Vol. 32, No. 4 October 2008

Mission and the Groaning of Creation

hristian understanding of humankind’s place in the uni- subdued than in the twenty-first century. Human domination Cverse is rooted in the Hebrew Genesis story. Created “in has traumatized the fragile ecosystem, extinguishing species on the image of God,” the mother and father of the human race are a scale and at a rate unprecedented. instructed to “fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over When Paul observed that “the whole creation has been groan- ing in labor pains until now” (Rom. 8:22), he was not forecast- ing destruction of the planet by smugly hegemonic “Christian” civilizations that would emerge centuries later, in part because of his success as a . It was the physics and chemistry of post-Enlightenment science that enabled Western societies to exponentially amplify both their domination and its effects, Continued next page

On Page 171 The Greening of Mission Allan Effa 176 Missiology in Environmental Context: Tasks for an Ecology of Mission Willis Jenkins 185 Mission and Healing in Historical Perspective Christoffer H. Grundmann 188 Kwame Bediako and Christian Scholarship in Andrew F. Walls 193 World and : Are They Compatible? Insights from the Asian Churches Peter C. Phan 196 Noteworthy 201 My Pilgrimage in Mission

Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection John Driver The Ancient of Days: God Creating the Universe 204 International Association for Mission Studies William Blake, 1794 206 The Legacy of James Dougall . . . every living thing that moves upon the earth” (Gen. 1:27–28). Kenneth R. Ross Two chapters later, their ill-used curiosity leads to judgment 210 Book Reviews and a world filled with imperfection and death. Their progeny’s 220 Dissertation Notices assiduous obedience to the first injunction may be judged by the nearly seven billion humans who now inhabit the planet. 221 Index, 2005–08 As to the exercise of “dominion,” never has the earth been more 232 Book Notes with disastrously irreversible consequences. The science and ologists starting to realize that strategies for saving the world technology that gave us bright lights, high-speed travel, creature have been framed within a theological cocoon that prevented comforts, and an ever-increasing array and volume of possessions them from adequately understanding the end result of their turn out to have unwittingly locked us into a Faustian bargain. civilization’s notions of progress, development, and the social- The gospel of plenty, carried obediently to the uttermost parts material destiny of humankind. The planet is simply too small of the earth by its emissaries, is at last being appropriated by the to accommodate large numbers of human beings who think and vast populations of the non-Western world. Too late, those of us live as we do. who have been its chief beneficiaries and advocates now realize We are therefore pleased in this issue of the IBMR to lead that this “good news” could doom the planet. with two outstanding essays, written by younger thinkers, that Westerners, including , have been self-con- reflect on the missiological implications of creation steward- sciously certain of the superiority of their way of life, evident ship. In his lead article, Allan Effa provides a helpful survey of in their material accoutrements and in the powerful armies and evolving Roman Catholic, conciliar, and evangelical thinking economies of their nations. Missionaries—replete with incontro- and action on environmental concerns. Willis Jenkins follows by vertible material evidence—innocently thought that adoption of providing readers with a much-needed theological and ethical Christianity would have a “civilizing” effect on converted peoples, framework for addressing what is perhaps the most pressing mis- transforming the inner élan of societies and launching them on siological agenda of the twenty-first century. And as Christoffer a developmental trajectory that would one day enable them to Grundmann’s article reminds us, for two millennia Christians consume like us. Alas, so it has proved to be! And now, caught up have understood healing of the whole person to be integral to in a way of life from which there seems to be no voluntary escape, mission. On this point they have consciously reflected the mind we find ourselves complicit in human-induced climate change, of Christ, whose attention to the blind, the crippled, the deaf, with its concomitant degradation of habitat and destruction of and the leprous dominates the Gospel accounts of his short species. According to current estimates by the International Union life and ministry in Palestine. His first disciples were explicitly for Conservation of Nature, of the 40,177 species assessed, 784 commissioned to heal the sick (Luke 9:1–2; 10:9), and following are extinct, while another 16,119 are threatened with extinction his ascension, his disciples continued to pay special attention to (see www.iucnredlist.org/info/categories_criteria). The greatest those incapacitated by illness and injury. number of extinctions—256—has occurred on the continent of As we grow into our understanding of the missiological North America. But species have disappeared in other parts of implications of a stricken planet and move beyond mere concern the world as well—185 in Oceania, 50 in Sub-Saharan Africa, 36 with our own small bodies to concern for the larger living planet in South and Southeast Asia, 29 in South America, 16 in Europe, on which we sojourn and for which we are uniquely responsible, 11 in West-, and 1 in Antarctica. The scale of our we join Paul “in hope that the creation itself will be set free from scorched-earth destruction makes Cambyses II or Genghis Khan its bondage to decay and will obtain the freedom of the glory of look like mild-mannered organic gardeners. the children of God” (Rom. 8:20–21). Only now are Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox missi- —Jonathan J. Bonk

InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1977. Renamed InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research in 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by the

Editor overseas MInIstrIes study center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. Jonathan J. Bonk (203) 624-6672 • Fax (203) 865-2857 • [email protected] • www.InternationalBulletin.org Associate Editor Contributing Editors Dwight P. Baker Catalino G. Arévalo, S.J. Philip Jenkins Gary B. McGee Brian Stanley Assistant Editor B. Barrett Jeyaraj Mary Motte, F.M.M. Tite Tiénou Craig A. Noll Daniel H. Bays Jan A. B. Jongeneel C. René Padilla Ruth A. Tucker Managing Editor Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. James M. Phillips Desmond Tutu Daniel J. Nicholas Escobar Dana L. Robert Andrew F. Walls Senior Contributing Editors John F. Gorski, M.M. Graham Kings Lamin Sanneh Anastasios Yannoulatos Gerald H. Anderson Darrell L. Guder Anne-Marie Kool Wilbert R. Shenk Robert T. Coote Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be addressed to the editors.Manuscripts Circulation unaccompanied by a self-addressed, stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. Opinions W. Garrett Heath expressed in the IBMR are those of the authors and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. [email protected] The articles in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Bibliografia Missionaria, Book Review Index, Christian (203) 624-6672, ext. 309 Periodical Index, Guide to People in Periodical Literature, Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature, IBR (International Bibliography of Book Reviews), IBZ (International Bibliography of Periodical Literature), Missionalia, Advertising Religious and Theological Abstracts, and Religion Index One: Periodicals. Charles A. Roth Jr. SubSCriptionS: Subscribe, renew, or change an address at www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html or write InternatIonal BulletIn CA Roth Jr Inc. of MIssIonary research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning subscriptions and 86 Underwood Rd. missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator, [email protected]. Single copy price: $8. Subscription rate worldwide: one Falmouth, Maine 04105-1418 year (4 issues) $32. Foreign subscribers must pay with U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Mobile: (516) 729-3509 Money Order. Airmail delivery $16 per year extra. The IBMR is available in print and e-journal editions. Fax: (914) 470-0483 onlinE ACCESS: Use the subscriber number and postal code from the mailing envelope for online access to the journal. [email protected] Visit www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html for details. Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases provided Copyright © 2008 by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and University Microfilms. Back issues may be purchased Overseas Ministries Study Center from OMSC or read on ATLAS, www.ATLA.com. Consult InfoTrac database at academic and public libraries. All rights reserved POSTMASTER: Send address changes to International Bulletin of Missionary Research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834-3000. Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT. (ISSN 0272-6122)

170 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 The Greening of Mission Allan Effa

ur understanding of Christian mission develops in human history and invites us to participate in those purposes.”1 Oresponse to issues and questions that arise in living out In other words, Christian mission involves commitment to and our faith. is not formed in a vacuum but emerges in participation in the future that God is bringing about. Teilhard’s response to concrete situations or crises that stimulate study and hopeful picture of the cosmic future and his call to partnership reflection. The issues shaping our approach to mission today are in the divine plan served to inspire subsequent links between different from those our ancestors struggled with and, in all likeli- the church’s mission and ecological concerns.2 hood, will not be cutting-edge concerns Karl Rahner shaped the theology sixty years from now. As each new crisis of Vatican II and beyond. He argued is addressed, however, our perspective that the resurrection of Jesus not only on the nature of the Christian mission guaranteed the promise of eternal life is enriched and enlarged. for human creatures but also opened One of the great contemporary mat- the door for the final transformation of ters requiring an informed missional all of creation. The resurrection of Jesus response is the environmental crisis. should be seen as the beginning of the Because of a growing consensus that redemption of creation, as “pledge and the planet may be moving toward an beginning of the perfect fulfillment of unprecedented ecological disaster, the the world.”3 Christian community is reexamining Although Vatican II did not directly some of its theological assumptions address the relationship between care and filling in some gaping blind spots for creation and mission, Paul VI in its understanding of the missio Dei. found in the doctrine of creation a man- The church, in every camp and tradi- date to seek justice and a fair sharing of tion, is grappling with its responsibility the earth’s resources.4 For his part, Pope toward creation and seeking to integrate John Paul II offered significant leader- this in its missionary praxis. This article ship in formulating a Roman Catholic explores the “greening” of mission by response to the environmental crisis. In looking at major statements from the 1979 he proclaimed St. Roman Catholic, conciliar, and evangeli- the patron of those who promote cal traditions concerning the Christian ecology, acknowledging the genuine mission in light of the environmental respect St Francis held for the integrity Francis of Assisi (detail) crisis. A brief survey of recent publica- of creation. Creation deserves respect John August Swanson, 1999 tions and research initiatives follows, because God pronounced it good, and as well as a summary of the shared nature itself is a “Gospel that speaks to theological assumptions that are unifying the Christian voice us of God,”5 bearing witness to all the earth. The pope called for and providing a framework for advocacy and action. an “ecological conversion”6 and coupled the mandate of caring for nature with the development of a peaceful society.7 He understood The Greening of Roman Catholics the destruction of creation as the fruit of human sinfulness and the alienation that resulted from the fall. Yet at the same time, One of the most influential Roman Catholic theologians in the creation’s plight falls within the ambit of God’s salvation: “All of twentieth century was Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. This French creation became subject to futility, waiting in a mysterious way Jesuit, paleontologist, biologist, and philosopher dedicated his to be set free and to obtain a glorious liberty together with all the life to the integration of religious experience with natural sci- children of God.”8 Drawing from a number of Pauline texts, John ence. Although considered controversial, primarily because he Paul II expressed confidence in the restoration of creation because accepted the theory of evolution, he articulated a strong sense of the reconciling death and resurrection of Christ. Christ’s fol- of the sacredness of the world. Teilhard’s vision of the future lowers should not await this restoration passively; rather, “The of humanity and the planet had a profound impact on Roman lay faithful are called to restore to creation all its original value. Catholic eschatology. He saw the plan and purpose of God as In ordering creation to the authentic well-being of humanity in embracing both humans and the cosmos. The Christian mes- an activity governed by the life of grace, the lay faithful share sage is “a clue that gives us a glimpse into God’s purposes for in the exercise of the power with which the risen Christ draws all things to himself and subjects them along with himself to Allan Effa is the Ray and Edith DeNeui Professor of the Father, so that God might be everything to everyone (cf. 9 Intercultural Studies at Taylor Seminary in Edmonton, 1 Cor. 15:28; Jn. 12:32).” In other words, when Christians engage Alberta. He served as a missionary in from in earth keeping, they draw from Christ’s resurrection power 1982 to 1990. —[email protected] and participate in the working out of God’s cosmic purposes. One can clearly discern echoes of Teilhard and Rahner in this pronouncement. The U.S. Conference of Catholic (USCCB) used similar language in its statement Renewing the Earth, casting

October 2008 171 the environmental crisis as a moral challenge and calling for 21:1–2) invites our actions as Christians in history,” but it makes a conversion and a change of heart “as individuals, as institu- only a brief reference to stewardship and restoration of creation tions, as a people.” Furthermore, it also linked care for creation as one of those actions. The Affirmation shows how the Gospel with the pursuit of justice and the protection of the poor and addresses the totality of life, including all of creation, “which powerless.10 groans and travails in search of adoption and redemption.” The Ten years later the USCCB tackled the issue of global cli- Christian witness must “show the glory and the humility of hu- mate change. Stewardship of God’s creation and care for future man stewardship on this earth.”14 generations, as well as for the needs of the poor, the weak, and The WCC convenes a conference on world mission and the vulnerable, were affirmed as common moral ground in ad- evangelism between each world assembly. The 1989 conference dressing this problem. Besides calling on the to set in San Antonio, Texas, was the first to address ecological concern and action as an integral part of the church’s mission.15 Delegates reflected on “God’s call to exercise our stewardship with justice, The destruction of creation to maintain the integrity of creation, to use and share the earth’s limited resources and to sustain and fulfill the lives of all.” Much limits “our ability to know of the discussion revolved around God’s ownership of the earth God.” and human activities that destroy the land, often resulting in the unjust distribution of land. Since the earth is the Lord’s, “the responsibility of the church toward the earth is a crucial part an example by implementing policies and initiatives toward the of the church’s mission. This mission brings the gospel of hope reduction of air pollution, the bishops also called for increased to all creation—a hope rooted in the resurrection of Christ.” sharing of green technologies and resources with developing Specifically, the conference urged churches to engage in efforts countries.11 that “reverse the ‘greenhouse effect,’ to remedy the destruction Roman Catholics in have also addressed environ- of strip-mining, to halt the production and dumping of toxic mental concerns, especially those affecting the quality of life for wastes, to ban the hunting of endangered species, and to combat . The bishops of Alberta issued a letter expressing the pollution of the seas.”16 concern about climate change, ozone depletion, the loss of fish Justice, peace, and the integrity of creation should be ad- stocks, and a number of local environmental issues. They referred dressed not as separate problems but as an intricately interwoven to creation’s sacramental nature as a revelation of the “generosity complexity requiring common action on the part of the church. of the Creator” and of the dynamic presence of God, speaking The World Convocation on Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of in the “life forces of our universe and planet as well as in our Creation (1990) established its theological foundation on the be- own lives.”12 The Social Affairs Commission of the Canadian lief in God as giver of life and repented of the misuse of biblical Conference of Catholic Bishops described the ecological crisis as statements such as “to have dominion” and “subdue the earth.” a profoundly religious crisis, declaring that since “God’s glory Delegates committed themselves to “conserve and work for the is revealed in the natural world,” the destruction of creation integrity of creation both for its inherent value to God and in limits “our ability to know God.” The commission reflected on order that justice may be achieved and sustained.”17 the theological link between creation and the incarnation, sug- Subsequently, the council established a working group to gesting that when Jesus took on flesh, he embraced not only our forge partnerships and create a common base for action on climate humanity but also all of creation: “Thus all creatures, great and change. The WCC actively participated in global conferences on small, are consecrated in the life, death and resurrection of Christ.” climate change in (November–December 2005)18 and Additionally, the commission explored the connection between Nairobi (November 2006).19 The Porto Alegre Assembly of the advocacy for the poor and care for the environment, suggesting WCC (2006) gave its support to the Ecumenical Water Network that “the preferential option for the poor can be extended to and provided a policy framework through the statement Water include a preferential option for the earth, made poorer by hu- for Life.20 man abuse.”13 They concluded with a call to embrace eco-justice The National Council of Churches (NCC), which represents calling for a threefold response: the Contemplative Response calls the U.S. member churches of the WCC, established its Eco-Justice for a deeper sense of awe for the beauty of creation as a means Program to provide a network for American churches to work of knowing the Creator; the Ascetic Response calls for a restrained together to protect and restore God’s creation. Their Web site consumerism and fasting from actions that pollute; and the Pro- defines the program’s scope: “Eco-justice includes all ministries phetic Response calls for preaching and community action that designed to heal and defend creation, working to assure justice address the ecological crisis as a social justice issue. for all of creation and the human beings who live in it. A major task . . . is to provide program ideas and resources to help con- The Greening of Conciliar Churches gregations as they engage in eco-justice.”21 The site offers links to environmental policy statements by fourteen denominational The World Council of Churches (WCC), or ecumenical move- affiliates of the NCC. ment, seeks to offer a united voice for mainline Protestant and The Canadian Council of Churches has also taken initiatives, Eastern Orthodox churches as well as a number of independent focusing on domestic policy and the environment. At a consul- churches through regular assemblies and study commissions. tation with leaders of aboriginal communities, environmental Their most comprehensive statement on mission is Mission and organizations, and international development agencies, a joint Evangelism: An Ecumenical Affirmation (1982). Surprisingly, there statement emerged: Climate Justice: A Call for Canadian Leadership is no specific reference to care for creation as a participation in (2001). Concern was expressed over Canadian energy consump- God’s mission. The opening sentence does affirm that “the biblical tion patterns as well as government support for exploration and promise of a new earth and a new heaven where love, peace and expansion of fossil fuel production and nuclear power. The state- justice will prevail (Ps. 85:7–13; Isa. 32:17–18, 65:17–25 and Rev. ment called for Canada to take a leading role in implementing

172 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 the Kyoto Protocol and to give priority to the “quality of life we separated from creation. The purpose of salvation is not merely bequeath our children and grandchildren, and the long-term endless life of individual souls in heaven but the transformation economic, social and ecological security of our planet.”22 The of the totality of creation, including humankind, to the glory of Canadian Ecumenical Justice Initiatives, also known as Kairos,23 God. A person’s conversion to Christ is the eruption of the new functions as a resource for Canadian churches and an advocate creation into this world: it transforms the person, in anticipation for environmental concerns. of the end time, in a wonderful display of God’s eschatological purpose to make all things new.” Padilla further argued that The Greening of Evangelicals the church’s mission must be multifaceted, since it is driven by the missio Dei, which includes “the whole of creation and the Evangelicals are independent churches without a global com- totality of human life.” Finally, he drew implications from the munion to address concerns such as environmental justice. resurrection of Jesus, as a power making the kingdom manifest Nevertheless, common understandings have emerged from in the “here and now and in every sphere of human life, and in consultations and congresses in the past thirty-five years. The the whole of creation.”30 Chicago Declaration of Evangelical Social Concern (1973), for instance, A presentation by Ronald Vos deplored an “anthropocentric is seen as a breakthrough document that spans the divide be- view of the natural world” and those views of the “end of the tween evangelism and social action. For the first time, American world that emphasize earth’s destruction rather than its regenera- evangelicals united to tackle issues like racism, militarism, the tion.”31 Instead, he called for a covenantal approach to creation imbalance of wealth distribution, and the oppression of women. that acknowledges God’s delight and concern for his handiwork, The Declaration called on “fellow evangelical Christians to dem- and his promise to redeem it along with humanity. onstrate repentance in a Christian discipleship that confronts the In 2004 U.S. evangelical leaders gathered at the Sandy Cove social and political injustice of our nation.”24 Conference to address environmental concerns and to hear John The following year, the International Congress on World Houghton, cochair of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel Evangelization was convened, resulting in the Lausanne Cove- on Climate Change, speak on climate change and Christian faith. nant—a defining step toward affirming a broader understanding of The resulting Sandy Cove Covenant resolved to “make creation the church’s mission. Its section on Christian social responsibility care a permanent dimension of our Christian discipleship” and highlighted justice, liberation from oppression, and sociopolitical to “motivate the evangelical community to fully engage envi- involvement as part of Christian duty.25 Although no mention ronmental issues in a biblically faithful and humble manner . . . was made specifically of the responsibility to the environment, that we might take our appropriate place in the healing of God’s it nonetheless opened a door to subsequent reflection on issues creation, and thus the advance of God’s reign.”32 of social justice. Of particular importance was the International Sandy Cove gave birth to the Evangelical Climate Initiative, Consultation on Simple Lifestyle (1980). The participants sought signed by eighty-five prominent American evangelical leaders to address the statement in the Lausanne Covenant that called as a biblical and Christ-centered evangelical approach to climate upon affluent Christians to “accept our duty to develop a simple change.33 The Initiative includes a statement entitled “Climate life-style in order to contribute more generously to both relief Change: An Evangelical Call to Action.” Its Web site offers a and evangelism.”26 While much of the focus was on the imbal- wealth of biblical resources on the topic, including the “Prayer ance of wealth, development needs, and the pursuit of justice and peace, the sections on creation and stewardship included a denunciation of “environmental destruction, wastefulness and A covenantal approach hoarding” and an acknowledgment that “Creation Ethics” are an “important part . . . [of] mankind’s responsibility to the world to creation acknowledges we live in.”27 God’s delight and concern The World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) is the largest nonbind- ing global organization of evangelicals, with a constituency of for his handiwork. some 160 million. The WEA Missions Commission (now Mission Commission) convened a missiological think tank to reflect on the challenges facing the church at the end of the twentieth century Guide for Global Warming.”34 Not all U.S. evangelicals are on and to identify the major themes of special importance for the board when it comes to the matter of climate change, however, development of a biblical missiology. The resulting Iguassu Af- with well-known leaders James Dobson, Charles Colson, and firmation (1999) identified fourteen commitments and challenges, others disagreeing about the “cause, severity and solutions to one being the ecological crisis. Without offering theological the global warming issue.”35 Despite these dissenting voices, elaboration, it called “all Christians to commit themselves to when the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) surveyed ecological integrity in practicing responsible stewardship of evangelical leaders in September 2007 about the prominent is- creation” and to become involved in “environmental care and sues of concern to American evangelicals today, “creation care” protection initiatives.”28 Several of the papers presented at the was listed among the top five.36 The NAE has continued to move gathering offered some preliminary theological outlines for an forward, issuing the Energy Star Challenge (2007), with its goal to evangelical missiology that includes earth keeping.29 “reduce energy use in churches and buildings” and, in so doing, The Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization subse- to protect the environment and save millions of dollars.37 quently convened a forum on holistic mission (2004). René Padilla Richard Cizik, vice president for governmental affairs of the offered a ground-breaking paper exploring the biblical basis for NAE, has called upon evangelicals to invest less passion defending holistic mission, with theological constructs remarkably similar a particular theory of how the universe was created and to focus to those found in conciliar and Roman Catholic pronouncements: more on responsibility toward creation: “I don’t think God is go- “The biblical message of salvation points towards ‘new heavens ing to ask us how he created the earth [evolution or creationism], and a new earth’ and that means that we cannot view salvation as but he will ask us what we did with what he created.”38

