identified Kagaku. According to this group's founder with the polarity between tradition and and leader Okawa Ryuho (1995, 3), an modernity (even though this is not accu­ "Intellectual Titan" is required in the New rate); second, between individual and com­ Age to solve the problems of our present munity; third, between young and old; world. Aum had similar visions, with its fourth, between practice and theory; and ideas of supernatural powers and the belief fifth, between expectation of a worldwide that Asahara was the Buddha who could disaster and the maintenance of the status save the world. From Agon we further hear: quo. In all of these polarities, we observe

25 jAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 7997 that the Protestant churches in Japan are Japanese religions and in Christianity in mostly located at one extreme. other countries such as Korea or the Philip­ pines. We do not find ancestor veneration, TENSIONS BETWEEN EAST AND WEST, BeTWEEN TRA­ which is fundamental to Japanese religiosi­ DITION AND MODERNITY ty, because missionaries confused it with ancestor worship. If we look at church buildings, liturgy, wor­ On the other hand, Japanese Christians ship, etc., we find that the Protestant church­ have the potential to deal with challenges es in Japan have a predominantly Western posed by the West and modernity because coloring. Very little that is traditionally they have been exposed to these influences Japanese is to be found here. When Chris­ far more than have others; the churches tianity was introduced to Japan, it came already have networks such as those with together with the import of Western civi­ partner churches abroad, the Nccs of vari­ lization, learning and techniques. Few mis­ ous countries, the Christian Conference of sionaries made the important distinction Asia, the World Council of Churches, the between Christianity and their native cul­ Lutheran World Federation and the like. ture, and only a few were aware of the fact But I fear that Japan churches do not use that Christian faith necessarily takes differ­ this potential well enough, because they ent shapes in different countries and cul­ are too inward-looking and concerned only tures. In such a way Christianity was kept with themselves. This prevents them from foreign, it remained bataa kusai (to smell discovering their task of contributing to like butter)-it smells Western. In general, true internationalization in Japan and of a Christianity has not yet become indige­ genuine Japanese contribution to the nized in Japan. The result is that individual worldwide church. Japanese Christians experience a deep split between their religious identity, which is TENSIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY Western, and their national/cultural identi­ ty, which is Japanese or Eastern. I imagine In this respect, I have the impression that this split causes much suffering deep inside, Japanese Christianity is itself very divided. and this seems to be one of the major reasons On the one hand, we find many Christians that Japanese Christianity is not that appeal­ who live their faith as a private matter, ing for many people. The Western charac­ striving for individual spiritual self-perfec­ ter of Christianity in Japan is clearly at one tion. On the other hand are those Christians end of the polarity whereas established who take up social responsibilities on issues religions such as Buddhism are on the such as the emperor system, discrimina­ other because they have become indige­ tion, etc. Unfortunately the split between nized. The new religions of Japan, which social action and personal piety has not yet right from their beginnings have struggled been overcome in the churches. Further­ with this tension between East and West, more, Japanese congregations do form com­ tradition and modernity, keep a tenuous munities, but they are not reaching out in balance and therefore cope better with the the same way as the Jehovah's Witnesses or needs and potentials of present-day Japanese. the new religions with their proselytizing To give some examples, in Japanese Chris­ efforts. Congregations mostly mind their tianity we do not find the beautiful gardens own business. It is not always easy for a and architecture for which Japan is famous newcomer who would like to attend the worldwide; there are no sacred mountains, service to enter a church building, because which play such an important role in one has to record one's name upon enter-