October 2008 173 Publications and Research and individual complicity require repentance and an embrace of God’s agenda. In the words of Canadian novelist Rudy Wiebe, of creation and ecology, as well as considerations from “You repent, not by feeling bad but by thinking different.”43 The ethical perspectives, are all part of a growing body of literature consensus, from what we have surveyed, points to at least three on this subject.39 Two missiologists who have led the way in the areas of faulty theological thinking that require reformation. integration of creation care and mission are J. Andrew Kirk and Christopher J. H. Wright. Kirk’s book What Is Mission? Theological Creation. All Christian traditions call for a shift from an anthropo- Explorations discusses six contemporary issues, including care of centric to a theocentric understanding of creation. A Copernican the environment. He argues that this should be seen as a part of revolution must take place in our theology of creation; instead of the Christian mission because of its integral link with “matters existing primarily for human benefit, creation is to be understood of economic and political justice.”40 He proposes a specifically as God’s creative masterpiece, an object of his pleasure and a Christian approach that is focused on the Creator, the human witness to his presence and power. Humans are God’s image mandate to care for God’s creation, and the divine intention to bearers, but they are only part of the divine expression. Other heal the brokenness of creation. elements of the creation declare the glory of God in ways that Christopher J. H. Wright’s massive biblical theology of humans cannot duplicate. Although we rightfully use and enjoy mission likewise devotes a chapter to mission and “God’s the resources of our planet, we acknowledge the intrinsic value earth.” Beginning with the foundational affirmation that the of creation and our role of stewardship and caretaking. earth is the Lord’s, Wright explores the sanctity of creation, the whole earth as the field of mission, God’s glory as the goal of Salvation. The three traditions also call for a shift from a personal creation, and God’s redemptive plan for the whole of creation. to a cosmic view of salvation. This shift happens as we grapple Even though this redemption is something only God can fully with the dynamics of the kingdom of God and the comprehensive- accomplish, our hope in God’s future must shape the way ness of God’s redemptive plan. History is not just about human we “live now and what our own objectives should be.”41 He destiny but also about God’s plan for the cosmos. Jesus’ death describes creation care as one of our priestly and kingly du- and resurrection bring humans into a state of reconciliation with ties toward the earth, as well as an opportunity for the church God but also somehow open the way for the reconciliation of all to exercise a prophetic role, tackling the forces of greed and things to God. Jesus’ ascension serves as evidence not only that he economic power, underpinned by a biblical commitment to is the exalted Lord over an individual’s life but also that all things compassion and justice. are being brought under his lordship. Salvation, or healing, is A master’s degree in “Global Issues in Contemporary Mis- something that the animal kingdom and all of creation awaits. sion” is offered by Redcliffe College, in Gloucester, . The elective modules include “The Greening of Mission,” which of- Eschatology. A third shift necessary to correct faulty thinking is fers students the opportunity to “examine the interface between from “an eschatology of abandonment”44 to one of restoration. A environmental concerns and contemporary Christian mission.” strain peculiar to some expressions of Christian thinking believes The module studies the growing awareness of environmental that creation is destined for destruction and that all that really issues in the Christian community “in terms of academic theol- matters is how people settle the issue of their eternal destiny. In ogy and in mission praxis.”42 this line of thought, people get saved, wait until Jesus raptures them away, and then get to watch the planet burn. This defective Conclusions eschatology must be corrected by the consistent biblical witness that creation is part of God’s redemptive plan. It is a destiny This survey identifies the pulse of a growing conviction that of restoration that will ultimately be accomplished by God’s incorporates environmental concerns into the church’s missional sovereign power and intervention. The church has the amazing agenda. Roman Catholics, conciliars, and evangelicals speak in privilege of partnering in God’s mission when it aligns itself remarkable unison of the theological basis for the greening of with God’s plan, loves the things God loves, and works toward mission. They agree that the ecological crisis and our corporate the goals God has for our world. Notes 1. Justo L. González, Christian Thought Revisited: Three Types of Theology message for the celebration of the World Day of Peace, January (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1999), p. 133. The detail on p. 171 from 1, 1990. See text at www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/ the painting Francis of Assisi by John August Swanson (acrylic painting messages/peace/documents/hf_jp-ii_mes_19891208_xxiii-world- on paper, 30 x 22 1/2 inches, © 1999; see www.JohnAugustSwanson. day-for-peace_en.html. com) appears in the book, Saint Francis, text by Marie Dennis, art by 8. Ibid. John August Swanson (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002), p. 116, 9. Pope John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, On the Vocation and Mission and is used by permission of the artist and publisher. of the Lay Faithful in the Church and the World, proclaimed by 2. See Rosemary Radford Ruether, “Ecojustice at the Center of the John Paul II on December 30, 1988. See text at www.vatican. Church’s Mission,” Mission Studies 16, no. 1 (1999): 111–21. va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_exhortations/documents/ 3. Karl Rahner, “Resurrection,” in Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise hf_jp-ii_exh_30121988_christifideles-laici_en.html. Sacramentum Mundi, ed. Karl Rahner (London: Burns & Oates, 1975), 10. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Renewing the Earth: An p. 1142. Invitation to Reflection and Action on Environment in Light of Catholic 4. See Gaudium et Spes, Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern Social Teaching, issued November 14, 1991. See text at www.usccb. World, proclaimed by Pope Paul VI on December 7, 1965. org/sdwp/ejp/bishopsstatement.shtml. 5. Pope John Paul II, General Audience Address, January 26, 2000. See 11. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Global Climate Change: text at http://conservation.catholic.org/pope_john_paul_ii.htm. A Plea for Dialogue, Prudence, and the Common Good, issued June 15, 6. Pope John Paul II, General Audience Address, January 17, 2001. See 2001. See text at www.usccb.org/sdwp/international/globalclimate. text at http://conservation.catholic.org/john_paul_ii.htm. shtml. 7. Pope John Paul II, Peace with God the Creator, Peace with All of Creation, 12. Alberta Conference of Catholic Bishops, Celebrate Life: Care for

174 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 New from J. Dudley Woodberry

What practices is God blessing in raising up groups of Jesus followers among Muslims? And how shall we understand Muslim peoples and their access to biblical witness? In recent years, workers from a growing number of organizations have begun to discuss such questions. Their initial insights were refined by a broad group of workers in a consultation in the spring of 2007, further analyzed in subsequent months, and compiled in this volume. From Seed to Fruit presents the most recent J. Dudley Woodberry is Dean worldwide research on witness to Christ among Emeritus and Senior professor Muslim peoples, using biblical images from nature of Islamic Studies at the School to show the interaction between God’s activity and Intercultural Studies at Fuller human responsibility in blessing these peoples. Theological Seminary in Pasadena, . He has served with his wife and three sons at the Chrsitian Study Centre in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, and as a pastor in Kabul, Afghanistan and Riyahd, Saudi Arabia. Order online: www.missionbooks.org/fromseedtofruit 2008 William Carey Library | 405 Pages ISBN 13: 978-0-897908-003-1 Retail: $20.99 Our Price: $16.79 3 or More: $11.54

Includes a CD-ROM of supplemental resources on global trends and fruitful practices! Creation, issued October 4, 1998. See text at www.wcr.ab.ca/bin/ p. 97). Stuart McAlister related the importance of teaching a “good eco-lett.htm. creation theology” to the next generation (ibid., p. 371). Rose Dowsett 13. Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, A Pastoral Letter on the called for repentance on the part of Christians who have colluded Christian Ecological Imperative from the Social Affairs Commission, with the greedy exploitation of the environment and failed to raise Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, issued October 4, 2003, pp. voices in warning and protest (ibid., p. 460). 1, 2, 3. See text at www.cccb.ca/site/Files/pastoralenvironment. 30. C. René Padilla, “Holistic Mission,” in Holistic Mission, Occasional html. Paper no. 33, ed. Evvy Hay Campbell (Pattaya, Thailand: Lausanne 14. Mission and Evangelism: An Ecumenical Affirmation (Geneva: World Committee for World Evangelization, 2005), pp. 15, 17. See text at Council of Churches, 1983), pp. 1, 28, 30. www.lausanne.org/documents/2004forum/LOP33_IG4.pdf. 15. See Stephen Bevans and Roger Schroeder, Constants in Context: 31. Ronald J. Vos, “I Was Hungry and You Gave Me Food,” in Holistic A Theology of Mission for Today (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, Mission, ed. Campbell, p. 42. 2004), p. 309. 32. Creation Care Conference, Sandy Cove Covenant. See www. 16. Frederick R. Wilson, ed., The San Antonio Report: Your Will Be Done; creationcare.org/conference/. Mission in Christ’s Way (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1990), 33. For the Evangelical Climate Initiative, see www.christiansandclimate. pp. 52, 54, 55. org/faq#eci. 17. World Council of Churches, Now Is the Time: The Final Document and 34. http://pub.christiansandclimate.org/pub/PrayerGuide.pdf. Other Texts from the World Convocation on Justice, Peace, and the Integrity 35. The press release was entitled “The Vast Majority of Evangelicals of Creation, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 5–12 March 1990 (Geneva: World Not Represented by the ‘Evangelical Climate Initiative.’” See www. Council of Churches, 1990), p. 18. prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/ 18. The statement by WCC officials to the conference is found at www. story/02-08-2006/0004277632&EDATE. kairoscanada.org/e/ecology/climateChange/copmop/WCC_ 36. www.christianpost.com/article/20071001/29529_Survey:_Top_ COP11-Statement_.asp. Issues_of_Concern_for_American_Evangelicals.htm. 19. The WCC statement to this conference is found at www.kairoscanada. 37. www.christianpost.com/article/20071108/30004_Evangelicals%2C_ org/e/ecology/climateChange/climateJusticeAll.asp. U.S._Gov%92t_Promote_Green_Churches.htm 20. This statement can be read at www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/ 38. http://rejourney.blogspot.com/2005/05/what-we-did.html. documents/assembly/porto-alegre-2006/1-statements-documents- 39. No fewer than fifteen recent publications from a variety of publishing adopted/international-affairs/report-from-the-public-issues- houses are listed in “God’s Green Earth: Creation, Faith, Crisis,” committee/water-for-life.html. Reflections: 94, no. 1 (2007): 24. Listed in the 21. www.nccecojustice.org/about.html. same issue are eleven Web sites dedicated to initiatives pertaining 22. The Canadian Council of Churches, Climate Justice: A Call for Canadian to environmental stewardship; see p. 41. Leadership, Joint Statement, Ottawa, June 14, 2001. See text at http:// 40. J. Andrew Kirk, What Is Mission: Theological Explorations (Minneapolis: ccc-cce.ca/english/justice/ottawa.htm. Fortress, 2000), p. 167. 23. www.kairoscanada.org. 41. Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s 24. www.casi.org.nz/statements/decchicagodec.html. Grand Narrative (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2006), 25. The full text of the Lausanne Covenant can be read at www.lausanne. p. 409. org/lausanne-1974/lausanne-covenant.html. 42. For a fuller description of the module’s content and learning outcomes, 26. Ibid., sec. 9. see www.redcliffe.org/uploads/documents/ma_modules1_jun07. 27. www.lausanne.org/hoddesdon-1980/lop-20.html. pdf. 28. William D. Taylor, ed., “The Iguassu Affirmation,” inGlobal Missiology 43. Rudy Wiebe, The Blue Mountains of (: McClelland & for the Twenty-first Century: The Iguassu Dialogue (Grand Rapids: Baker, Stewart, 1995 [orig. 1970]), p. 258. 2000), p. 20. 44. Brian McLaren, A Generous Orthodoxy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 29. Christopher Wright called attention to the need for ecology to be 2004), p. 267. given a distinctly Christian and biblically grounded voice (ibid.,

Missiology in Environmental Context: Tasks for an Ecology of Mission Willis Jenkins

or a field focused on the most geographic practice of earthly context or ecological dynamics for mission theology. For FChristian faith—crossing from one terrain to another for all its attention to culture, missiology seems to have little to say the sake of Christ—missiology seems to manifest a strange absence about the landscapes formed by ecology and culture in reciprocal of the terrestrial.1 Missiology rarely discusses the significance of relation. Insofar as missiology remains extraterrestrial, abstracted from geographic context, it struggles to make missional sense Willis Jenkins is the Margaret Farley Assistant of environmental problems or to interpret emerging Christian Professor of Social Ethics at Yale Divinity School, responses to the challenges of sustainability. New Haven, Connecticut. He was a missionary in In recent years, as churches have begun responding to envi- (1997–98), cofounded the Episcopal Church’s ronmental problems, missiologists have entertained occasional Young Adult Service Corps, and was a member of the calls to link ecology and mission.2 These proposals, issued from Episcopal Standing Commission on World Mission across a theological spectrum, encourage missiology to make (2000–2006). —[email protected] environmental issues significant for the church’s theology and practice. Meanwhile, without much notice from missiology, grass-

176 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 roots Christian initiatives in sustainable community have been water and fewer health problems. Moreover, communities where emerging around the world. What we need now is an ecology of wetlands have been entirely drained face water shortages, and mission that can show how environmental issues matter within in some places the local climate has warmed enough for malarial the practices of following God’s love across terrains. In this article mosquitoes to come. Both the diocesan office and international I consider initial proposals to link missiology and environmental mission agencies, however, understand land management and issues, as well as contextual examples of environmental mission social outreach as separate mandates, and only the latter as a practice, in order to identify some specific tasks for contemporary legitimate concern of church mission—even when the church mission theology.3 owns the land! Sometimes stark social problems have the power to elicit Recover the Geographic Context of Mission new levels of missiological recognition and interpretation. Re- sponsible contextual mission practices depend on a theological Discussions of environment and mission often refer to Marthinus interpretation of social ecology—whether as simple as the rela- Daneel’s African Earthkeepers: Wholistic Interfaith Mission (2001).4 tion of wetland biology to human epidemiology or as complex, Sections of this work have appeared in the few journal volumes as Daneel has shown, as the relation of land policies to colonial devoted to the topic, and excerpts often constitute the only mis- oppression and the experience of God’s liberation. Furthermore, sional perspective in anthologies of Christian or religious envi- as J. J. Kritzinger points out, whatever else it may mean, good ronmental thought.5 Daneel’s account of interfaith reforestation development must include recognition of the ecological context and impact of development. This axiom leads Kritzinger to propose a twofold agenda for missiology: “We need both an ecologically sensitive theory and practice of development, and a humane and holistic involvement with the environment.”7 Missiology must find ways to show how it matters for mission that the prac- tice of following God’s love across significant human boundaries happens on earth, across particular terrains, within a community of life and a set of ecological relations that bind us to one another. Connect Human Dignity and Environmental Quality Because it reflects on movement across social boundaries and geographic terrains, missiology is exceptionally well placed to address the distri- butional character of environmental problems.8 Associated Press Environmental risks and resources distribute Guinsaugon, a Philippine village of over 1,800 people, asymmetrically across social space; said differ- was completely buried by a massive mudslide, February 2006 ently, the effects of environmental problems fall disproportionately on the poor and powerless. as an extension of the “war of liberation” to reclaim native lands Missiology can help the church resist the reductionist notion that presents a rich case for missiological evaluation. His portrayal of a common humanity faces a common ecological predicament. connections between social liberation and ecological restoration There are, rather, multiple environmental problems, suffered vividly demonstrates the missional significance of connections unequally by diverse human communities. between social and ecological relations. It would be impossible In the United States, two United Church of Christ reports to make sense of mission in apart from the country’s have documented a serial relation between hazardous waste political history and the religious significance of its lands for its locations and African-American populations. The reports depict peoples. a geography of American racism, showing how a pattern of Ecosystems, species, skies, and wetlands make up the context human-caused environmental toxicity maps structural injustice. of mission, just as do cultures, languages, markets, and health In the American context, missiology must ask what church mis- clinics.6 Consider the example offered by the director of a com- sion means within landscapes of environmental racism.9 munity development organization sponsored by the Church of Once missiology begins to make visible the connections Uganda, responsible for dealing with poverty and proposing between environmental quality and human dignity, a number public health initiatives. Missiological indifference to ecological of new mission-related issues come into view, such as: issues, he explained to me, exacerbated the very problems he was assigned to address. He spoke of the importance protecting Public health risks. Regional and sometimes global spread of wetlands has for protecting public health. Thick wetlands filter pollutants imposes public health risks. Those persons already rainwater from the cultivated hills above. When too many reeds at the margins of society are exposed to the greatest risks and are cut, opening channels for livestock and people to enter the bear in their bodies a larger burden of disease. Not infrequently, water, communities require more resources for constructing resources of poor lands are controlled by those in wealthy lands, concrete-protected springs and for antibiotics. Communities while the pollution and waste from the powerful minority end that carefully regulate wetland use have better access to cleaner up back among the poor.10

October 2008 177 Issues related to land tenure. Disempowered and displaced popula- Langmead’s incarnational missiology emphasizes, that “there is tions often live on marginal lands that are most at risk of natural an intrinsic interconnectedness in the whole of creation which disasters. They may live in a shantytown built in a river’s flood- binds humanity to its environment.”15 plain, or beneath a deforested mountainside, or, as in the United States, alongside weak levees. They may live at the edges of arable Respond to Environmental Oppression land and on poor or exhausted soils as large plantations take a massive share of good land.11 Anthropological interconnectedness calls for missiology to offer a critique of the way environmental degradation systemically Restricted access to natural resources. Access to important resources deforms personhood. Some theologians have critiqued capital- such as water and wood becomes increasingly difficult when ist and consumerist disciplines of desire, referring to the way these resources are privatized and commercialized. The 2006 economic systems shape or deform conceptions of personhood.16 WCC Assembly devoted special focus to the importance of fair So too can physical environments discipline human desires or access to and protection of water sources.12 deform human capacities.17 Missiology can develop theological critiques of this form of systemic oppression by reconsidering the Reduced biodiversity. Where communities rely on native species significance of mission among communities living in especially for food and as sources of medicine, biodiversity may in itself be degraded places. an important resource.13 In addition to being the communities’ In the Philippines, for example, environmental degradation is the most important thing happening in some communities. In places the landscape has been so devastated by commercial logging and mining that entire mountains are burnt bare to the Perhaps the church should ground, their slopes cut by constant landslides. Church organiza- affirm environmental tions in the Philippines have responded with outspoken criticism activists as “avant garde of governmental land policies and denunciation of corporate corruption. Meanwhile, local church members often try to resist missionaries.” the pillaging, sometimes to the point of martyrdom.18 Mission partnership with these churches is unimaginable apart from a thoroughgoing response to a social ecology of breadbasket and medicine cabinet, a diverse, resilient ecosystem injustice. Loss of ecological integrity has led to an ecology of provides the ecological services of water filtration, soil regenera- human suffering, where the hills fall down upon the poor, and tion, and pollination. to an economy of invisible exploitation, where one community’s use of resources strips bare the place and provisions of another Adverse impacts of climate change. The adverse effects of climate community. Such conditions call not just for adapted responses change will be suffered by the poor first and most heavily. When of relief and development but for reimagining theologies of those poor live in the countries of the global South, which have reconciliation, justice, and forgiveness. had the least to do with production of greenhouse gases, the A mission partnership, for example, that the Episcopal burden seems especially unfair.14 Diocese of the Northern Philippines shares with the Anglican Church of (Nippon Sei Ko Kai) centers on sustainable Ecological degradation and environmental refugees. When climates forestry and renewable energy initiatives. In this case the sus- do change, when waters rise or landslides happen, when re- tainability initiative contributes to a wider practice of reconcili- sources disappear or ecosystems fail, ecological degradation ation: because Japanese consumers have been buying Filipino can produce environmental refugees, persons fleeing failing or timber, the Church of Japan’s partnership takes representative exhausted environments, compounding the human toll of unjust responsibility and seeks solidarity with suffering, in the causing risk distribution. of which they participate. Responding to the ecological context, this mission relationship finds and gives new meaning to the Recognizing these connections, the church’s witness to loving theology of reconciliation. our neighbors requires recognition of the kinds of neighbors we have. We have downstream and upstream neighbors, neighbors Critique Inhumane Environmentalisms whose trees we depend upon, neighbors whose fisheries and fields we eat from, neighbors whose emissions the wind blows Since environmentalists work against multiple threats to the our way. Environmental justice both interprets an important integrity of creation and to human communities, Pieter Miering aspect of mission context and names a significant objective for suggests that perhaps the church should affirm environmental mission practice. If communities experience the reality of sin activists as “avant garde missionaries.” Just as many churches though impoverished soils, dangerous chemicals, disappearing perceive civil rights workers who put their lives on the line for waters, and polluted air, then mission practices must in some justice as doing the work of God, environmental workers who way confront and respond to environmental problems. Mis- risk themselves for the sake of preserving species or in resisting siology must find ways to name and condemn environmental exploitative operations can be seen as carrying forward God’s misuse, to promise environmental health, to offer ecological purposes.19 restoration, and to invite the world into a geography of grace. But environmentalism may not always straightforwardly In this way environmental justice recontextualizes some basic conduct the work of God. Consider the plight of the Batwa missiological debates, reopening discussions of incarnational people in Uganda. Removed from their forest home in the 1990s practice, structural sin, and holistic reconciliation. By placing to make an uninhabited reserve for mountain gorillas, the Batwa human dignity in ecological context, environmental justice chal- were forcibly resettled on agricultural land. An ancient forest- lenges and renews theological anthropology. It shows, as Ross dwelling Pygmy people, the Batwa might as well have been set

178 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 adrift at sea, so far were these people from a place that made sense location at once ecological and cultural, place names not just to them. Their culture and language, their foods and medicines, a spatial locale but a local way of understanding the world.25 their identity and their prayers were intimately tied to their way Place is therefore vulnerable not only to forces directly destroy- of life in an ancient forest.20 ing natural environments (degrading spaces) but also to social An American missionary couple who had gone to work as forces that weaken place attachments or dissolve land manage- medical caregivers for this outcast people, intending to enact God’s ment schemes (degrading ways of understanding a world). enduring love for them, found that displacement from the forest Exile from the land for indigenous peoples may occur not only touched everything important to the Batwa. The missionaries through physical displacement but also through displacement of were asked what God’s love could mean in this exile from their social systems, perhaps by the imposition of private property or home, where the Batwa felt unable to find life’s sustenance, where commodity agriculture systems. For some indigenous peoples, their children would grow up without knowing the sylvan sense then, the theological crisis presented by environmental problems of their language, songs, and prayers. The missionaries began to is a local crisis, requiring not just local theologies but a theology realize that restoring the experience of God’s love for the Batwa of locality.26 must include restoring them to the forest. So they began working Missiology faces special demands, however, in meeting the with government officials and international agencies to protect theological challenge of place, for it often works from biblical or restore forest ecosystems that the Batwa could access and tropes of itinerancy, homelessness, exile, and global commission. manage through a community-based conservation program. The In other words, missiological thematics tends to detract from missionaries became innovative environmentalists, working out place attachments. Sometimes this orientation has led to mis- new schemes of forest protection in order to protect the special sionary destruction of place and advocacy for the displacement value it held for the Batwa way of life with God.21 of indigenous peoples.27 But at its best it animates a missional The Batwa case shows the importance of missiological cri- restlessness that reflects God’s restless, universal love for the tique of some forms of environmentalism. Many in the global whole world. Indeed, missiology often works to keep the church’s South have criticized wilderness-driven forms of environmental theology from settling into rigidity by maintaining a stream of preservation that reserve park access for a global elite while dis- global engagement with difference. In an age of neocolonial mo- placing local, less powerful populations. Some see in large-scale bility, however, the missional themes of sojourning run greater wilderness reserves a new kind of green colonialism. Ramach- risks of complicity with globalizing patterns of restless capital, andra Guha has pejoratively called such environmentalists the displacement of peoples, and creation of homeless citizens. So new missionaries, imperial evangelists of the worst sort, ignoring where can missiology look for resources to attend to the signifi- what local communities already know, despising indigenous cance of land and place? culture, and finding ways to grab land.22 Daneel’s account of Zimbabwean nationalist land reclama- An authentic missiology must resist both sorts of perverted tion offers some potent suggestions for connecting liberation mission. In this case, both evangelical and environmental mis- and homeland within a quite particular relation of grace and sions require finding a way to imagine humanity and nature creation. But that connection also raises the most haunting fear living sustainably together. Missiology can help resist the “un- for any theology of place: the specter of a religiously sanctioned necessary polarity between humanity and nature with its tragic “eco-fascism.”28 Daneel describes how religious support for results,” says Kritzinger, by insisting on the human dimensions of the Zimbabwean liberation movement (chimurenga) developed environmentalism and sustaining constant concern for the mar- from “a religiously inspired sense of place,” which, together ginalized.23 Solidarity with marginalized peoples often serves as a with a notion of God as the just warrior, animated participation tonic, arousing resistance to ill-conceived development programs in political recapture of the land. “Drawing on the religious of all sorts. Missiology has special theological commitments to maintaining that tonic. In this case, more effective solidarity to begin with might have resisted the unnecessary polarity by walk- ing with the Batwa, who had lived sustainably in the forest for To protect the special centuries and who knew exactly how the trees sing the praises value the forest held for of God and how the rivers clap their hands. the Batwa way of life with Restore the Significance of “Place” God, the missionaries became innovative The case of the Batwa dramatizes how for many indigenous peoples environmental justice has less to do with generic envi- environmentalists. ronmental quality and more to do with threats to particular places. For peoples whose culture, language, and identity have developed over time through intimate relation with a particular motivation of war,” the militant tree-planting movement devel- terrain, environmental degradation poses a comprehensive threat ops as “chimurenga history is reinterpreted in the context of the to a living cosmology.24 It threatens not only the embodiment of green revolution in such a manner that cultural, religious, and individual persons but also the worlds that sustain them. This nationalist-patriotic motivational forces converge in a powerful includes carefully developed patterns of land management and imperative to participate in environmental reform.”29 Such asso- long-standing forms of participation in a bioregion, as well as ciations obviously raise enduring questions about how Christian the moral conventions that sustain these patterns and forms. communities participate in God’s mission to restore creation. Still For indigenous people especially, threats to place often threaten deeper questions arise when the missional war for liberation seeks a whole world, a lived cosmology. to restore a people to its place by repossessing land claimed by Part of the environmental task for missiology therefore lies in ethnic identity through ecological restoration. developing the theological significance of place. As a geographic For Daneel, the story of grace underwrites a theological claim

October 2008 179 to a particular territory and funds the practices, insurrectionary restoration of healthy environmental relationships, while Dayton or ecological, that reclaim territory from alien oppressors. A local Roberts asserts that such restoration requires renewed biblical way of understanding creation, all the way down to the species attention to the texts of cosmic salvation.36 Mission requires not of vegetation it ought to sustain, derives from a conception of just the stewardship of Genesis, the prophets’ land of covenant, grace tied to the land identity of native peoples. When all this or the creation hymnody of the Psalms, but the groaning creation happens in contemporary Zimbabwe, where the rhetoric of native of Romans 8 and the cosmic sweep of Paul’s prologues, where liberation has been distorted into fascist support for inept tyranny, all creation comes into the saving mission of God. the missiological questions press urgently. How can missiology Many missiologists agree with that tack toward cosmic so- tell a good theology of place from a bad one, a sustaining one teriology, but differ with more or less ecocentric interpretations. from a fascist one? For D. F. Olivier, a missiological focus on human “discipling” Here, one might respond, the exilic and sojourning meta- nonetheless serves God’s mission “to bring about the new phors of Christianity, typified in mission practice, work benignly creation.” Mission begins with humanity but finally results in against the politics of absolute locality. The question, then, is how the renewal of all creation.37 P. J. Robinson further develops the missiology can discover the grace of place within the grace of salvific reach of the missionary community toward all the earth. mobility.30 How can we describe the theological significance of “Through this discipling community God’s peace and loving-care Bwindi Forest to the Batwa while surely staving off the horrors of is to be communicated to the whole earth because God’s salvation an Aryan Lebensraum (habitat) or a nationalist “homeland”?31 We in Christ includes both heaven and earth.” In this perspective, need “bio-regional missiology,” some way of describing the place creation waits for “the restoration of all humankind’s relations, claims for sojourning Christian missions.32 There are precedents: including its relationship to nature.”38 Oliver Davies points out that Celtic Christianity bears legacies Christina Manohar moves the salvific focus still further of both an intensively place-shaped theology and remarkable towards creation itself by situating the missionary community missional dynamism.33 within God’s wider community-building mission, identifying the new creation vision of 11 as the goal of the cosmic Integrate Nature and Grace scope of Christ’s reconciliation.39 Donald Messer draws on the vision of Isaiah to reconceive missionaries as “global gardeners,” In 1961 theologian Sittler warned an assembly of the World stewarding creation by bringing forth the new earth.40 L. Newton Council of Churches that the church would lose its witness if it Thurber similarly argues from a creation-focused soteriology to did not recover the intimacy of nature and grace.34 Each one of the recast the missio Dei: “the purpose of God is to fulfill the unity tasks named in this article depends in some way on that recovery. of the creation through Jesus Christ,” so the “church’s mission- Here lies the key theological challenge for missiology: developing ary calling is to cooperate with God’s action and intention for or rediscovering the relationship of creation and salvation, and all the creation.”41 describing its significance for mission practice. When soteriology puts creation at the center of God’s mission, As Ross Langmead puts it, environmental issues force a new then mission practice can make the well-being of all creation a kind of contextual return to the Gospel: “An ecological perspec- specific goal of mission. For example, when J. A. Loader argues tive in mission asks the question of how the gospel takes a dif- that the biblical narrative depicts God’s active love for all life, ferent shape not only in different cultures but also in different then the missionary proclamation of the Good News cannot ecosystems. . . . If we are to situate our mission more deeply in stand apart from wonder at the natural world and responsibility for all life.42 Following the logic of the Pauline ta panta (all things), mission practice may be shaped to service even beyond all life Mission begins with to all of creation. For creation-centered soteriologies, observes , mission practice will mean “living with the earth humanity but finally to restore the interconnectedness of the whole creation. Creation results in the renewal is both the motive and the goal of mission.”43 Or, as L. Stanislaus puts it, “When we understand the fulfilment of the Kingdom of all creation. towards a new heaven and a new earth, and our mission is in realizing this new heaven and new earth, then our commitment is to the whole of creation.”44 Thomas Malipurathu goes so far creation in all of its regional variety, we may have to learn to take as to suggest that for a dialogic missiology this missional com- into account other factors such as the land, flora, fauna, climate, mitment means that “the whole of Creation, considered as a geography, and physical history.”35 That contextual turn may corporate personality, emerges as a dialogue partner.”45 take a variety of theological forms. For others, however, the cosmic and human dimensions of A few years ago Roman Catholic missionary Dorothy Stang soteriology operate simultaneously, making for practices that was martyred in Brazil for helping communities organize against reside nearer to the holistically human mission work called for the commercial exploitation of their forests. Stang was assassi- by Stang and Myers. When Cal Dewitt and Ghillean Prance ap- nated because she helped poor villagers find in the Gospel the peal to the New Testament’s reconciling embrace of “all things,” power to resist the systems of sin working to deprive them of they do so not so much to make ecology the mission but to define their place on a healthy earth. Her witness directs missiology to mission in ecological context: “It is enterprise whose goal is the articulate the mission of God for those living within degradations wholeness, integrity, and renewal of people and Creation and their of creation, to concretely and contextually proclaim the good relationships with each other and the Creator; it is reconciliation news of a new creation for God’s people. of all things.”46 They want to see the fullness of mission realized At least two World Vision missiologists agree with the tra- practically in multiple personal, social, and ecological dimensions. jectory of Stang’s witness to a holistic missiology. Bryant Myers While drawing from different theological wells, Langmead’s argues that the transformation effected by the Gospel includes definition of ecomissiology similarly “sees the mission of God in

180 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 terms of reconciliation at all levels,” corresponding to a theologi- The task of sustainability is thus at once theological and cal insistence “that salvation is multidimensional.”47 practical. On the one hand, missiology needs to engage with The range of ways for making environments matter for the global ethics of a sustaining common good.53 On the other, the salvific significance of mission turns on how missiology it needs to guide adequate environmental and economic train- integrates creation and salvation. Those integrations must ing for missionaries, include sustainability in long-term mission escape from a limitation to being merely thematic proposals strategy, and consider the material form of its mission practices in ecomissiology, however, if they would shape the wider mis- (e.g., carbon costs, food procurement, waste). What do sustain- sion theologies of the church. Sometimes they do, as seen in able missions look like? a pattern visible in recent Anglican thinking on mission. Titus Presler’s articulation of Anglican missiology glosses the Book of Interpret Emerging Mission Initiatives Common Prayer’s definition of mission (“to restore all people to unity with God and each other”) as restoring “the vital and Grassroots mission practices already responding to environ- creative community with God and one another for which we mental problems and developing sustaining communities form were made and which we see in the Garden of Eden . . . realized the second arena which should shape further development of through harmonious relationships among many kinds of liv- missiology. Consider, for example, a tree-planting initiative ing beings and individuals.”48 The Episcopal Church’s guiding found among some small groups of East African revivalism. A mission vision document Companions in Transformation (2003) network often formed around core prayer groups in churches includes a significant section on environmental justice and care has begun replanting trees over deforested lands owned by the for creation, while the Anglican Consultative Council adopted community or the church. Their experience of the redeeming concern for the integrity of creation as one of its “Five Marks of Mission.”49 Not incidentally, the Episcopal Church has had several ecomissionaries on its roster. For missiology the task Reestablish Missiological Sustainability of sustainability is at once theological and practical. Brief mention of two final tasks names two arenas for the future of missiological thinking. The first arena is the current interna- tional contest over “sustainable development,” the emerging God led them to start planting trees as a witness to the new life moral discourse for balancing commitments to promote human in the community. And with their grassroots land management dignity, economic opportunity, and environmental protection. and community-based organization of church practice, there is A full theological ecology of mission should offer resources for indeed a new form of life to which the reforested hills give wit- developing a practical theology of sustainability and thus at least ness. Meanwhile, an international Christian NGO has partnered contribute, if not witness, to the debates of the international com- with these groups to measure the amount of carbon they are munity. What sustains us? What should be sustained? sequestering, network them with other small groups around the Missiology has talked about sustainability before, when region, and then sell the cumulative carbon credits to companies discussing the cultural, financial, and institutional sustainability wanting to offset their greenhouse gas emissions. The NGO col- of church communities. Only recently, however, has it begun to lects the payments and distributes small payments to each local consider the ecological dimensions of a holistically sustainable group every three months, based on the proof of digital pictures church community.50 This may, however, emerge as one of the they take of their living trees.54 most significant arenas of Christian witness in the twenty-first Here is an innovative set of mission practices: Christian century, making it missiologically imperative to imagine the engagement with climate change that starts from individual church’s word and practice as a sustaining membership. Can encounters with the redeeming Christ and leads to community- missiology show how the whole world participates in God’s based resource management and a global network of carbon sustaining mission? sequestration. The linkage of these practices calls out for mis- At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, siological interpretation. Christian representatives made their voices heard that sustain- Or consider the Asian Rural Institute (ARI) in Nasushiobara, able development must be oriented toward “a real commitment Japan. Begun by United Church of Christ missionaries in the early to care for the poor, the marginalized and the voiceless” (as the twentieth century and still “rooted in the love of Jesus Christ,” Anglican delegation put it). “Therefore,” the statement went ARI is at once an experimental farm for sustainable agriculture, on, “it is sustainable community that we seek.”51 By replacing a training institute for NGO leaders from the Two-Thirds World, “development” with “community,” the Anglicans gave notice and a remarkable interfaith community. Working among its that their theological commitments integrate sustainability not organic chickens, high-yield rice paddies, bio-gas generators, by reference to principles of economic growth but within the and onsite cannery, college volunteers, staff leaders, and NGO shape of authentic community. Doing so, they implicitly refer participants from around the world form a life together. The the ethics of sustainability to the practices of reconciliation, and community requirements: everyone works, and everyone attends thus to the mission of God to restore unity to creation.52 chapel. They decide together how to run the farm and why, and In their witness lies the start of a theology of sustainability they take turns holding chapel, each in the tradition of his or rooted in the missio Dei and manifest in practices of empowerment, her own faith.55 justice, restoration, and protection. When mission practices can The membership and practices of ARI present missiology imagine and enact the way that experience of God’s sustaining with an integrative witness: religious, economic, and ecological grace integrates those issues, so that it is at once good news for alienations must be healed together, and the path to restored unity the poor and for the land, then they prepare the grounds of a with each other and with God comes through learning the earth’s sustainable missiology. lessons. Missiology might consider interreligious understanding

October 2008 181 through ARI’s perspective that collaborative work to restore hu- range of theological commitments and registers. Missiological man communities to sustainability involves the earthy work of engagement with environmental issues is an ecumenical task, tending fields and the theological work of understanding one requiring all Christians to show how the gifts of living with God another’s relationship with God. make sense of the gifts of living on earth. There are many more such initiatives, some explicitly en- Missiology must ask questions such as: How does mission fit vironmental in focus, others accidentally so by reason of their into ecological context? How, and how well, are Christian mission contextual challenges, from all around the world and from all practices responding to environmental threats to community life? forms of faith.56 The task for the field of missiology is to help make How does place matter for spiritual experience and geography them visible, facilitate their theological exchanges, and follow for interreligious engagement? How might environmental mis- their challenge and promise for missiology itself. sion practices help reimagine or reshape theologies of salvation, the patterns of Christian friendship, or the character of Christian Conclusion witness? How do mission practices reframe questions about lo- cality and sustainability, place and global community? How do This article has described a series of tasks for making environmen- they contribute to a practical theology of sustainable community? tal issues more visible, intelligible, and significant for missiology. The answers will move toward theological description of the As should be clear from the initial proposals and the practices ecology of mission—the way mission makes creation matter for that they imply, each of the tasks may be approached from a the experience of God.

Notes 1. This article reflects material from talks given at the 2003 Costas 10. Larry Rasmussen, Earth Ethics, Earth Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Consultation on Mission of the Boston Theological Institute, to Orbis Books, 1996), pp. 75–89. training sessions for Episcopal Church missionaries from 2002 to 11. See Franz Verstraelen, “Land, Development, and Ecology: Missio- 2005, and at the Overseas Ministries Study Center in 2007. Thanks to Theological Reflections from the Pacific and Africa,”Mission Studies many participants for feedback. Some of the practical cases I mention 13, no. 1–2 (1996): 189–206. are condensed from descriptions in Willis Jenkins, Ecologies of Grace: 12. World Council of Churches, “Statement on Water for Life,” adopted Environmental Ethics and (New York: Oxford Univ. at Porto Alegre, 2006, www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/ Press, 2008). documents/assembly/porto-alegre-2006/1-statements-documents- 2. “Link” is ’s circumspect word, from his editorial adopted/international-affairs/report-from-the-public-issues- introduction to the 1991 volume of Missionalia 19, pp. 1–3. Although committee/water-for-life.html. Bosch there affirms the case for a link, his ownTransforming Mission: 13. See Vandana Shiva, Biopiracy: The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, (Boston: South End Press, 1997). 1991) has almost nothing on environmental issues and little to say 14. See Jesse N. K. Mugambi, “Emissions Trading as an Aspect of about missiological dimensions of creation. Toxic Waste Dumping,” in Christian Theology and Environmental 3. My approach differs from Ross Langmead’s “Ecomissiology” in that Responsibility, ed. J. N. K. Mugambi and Mika Vähäkangas (Nairobi: these tasks do not correspond to any particular interpretation of Acton Publishers, 2001), pp. 35–56. ecotheology but are gathered broadly from the missiological literature 15. Anticipating a subsequent task, Langmead shows how the trajectory and from representative examples of environmental issues in mission of an ecological anthropology pushes toward reconsidered soteriology practice. See Langmead, “Ecomissiology,” Missiology 30, no. 4 (2002): by going on to say that “incarnational missiology can be the platform 505–18. Most of my examples are from Anglican communities, by for the inclusion of environmental concern in the scope of Christian accident of my own experience, but they represent, I think, a wider mission, as the cosmic dimensions of God’s self-expression in the movement. material universe are explored” (The Word Made Flesh: Towards an 4. Marthinus Daneel, African Earthkeepers: Wholistic Interfaith Mission Incarnational Missiology [New York: Univ. Press of America, 2004], (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 2001). p. 225). 5. See Missionalia 19 (1991) and Mission Studies 13 (1996). Daneel’s is 16. See Daniel J. Bell, Jr., Liberation Theology After the End of History (New the only contribution on mission in Dieter Hessel and Rosemary York: Routledge, 2001). For a missiological rendition, see Lee Hong Radford Ruether, eds., Christianity and Ecology (Cambridge, Mass.: Jung, “Healing and Reconciliation as the Basis for the Sustainability Harvard Univ. Press, 2000), or in Roger Gottlieb, ed., Oxford Handbook of Life: An Ecological Plea for a ‘Deep’ Healing and Reconciliation,” of Religion and Ecology (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007). International Review of Mission 94, no. 372 (2005): 84–102. 6. Noting that the biblical narrative of God’s mission begins with 17. Consider the environmental dimensions to realizing or frustrating creation, William Dyrness affirms that “this multifaceted work of human capacities; see Martha Nussbaum, Women and Human God will always be the basic setting for our mission. . . . It is hard to Development (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000), especially see how any conception of mission that underestimates this context pp. 94, 157–58. can be fully biblical” (Let the Earth Rejoice: A Biblical Theology of Holistic 18. See Joseph Franke, “Faith and Martyrdom in the Forest,” The Witness, Mission [Westchester, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1983], p. 27). March 9, 2005, www.thewitness.org/article.php?id=785. 7. J. J. Kritzinger, “Mission, Development, and Ecology,” Missionalia 19 19. Pieter G. J. Miering, “The Greens—Avant-Garde Missionaries?” (1991): 16. See also Mutombo Mpanya, “The Environmental Impacts Missionalia 19 (1991): 192–202. of a Church Project,” in Missionary Earthkeeping, ed. Calvin B. DeWitt 20. See Peninah Zaninka, “The Impact of (Forest) Nature Conservation and Ghillean T. Prance (Macon, Ga.: Mercer Univ. Press, 1992), on Indigenous Peoples: The Batwa of South-Western Uganda; A Case pp. 91–110. Study of the Mgahinga and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation 8. See Sean McDonagh, To Care for the Earth: A Call to a New Theology Trust,” Forest Peoples Programme, Case Study 5 (2001), www. (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1986), see pp. 1–3, 212–13. forestpeoples.org/documents/africa/uganda_eng.pdf. 9. Commission for Racial Justice, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United 21. See Scott Kellerman and Carol Kellerman at www.pygmies.net. States: A National Report on the Racial and Socioeconomic Characteristics 22. Ramachandra Guha, “Radical American Environmentalism and of Communities with Hazardous Waste Sites (New York: United Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique,” Environmental Church of Christ, 1987); Robert Bullard, Paul Mohai, Robin Saha, Ethics 11, no. 1 (1989): 71–83. and Beverly Wright, Toxic Wastes and Race at Twenty, 1987–2007 (New 23. Kritzinger, “Mission, Development, and Ecology,” p. 14. York: United Church of Christ, 2007). 24. For the phrase “living cosmology,” see John Grim and Mary Evelyn

182 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Our full-time Mission and Evangelism faculty members include: “I love the PhD program in Intercultural Studies. Richard R. Cook, PhD It combines global breadth, intellectual depth, Mission History and Global Christianity Harold A. Netland, PhD and a passion for effective missional thinking and Religion and Intercultural Studies practice. I have gained exposure and mentoring John W. Nyquist, PhD from outstanding professors, and I have learned Evangelism and Discipleship intellectual and research skills that I needed to Craig Ott, PhD Church Planting and Contextualization take the next step of leadership in my field.” James F. Plueddemann, PhD Doctoral student Rick Richardson is an associate Leadership and Education — Robert J. , PhD professor and director of the MA in evangelism Anthropology and Intercultural Studies program at Wheaton College. Tite Tiénou, PhD Theology of Mission and Ethnicity

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Is God leading you toward doctoral studies? At we offer several degree options to help you deepen your theological understanding, cultural insights, and missionary skills for cross-cultural ministry and theological leadership both globally and locally.Trinity’s faculty combine international experience with quality scholarship to help you reflect, explore, and grow to achieve your educational and ministry goals. Doctoral programs at Trinity include: PhD (Intercultural Studies) PhD (Educational Studies) PhD (Theological Studies) In addition to other funding, Trinity offers three-year full-tuition scholarships in the PhD (Intercultural Studies) program, available to East African, Chinese, Indian, or Latin American students who will return to their home countries after graduation to teach at a seminary or institution of higher education.