26 REPP: Youth and New-New Religions

ing. To my knowledge, we also do not find (shinjitsu), but they do not receive space the kind of small counseling groups such as (ba) in the churches for this purpose; they are hoza (the Rissh6 Koseikai counseling sys­ marginalized within the church hierarchy tem) which are so important to many new that is dominated mainly by those older. religions. These counseling groups give indi­ Here is one of the reasons why young people viduals a great deal of support and advice have difficulties with the church. They do for daily life, and bind the individual into the not receive free space for experiencing, try­ whole religious group. Actually, they count ing, developing, and testing their faith hon­ for much of the success of new religions in estly in forms which are authentic and gen­ Japan. Modern society creates individual­ uine to them-even though such forms may ism and loneliness. The churches have not be difficult for older people to accept. yet discovered their potential for dealing with such a situation. If introduced into Japan­ THE POLARITY BETWEEN PRACTICE AND THEORY ese church life, such a system of small counseling groups could probably also heal I think that most of Protestant Christianity in the split between daily life and Sunday ser­ Japan is very head-centered; it has a pre­ vice, between social activism and cultiva­ dominantly rational approach to religion. tion of faith and piety. The sermon dominates the Sunday service, and much of the sermon consists of lectur­ it TENSIONS BETWEEN THE YOUNGER AND OLDER GEN­ ing on theology. Many listeners write ERATIONS down in a notebook, as in a class at univer­ sity. There is not much space for practicing Generally speaking, tensions between young piety in the congregations. Young people and old are a natural phenomenon that reap­ are not attracted by such a rationalistic reli­ pears generation after generation. However, gion of words. Of course, theory and ratio­ it seems that the Aum incident brought to nality are important for religion to a certain light not only tensions, but wide, seemingly degree, and young people are looking for unbridgeable gaps, consisting of a complete this too, as we have seen. But theology inability to communicate. The chasm is results from religious experience, and reli­ also felt by the other established religions, gious experience does not come without but I fear it is not taken seriously enough. bodily practice. In this respect, I think we We observed in the section on manga that can learn a lot from the Catholic Church purity or honesty (true, genuine sincerity), where these traditions are still preserved. I makoto, junsui na kokoro, is very highly personally think that we may learn also valued. When young people criticize the from Zen, for example, or from Yoga. older generation they often express the deep Young people want to be challenged as we concern that adults have lost their sincerity, have seen. they have compromised too quickly. I think this is a very important criticism. If we look TENSIONS BETWEEN WORK AND RELAXATION at the beginning of Christianity, the life, work and teaching of Jesus, or at the reformation On the one hand, young people want to be in Germany, or other religious renewals, challenged, they want to fight for a just such as Kamakura Buddhism, we always cause, they want to work. On the other hand, find this value "sincerity" at the core. In there is also the need to rest and relax in an one of the Nee-sponsored seminars a young atmosphere where one may be just them­ Japanese Christian said that young people selves, where one does not need to work in are concerned with the search for truth order to gain recognition. A new religion

27 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 63 1997 such as Agonshu seems to maintain a bal­ However, I think we should not leave the ance between work and relaxation, between interpretation of the Book of Revelation to ganbaru and meditation. I have the impres­ new religions and manga authors alone. I sion that when Christians go to church on think that Christians have to rediscover Sundays, they have to "work" again; we may eschatological and apocalyptic thinking in an call to mind the women's and other church adequate way, not to cause additional panic, groups. The normal Japanese Sunday ser­ as fundamentalists do, but to give an orien­ vice does not convey the meaning of Sunday: tation to sober action. a day of rest and festival, a day of relax­ To attempt this briefly, I think that the ation and breathing, as it is meant to be. I significance of eschatological and apoca­ think here lies one of the great chances for lyptic thinking lies in the fact that it rela­ Christianity to offer an alternative lifestyle to tivizes a given reality-be it negative, as in a workaholic Japanese society. This potential times of pending disasters, or positive, as has to be activated. In her presentation, Ms. in peaceful or affluent times. It teaches us Miyai questioned the concept of "changing not to take the status quo too seriously, but the world by changing oneself" because it to put our trust in God, in God's ultimate creates a negative attitude towards oneself. reality, and in the hope for resurrection. It is This can be interpreted according to the only from such a position that we really are theological concepts of law and gospel: Law able to work against nuclear threat, war, means that if we do not work for salvation of and ecological destruction without becoming ourselves and of the world, nothing will frustrated or even hopeless. It is not out of happen. On the other hand, gospel means fear alone, but from a positive standpoint of that salvation occurs unconditionally, we trust in God that we have to try our best. may accept that we are accepted and loved The background to this lies in the theologi­ by God, without any preconditions. Both cal distinction between law and gospel. law and gospel belong together in certain This leads us to a final conclusion. If we ways which I cannot discuss further in this ask: What can we do? What is to be done? article. We should not begin by calling for more evangelization or more church activities.