Contact our Admissions Office today: 800.583.6654 Trinity Evangelical Divinity School | 2065 Half Day Road, Deerfield, IL 60015 | www.teds.edu Tucker, “Living Cosmology: An Approach to the Study of Religion 39. Christina Manohar, “Toward a Mission Theology of Environment,” and Ecology.” in Ecological Challenge and Christian Mission, ed. Krickwin Marak and 25. Tim Cresswell, Place: A Short Introduction (London: Blackwell, 2004), Atul Aghamkar (Delhi: ISPCK, 1998), pp. 206–7. p. 13. 40. Donald E. Messer, Conspiracy of Goodness: Contemporary Images of 26. See, for a few examples, Ilaitia Sevati Tuwere, Vanua: Towards a Christian Mission (Nashville, Abingdon Press, 1992), p. 81. Fijian Theology of Place (Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, 2002); 41. L. Newton Thurber, “Care for the Creation as Mission Responsibility,” Sigurd Bergmann, God in Context: A Survey of Contextual Theology International Review of Mission 79, no. 314 (1990): 145, 149. (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate Publishing, 2003), especially chap. 2; 42. J. A. Loader, “Life, Wonder, and Responsibility,” Missionalia 19, Gordon Lathrop, Holy Ground: A Liturgical Cosmology (Minneapolis: no. 1 (1991): 44–56. Augsburg Fortress, 2003). Consider also the dimension of place in 43. Sebastian Kim, “Eco-Theology and Mission,” in Marak and Aghamkar, J. Oleksa, Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission (Crestwood, Ecological Challenge and Christian Mission, p. 218. See also Wesley N.Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1992). Granberg-Michaelson, A Worldly Spirituality: The Call to Take Care of 27. For an indictment of the theological roots of Christian hostility the Earth (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984), pp. 170–75. to native peoples, see Vine Deloria, For This Land: Writings on 44. L. Stanislaus, “Ecology: An Awareness for Mission,” SEDOS Bulletin Religion in America (New York: Routledge, 1999), pp. 77–83. John 31, no. 12 (1999): 325. Pobee points out how this violent mission legacy is linked to an 45. Thomas Malipurathu, “Our Earth—Our Mission,” SEDOS Bulletin impoverished theology of creation, commenting, “The movements 39, no. 3–4 (2007): 78. seeking justice for those denied their birthright, in my view, are 46. DeWitt and Prance, eds., Missionary Earthkeeping, p. ix. signs of God renewing creation” (“Lord, Creator-Spirit, Renew and 47. Langmead, “Ecomissiology,” pp. 505–8. Sustain the Whole Creation,” International Review of Mission 79, no. 48. Titus Presler, Horizons of Mission (Cambridge, Mass.: Cowley 314 [1990]: 154). Publications, 2001), p. 7. 28. See Janet Biehl and Peter Staudenmeier, Ecofascism: Lessons from the 49. The Standing Commission on World Mission, Companions German Experience (San Francisco: AK Press, 1995). in Transformation: The Episcopal Church’s World Mission 29. Daneel, African Earthkeepers, pp. 107 and 83. Compare the inter- in a New Century, General Convention of the Episcopal pretation of the chimurenga in Titus Presler, Transfigured Night: Church, 2003, www.episcopalchurch.org/documents/ Mission and Culture in Zimbabwe’s Vigil Movement (Pretoria: Univ. of WorldMissionVisionStatement2003.pdf. Press, 1999). 50. See Steve de Gruchy, “A Christian Engagement with the Sustainable 30. For some initial suggestions on how place and mobility come together Livelihoods Framework,” Missionalia 33 (2005): 56–72; David for theology, see John Inge, A Christian Theology of Place (Burlington, Bookless, “A Famine of Hope: Christian Mission and the Search for Vt.: Ashgate Publishing, 2003); Sigurd Bergmann, “Atmospheres a Sustainable Future,” www.martynmission.cam.ac.uk/CBookless. of Synergy: Towards an Eco-theological Aesth/Ethics of Space,” htm. Ecotheology 11, no. 3 (2006): 326–56. For a biblical theology connecting 51. “Declaration to the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable exile and place, see Walter Brueggemann, The Land: Place as Gift, Development” (2002), www.episcopalchurch.org/1829_16986_ENG_ Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, HTM.htm. 2002). 52. See Pobee, “Lord, Creator-Spirit,” p. 158: “Christian mission then 31. On how Karl Barth’s theology worked to stave off Nazi theologies should denounce the sins that deny, in not so many words, that of place, see Jenkins, Ecologies of Grace, chaps. 8 and 9. God is Creator and sustains. . . . [Christian mission should] also set 32. For the term “bio-regional missiology,” see Langmead, before and nurture people in a vision of what it is on the ground to “Ecomissiology,” p. 511. acknowledge and confess the Triune God, as Creator and sustainer 33. Oliver Davies, ed., Celtic Spirituality (Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, of the universe.” 1999), pp. 16–25. 53. The most noted example from this literature is John Cobb and 34. See Sittler’s “Called to Unity,” delivered at the WCC’s 1961 New Herman Daly, For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Delhi meeting, in Steven Bouma-Prediger and Peter Bakken, eds., Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (Boston: Beacon Evocations of Grace: The Writings of Joseph Sittler on Ecology, Theology, Press, 1994). and Ethics (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), pp. 38–50. 54. See www.tist.org. 35. Langmead, “Ecomissiology,” p. 510. 55. See www.ari-edu.org/english/index.html. 36. Bryant Myers, Walking with the Poor: Principles and Practices of 56. See, among others, Target Earth, www.targetearth.org/; Willis Jenkins, Transformational Development (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1999); “A New Earth Day: Emerging Anglican Environmentalisms,” The W. Dayton Roberts, “Carrying Out Christ’s Mission in a Leaking Witness, April 20, 2005, www.thewitness.org/article.php?id=896; Boat?” Evangelical Missions Quarterly 7 (October 2001): 450–55; Alice Kabugumila, “Tanzanian Women’s Response to the W. Dayton Roberts, Patching God’s Garment: Environment and Mission Environmental Crisis,” in Christian Theology and Environmental in the Twenty-first Century (Monrovia, Calif.: MARC/WorldVision Responsibility, ed. Mugambi and Vähäkangas, pp. 64–73; Sarah International, 1994). McFarland Taylor, Green Sisters: A Spiritual Ecology (Cambridge, 37. D. F. Olivier, “Ecology and Mission: Notes on the History of the JPIC Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2007); Susan Drake Emmerich, “The Process and Its Relevance to Theology,” Missionalia 19, no. 1 (1991): Declaration in Practice: Missionary Earth-Keeping,” in The Care of 22; see especially p. 24, n. 3. Creation, ed. R. J. Berry (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 38. P. J. Robinson, “Integrity of Creation and Christian Mission,” 2000), pp. 147–54. Missionalia 19, no. 2 (1991): 151.

184 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Mission and Healing in Historical Perspective Christoffer H. Grundmann

ealing has been an important element in the proclamation When by order of the Roman emperors Gratian (375–83) and Hof the Gospel from the very beginnings of Christianity. Theodosius (379–95) Christianity was made the official religion in Jesus healed and ordered his disciples to do likewise in order the empire, and when in 391/92 all heathen temples in the empire to make the presence of the kingdom of God known, seen, and were closed and their possessions confiscated and handed over experienced (Matt. 10:8; Luke 9:2; 10:9). Healing was also one of to the church, shrines once dedicated to Asclepios oftentimes got the dominant features of spreading the Good News during the “baptized” by simply turning them into a church or erecting a first centuries of the church’s existence. Summing up his find- basilica on their site, which first had to be cleared of any idols ings on medical matters in the early church, Adolf von Harnack worshiped there previously. Recent archaeological digs in Cyprus remarked: “Christian religion and (Amathous, St. Tychon),3 at the the care of the sick have traveled foot of the Athens Acropolis,4 and a long way together in the course especially at the St. Felix shrine of history; as a result, they now at Cimitile-Nola, near Naples,5 are inseparable. . . . The influence allow us today to understand the and future of the church depend transformations taking place. We on her caring for those who suf- have ample proof through texts, fer spiritually and physically. . . . artifacts, and remains of buildings This is definitely the meaning of that the incubation so typical of the Gospel of the Savior and of the Asclepios cult was also prac- salvation. The Early Church un- ticed in Christian churches, when derstood it this comprehensively. desperate people were allowed to And the only way that the Old sleep in church buildings in close Church remains young and the proximity to the tomb of the local Young Church remains the old is saint. Original sources indicate that it keeps and preserves this Photo from SOAS, University of London. © Trustees for Methodist Church Purposes. that such a practice continued understanding of the Gospel in Used by permission of Methodist Publishing House. until at least the tenth century, not 1 its fullness.” Surgical Team, Wuhan, China, ca. 1937 only in Gaul or Italy but also, and Despite the biblical mandate even more intensely, in the eastern regarding healing and its early importance in spreading the good parts of the former Roman Empire, notably in news of salvation for all (Mark 16:20),2 healing did not generally and in Syria and . Much more is to be expected from fur- become a topic of concern for Christian missions until the advent ther digs. The many votive offerings already found and the size of medical missions in the nineteenth century. There are two of the estates suggest that at certain sites Christ’s charge not to reasons for this delay: the disciples were explicitly charged not take payment in money or in kind for health blessings received to make their living by healing (Matt. 10:8), and it took long cen- might have been disregarded. turies for medicine to become scientific. Early medicine, suffused In any case, what could be done without compromising with religion, was virtually indistinguishable from the cults of the faith was to care for the sick, including those beyond one’s Asclepios and the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, which were extremely own kin, thereby witnessing to God’s unconditional love for all popular in Hellenistic times (approximately 300 b.c.e.–300 c.e.). humankind, something impressively epitomized in the parable Noted for their greediness and (not unlike today’s health-care of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–34), which many non-Chris- system!) their constant demands for more and more donations, tian religions view as the essence of Christianity. Caring for early medical practitioners made healing very expensive and the sick—not healing per se, except for occasional testimonies thus unaffordable for desperate commoners. To become actively to miracles—eventually became the hallmark of Christianity, engaged in healing in this context would have compromised in no fundamentally changing the overall societal attitude toward the small degree the proclamation of salvation for all, which includes sick, while active involvement in the healing arts was not on the the command to provide healing dōrean (Matt. 10:8), that is, free agenda, at least not until the nineteenth century.6 of charge. The brother physician- Cosmas and Damien, In fact, the official church developed an increasing dislike for who suffered martyrdom during the Diocletian pogrom about the practice of medicine, especially surgery, during the course of 303 c.e. and whose popular cult emerged in the fourth century, the following centuries. This attitude became clear in 1215 at the were commonly referred to as “the moneyless” because of their Fourth Lateran Council, which ruled that no cleric should practice practice of not receiving payment from their patients. surgery, for fear of committing unintentional homicide. A priest should never shed blood.7 Later, even the study of medicine was Christoffer H. Grundmann, an ordained Lutheran prohibited for any religious. Yet in cases of necessity and in the minister, is the John R. Eckrich University Professor absence of other medical help, and religious, moved by pity in Religion and the Healing Arts at Valparaiso Univer- and charity, did whatever they could under the constraints of the sity, Valparaiso, Indiana. Before joining Valparaiso in limited means and skills at their disposal, offering their services 2001, he taught four years at the Tamilnadu Theological especially in the monasteries. Benedict of Nursia (480–550) had Seminary in Madurai, , and was theological con- ordered his monks at Monte Cassino to serve the sick as if they sultant to the German Institute of Medical Missions, were Christ himself (see Matt. 25:31–46) and to do whatever was Tübingen. —[email protected] needed to restore their health and well-being (Rule of Benedict

October 2008 185 36).8 Several centuries later, during the Crusades, the orders (1854–1859); and third, laboratory-based cellular pathology. This founded to care for the injured and their convalescence brought third development led to the age of bacteriology (Rudolf Virchow, care of the sick and healing to the forefront. Prominent in this 1821–1902; Robert Koch, 1843–1910; Ronald Ross, 1857–1932) and work were the Order of St. John of (or Hospitallers, with it the discovery of the disease-causing pathogens of known 1099), the Knights Templar (ca. 1119), and the Antonines (1095). epidemics, including those common in tropical countries, which Later, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and despite led in due course to effective treatment and the development of the official prohibition of the church, healing ministries played a appropriate measures of prevention.12 Physicians now could heal major role in the work of Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries.9 diseases previously considered fatal, thereby allowing Christian Care for the sick became a recognized duty for missions and physicians once again to reconsider the scriptural charge of being missionaries once the New World was discovered, heralding the sent by their Lord and Master to heal. age of patronage missions (1492–1622). Thus the Spanish Consejo As much as medical missions is thus “an epiphenomenon de las (Council for the Indies) ruled that “hospitals”—that of the development of medicine,”13 with medicine being trans- is, modest facilities for care of the deserving of every kind, such formed from an old-fashioned, authority-bound scientia into a as lepers, widows, the poor, destitutes, orphans, and sick people modern science, it is also a consequence of the great missionary for whom nobody cared—were to be built in every area under movement of the nineteenth century ignited by the Second Great Awakening. It first took definitive shape in the Medical Mission- ary Society in China, founded on February 21, 1838, at Canton (), with Rev. , M.D. (1804–88), its most Medical missions became renowned representative.14 This society was a joint philanthropic a means to various ends venture by missionaries, professional medics, and businessmen and highly suspicious from different countries, different denominations, and even dif- ferent religions (Parse, Chinese). They joined in this venture to for those interested only guarantee institutional backing of hospital-based medical services in straightforwardly provided by missionary physicians who were trained in rational- scientific medicine. They also wanted to provide free treatment religious goals. of the kinds of diseases that traditional Chinese medicine could not handle, hoping thereby to befriend a xenophobic people. The enterprise thus became a means to various ends, the proclamation Spanish rule, notably in Mexico, Uruguay, and the Philippines, of the Gospel being just one among others, rendering it highly or where Spanish were active in ministry as in Japan, suspicious in the eyes of those who were interested only in the while in the territories under Portuguese patronage, charitable pursuit of straightforwardly religious goals.15 organizations called Misericórdia societies were established, As medicine was becoming more and more powerful and whose members vowed to care for the needy, as had become a as an ever-increasing number of pious physicians determined pious practice back home at Lisbon from 1498. In the eighteenth to serve as missionaries yearning for “the evangelization of the century the early Protestant mission societies such as the Danish- world in this generation,” medical missions became “the heavy Halle Mission and the Herrnhut Brethren sent out professionally artillery of the missionary army,” as Herbert Lankester, then sec- trained physicians to attend to the health-care needs of their mis- retary of the Medical Committee of the , sionaries suffering from tropical diseases, especially malaria, and London, characterized it in 1900.16 By the turn of the century, also to treat indigenous people in case of illness. Nevertheless, medical missions was deemed so essential that the Ecumenical the impact of such initiatives, which remained only marginal Missionary Conference, held in New York in 1900, could declare in this period, was severely hampered by the limitations on the that no mission could “be considered fully equipped that has not kind of medical help that could actually be rendered. Such help its medical branch.”17 was often not much better than the healing practices already in While these statements suggest that medical missions was place in the local cultures.10 being universally recognized, the reality was different. Only about one-fourth of all Protestant missionary societies were engaged in Mission and Healing in the Nineteenth Century medical missions. The percentage of Protestant medical missionar- ies and their staff, both male and female, foreign and indigenous, The situation changed dramatically during the nineteenth cen- reached its high point in 1923, when 5.6 percent (1,157 out of tury, when medicine turned decisively away from its focus on 20,569 total missionaries) were practicing medicine.18 Figures for the teachings of classical medical authorities like Hippocrates, later years dwindled.19 Despite these relatively modest figures, Galen, and Avicenna and began directly to study the nature of we can say that, by the turn of the twentieth century, medicine the human body and its physiology. Such an approach had be- had become a topic of genuine concern for Protestant missions, gun long before, as is indicated by the anatomical drawings of albeit a controversial one. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519),11 by the seven-volume De humani With the exception of a remarkable initiative on the island corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) of Vesalius of Malta during 1881–96 by the visionary Cardinal Lavigerie, a (1514–64), and by the discovery of the circulation of the blood in Frenchman and founder of the missionary order of the White 1628 by William Harvey (1578–1657). But this approach gained Fathers, dedicated to missions in Africa,20 Roman Catholicism, significant momentum only in the nineteenth century through bound by the decrees of the Fourth Lateran Council, was remark- three developments: first, the discovery of anesthesia (1846) and ably hesitant to embrace medical missions. This situation changed antisepsis (1847–1867), leading to the previously unimaginable dramatically in 1925, however, with the founding in Washington, rise of surgery; second, awareness of the importance of public D.C., of the Society of Catholic Medical Missionaries (Medical hygiene and sanitation—providing safe drinking water and Mission Sisters) by the Austrian Anna Dengel, M.D., and with proper disposal of sewage—for the prevention of epidemics changes the Vatican announced in 1936 in its approach to the

186 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 study and practice of medicine by religious.21 Soon thereafter safe methods of delivery, and securing sufficient nutritious foods medical missions underwent a process of radical transformation, and basic generic medicines for the most common diseases, all bringing about basic changes in former attitudes toward medicine of this calling for cooperation across various disciplines and by medical missionaries, nurses, and home boards.22 government departments. In concentrating on providing primary health care for families and local communities, medical missions Health Care as Focus of Medical Missions Today turned away from hospital-centered medical work reflecting the financial affluence of the technocratic, secular culture dominant The transformation of medical missions was mainly caused by in the West. Its health-care program was so effective that the the rapid advances in medical science, which demanded not only WHO adopted it as official policy in 1978 at the International expensive high-tech equipment but also intensive-medical care. Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma Ata, Kazakh SSR These advances constantly required more adequate facilities and (Declaration of Alma Ata).25 Since then, individual nation-states, thus a corresponding financial and action-driven medical model. as well as the WHO, have frequently updated their health-care This trend provoked critical questioning of the goal of medicine. focus, wishing to show quick results in the interest of securing But the shift in emphasis of medical missions also reflected de- World Bank funding. The churches and their medical missions velopments in health-care politics on national and international personnel continue to pursue the course and vision of primary levels (especially the formation of the World Health Organization health care, which has proved to be most effective in coping with [WHO] in 1948, along with national departments/ministries of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. health), as well as the emergence of indigenous “young churches,” In closing, three of the most pressing of many pertinent issues with their very limited financial resources. These developments raised by the enterprise of medical missions should be mentioned. prompted a reevaluation of medical missions across denomina- Each deserves serious theological and missiological reflection. tional lines and led to the creation in 1968 of the Christian Medical First, medical missions reminds the church that its own Commission (CMC) by the World Council of Churches (WCC), recovery of the ministry of healing cannot be pursued to the an ecumenical venture having Roman Catholic representation on exclusion of medicine, as is the tendency in many faith-healing its staff from its very beginning.23 This commission was charged movements. Instead, medicine must be gratefully acknowledged with “responsibility to promote the national co- of as a gift to humankind. church-related medical programmes and to engage in study and Second, medical missions challenges the long-held anthropo- research into the most appropriate ways by which the churches logical conviction, dating back to the Neoplatonism of the third might express their concern for . . . health care.”24 In 1992 the century c.e. (see especially Plotinus, ca. 205–70), that the soul is CMC was renamed Churches’ Action for Health. Currently, the more precious than the body. Most revivalists of the nineteenth WCC’s program “Justice, Diakonia, and Responsibility for Cre- century held a similar view. One who was both a revivalist and ation” includes the project “Health and Healing,” which focuses a physician, however, rejected this conviction outright, stating: on HIV/AIDS and mental health. “To merely talk piously and tell suffering people of a future state, Today the healing arts and the task of medical missionaries while neglecting to relieve their present needs, when in our power are seen in a much broader context than before, clearly reflecting to do so, must be nauseating both to God and man, and certainly the postcolonial situation of a globalized Christianity. Christian is a libel upon the Christianity Christ both taught and practiced, medical work could no longer remain content with simply in which He combined care for the whole being of man, body and benefiting suffering individuals and running costly hospitals; soul.”26 At the root of too spiritual a concept of mission or faith rather, it needed to address the need for proper nourishment and healing and too material a concept of health and professional hygienic living conditions, without which people would continue healing lies a misconceived biblical anthropology, one profoundly to become sick. Furthermore, it needed to recognize the rise of distorting the church’s witness to God incarnate in Christ. As the private and government health-care enterprises. Priorities had to church father Tertullian (ca. 160–ca. 212) once pointedly stated, be set for how best to invest the scarce resources at hand, priori- Caro cardo salutis, The flesh is the hinge of salvation. ties that of course were to be critically informed by the Gospel. Third, the skillful use of medicine for the sake of bring- These priorities were identified as promoting life in abundance ing about life in abundance and preventing untimely death, (see John 10:10) and justice (shalom), both to be accomplished by particularly among those most neglected—the poor, including focusing on the commonly neglected diseases of the poor—that today especially the victims of HIV/AIDS, notably in Africa and is, the overwhelming mass of people suffering from preventable Asia—at once witnesses to the corporeality of salvation and to diseases. This included the practical steps of providing adequate the proper use of knowledge, skills, and funds for the benefit of sanitation systems and safe drinking water, giving special atten- all, thereby profoundly critiquing other ways of doing medicine. tion to pregnant women and to training traditional midwives in A genuine missionary task indeed! Notes 1. Adolf von Harnack, “Medicinisches aus der ältesten Kirchen- Kulturgeschichte Zyperns, ed. Johannes G. Deckers, Marie-Elisabeth geschichte” (Medical topics from the most ancient church history), Mitsou, and Sabine Rogge (Münster: Waxmann, 2005), pp. 23–40. Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur 8, 4. Arja Karivieri, “The Christianization of an Ancient Pilgrimage no. 4 (1892): 147; emphasis in original. Site: A Case Study of the Athenian Asklepieion,” in Akten des XII. 2. Darrel W. Amundsen and Gary B. Ferngren, “The Early Christian Internationalen Kongresses für Christliche Archäologie (Bonn 22.–28. Tradition,” in Caring and Curing: Health and Medicine in the Western September 1991) (Münster: Aschendorff, 1995), pp. 898–905. Religious Traditions, ed. Darrel W. Amundsen and Ronald L. Numbers 5. Tomas Lehmann, “Die Kirchenbauten in Cimitile/Nola: Ergebnisse (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 40–64. der Forschungen der letzten 15 Jahre” (Church Buildings in Cimitile/ 3. Tomas Lehmann, “Die spätantiken Kirchenbauten von Amathous Nola: Findings of Research of the Past Fifteen Years), in Cimitile e (Zypern) und die Wunderheilungen am Grab des Bischofs Tychon” Paolino di Nola: La tomba di S. Felice e il centro di pellegrinaggio, ed. (Church Buildings of Late Antiquity at Amathous [Cyprus] and Hugo Brandenburg and Letizia Pani Ermini (Vatican City: Pontificio Miracle Healings at the Tomb of Tychon), in Beiträge zur istituto di archeologia cristiana, 2003), pp. 95–127. See also Dennis

October 2008 187 E. Trout, Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters, and Poems; The Transformation Heralds of Health: The Saga of Christian Medical Initiatives (London: of the Classical Heritage (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press 1999). Christian Medical Fellowship, 1985). 6. Henry E. Sigerist, Civilization and Disease (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. 17. Report of the Ecumenical Missionary Conference on Foreign Missions, Press, 1943; repr., College Park, Md.: McGrath Pub., 1970), pp. 69–70. Held in Carnegie Hall and Neighboring Churches, April 21 to May 1, 1900, 7. Namely in constitution 18 (Clerics to dissociate from shedding blood); 2 vols. (New York: American Tract Society, 1900), 2:199. see Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils: From Nicea I to Vatican II, ed. 18. James S. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions: A Statistical Norman P. Tanner (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press, 1990), Supplement to “Christian Missions and Social Progress,” Being a 1:244. Conspectus of the Achievements and Results of Evangelical Missions in 8. The Rule of St. Benedict, trans. Leonard J. Doyle, ed. David W. Cotter All Lands at the Close of the Nineteenth Century (New York: Fleming (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2001). H. Revell, 1902); Grundmann, Sent to Heal! pp. 150, 159. 9. Roy Porter, The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine (Cambridge: 19. Harlan P. Beach and Charles H. Fahs, eds., World Missionary Atlas, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996). Containing a Directory of Missionary Societies, Classified Summaries of 10. See Christoffer H. Grundmann, Sent to Heal! Emergence and Development Statistics, Maps Showing the Location of Mission Stations Throughout of Medical Missions (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 2005), pp. the World, a Descriptive Account of the Principal Mission Lands, and 22–37. Comprehensive Indices (Edinburgh: Edinburgh House Press, 1925). 11. Leonardo da Vinci on the Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, and 20. Grundmann, Sent to Heal! pp. 121–24. Embryological Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, ed. Charles D. O’Malley 21. Anna Dengel, Mission for Samaritans (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing, and J. B. de C. M. Saunders (New York: Gramercy Books, 2003). 1945), pp. 8–29. 12. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Medicine, 2d ed. (Baltimore: 22. In the beginning of the medical missions enterprise, nurses did not Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 145–74. count as “medical missionaries.” If they were referred to at all, it was 13. Andrew F. Walls, “‘The Heavy Artillery of the Missionary Army’: as “missionary nurses.” Only comparatively late, that is, toward the The Domestic Importance of the Nineteenth-Century Medical mid-1950s, were nurses, also, regarded as medical missionaries. Missionary,” in The Church and Healing, ed. W. J. Sheils (Oxford: Basil 23. A. J. van der Bent, Vital Ecumenical Concerns: Sixteen Documentary Blackwell, 1982), p. 287. Surveys (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1986), p. 303. 14. See Gerald H. Anderson, “Peter Parker and the Introduction of 24. James C. McGilvray, The Quest for Health and Wholeness (Tübingen: Western Medicine in China,” Mission Studies 23, no. 2 (2006): 203–38. German Institute for Medical Missions, 1981), p. 41. See also For a more general overview, see , China and Modern D. Merrill Ewert, A New Agenda for Medical Missions (Brunswick, Medicine: A Study in Medical Missionary Development (London: United Ga.: MAP International, 1990). Council for Missionary Education, 1921). 25. McGilvray, Quest for Health and Wholeness, pp. 70–80. 15. See Grundmann, Sent to Heal! pp. 65–71 and 92–95. 26. George D. Dowkontt, Murdered Millions, 5th ed. (New York: Medical 16. Walls, “Heavy Artillery,” p. 290. See also Stanley G. Browne, ed., Missionary Record, 1897), p. 24.

Kwame Bediako and Christian Scholarship in Africa Andrew F. Walls

anasseh Kwame Dakwa Bediako, late rector of the so soon after he has gone from us. All who knew him or his MAkrofi-Christaller Institute for Theology, Mission, and work are still achingly conscious of the gaps caused by his Culture, in Akropong, Ghana, was born on July 7, 1945. He died, departure, the business unfinished, the books half written, the following a serious illness, on June 10, 2008. Over many years he plants that have budded and blossomed but are yet to bear their pointed others to Africa’s proper place in contemporary world- intended fruit. His achievements, great as they are, point to a wide Christian discourse. He charted new directions for African future not yet realized. He was both a visionary and a skill- Christian theology. He labored so that generations of scholars, ful entrepreneur, but he was also an inspirer and encourager confident equally of their Christian and their African identity, of others, holding out a vision for the whole church in Africa might be formed in Africa, and to that end he created a new type and beyond, sending out a call to those who would heed it to of institution where devotion to scholarship and understanding of dedicate themselves to scholarship as a costly form of Christian the cultures of Africa would be pursued in a setting of Christian service. His life, his vision, and his objectives can be set out, worship, discipleship, and mission. but we do not yet know how far others will take up what he These were huge undertakings, and he was called from has laid down. It is as though we are present at the reading of them at the height of his powers, when still full of visions and a will; decades must pass before it will be manifest how others, plans for their implementation, the institution that was meant in Africa and elsewhere, made use of what Kwame Bediako to model and facilitate all those visions still in its youth. It bequeathed to them. would be premature, therefore, to pronounce upon his legacy Early Life Andrew F. Walls, founding director of the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western World, Kwame—he always used his traditional Akan “birth-day” name, is Senior Research Professor at the Akrofi-Christaller indicating his birth on a Saturday—was the son of a police inspec- Institute of Theology, Mission, and Culture, Akropong, tor and the grandson of a Presbyterian catechist and evangelist. Ghana. A contributing editor, he is Honorary Professor, Though his parents came from the central region of what was University of Edinburgh, and Professor of the History then the British colony of the Gold Coast, he grew up in the of Mission, Liverpool Hope University. capital, Accra, at the Police Training Depot. His first schooling —[email protected] was thus not in his beloved mother tongue, Twi, but in the

188 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Accra language, Ga, in which he was also fluent. An outstand- Christians daily faced acute theological issues that were never ing pupil, he was able to gain secondary education at Mfantsi- addressed in the sort of theology that apparently served Western pim School, Cape Coast, founded in the nineteenth century by Christians well enough. It was not that the theology was necessarily the British Methodist mission. Missionary emphasis on educa- wrong; it simply could not deal with issues that went to the heart tion and an exceptionally enlightened period of educational of relationships with family, kin, or society, nor deal with some of policy under an exceptionally enlightened governor had given the most troubling anxieties of those who saw the world in terms the Gold Coast some of the best schools in colonial Africa, and different from those of the Western world. Africans were respond- Mfantsipim was one of the best of these. Kwame received an ing to the Gospel, and in unprecedented numbers, but the received excellent education of the English type. theology did not fit the world as they saw The period of his secondary education the world. Great areas of life were thus of- coincided with the transformation of the ten left untouched by Christ, often leaving Gold Coast into Ghana, the first of the new sincere Christians with deep uncertainties. African nations, led by Kwame Nkrumah, Much evangelical thinking was not engag- with his emphatic rejection of Western rule ing with the issues of culture, or was doing in Africa and high sense of Africa’s past so simplistically or superficially. glories and future destiny. Kwame Bediako It was such concerns that brought left Mfantsipim as its head prefect and in the Bediakos back to academic study, 1965 entered the University of Ghana, set and Kwame to a second doctorate in the up after World War II with the aim of being Department of Religious Studies at the an Oxbridge in Africa. There he developed University of Aberdeen, Scotland. At the as an eloquent orator and debater, a person same time Gillian took first-class honors who could make a mark in politics; he also in the master of arts in religious studies; attained the academic excellence in French she later went on to complete an Aberdeen that won him a scholarship for graduate Ph.D. in the area of primal religions. studies in and the promise of an Kwame’s studies pursued two lines academic career. By this time he was a con- of investigation. One lay among the then firmed atheist under French existentialist quite small body of African academic influence, apparently deaf to the pleas of theologians. Why did the starting point of Christian classmates. their thinking so often lie in the pre-Chris- In France he gained master’s and tian religion of their peoples, so rarely in doctoral degrees at the University of Bor- Kwame Bediako the sort of topic thought interesting or deaux, not surprisingly choosing African important by Western theologians? Why francophone literature as his area of research. During his time in did the efforts of pioneers such as Bolaji Idowu and John Mbiti France he underwent a radical Christian conversion—so radical cause equal disturbance in the evangelical stables in which they that at one stage he thought of abandoning his studies in favor were nourished and among African intellectuals such as Okot of active evangelism. Happily, he was persuaded otherwise; the p’Bitek, who had rejected Christianity? time was coming when he would recognize scholarship as itself Kwame pursued such questions in parallel with another a missionary vocation. question: how had the early church faced such issues? How had His new life brought him new associates—above all, a fellow theologians in the Greco-Roman world dealt with questions that student of French, from England, who joined him in a mission to arose from Hellenistic culture, how viewed their pre-Christian migrant Arab children. In 1973 Kwame and Gillian Mary were intellectual, literary, and religious heritage, and their cultural an- married, forming a wonderfully happy partnership that was cestors? How far was it possible to be both Greek and Christian? rich both intellectually and spiritually. The following year came His doctoral thesis, approved in 1983 and described by the exter- the Lausanne Conference on World Evangelization, enlarging nal examiner as the best thesis he had ever read,1 explored how Kwame’s world vision and deepening his acquaintance with other second-century theologians faced the issues posed for Christians Christians from the non-Western world—or as he liked to call it, by the Greco-Roman past, and how twentieth-century African the Two-Thirds World. His studies now moved from literature to theologians dealt with the African past. The similarity of the theology, and their base from France to London, where he took issues was striking; consciousness of identity was at the heart first-class honors in his theological degree. Then it was back to of both processes. The second-century question was the possibil- Ghana, to teach for two years at the Christian Service College ity of being both Christian and Greek; the twentieth-century (the name of the institution precisely describing its purpose) in question was the possibility of being both Christian and Afri- Kumasi. Here the family links were rebuilt with the Presbyterian can. We are made by our past; it is our past that creates our iden- Church, where his grandfather had given signal service, and he tity and shows us who we are. We cannot abandon or suppress was accepted for ordination in that church. our past or substitute something else instead, nor can our past be left as it is, untouched by Christ. Our past, like our present, Vocation to Theology has to be converted, turned toward Christ. The second-century quest was the conversion, not the suppression or replacement, Kwame’s evangelical convictions and credentials were manifest, of Hellenistic culture, and in that case conversion had led to cul- but he was wrestling with issues that were not at the front of most tural renewal. Today’s quest is the conversion of African culture, evangelical minds, or on the agenda of most evangelical institu- and perhaps thereby its renewal. And second-century theologians tions at that time. Could Africans become fully Christian only by discovered that God had been active in that past; with the same embracing the mind-set of Western Christians and rejecting all the conviction African Christians could recognize that God always things that made them distinctively African? Ordinary African goes before his missionaries. Over the years that followed,

October 2008 189 Bediako was to develop these ideas in his teaching and writing. Aberdeen department. It was the first of a series of engagements The activity of the Divine Word, the signs that God had not left that made him for some time part of the Centre for the Study of himself without witness in the African past, the multitudes of Christianity in the Non-Western World. That center moved from Africans coming to Christ in the here and now, all pointed to a Aberdeen soon after Kwame finished his temporary lectureship, special place for Africa in Christian history; but this special place finding a new home in the Faculty of Divinity of the University lay within, and not separate from, the history of the church as a of Edinburgh, and for many years Kwame was a visiting lecturer whole. All Christians share the same ancestors, and those ances- there. But his immediate call was to Ghana and to the pastorate tors belong to every tribe, kindred, and nation. of the Ridge Church in Accra. In colonial times Ridge Church The Department of Religious Studies at Aberdeen at that time had been the church of the expatriate officials; by this time it had contained the embryo of the Centre for the Study of Christianity a burgeoning and very diverse congregation, where Anglicans, in the Non-Western World, better known in its later manifesta- Methodists, and Presbyterians in rotation provided the resident tion at the University of Edinburgh. In a lively mix of graduate pastor. The three years (1984–87) that Kwame spent there were students from many parts of the world, Africa was particularly formative for him in what they revealed of the concerns, aspirations, well represented. For the most part their research topics fell and anxieties of African Christians, and in later years he was never into two categories that in many cases overlapped. Many were less of a pastor for being a scholar and academic. Indeed, even working in the area of the primal religions of traditional, usually before he left Aberdeen he had a clear vision of what his ongoing preliterate, societies; others were engaged with the history, life, work was to be, and pastoral concerns were at its heart. and thought of Christians in some part of Africa, Asia, or the Pacific. Increasingly, Kwame Bediako was drawn to the study The Akrofi-Christaller Centre of the primal religions and their relation to Christianity. These religions were primal in the sense of bring anterior to the so- With such formidable academic credentials as Bediako now had, called world religions. Throughout Christian history they have a teaching post in the West could well have beckoned; in later proved the most fertile soil for the Christian message, so that years there were many such invitations, all firmly declined. In they form the background, the substructure as one might say, Ghana he could readily have returned to the university world; of the faith of a high percentage of the world’s Christians and equally, he could have become a key figure in training for the influence their worldview. And the Bible, the Old Testament in ministry. But he had heard a call to theological scholarship of particular, shows us a good deal about primal worldviews in a sort that neither universities nor seminaries were yet able to action, instantly recognizable in Africa and many other parts of mount. The assumptions underlying their programs frequently the world. Thus they are primal in a second sense, of being basic, depended on Western intellectual models. But vast numbers elemental, reflecting fundamental elements of human response to of African Christians were continually facing situations that the divine. Studies of writers of the conversion period in Europe, demanded theological decisions for which Western intellectual models provided no help. Fresh informed biblical and theologi- cal thinking, along with sensitive understanding of society, was Kwame had a clear vision needed to help in situations where the identity and obligations of Christians intersected with their identity and obligations as of what his ongoing work members of a family or a community or a state. In such cases was to be, and pastoral textbook theology rarely provided answers. Church tradition where Christianity had been received from concerns were at its heart. Western sources in a period of Western dominance too often led either to blanket rejection of all things evidently African or to a division of life into parallel streams of “Christian” and “African” Bediako discovered—Gregory of Tours, for instance, or , or activities that never met. The end product could be a sort of re- Boniface—reveal how Western Christianity emerged in the inter- ligious schizophrenia, a fractured identity. The key theological action between the biblical tradition and the primal worldviews issues of the day, as in the early Christian centuries, demanded of the peoples of northern and western Europe. Western Christian integral identity, being simultaneously thoroughly African and history was also a story about the conversion of the past. thoroughly Christian, confidently Christian, assured that the Divine Word was taking African flesh and pitching his tent there. Networking and Pastorate Theological reflection of this sort would require a new type of institution. Bediako had begun to visualize such an institution Kwame was meanwhile engaging in an activity that marked much before he left Aberdeen. When he left Ridge Church in 1987, he of his life: building networks sustained by caring friendship. found, with the full approval of his church and the support of He established a link for mutual support and stimulus between friends in and beyond Ghana, an opportunity to put the vision African Christian researchers in Britain. It was the germ of the into practice. The outcome was the Akrofi-Christaller Centre Africa Theological Fellowship, now linking scholars across the for Mission Research and Applied Theology, later called the African continent. Contact continued with like-minded people Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mission, and Culture. in the Lausanne movement, such as Vinay Samuel from India Its establishment and development lay at the heart of Bediako’s and Tito Paredes from Peru, embodied eventually in the Inter- work for the rest of his life. national Fellowship of Evangelical Mission Theologians (INFE- Any consideration of the life of Kwame Bediako must take MIT), an international body in which leadership came from the account of the institute and the principles on which it was based. Two-Thirds World and which gave rise to the Oxford Centre for Crucial to its purpose was the commitment to Christian scholar- Mission Studies. ship in Africa. Bediako believed that Africa was now, as a result Following the completion of his second doctorate, Kwame of its experience as a major theater of Christian mission, a major taught for a year as a temporary lecturer during a vacancy in the theological laboratory, with theological work to do that would

190 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 w w w . a s b u r y s e m i n a r y . e d u

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I certainly believe I am called to a position that expects me to be an academician at the doctoral studies level. I find I serve best when I challenge www.asburoryscalleminary.edu students to dig deeper, to develop a level of analytical and reflective thinking. I serve atsa e seminary r v ecommitt . ed to academic excellence and to missions and evangelism. 1.800.2ASBURY

a s b u r y t h e o l o g i c a l s e m i n a r y , 2 0 4 n o r t h l e x i n g t o n a v e n u e , w i l m o r e , k y 4 0 3 9 0 not and could not be done elsewhere. Furthermore, the shift in tic and catering and garden staff attended, participated in, and led the center of gravity of Christianity from the global West to the daily worship. In many institutions scholarship had become an global South that was such a feature of the twentieth century made individual, even a competitive, activity, with career enhancement the quality of African theological activity a matter of universal, the driving motive. Tapping into an earlier tradition of Western not just continental, Christian concern. Africa needed scholars, learning, Bediako looked to the worshiping community, living in and needed them not only for its own sake but also for the sake a situation of mission, as the proper matrix of scholarship. of the world church. The focus of the scholarship of the institute was on Africa The Centre (as it was first named) came into being asa —its religious, cultural, social, and linguistic realities, and the research institution. It was not long before it became a center of history, life, and thought of its Christians. The preparatory courses postgraduate study. Initially this was by means of an arrangement in the master’s degree program explored the principles under- with the University of Natal (now the University of KwaZulu lying the interaction of Gospel and culture, the worldviews Natal) in South Africa. Under this arrangement students for the of primal societies, theology in Africa, the Bible in Africa, and master of theology in African Christianity degree spent their first Christian history in Africa from the early centuries and in dif- semester in South Africa and the second in Ghana, with Kwame ferent parts of the continent. The institute’s students have come and Gillian Bediako teaching in both places. Later, on the initia- from all over Africa, with a sprinkling from Western countries. tive of the Ghana government, the Akrofi-Christaller Institute The small resident faculty is supported by scholars from other became an independent postgraduate institution within the parts of Africa. But the focus on Africa was always against a Ghana university system. It has seen a steady stream of success at wider background. A course on World Christian history took the master’s level, but the master of theology program was from account of two millennia and six continents, and that on primal the first designed to prepare those with conventional theological worldviews considered the primal worldviews of the peoples of training for specialist study and research in the fields of theology, Europe and their early interaction with the Gospel. Bediako was mission, and culture in Africa, and the institute now has a small essentially a world Christian. In particular, he was an advocate but significant group of doctorates to its credit. The aim of the of what he called South-South dialogue. Bilateral arrangements center, however, was never merely to produce Ph.D.s (there are between Africa and a Western partner were relatively easy many recipients of such who do nothing for scholarship) but to to arrange, but potentially mutually beneficial links between produce mature, disciplined, dedicated scholars who recognize Africa and Asian or Latin American partners were much harder the pursuit of learning as a calling from God and follow it sacri- to sustain. One of his last major undertakings, still in progress, was a collaborative study of primal religions as the substructure of Christianity, involving scholars from different parts of Africa, Kwame Bediako was Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific. The location chosen for the institute was itself significant. the outstanding African Akropong is a relatively small town, but it is the capital of the theologian of his generation. Akan state of Akuapem, where traditional patterns of rulership and the attendant rituals remain intact and there is great pride in a long and colorful history. The building that is the institute’s ficially. The institute set itself against shortcuts and soft options. nucleus retains many features of its nineteenth-century Basel Courses of study were often longer and more demanding than Mission origin and of its long association with the training of those at other institutions. teachers and ministers of an earlier time. Within a short walk The institute also recognized that the duties of scholarship are the palace, scene of traditional activities such as the great go beyond the boundaries of the academic world and certainly Odwira festival of national purification, the vast old church, and extend to informing the life and work of the whole church. The the place of assembly, where the first missionary was received program for the institute in any year has typically included activi- by the king of that day. The church, compounds in the town, ties for ministers, catechists, Bible translators, and Scripture-use and the institute’s own building carry names well known in specialists. There have been workshops on Gospel and culture the records of Akan church history. The whole town bears the for Christian workers from all over the country, consultations marks of continuous interaction between the Christian Gospel on the local history of such major issues as slavery, and regular and Akan society from the 1830s to the Internet age. It is a meetings of those engaged in writing Bible commentaries in the reminder of how richly stored Africa is with the materials for languages of Ghana. religious research. The linking of the names of Johann Gottlieb The institute’s aim was to promote scholarship rooted in Christaller and Clement Anderson Akrofi in the institute’s title Christian mission. The word “mission” occurs in both the old is also significant—the one a German missionary translator who and the new forms of its title. It marks the deliberate rejection devoted himself to the Akan language and traditional lore, the of Western attempts at detached or uncommitted scholarship; other a Ghanaian reviser of the Twi Bible and author of a gram- Bediako saw the Christian scholar as holding responsibility in mar of that language. The vernacular principle in Christianity, the the church, and the church as needing the measured scholarly significance of theological expression in the mother tongue, and quest for truth, the scholarly activities of investigation and the capacity of African languages to illuminate biblical concepts testing. At the same time, Bediako advocated—and practiced— were themes that Bediako regularly visited. public engagement of theology with other disciplines. He was elected a fellow of the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences The Legacy and was active in its affairs; he lectured for the academy on the religious significance of one of the pioneers of Ghana’s indepen- Kwame Bediako was the outstanding African theologian of his dence, J. B. Danquah. generation. A distinguished academic himself, he knew that The institute was intended to function as a Christian com- academics were not the only theologians, and he drew attention munity; not only teachers and students but also office and domes- to the informal or, as he would say, implicit theology to be found