THE POLARITY BETWEEN APOCALYPTIC EXPECTATIONS This would mean starting with the law. One AND MAINTAINING THE STATUS Quo may remember that a few years ago, church­ es announced a year of evangelization-but We have observed that a basic characteristic nothing really came out of it to my knowl­ of young people today (and not only of edge. Instead, I think, we should start with young people) is a deep fear of the poten­ the gospel approach: What potential do we tial nuclear and ecological disasters our have in the church that can and should be world is facing. The Book of Revelation and activated? We could start by really celebrat­ the prophecies of Nostradamus serve as an ing Sunday as a day of rest and relaxation. Or important means of expressing these fears when we remember that Christmas and for many young people, and of interpreting Christian weddings have such a bright the situation in order to find an orientation (akarui) image for many Japanese-how do in this endangered world. I myself have we use these potentials? Our attention some problems with reading and under­ should not focus on the question of how to standing the last book of the Bible. Main­ gain more church members, but on helping line churches and theology tend to neglect others for their own sake, as Jesus taught this topic, too; perhaps because we all are too true love of the neighbor. We have to look in concerned with maintaining the status quo. the right direction. After having asked the

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question as printed on the invitation to this Clamp. X/1999. Prelude. Translated by Fred conference, "Where are the souls of the Burke & Lilian Olson. San Francisco: Viz young?," we now have to consider the Communications, 1996. equally important question: "Where are the Coupland, Douglas. Generation X: Tales for souls ofthe missionaries, Japanese pastors, an Accelerated Culture. New York: St. teachers, and church leaders"? Martin's Press, 1991. Levi, Antonia. Samurai from Outer Space: Understanding Japanese Animation. Chica­ [This article is based on lectures deliv­ go and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1996. ered at the 1997 Kyodan-related Mission­ Maeda, Daisuke. "The revenge of the chil­ my Conference at Hakone. It is a collection dren." Japanese Religions 22/1 (1997):87-91. of quotes and ideas rather than a fully Miyai, Rika. "A voice from the 'Aum genera­ developed thesis, but the author hopes tion.'" Japanese Religions 22/1 (1997):91-96. that it might provide stimulation for fur­ Miyazaki, Hayaro. Nausicaii and the Valley of ther discussion.] the Wind. Pefect Collection 1. San Francis­ co: Viz. Communications, 1995. REFERENCES Nagai, Go. Debiruman (Devilman). Vol. 1. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1980. Agonshii., ed. The Agon-shu. Tokyo: Agon­ Nagara, Michael. "Dedication, commitment & shii., 1989. spirituality: Seishin in shonen manga." --. Agon Shu. Tokyo: Agon Shu Interna­ Kyoto Journal28 (1995):4-22. tional Department, 1994 Okawa, Ryuho. "A message for young people Asahara, Shako. Beyond Life and Death. (Part II).'' The Monthly Message 13 Translated and edited by Aum Translation (1995):3-14. Committee. Fujinomiya: Aum Publishing Reader, Ian. "The rise of a Japanese 'New Co., Ltd., 1993. New Religion'-Themes in the develop­ --. Supreme Initiation: An Empirical ment of Agonshii.." Japanese Journal of Spiritual Science for the Supreme Truth. Religious Studies 15/4 (1988):235-61. Translated by Jaya Prasad Nepal and Schodt, Frederik L. Manga! Manga! The Yoshitaka Aoki. Edited by Fumihiro Joyu. World ofJapanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha New York: AUM USA Co., Ltd., 1988. International Ltd., 1986. --. The Teaclzings of the Truth, Vol.3. --.Dreamland Japan: Writings on Mod­ The Preconditions of the True Religion. ern Manga. Berkeley, California: Stone Translated and edited by Aum Translation Bridge Press, 1996. Committee. Fujinomiya: Aum Publishing Snyder, David. "Religion in business" [Inter­ Co., Ltd., 1992. view with Kiriyama Seiyu]. Leaders 13/1 --. The Teachings of the Truth, Vol.4. (1990) :pp. 24-26. The Path to Absolute Happiness. Translat­ Suzuki, Toshimichi and Takezaki, Tony. "AD ed and edited by Aum Translation Com­ Police. Datei 4 (Teil 3)." Manga Power 3 mittee. Fujinomiya: Aum Publishing Co., (1996):73-98. Ltd., 1992. Tani, Kikuhide and Kuroiwa, Yoshihiro. Zenki. --. The Teachings of the Truth, Vol.5. Vol. 1. (11th ed.) Tokyo: Shii.eisha, 1995. The Law of the Karma. Translated and Young, Richard. "Lethal achievements: Frag­ edited by Aum Translation Committee. ments of a response to the Aum Shinriky6 Fujinomiya: Aum Publishing Co., Ltd., affair." Japanese Religions 20/2 (1995): 1993. 230-45.

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