192 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 among people of little formal education. He delighted in the ver- His all too few writings will continue their influence, as will nacular songs of Madam Afua Kuma,2 traditional midwife and his institute’s Journal of African Christian Thought, to which he so Pentecostal poet, who sang the praises of Christ in the exalted often contributed. There are other books that he never completed, language of praise songs to traditional rulers. He called them rich material lying in those electrifying lecture courses and bibli- “a liberating force for African academic theology and for the cal expositions. But much of his finest work has been written in academic theologian.”3 He did perhaps more than anyone else the lives and thinking of his students, colleagues, and friends, to persuade mainstream Western theologians and mainstream in the concept of the institution he founded, and in the networks Western theological institutions that African theology was not he helped to establish, enhance, and maintain. It is a rich legacy, an exotic minority specialization but an essential component in much of it prudently invested for future use. a developing global Christian discourse.

Notes 1. The thesis was later published as Theology and Identity: The Impact of 3. Kwame Bediako, : The Renewal of a Non-Western Culture upon Christian Thought in the Second Century and in Modern Religion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press; Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Africa (Oxford: Regnum Books, 1992). Books, 1995), p. 59. 2. An English version of some of the songs is available in Afua Kuma, Jesus of the Deep Forest: Prayers and Praises of Afua Kuma, trans. Jon Kirby (Accra: Asempa Press, 1981).

World Christianity and Christian Mission: Are They Compatible? Insights from the Asian Churches Peter C. Phan

wo terms in the title of this essay seem to cancel each embeddedness in a particular moment of Jewish history and in Tother out and therefore prompt questions about their a specific geography, is confessed to be the universal Lord, at theological and pastoral compatibility. If Christianity is already whose name “every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth a world religion, is there still a need for mission and evangelism? and under the earth” (Phil. 2:10), and is proclaimed the savior If there is, how should Christian mission be carried out in the of all, Jews and Gentiles alike. The Holy Spirit, who is the gift context of world Christianity? These two questions are made all of the risen Christ, is poured out “upon all flesh” (Acts 2:17) so the more complex by the fact that both “world Christianity” and that “everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved” “Christian mission” are today highly contested concepts. To shed (Acts 2:21). While Jesus’ mission itself was limited to “the lost some light on these issues I begin with a discussion of what is sheep of the house of Israel” (Matt. 15:24) and while, during Jesus’ meant by “world Christianity” and “Christian mission.” Next, I lifetime, the apostles were told not to visit pagan territory or to highlight some of the ways in which they seem to be mutually enter a Samaritan town but to go instead to “the lost sheep of the conflicting and then attempt to answer, on the basis of the experi- house of Israel” (Matt. 10:5–6), after Jesus’ resurrection, when full ences and teachings of the Asian Catholic churches, the questions authority had been given to him “in heaven and on earth,” the of whether Christian mission is still mandatory today and, if so, apostles were commissioned to “make disciples of all nations” how it should be done. and were assured of Jesus’ presence “always, to the end of the age” (Matt. 28:18–20). As a result of the universal destination “World Christianity”: What’s So New About It? and dynamism of God’s action in Christ and the Spirit, Jesus’ disciples will be witnesses to him “in Jerusalem, in all Judea and In a sense, from its very birth Christianity has always been Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Clearly, then, portrayed as a world movement with a divine commission to Christianity is by nature a universal or global religion, and in bring the Good News to all peoples, at all times, and in all places. the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, This globality of Christianity is rooted in the universal mission catholicity is professed to be one of the four marks of the church.1 of the Trinitarian God. The Christian God is professed to be the What, then, makes the notion of “world Christianity” new or creator of the whole universe, and God’s providence and rule even controversial today? Of the many contributing factors, I are said to extend beyond Israel to the entire human race and will mention three. across the whole of human history. The risen Christ, despite his A different —the myth of Christianity as a Western religion. A new way has recently been emerging of Peter C. Phan, a Vietnamese-American theologian, is 2 the inaugural holder of the Ignacio Ellacuria, S.J., Chair interpreting the history of Christianity. In popular church of Catholic Social Thought at Georgetown University. historiography, partly as a result of a jaundiced reading of He has earned three doctorates and has authored a Acts, Christianity has been portrayed as a religious movement dozen books and over 300 essays on various themes that, though born in (southwest) Asia or the , from of theology including missiology and the history of its very beginnings moved to the eastern part of the Roman missions in Asia. —[email protected] Empire through Asia Minor and ended in as its final destination, where Paul and Peter completed their apostolic

October 2008 193 careers. From Rome as its epicenter, the sent , Tertullian, and Augustine hailed from North Africa. As missionaries first to the other parts of Europe, then to Latin for spirituality, monasticism was an invention of the Egyptian America and Asia in the sixteenth century, and later still to and Mothers. Africa, with the Protestants joining the missionary enterprise Furthermore, even the so-called European or Western Chris- in the nineteenth century and beyond.3 In this narrative, the tianity, whose apparent cultural unity was rooted in the Greco- role of the papacy within the church, as well as papal en- Roman civilization of the Mediterranean world and was greatly tanglements with secular authorities and the vicissitudes of facilitated by the use of Latin as a common language, was by no the Reformation, receives the lion’s share of attention from means unified. Rather, it was made up of various elements of church historians. Standard church history texts accord these Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and West Asian cultures. In addition, events a majority of their pages. As a result, there is a skewed what was eventually referred to as European civilization was perception that Christianity is a Western religion, especially not the only one claiming to be the inheritor of the Greco-Ro- Roman Catholicism, with its papacy, its centralizing hierarchi- man civilization; besides the Holy Roman Empire, two other cal structure, its numerous cadres of missionaries, its canon empires—Byzantium and —were contenders for the same law, its uniform liturgy, and the Vatican state. title. “Europa,” first used at the turn of the ninth century to refer Today, church historians have realized that the roots of to the geographic area controlled by Charlemagne, emerged as a Christianity are sunk deeper in the East than in the West and unified cultural-political unity only in modernity and the age of that its beliefs and practices, which were eventually clothed in colonialism, where it served as an identity marker separating it Greek, Latin, and Teutonic categories and exported to the so- from the colonized continents. Within this Europe, Christianity was never monolithic, but pluralistic and multiple. Dale Irvin puts it succinctly: “Even in Europe, there has not been one church, one history, or one historical essence of Christianity.”5 It has become clear that If this is the reality of Christianity, then a different narrative Christianity is neither of the Christian movement must be fashioned other than the a Western religion nor one peddled by standard textbooks of church history, of which a version—admittedly somewhat of a caricature—is given above. a monolithic entity. Fortunately, serious attempts have been made recently in this direction. Besides the pioneering work of church historians such as Walbert Bühlmann, Andrew Walls, Kwame Bediako, called mission lands, cannot be fully understood apart from their and Lamin Sanneh, we should note the landmark two-volume Asian/Semitic origins. Furthermore, there is a greater awareness work by Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist, in collabora- of and appreciation for the diversity of early Christianity, so much tion with a team of consultants, History of the World Christian so that it would be more accurate to speak of Christianities, in Movement.6 In sum, to describe the historical developments of the plural, with their enormous variety of languages, cultures, Christianity, the most accurate image is not that of a single, theologies, liturgies, and church practices.4 many-branched vertical tree, with the trunk representing the Historical studies of early Christian missions have shown European Corpus Christianum of Christendom, but an image the fallacy of the conventional reading of Acts, with its version of rhizomes, that is, plants with subterranean, horizontal root of the Christian expansion toward Rome and the West. In fact, in systems, growing below and above ground and moving crab- the first four centuries the most successful fields of mission were like in all directions.7 not Europe, but (west) Asia and Africa, with Syria as the center of gravity of Christianity before 500. The most vibrant and influ- A different history of missions—local Christianities. A similar histo- ential Christian centers were found not in any city of the western riographical revolution has been simmering in the field of the part of the Roman Empire but in Asian and African cities such history of Christian missions. Again, to caricature somewhat, as Damascus and Antioch in Syria (where, incidentally, the fol- popular history of Christian missions has focused for the most part lowers of Jesus were first known as “Christians”), Edessa/Orhay on what the Western churches—the “sending churches”—have in Osrhoene, Dura-Europos in Adiabene, in Egypt, done for the mission churches, the “receiving churches,” in the Axum in Abyssinia/; and in countries such as Armenia so-called mission lands. In commercial terms, the emphasis is (which was the first Christian nation), India, and, in the seventh laid on the “exporters” rather on than on the “importers,” and century, China. The non-Western character of early Christianity on the exported merchandise rather than on how the imported is shown in the fact that of the five ancient patriarchates, only merchandise is bought and put to use by the locals. In this his- Rome was located in the West, with one in the Eastern empire toriography, the major bulk of the history of Christian missions (Constantinople), two in Asia (Jerusalem and Antioch), and one is devoted to narrating the accomplishments as well as (though in Africa (Alexandria). less often) the failures of individual missionaries, religious orders, Doctrinally, the first seven ecumenical councils, from Nicaea I missionary societies, and mission boards. The emphasis is on in 325 to Nicaea II in 787, were held not in the West but in the East, how well these agents and agencies have fulfilled the twin goal where Trinitarian and Christological dogmas were formulated. of missions, namely, saving souls and planting the church. The The greatest theologians of the early church were also working measure of success for the first goal is the number of conversions in Asia, such as , , Athanasius, and baptisms, and that of the second is the establishment, or more Bar-Daisan, Didymus the Blind, , Gregory of precisely, the faithful replication, of the ecclesiastical structures Nyssa, , , Theodore of of the exporting churches. Mopsuestia, , Aphrahat, Ephraem the Syrian, While not neglecting the narrative of the achievements and —and the list goes on and on. Even those who failures of foreign missionaries and mission agencies, contem- became influential in the West originally came from Asia, such porary historians of missions are less interested in the senders/ as Justin and , and Latin theological luminaries such as exporters and the forms of the exported Christianity than in the

194 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 importers and their appropriation and transformation of the Christianity going South—the future of world Christianity. Not only received product. Here, as in the field of the history of Christian- does Christianity now appear vastly pluralistic and diverse, but ity, the works of Stephen Neill, , En- also its future seems to lie not in the West but in the non-Western rique Dussel, Andrew Walls, Lamin Sanneh, and many others parts of the globe, as recent demographic changes have indicated.13 are trailblazing. Neill argues that missions history should not This massive shift of the Christian population from the North be an extension of Western church history but a record of how (Europe and North America) to the South (Africa, Asia, and Latin indigenous Christianity comes into being and develops in its own America), a fact long known among missiologists, was recently context.8 In his monumental study of the expansion of Christian- brought to the attention of the larger public by Philip Jenkins in ity, Latourette studies the effects of Christianity on its surround- The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity.14 ings and of the surroundings on Christianity.9 Enrique Dussel’s While one may disagree with Jenkins’s prognosis that historical project investigates indigenous forms of Christianity “Southern Christianity” represents a return to a conservative pre-

Temple, Church, Mosque

Wat Ho Prabang Luang Prabang, Laos

Floating Church Chong Kneas Floating Village Tonle Sap Lake Siem Reap, Cambodia

Fatepuri Masjid Delhi, India

From left, photos courtesy of: Harlan Hague, http://softadventure.net Francis Tan, Tucson, Arizona Rob Feenstra, Davis, California in Latin America.10 Walls has investigated at length the process Tridentine Christendom,15 there is no gainsaying the fact that this of the transmission of the Christian faith through the missionary demographic shift presents at least two formidable challenges. enterprise. While recognizing the colonial impulse inherent in First, how should the churches of the Northern hemisphere and modern missions, he has shown how the local churches, far from those of the Southern relate to each other? While the latter used to being passive receivers of the Christian message or victims of be called the younger churches or daughter churches with respect ecclesiastical colonialism, were self-conscious and active trans- to the former, on which they depended for material support as formers of the Christianity exported to them from the West and well as personnel, this is no longer the case. have shaped it, and at times even subverted it, to meet their own The second, no less difficult challenge of the demographic cultural and spiritual needs.11 shift in Christian population concerns the church’s evangelizing By shifting attention from the exporters to the receivers, mission. If the membership of the church of the South will be scholars in missions study have unearthed exciting new data greater than that of the church of the North, and if the faith life in and opened up new areas of research such as the role of women the former is more vibrant than that in the latter, then who should in missionary work, which had been neglected, at least in Ro- evangelize whom? Now who should the exporters be, and who man Catholic circles, since the preponderant functions in the the importers? Furthermore, if the Christianity of the South is church were restricted to males. Similarly, greater attention has different in kind from that of the North, how should evangelism been given to the contributions of the laity to missions, which be carried out? To these questions I now turn. had also been ignored, since only the story of missions by the religious and the clergy was deemed worthy of telling. Further- What’s So Controversial About Mission? more, greater explorations have been made into the manifold contributions of Christianity to the local cultures in diverse Anyone with a passable knowledge of Christian missions needs areas such as linguistics, anthropology, history, philosophy and no lengthy explanation of why missions have been in the dol- religious thought, literature, music and songs, dance, the plastic drums, at least in the last fifty years, if by missions is meant the arts, architecture, and even economics and politics. What emerges evangelizing enterprise carried out by Western expatriates in for- is a more balanced and richer picture of Christian missions, not eign lands. External reasons for this eclipse are many and varied, in order to refute the charges of colonialism and imperialism of chief among which is the precipitous decline in the number of which Western Christianity has at times been guilty, but to place religious missionaries since the 1960s, a phenomenon nowhere Christian missions in the wider context of cultural preservation more evident than in the Roman Catholic Church. More important and transmission. Finally, and most important, in the history of than external contributing factors, however, are internal ones, Christianity as well as in the history of missions it has become which have to do with the changing theologies of mission itself. clear that Christianity is neither a Western religion nor a mono- The very nature of the church’s mission was under scrutiny, and lithic entity. Rather, there have always been Christianities, even its theology was undergoing a total overhaul. within Roman Catholicism, which, of all denominations, has most There is no need to present here an overview of the theology strongly and persistently promoted uniformity and centraliza- of mission. David Bosch’s classic work Transforming Mission tion—fortunately, to no avail.12 offers six paradigms of mission in the history of the church,

October 2008 195 each inspired by a particular biblical text.16 A recent magnum Jesus Christ as the unique and universal Savior. Each of these opus on the theology of mission, Constants in Context: A Theology three models, Bevans and Schroeder carefully note, has positive of Mission for Today, by Stephen Bevans and Roger Schroeder, and negative features, and, according to them, “only a synthesis provides another overview of mission theology. After identify- of all three will provide the firmest foundation for the model of ing six constant theological themes—Christology, ecclesiology, mission” for the twenty-first century. This synthesis they call eschatology, salvation, anthropology, and culture, which are “prophetic dialogue.”18 developed in various ways in different sociopolitical, religious, and institutional contexts—the authors outline four phases of Toward a Synthesis Christian missions and theology of mission in the twentieth century: certainty, ferment, crisis, and rebirth.17 The last part of this essay explores how the experiences and teach- In the current phase of the rebirth of mission, Bevans and ings of the Asian Catholic churches can help develop this model Schroeder identify three contemporary models of mission of mission as “prophetic dialogue” and provide an answer to the that contain the various elements of David Bosch’s “emergent two questions with which we started, namely, whether world paradigm.” The first, which is proposed by Vatican II and the Christianity has rendered Christian mission obsolete, and how Orthodox Church, regards mission as participation in the mis- mission is to be undertaken today. sion of the triune God. The second, which is found in Pope A latecomer to the Asian scene in comparison with other Paul VI’s Evangelii nuntiandi and the documents of the World religions, Christianity, like Asia itself, is characterized by diversity Council of Churches, emphasizes mission as liberating service and pluralism. Practically all Christian churches and denomina- of the reign of God. The third, which is embodied in John Paul tions are present in Asia today, with a long history of rivalry and II’s Redemptoris missio and the documents of the evangelical and collaboration, separation and union: Roman Catholics, Orthodox, Pentecostal churches, proposes mission as the proclamation of various mainline Protestant denominations, Anglicans, Pente-

Noteworthy

Announcing of African Studies at the University of Edinburgh (www.cas. The American Society of Missiology/East and the Eastern Fel- ed.ac.uk). Brief abstracts are invited from prospective present- lowship of Professors of Mission will hold their joint annual ers, who should submit them before November 30, 2008, to meeting November 7–8, 2008, at Maryknoll Mission Institute, the Center of African Studies, [email protected]. The Maryknoll, N.Y. Borrowing William Carey’s 1792 phrase to “use conveners are Afe Adogame, lecturer in world Christianity, means,” the gathering will examine the “present experience and Andrew Lawrence, lecturer in African studies. of mission agency in North America” from Roman Catholic, An interdisciplinary symposium to honor the centenary independent, conciliar, and local-church perspectives. For ad- of Bengt Sundkler (1909–95), Swedish Lutheran missionary ditional information, e-mail David Dawson, david.dawson@ to Africa, will be held May 17–19, 2009, in Uppsala, Sweden, presbynet.org, or see www.omsc.org/asmeast.html. with the theme “Telling Lives in Africa: African Biography, The Center for North American Studies, Das Historische Autobiography, and Life Story.” Brief outlines of proposed Seminar of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, papers are due by December 1, 2008. For more information, and the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy, Berlin, will sponsor contact Kajsa Ahlstrand at [email protected]. “Culture and International History IV,” their fourth symposium The Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, dedicated to the study of the role of culture in international Washington, D.C., and the Nagel Institute for the Study relations, December 19–21, 2008, in Frankfurt, Germany. For of World Christianities, at Calvin College, Grand Rapids, details, e-mail Jessica Gienow-Hecht or Mark Donfried, cih@ Michigan, are sponsoring a research seminar, “Public Theol- culturaldiplomacy.org. ogy: Christian Political Thought in Global Perspective,” June The Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies, Uni- 7–21, 2009, in Cape Town, South Africa. John de Gruchy, pro- versity of Birmingham, is organizing the fourth conference of fessor emeritus at the University of Cape Town and author the European Research Network on Global Pentecostalism, of Reconciliation: Restoring Justice (2002), will lead the seminar. February 6–7, 2009, at Fircroft College, Selly Oak, Birmingham, See www.calvin.edu/nagel for application information; the U.K. The theme is “Transnational Pentecostalism in Europe.” For deadline is December 1, 2008. information, contact Allan Anderson, University of Birming- Working under the aegis of Edinburgh 2010 (www.edin- ham, [email protected], or visit www.glopent.net. burgh2010.org), representatives from a number of strands of The biennial meeting of the American Society of Church mission and church life are preparing an international confer- History will be held April 16–20, 2009, in Montreal, Quebec, ence to be held in Edinburgh, June 2–6, 2010, for the centenary with the theme “Mission and Empire in the History of Chris- of the 1910 Edinburgh World Missionary Conference. The theme tianity.” Presenters will explore “the ways that Christianity’s will be “Witnessing to Christ Today: Edinburgh 2010.” Located expansionist impulses have shaped the structure and exercise at New College, University of Edinburgh, the project is led by of political, cultural, economic, and social power by states and international director Daryl Balia ([email protected]). empires, as well as the ways that such entities have shaped Bogotá, Colombia, was the setting March 2–7, 2008, for the people, institutions, and cultures of Christianity.” For more the Consultation on Scripture Use in the Vernacular, a gath- information, e-mail [email protected]. ering of 139 people from thirteen Latin American countries “Africa in Scotland, Scotland in Africa” will be the theme representing twenty-nine ethnic groups, as well as people of of a conference to be held April 29–May 1, 2009, at the Centre Hispanic origin and members of missionary organizations.

196 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 costals and evangelicals, and numerous indigenous Christian one-third of the world population. Thus, in spite of Pope John churches and groups.19 Of these churches, the largest is Roman Paul II’s conviction that “the character, spiritual fire and zeal” of Catholicism, and within the Catholic Church itself there are an- Asian Catholics “will assuredly make Asia the land of a bountiful cient and at times competing “rites,” or, more accurately, vastly harvest in the coming millennium,”22 sober analysis will quell different theological, liturgical, and canonical traditions. such enthusiasm. In other words, the thesis of the southward The teaching on and practice of mission within Asian Ca- movement of world Christianity requires severe qualification, at tholicism are inevitably shaped by the sociopolitical, economic, least with regard to Asia.23 In answer to our first question, then, cultural, and religious contexts of Asia as a whole and by the the emergence of world Christianity does not at all invalidate demographic situation of Christianity in particular.20 Concerning the necessity of Christian mission. the latter, as has often been pointed out, often with a sigh of regret, The issue then turns on how Christian missions should be after more than five centuries of active mission, Christians make carried out in Asia, with its three characteristics of extreme pov- up, according to David Barrett, at best 5.3 percent of the Asian erty, cultural diversity, and religious pluralism. To answer this population, a not-too-encouraging figure for those interested question, the Asian Catholic bishops invoke two basic concepts: in the numbers game and the bottom line. Despite the recent a new way of being church and a new mode of doing mission.24 breathless reports about “how Christianity is transforming China In terms of ecclesiology, the church is defined primarily as a and changing the global balance of power,” to use the subtitle “communion of communities.” Hence, this Asian way of being of David Aikman’s book,21 and the growing rapprochement church places the highest priority on communion and collegial- between the Vatican and Beijing, the prospect of a mass conver- ity at all the levels of church life and activities. On the vertical sion of the Chinese to Christianity, if past history is any guide, is axis, communion is realized with the Trinitarian God, whose more a fantasy than realistic prognosis. The same thing must be perichoresis (indwelling) the church is commissioned to reflect said about India, which together with China constitutes almost in history. On the horizontal level, communion is achieved with

Participants approved the Declaration of Bogotá 2008, which of the Church of Central Africa, Presbyterian (1958–1965), in affirmed the importance of using Scripture and of taking into Nyasaland/Malawi. Ross wrote four books, including David consideration the indigenous community and leaders when Livingstone: Mission and Empire (2006), and numerous articles, planning any ministry. as well as contributions to books and reference works. He The eScholarship Research Centre and the School of influenced the teaching of Christian history from a global Historical Studies at the University of Melbourne launched perspective. an open-access online publication in July 2008, Evangelists of Died. Manasseh Kwame Dakwa Bediako, founder and Empire? Missionaries in Colonial History. The collection of director of the Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mis- papers offers “evolving new histories” focused on sion, and Culture (www.acmcghana.org), in Ghana on June and other colonial sites. To read the collection, visit http://msp. 10, 2008, following a lengthy illness. Bediako started what esrc.unimelb.edu.au/shs/index.php/missions. was known until recently as the Akrofi-Christaller Memorial Center for Mission Research and Applied Theology in the Personalia former premises in Akropong-Akuapem. He Appointed. Daniel Jeyaraj, as professor of world Christian- became director part-time in 1985 and full-time in 1987. For ity and director of the Andrew Walls Centre for the Study of twelve years he was visiting lecturer in African Theology at African and Asian Christianity at Liverpool Hope University. the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Author of Jesus and the An IBMR contributing editor, Jeyaraj is a leading authority Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (2004) and several other on the Tranquebar Mission and the emergence of eighteenth- books, Bediako was former chairman of the International century Protestant churches in India. For the 300th anniver- Fellowship of Evangelical Mission Theologians. (See “Kwame sary celebration in 2006 by India’s Protestant churches of Bediako and Christian Scholarship in Africa” on page 188.) the arrival there of the first Protestant missionary to India, Died. Ralph Edward Dodge, 101, United Methodist mis- Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (1682–1719), Jeyaraj translated two sionary and bishop, on August 8, 2008 in Inverness, Florida. major monographs by Ziegenbalg from German into English A native of Terril, Iowa, Dodge was born January 25, 1907. and wrote a definitive biography of this father of the modern After missionary service in (1936–41 and 1945–50) missionary movement. Jeyaraj is also chief editor of Dharma with his wife, Eunice Davis, Dodge was secretary for Africa Deepika: A South Asian Journal of Missiological Research. He is and Europe for the Methodist Church’s Board of Missions. As an ordained presbyter of the Diocese of , Church bishop for central and southern Africa (1956–68), he was an of South India. outspoken advocate for justice and African leadership, which Died. Andrew C. Ross, senior lecturer in ecclesiastical led to his deportation in 1964 from white-ruled (now history (1966–98) and dean of the Faculty of Divinity and Zimbabwe). He authored three books: The Unpopular Missionary principal (1978–84), New College, University of Edinburgh, (1964), The Pagan Church (1968), and his autobiography, The Scotland, July 26, 2008, following diagnosis of a brain tumor. In Revolutionary Bishop (1986). addition to lecturing and writing, he also was associate director Died. Larry Keyes, former president of OC International of the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western and most recently executive director of The Word is Out, while World (1986–98). Prior to his university appointment, Ross, an in Uganda, July 6, 2008. Keyes is author of The Last Age of Mis- ordained minister in the Church of Scotland, was a minister sions: A Study of Third World Mission Societies (1983).

October 2008 197 other local churches; and within each local church, communion Seventh Plenary Assembly put it concisely: “These issues are not is realized through collegiality, by which all members, especially separate topics to be discussed, but aspects of an integrated ap- laywomen and laymen, are truly and effectively empowered to proach to our Mission of Love and Service. We need to feel and use their gifts to make the church an authentically local church. In act ‘integrally.’ As we face the needs of the twenty-first century, particular, the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences (FABC) we do so with Asian hearts, in solidarity with the poor and the highlights the absolute necessity of making the laity, especially marginalized, in union with all our Christian brothers and sisters women, the principal agents of mission if the church is to become and by joining hands with all men and women of Asia of many the church of, and not simply in, Asia. different faiths. Evangelization, inculturation, dialogue, justice As for the new mode of mission and the way to become the and the option for the poor are aspects of whatever we do.”28 local church, the FABC prescribes dialogue. It is important to note that dialogue is understood here not as a separate activity Missionary Focus and Spirituality (for example, ecumenical and interreligious dialogue) but as the modality in which everything is to be done by and in the church A new way of being church and the triple dialogue—this is in Asia. Hence, dialogue is not a substitution for proclamation shorthand for a complex and ongoing theology and praxis of mission in Asia. The originality of the FABC’s teaching on mis- sion does not lie in revolutionary theses. In fact, it contains most Dialogue is the most if not all the main missiological teachings of the Catholic Church as a whole, which Robert Schreiter summarizes in four head- effective way in which ings: “(1) mission is first and foremost the work of God; (2) the proclamation of the Good trinitarian character of the mission of God; (3) the centrality of dialogue; and (4) the multiple aspects of evangelization.”29 What News is done in Asia. is new about the FABC’s approach is that it fashions its theology and praxis of mission not on an a priori reading of the Bible and church documents but on a reading of the so-called facts on the or evangelization, as Asian theologians have sometimes been ground in the light of the Gospel and of Tradition. This method accused of believing; rather, it is the way, and indeed the most impels the Asian bishops to understand and undertake mission effective way, in which the proclamation of the Good News is as “prophetic dialogue,” with its threefold component of peace done in Asia. and justice, inculturation, and . It is important to note also that dialogue as a mode of being Above all, this theology of church mission entails a new church in Asia does not refer primarily to the intellectual exchange missionary spirituality.30 Antonio M. Pernia, superior general of among experts of various religions, as is often assumed in the the Society of the Divine Word, suggests that it is composed of West. Rather, it involves a fourfold presence: three elements: powerlessness, contemplation, and stewardship. Powerlessness, because, given the minority status of Christianity a. The dialogue of life, where people strive to live in an open and in Asia and the heritage of colonization and exploitation to which neighborly spirit, sharing their joys and sorrows, their human Christianity was at times an accomplice, missionaries must ap- problems and preoccupations. proach mission from a position of powerlessness and humility. b. The dialogue of action, in which Christians and others collaborate Contemplation, because, given the Asian emphasis on prayer for the integral development and liberation of people. and contemplation, missionaries’ approach must not be marked c. The dialogue of theological exchange, where specialists seek to deepen their understanding of their respective religious heri- by frenetic activity but by contemplative presence among God’s tages, and to appreciate each other’s spiritual values. people. Stewardship, because, given the fact that Christianity d. The dialogue of religious experience, where persons, rooted in still remains very much a foreign religion in Asia, missionaries their own religious traditions, share their spiritual riches, for ought not to share the Christian faith as if they owned it, dictat- instance with regard to prayer and contemplation, faith and ing thereby the terms by which it must be understood, lived, ways of searching for God or the Absolute.25 and celebrated, but ought to share their faith as a gift from God of which they are not owners but stewards.31 As for concrete forms of dialogue, the FABC suggests that This kind of missionary spirituality might appear inappropri- this dialogue take place in three areas: with the Asian poor, their ate and defeatist for those for whom the measure of success of cultures, and their religions; it arises in response, respectively, to Christian mission is the number of conversions and the expan- Asian massive poverty, cultural variety, and religious diversity.26 sion of the sphere of church influence. But it has a tremendous In other words, the three essential tasks of the Asian churches are advantage for mission in world Christianity because, as Leo liberation, inculturation, and interreligious dialogue. It is vital to Kleden points out, it offers a golden opportunity for missionaries note that for the FABC, these are not three distinct and separate “to follow the example of the first disciples of Jesus, who were activities of the church; rather, they are three intertwined dimen- sent empty handed but who were inspired by the Spirit of the sions of the church’s one mission of evangelization.27 As the FABC’s Crucified and Risen Lord.”32 Notes 1. On the various meanings of “catholicity,” see Hans Küng, The Church, has shown how this new history of Christianity has parallels in trans. Ray Ockenden and Rosaleen Ockenden (New York: Sheed & American religious history in his “Internationalizing American Ward, 1967), pp. 296–300. Religious History,” Council of Societies for the Study of Religion Bulletin 2. For an overview of recent works on the history of Christianity as a 34, no. 2 (September 2005): 40–44. discipline, see Paul V. Kollman, “After Church History? Writing the 3. Perhaps the best image of this view of Christian history is the way History of Christianity from a Global Perspective,” Horizons 31, in which airlines depict their hubs (in this case, Rome), with a thick no. 2 (2004): 322–42. Kollmann surveys the writings of Justo Gonzál- net of lines crisscrossing the globe to the various destinations of their ez, Andrew Walls, Dale Irvin, and Scott Sunquist. Kurt W. Peterson flights.

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ÝÝݱM‰?±jaÖ ¤±oåå±ÉyÔ±|ÉyÔ 4. Even so-called Western Christianity was far from being monolithic. 20. The bibliography on mission in Asian Catholicism is immense. Historian Peter Brown has shown that it contained great linguistic and Among recent publications, see Peter C. Phan, Christianity with cultural diversities, for example, among Noricum, Ireland, Francia, an Asian Face (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2004), In Our Own Frisia, Germany, and Rome. See his Rise of Western Christendom: Tongues (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2004), and Being Religious Triumph and Diversity, a.d. 200–1000, 2d ed. (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, Interreligiously (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2005); Peter C. Phan, 2003). ed., The Asian Synod: Texts and Commentaries (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis 5. Dale T. Irvin, Christian Histories, Christian Traditioning: Rendering Books, 2002); John Mansfield Prior, “Mission for the Twenty-first Accounts (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1998), p. 120. For an Century in Asia: Two Sketches, Three Flash-Backs, and an Enigma,” illuminating “genealogy” of Christian histories (note the plural!) in Mission for the Twenty-first Century, ed. Stephen B. Bevans and that highlights diversity, multiplicity, and ruptures in Christianity, Roger Schroeder (Chicago: Chicago Center for Global Ministries, see pp. 100–122. 2001), pp. 68–109; Kavunkal, “A Missionary Vision for Asia in 6. Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist, History of the World Christian the Twenty-first Century,” in ibid., pp. 162–75; Leo Kleden, “Missio Movement (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2001). For the historiography ad Gentes: An Asian Way of Mission Today,” in ibid., pp. 176–94; underlying this work, see Irvin, Christian Histories, Christian Sung-Hae Kim, “An East Asian Understanding of Mission and the Traditioning. Irvin argues for histories that would take into account Future of the Christian Presence,” in Mission in the Third Millennium, the multiple origins, the diverse developments, and the significant ed. Robert J. Schreiter (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2001), ruptures of the Christian tradition within a wider family of pp. 1–20; and Michael Amaladoss, “Identity and Harmony: Chal- traditions. lenges to Mission in South Asia,” in ibid., pp 25–39. 7. For the notion of rhizome as the metaphor for historical developments, 21. See David Aikman, Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming see Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capital- China and Changing the Global Balance of Power (Washington, D.C.: ism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: Univ. of Regnery, 2003). See also his Beijing Factor (Grand Rapids: Monarch Minnesota Press, 1987), pp. 3–25. Books, 2005). 8. See Stephen Neill, A History of Christian Missions (New York: Penguin 22. John Paul II, Ecclesia in Asia (Apostolic Exhortation, November 6, Books, 1986), A History of (Cambridge: Cambridge 1999), section 4. See Phan, Asian Synod, p. 289. Univ. Press, 1984), and Colonialism and Christian Missions (New York: 23. This lack of conversion to Christianity does not reflect negatively on McGraw-Hill, 1966). the nature of the Christian message but is the result of the dynamics 9. See Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, of religious conversion itself. See Peter C. Phan, “Conversion and 7 vols. (New York: Harper, 1937–45). Discipleship as Goals of the Church’s Mission,” in Phan, In Our Own 10. See Enrique D. Dussel, ed., The Church in Latin America, 1492–1992 Tongues, pp. 45–61. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1992), and A History of the Church in 24. The Catholic episcopal conferences in Asia are members, either full Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation (1492–1979), trans. and rev. or associate, of the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences. The Alan Neely (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981). FABC was founded in 1970 on the occasion of Pope Paul VI’s visit 11. See Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: to Manila, Philippines. Its statutes, approved by the Holy See ad Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, experimentum in 1972, were amended several times and were also 1996) and The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (Maryknoll, approved again each time by the Holy See. For the documents of N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002). the FABC and its various institutes, see For All the Peoples of Asia: 12. Kollman notes three new developments in church history or the Documents from 1970 to 1991, ed. Gaudencio B. Rosales and C. G. history of Christianity: giving a more comprehensive account of the Arévalo (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1992); For All the Peoples of entire Christian story from an explicitly global perspective, a fuller Asia: Documents from 1992 to 1996, ed. Franz-Josef Eilers (Quezon retrieval of the past of Christianity, and treating new themes by City: Claretian Publications, 1997); and For All the Peoples of Asia: placing Christianity in the wider context of the history of religions. Documents from 1997 to 2002, ed. Franz-Josef Eilers (Quezon City: See his “After Church History?” Claretian Publications, 2002). These will be cited as For All Peoples, 13. See David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, followed by the year of publication in parentheses. World Christian Encyclopedia, 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 25. Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, Dialogue and 2001). Proclamation (May 19, 1991), section 42. The English text is available 14. Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity in William Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue (Maryknoll, N.Y.: (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002). Orbis Books, 1993), pp. 93–118; the quoted words appear on p. 104. 15. See Peter C. Phan, “A New Christianity, but What Kind?” Mission See also For All Peoples (1997), pp. 21–26. Studies 22, no. 1 (2005): 59–83. For an extensive examination of 26. See For All Peoples (1992), pp. 14–16, 22–23, 34–35, 107, 135, 141–43, Jenkins’s thesis, see Frans Wijsen and Robert Schreiter, eds., Global 281–82, 307–12, 328–34, 344; For All Peoples (1997), pp. 196–203. Christianity: Contested Claims (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007). 27. For reflections on the connection between evangelization and 16. See David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology liberation according to the FABC, see Peter C. Phan, “Human of Mission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991). For a synthesis of Development and Evangelization: The First to the Sixth Plenary this book, see Stan Nussbaum, A Reader’s Guide to “Transforming Assembly of the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences,” Studia Mission” (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2005). For an evaluation of Missionalia 47 (1998): 205–27. Bosch, see Willem Saayman and Klippies Kritzinger, eds., Mission in 28. Final statement of the assembly, Samphran, Thailand, January 3–13, Bold Humility: David Bosch’s Work Considered (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis 2000, “A Renewed Church in Asia: A Mission of Love and Service,” Books, 1996). part 3, paragraph 3. 17. Stephen B. Bevans and Roger P. Schroeder, Constants in Context: 29. Robert Schreiter, “Mission for the Twenty-first Century: A Catholic A Theology of Mission for Today (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, Perspective,” in Mission for the Twenty-first Century, ed. Bevans and 2004), pp. 239–80. Schroeder, p. 33. 18. For their elaboration of this model of mission, see ibid., pp. 348–95. 30. See Peter C. Phan, “Crossing the Borders: A Spirituality for Mission 19. For a comprehensive survey of Asian Christianity, see Scott W. in Our Times,” in Phan, In Our Own Tongues, pp. 130–50. Sunquist, ed., A Dictionary of Asian Christianity (Grand Rapids: 31. See Antonio M. Pernia, “Mission for the Twenty-first Century: An Eerdmans, 2001), and Samuel H. Moffett, A History of Christianity in SVD Perspective,” in Mission for the Twenty-first Century, ed. Bevans Asia, vol. 1, Beginnings to 1500; vol. 2, 1500–1900 (Maryknoll, N.Y.: and Schroeder, p. 19. Orbis Books, 1992–2005). 32. Kleden, “Missio ad Gentes,” p. 188.

200 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 My Pilgrimage in Mission John Driver

y pilgrimage in the Spanish-speaking world for more My work with victims who were caught in the web of extreme Mthan six decades has defined my life of mission. It has poverty provided me with a new perspective from which to view shaped my vision of the world, my ideology, and my understand- the world of the poor, who in the Gospels are declared to be the ing of the Gospel and mission. For my intellectual and spiritual objects of God’s infinite love. Later, when I began to read state- growth, I owe as much, if not more, to my brothers and sisters ments by the Latin American bishops about God’s “preferential in Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Argentina, and Spain (and many more option for the poor,” the language made sense to me. In this throughout Latin America) as I do to my own Swiss-German bio- process I had come to view the world as I believe God views it: logical and spiritual ancestors. from the bottom side of history, I was born in 1924 and was from the perspective of the raised in a vital Mennonite con- poor, the marginalized, and gregation in Hesston, Kansas, those without power, rather and in a loving biological fam- than from the perspective of the ily. Both the congregation and powerful and the institutions my family were nurturing and under their control. compassionate and implicitly Following my first year as well as explicitly encouraged in Puerto Rico, in December vocation to Christian service 1946, Bonny Landis and I were and mission. As a conscientious married. She was from Jackson, objector during World War II, I Minnesota, and we had met was assigned to Civilian Public earlier in college. During the Service in a relief training unit years that I was serving in Civil- in preparation for an even- ian Public Service assignments tual postwar relief assignment as a conscientious objector, overseas. In 1945, at the age of Bonny had graduated from a twenty-one, I was invited by the three-year course in nursing. Mennonite Central Committee Together we volunteered for John and Bonny Driver to serve in a community devel- another term of service in opment project in Puerto Rico. This was my introduction to the Puerto Rico which, as it turned out, was life changing and led Spanish-speaking world. Working there as a social worker in the us into our long-term commitment to mission. mid-1940s, and later as a pastor and church planter in the 1950s and 1960s, I came into contact with the fruits of poverty in a way Montevideo Inter-Mennonite Seminary that I had never before experienced. In rural central Puerto Rico, families were attached as tenant farmers (agregados), by economic Following nearly eighteen years of service in community develop- necessity, to the lands of the large landholders. Their very lives ment, church planting, pastoral care, and leadership formation depended on the economic assets and limited largesse of these in the church in Puerto Rico, I was invited to serve as academic landowners. In such a context, the easiest way for a family to dean and professor of church history and New Testament in the break the cycle of poverty seemed to be to provide healthy sons Inter-Mennonite Seminary in Montevideo, Uruguay. Bonny and for the United States military during the years of World War II I arrived in Uruguay with our three children in January 1967. and later the Korean War. Members of the military were able to Cynthia had been born in 1951 in Goshen, Indiana, while I was send money home to their families. Although I had friends whose completing my studies at Goshen College and Goshen Biblical lives were shattered by their war experiences (some came home Seminary. Wilfred (1953) and Jonathan (1956) were born in Ai- as alcoholics, and others were disabled), some families benefited bonito, Puerto Rico, during our first term of service under the economically from the consequences of war. The parents of one auspices of Mennonite Board of Missions (MBM). of my acquaintances were finally able to put a very modest roof A time of considerable social effervescence and political over their heads thanks to the “blood money” they had received turmoil was beginning. The series of national liberation move- as indemnification from the federal government for the death of ments that would eventually sweep the Latin American continent their son. The challenge of helping to obtain health care for these from the southern cone to Central America during the next thirty indigent people further underscored for me the plight of those years was just beginning. Visionary reformers were proposing living in extreme poverty. profound changes in the traditional social, economic, and politi- cal structures, dividing both Catholics and Protestants. When John Driver, a longtime missionary, teacher, and writer the ruling powers resisted the revolutionaries, the confrontation in the Spanish-speaking world, is the author of nu- became violent. In this milieu all persons were expected to align merous books in both Spanish and English on themes themselves either with the advocates of radical social change or of church history, theology, peace, and mission. John with the traditionalists. For us in the seminary community, it and his wife, Bonny, currently live in retirement in provided an occasion for rereading the Scriptures and for revisit- Goshen, Indiana. —[email protected] ing our Anabaptist origins, asking if there might not be another response to the current challenge, a “third way.” In 1970 John Howard Yoder took a sabbatical assignment

October 2008 201 in lower South America, during which he taught in the Union and Social Change” and “Economic Relationships Among the Theological Faculty in Buenos Aires and in the Inter-Mennonite People of God.” The course provided an opportunity to revisit Seminary in Montevideo. In addition to teaching courses in eth- radical renewal movements throughout Christian history and to ics, history, and theology in these institutions, Yoder compiled reread the biblical texts. and edited an important collection of sources from the sixteenth- I also became increasingly uneasy about the approach to the century Radical Reformation, the first such anthology to appear history of the Christian church commonly followed by mainline in Spanish. He also lectured in InterVarsity student circles in church historians, one emphasizing institutional development Argentina and exerted a considerable influence on evangelical and the expansion of the church’s spheres of influence. At this leaders later associated with the Latin American Theological point in my journey I attended a lecture in Buenos Aires by Enrique Dussel, a well-known Argentine church historian and Catholic exponent of liberation theology. He argued that the real I vowed to become more history of the Christian church is the story of its participants, the common men and women who, in their faith commitment intentional in making to Christ, live out their mission in their common life together a radical vision of the as the people of God in the world. The story should therefore be told from their perspective, from the “bottom side,” rather Gospel, together with a than being the story of bishops and Christian princes and the reading of our context, key institutions they have created in their struggles to impose their hegemony. I immediately recognized this view of history as be- elements in my witness. ing the most consistent with the biblical story itself, as well as with the Anabaptist vision. Invited by the Argentine Mennonite church in January 1974 Fraternity. Of these, Samuel Escobar and René Padilla were most to lead a series called “Bible Studies in the Anabaptist Mode,” widely involved in evangelical circles beyond the International I prepared materials that appeared first in Spanish and then in Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES). As academic dean English. René Padilla, editor and director of Certeza, InterVarsity’s of the Inter-Mennonite Seminary in Montevideo, I was deeply publisher in Latin America, gave the book its title, Comunidad y influenced by Yoder’s presence and thinking. compromiso (1974). The English version, Community and Commit- ment (1976), included an additional chapter that I wrote while in Joining the Radical Reformation Spain. I soon received invitations to lead Bible studies at youth retreats in Colombia and Argentina. The materials for the study In 1971 Yoder taught a seminar entitled “The Radical Reformation” of the Sermon on the Mount that I prepared for these occasions, at Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries in Elkhart, Indiana. and later used in other settings, were eventually published in Wilbert Shenk, then overseas secretary for MBM, challenged the Spanish as Militantes para un mundo nuevo (1978) and in English participants in this seminar by posing a question relating to the as Kingdom Citizens (1980). “Anabaptist vision”—a statement of Anabaptist/Mennonite In 1975 the Mennonite Missionary Fellowship invited Samuel understanding outlined in 1943 by Harold S. Bender highlighting Escobar and me to present lectures at their annual meeting held the essence of Christianity as discipleship, a voluntary church at Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries. These lectures, membership, and an ethic of love and nonresistance in all human together with an introduction by the highly regarded missiolo- relationships. Shenk asked, “Why hasn’t this vision made any gist R. Pierce Beaver, were later published as Christian Mission appreciable difference in the way Mennonites carry out God’s and Social Justice (1978). Beaver quite candidly recognized that mission in the world?” This question became a catalyst prompting churches in the Anabaptist tradition, such as Mennonites and my reflection, to a degree that I had not intentionally pursued others in the Believers’ Church family, are in a position to make before, on the meaning of a radical reading of the Scriptures and a vital contribution to our common Christian search for a more of the church’s history for understanding God’s mission in the full-orbed vision of God’s mission in the world. He pointed out world. I vowed to become more intentional in making a radical that it is not a question of Christian mission or social justice, but vision of the Gospel, together with a reading of our context, key rather Christian mission and social justice. Thanks to the sociopo- elements in my witness. This event proved to be a crucial mo- litical context in which we lived and witnessed in the late 1960s ment in the course of my journey for sharing an Anabaptist and and 1970s, to the encouragement from Mennonite mission leaders liberationist perspective on the Gospel. like Wilbert Shenk, and to colleagues in Latin America such as During the years that followed in the Inter-Mennonite Samuel Escobar, René Padilla, and Orlando Costas, we were able Seminary in Montevideo, I had many opportunities to teach and to reread the Scriptures and the history of the church in ways that reflect on these themes in a context of revolutionary violence. otherwise would surely have escaped us and to come to better In the early 1970s, Uruguayan, Argentine, and Brazilian Protes- understand the Gospel of peace and justice and the church as a tants were among the first to articulate a theology of liberation. missional community of God’s kingdom. By this time their Catholic counterparts were doing the same throughout Latin America. Our efforts were spurred on by the Radical Christian Communities in Spain plight of seminary colleagues, both faculty and students, who were being unjustly imprisoned and tortured by national security The Mennonite seminary in Montevideo was closed at the end forces zealous to stamp out all vestiges of what they judged to of 1974, and Bonny and I were invited by Mennonite Board of be subversion. Missions to go to Spain to accompany Spanish expatriates who During these years my ecclesiology course in the seminary had become Mennonites in Belgium and were returning to Spain contained, along with a number of more traditional units, sec- to initiate a Mennonite presence and witness in their homeland. tions entitled “The Church and Revolution: Radical Community In addition to reflecting together with our Spanish Mennonite

202 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 brothers and sisters about the shape their witness might take, the been conscientious objectors to military service among early MBM encouraged me to accept opportunities for teaching. Plymouth Brethren in Great Britain, as well as a radical question- My relationship with Escobar and Padilla from InterVarsity ing of the relationship between church and state as it is set forth in South America opened doors to InterVarsity in Spain. I was in ’s Thirty-nine Articles. When, while teaching invited to teach in their circles in Madrid and later in Barcelona. I a course on ethics at a Bible institute in Madrid, I questioned found a remarkable openness to a radical vision of an alternative whether Anselm’s satisfaction theory of the atonement, which church history, a Believers’ Church ecclesiology, an ethic of peace, was developed in the context of a feudal society in medieval and other themes that are essential parts of an Anabaptist vision. Europe, provided the most adequate conceptual framework for Before long the first copies of Comunidad y compromiso arrived understanding the saving work of Christ, denominational leaders in Spain, and I was eventually invited to share its message in began to lose confidence in my theology. In spite of initiatives to congregations scattered throughout the Iberian Peninsula. restore relationships, I was counseled to rethink my understand- In both Madrid and Barcelona I was invited to teach in Bible ing of Christ’s saving work. institutes of churches affiliated with the Evangelical Alliance in When I told Shenk, the MBM secretary for Europe, about this Spain. In Madrid I taught a course on the history of the church painful experience, he simply replied, “You should write on this and its ecclesiology from the perspective of the Believers’ Church. theme.” I wrote a first draft, and Shenk organized a consultation To my surprise, the unedited outlines that I had used for teaching that included representatives from all of the Mennonite and Men- were published in 1978 as a 126-page paperback. nonite Brethren seminaries in the United States. He also asked By 1977, together with Spanish Mennonite leaders, we had me to share the principal themes from the manuscript at the an- determined that Mennonites in Spain would seek to form a com- nual MBM Overseas Missionary Orientation in 1981. I received munity of witness and service in Barcelona. Our understanding a number of valuable insights and suggestions from colleagues of the church was essentially missional. By sharing our resources, at both of these events, which I gladly incorporated into the text. we were able to free members of the community to give encour- When Understanding the Atonement for the Mission of the Church agement to the Spanish conscientious-objector movement (which was finally published in 1986, in many ways it represented a no other denomination in Spain at that time had dared to do) consensus of current Anabaptist thought. The Spanish version, and to serve in a sheltered workshop for mentally challenged La obra redentora de Cristo y la misión de la iglesia, appeared in 1994. adults. The community was eventually able to set up a home for When we returned to Spain in late 1981, Shenk proposed the elderly, as well as a residence for mentally challenged adults, another assignment for me: to work on the theme “Images of the as expressions of its Christian mission. Church in Mission.” In addition to sharing in the life and mis- In 1977, while residing in Madrid, my wife and I quite sion of the community in Barcelona, we continued to serve other unexpectedly received a visit from a member of an emerging radical communities with encouragement, counsel, and teaching. radical Christian community in Burgos. The community had I was therefore able to incorporate the biblical metaphors these somehow gotten hold of a copy of Comunidad y compromiso and, radical Christian communities were finding useful in their search upon hearing that I was living in Madrid, invited me to visit for more truly evangelical expressions of church life and mission and share biblical studies of the kind I had provided in the book. This invitation initiated a relationship with an entire network of radical communities that was forming across the northern half In spite of initiatives to of the country. We were invited to accompany the movement with teaching, counseling, and writing projects until the end restore relationships, I of our stay in Spain eight years later. Essays and presentations was counseled to rethink on peace that I shared in congregations and university settings throughout Spain during this period were published under the my understanding of title El Evangelio: Mensaje de Paz (1984; 2nd ed. 1987). Christ’s saving work. The conservative evangelical churches of Spain generally would have nothing to do with this network of radical commu- nities. However, operating within the framework of our charge with themes I was finding in my own reading and reflection. as Mennonite missionaries to “witness in Spain with an accent Not until the mid-1990s, however, did this project finally come which is specifically Anabaptist,” we saw in this movement the to fruition, when I was invited by the Seminario Anabautista emergence of genuinely missional communities of faith. With- Latinoamericano in Guatemala (SEMILLA) to teach a course in out waiting until they were duly organized, the communities ecclesiology. This invitation provided the opportunity to share simply began to share their common life together, to meet and with brothers and sisters in Central America, where social condi- to worship and to offer a ministry of rehabilitation to the victims tions were often quite similar to those of the early church. The of drug addiction in the hippie culture from which many had community’s enthusiastic responses encouraged me to see the themselves come. They soon added a prison ministry, with a project through to completion, resulting in Images of the Church halfway house for those released without any other viable way in Mission (1997; Spanish version in 1998). to make a new start in society, and a hospice for those with AIDS. In this emerging network of radical groups across northern Spain, Back to Montevideo and Latin America worship and work were combined in a way that made them true communities in mission. At the end of 1984 a call came from lower South America to help Meanwhile, opportunities to teach in traditional evangeli- in the formation of church leadership. The radical Christian cal congregations and institutions continued, but not without communities in Spain were blessed with able leaders and had controversy. The idea that peace and social reconciliation are achieved a sense of identity as missionary communities that essential components of the Gospel was new in some circles. would make them institutionally viable. Early in 1985 Bonny Some community leaders were surprised to learn that there had and I returned to Montevideo, where I taught in the Mennonite

October 2008 203 Study Center and wrote on the Anabaptist and biblical themes the oppressor. Even though this cross of suffering is imposed, Boff that had occupied me for the previous decades (e.g., biblical writes, it will not have the last word. It is possible to accept this interpretation, history, ecclesiology, pneumatology, mission, cross, and even death, as an expression of love and communion peace, and justice). Conducting class sessions in the study center toward the oppressor. Forgiving and freely assuming the cross and producing manuscripts for student reading and reflection of suffering that is laid upon us is a way of redirecting the course eventually led to the publication of a number of books in Spanish. of history toward that ultimate reconciliation that will include A course titled “A Biblical Theology of the People of God” led all, even the enemy. to the production of Pueblo a imagen de Dios . . . hacia una visión In pursuit of this redemptive third way, my pilgrimage in bíblica (1991). The contents of a course on pneumatology, which Anabaptism and my encounter with liberation theology coincide. benefited considerably from student participation, appeared as The radical fifteenth-century Czech reformer Peter Chelcicky, El Espíritu Santo en la comunidad mesiánica (1992). living in an era of unimaginable social injustice, oppression, and During this period at the study center in Montevideo, I human suffering, wrote that the salvation of oppressors would began to receive a series of invitations to teach in other parts of come only through the suffering of the oppressed. In a context Latin America. Church leaders representing all the countries of of social injustice, this statement seems to be preposterous, but it Central America attended my course on Anabaptist ecclesiology, expresses an understanding that I find present in the testimony which SEMILLA published as Contra corriente: Ensayo sobre eclesi- of the early church (“Christ also suffered . . . the righteous for ología radical (1988; rev. eds., 1994 and 1998). This time in Central the unrighteous, in order to bring you to God,” 1 Pet. 3:18). I America was the beginning of an extensive relationship with the witnessed this dynamic being lived out in amazing ways in the Anabaptist family scattered throughout Latin America. suffering of brothers and sisters in Latin America during the turbulent final three decades of the past century. Unspeakable Anabaptism and Liberation Theology suffering—assumed in the hope of transforming relationships through change and reconciliation—has opened the way to res- During these years of my pilgrimage, peace proved to be one toration for the oppressor as well as healing for the sufferer. In of the principal themes for discussion, outside as well as inside such a context my mission in Latin America developed. Mennonite circles, including with the exponents of liberation For many years Wilbert Shenk has been a stimulus to deepen- theology. Leonardo Boff, the well-known Brazilian Franciscan, ing my thinking on mission. In administering the MBM, Shenk for one example, in a book entitled Teología desde el lugar del pobre was persistent in his vision of the church as missional. He urged (1986), has a chapter with the suggestive title, “Cómo predicar la his colleagues to see the church and mission in its first-century cruz hoy en una sociedad de crucificados” (How to preach the context and to read the writings of the New Testament as missional cross today in a society of crucified people). There he envisions documents. This thrust was true as well of themes he suggested the redemptive power of suffering love with a clarity that has to me along the way for reflection and writing. It was especially evident in a project he organized with a number of us who had been involved in mission in Europe, Africa, Latin America, and Throughout my years in Asia. In 1989 and 1990 he assigned us to give presentations in overseas mission seminars on an array of biblical, theological, mission in the Spanish- and historical themes. The essays that resulted were eventually speaking world, I saw the incorporated into a book that was edited by Shenk and published under the title The Transfiguration of Mission (1993). Gospel of Jesus Christ In 1989 Bonny and I retired to Goshen, Indiana. Throughout my become, quite literally, years in mission in the Spanish-speaking world, I saw the Gospel of Jesus Christ become, quite literally, good news for the poor. It good news for the poor. is a gospel of peace and justice (righteousness) in their full-orbed biblical senses. It is a gospel of grace communicated most authenti- cally by a reconciled and reconciling community of grace. It is a escaped most Christians in our time. Showing the inadequacy, in gospel of salvation with power to save even the enemy through the face of oppression, of both violent rebellion on the one hand the redeeming dynamic of vicarious, innocent suffering freely as- and resignation on the other, he holds forth a third attitude, that sumed on behalf of the oppressor. These are realities I have been of the cross of suffering freely assumed with a view to redeeming privileged to witness during my pilgrimage in mission.

International Association for Mission Studies

The twelfth international assembly of the International United States, Mennonite, president), Mika Vahakangas Association for Mission Studies met in Balatonfüred, Hun- (Finland, Lutheran, vice president), Cathy Ross (New Zea- gary, August 16–23, 2008. Over 260 mission scholars, nearly land/England, Anglican, general secretary), David Singh a third of them women, addressed the theme “Human Iden- (India/England, Methodist, treasurer), Lalsangkima Pachuau tity and the Gospel of Reconciliation: Agenda for Mission (India/United States, Presbyterian, editor of IAMS’s journal Studies and Praxis in the Twenty-first Century.” Participants Mission Studies), Gerard Goldman (Australia, Roman Catho- represented 44 countries and all continents: Africa, 18; lic), Paul Kollman (United States, Roman Catholic), Ken C. Asia, 23; Europe, 148; Oceania (including Australia and New Miyamoto (Japan, Presbyterian), Rose Uchem (Nigeria, Roman Zealand), 14; North America, 51; and South America, 8. Elected Catholic), and Mariel Deluca Voth (Argentina, Baptist). as the 2008–12 IAMS Executive were Jonathan Bonk (Canada/

204 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 International Health Insurance for Missionaries

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ames W. C. Dougall was born on April 8, 1896, in the of the Conference of British Missionary Societies. His position Jtown of Auchterarder in Perthshire, Scotland.1 He grew enabled him to develop a wide range of contacts and connections. up in a strongly Christian home. His mother was well known Particularly influential was friendship with Joe and Mary Oldham locally for championing the cause of temperance, a powerful at a time when Oldham was at the height of his influence on mis- popular movement at that time. His pastor was James S. Stewart, sionary and ecumenical thinking.3 In 1940 Dougall embarked on who later became one of Scotland’s most celebrated preachers what was to be twenty years of service in the secretariat of the and published highly valued volumes of ser- Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Com- mons.2 Growing up nearby was Nan Eadie, mittee, as associate secretary from 1940 to who became his childhood sweetheart; in 1946 and general secretary from 1946 to 1960. 1924 they married. Theirs was a very strong On his retirement, the committee recognized marriage, based perhaps on an attraction that “with his unique knowledge and experi- of opposites, as Nan’s fiery, emotional, and ence of the World Church, his outstanding temperamental character contrasted with the gifts and his unusual insight into the nature calm, dispassionate, and diplomatic person- of missionary trends, he has been the guide, ality of James. They were blessed with four inspirer and formulator of the policy of the children but had the sadness of losing one Committee in recent years.”4 Finally, he was son at the age of fifteen. elected to serve as convener of the new Over- James was educated at George Watson’s seas Council, which brought together all the College in Edinburgh, Glasgow Academy, Church of Scotland committees concerned and Perth Academy. He served in the Ob- with overseas work, from 1964 to 1969. After servation Corps in the First World War, an the death of his wife, Nan, in 1977, it was experience of which he never spoke. He said that “there was a darkness about him.” completed his M.A. at Glasgow University Three years later, on November 9, 1980, he in 1919 and proceeded to Trinity College, died quite suddenly in Edinburgh. Glasgow, to prepare for ordination to the ministry. During these years he was greatly The Primacy of Evangelism influenced by the Student Christian Move- ment, and through it he became interested Taking up office as Foreign Mission Com- James Dougall in missionary work. The memory of the Ed- mittee general secretary soon after the end inburgh 1910 World Missionary Conference of the Second World War, Dougall was alert was still fresh in Scotland, and it cast its spell over young Dougall, to the reality that the world was rapidly changing and that the causing him to think of giving his life to “the evangelization of missionary enterprise would have to change to meet the new the world in this generation.” situation. In preparing the report of the Special Committee on The calling to missionary service found expression, following Policy established at that time, Dougall therefore made the point ordination in 1923, with Dougall’s acceptance of a major respon- that its “enquiry starts from the assumption that the world in sibility in Africa as secretary of the Phelps-Stokes Commission which the Church lives has so changed that the particular form (1923–24). This commission, the initiative of New York–based of the mission of the Church to the world has to be re-examined philanthropists, examined the situation throughout Africa in order and restated. . . . It is impossible to escape the conclusion that the to determine how education might best be developed. Its reports missionary task for this generation involves new perspectives, led to the colonial governments’ taking much greater responsibil- means and methods if we are to be faithful to the Truth which ity for education in the African community. For Dougall it was marches on.”5 It was a time of ferment and a time of reform. a unique opportunity to develop an extensive familiarity with Dougall sought to bring his understanding of the missionary the African situation. He therefore already had wide experience task and apply it to the rapidly changing context. when he began his work in Kenya, where from 1925 to 1931 he A theme to which Dougall returned again and again is the served as principal of Jeanes School in Kabete, and from 1932 to primacy of evangelism in the mission of the church. It might seem 1936 as educational adviser to the non-Roman Missions in Kenya to be stating the obvious to say that the missionary enterprise is and Uganda. His eleven years there left him with a deep sense about sharing the Christian faith with those who do not adhere of identification with Africa and its people. to it. Yet Dougall was deeply aware of the possibility of being Dougall returned to the U.K. in 1936 to become a secretary distracted from this primary purpose. While, as we shall see, he took a broad view of the nature of Christian mission, he cherished Kenneth R. Ross, formerly professor of theology at the above all its evangelistic core. Anything that distracted from the University of Malawi, where he taught from 1988 to essential task of sharing the good news about Jesus Christ was 1998, has served since 1998 as Council Secretary of the object of suspicion. A primary guiding principle for Dougall the Church of Scotland World Mission Council. was his conviction that “the traditional and central urge of mis- —[email protected] sionary enthusiasm has always looked beyond the Christian community to those who were without, to the people who sat in darkness because the light of the Gospel of the glory of Christ had not illumined their hearts and lives.”6 As he surveyed the

206 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 situation around him in the immediate postwar period, he noted continuously protested against what he described, borrowing “the urgent need for a recovery of the evangelical impulse. By R. H. Tawney’s words, as “a dualism which has emptied religion this I mean a concern in the Church at home to witness to what of its social content and society of its soul.”12 In one of his final God has done for men through His mighty acts in Jesus Christ, speeches to the General Assembly he quoted Dag Hammarskjöld’s and through that witness to bring individuals to accept Christ words that, “in our era, the road to holiness necessarily passes as Lord and Saviour. So stated, evangelism is the life-blood of through the world of action,” and then added, “We might well the missionary movement.”7 say that the road to mission passes this way also.”13 In Dougall’s mind, the missionary enterprise was exposed This determination to avoid dualism and achieve a “bifocal” to the particular danger of having its energies absorbed in ad- approach in the missionary enterprise found particular expression ministration. It was a question of the good being the enemy of in regard to education. From its earliest years, Scottish involve- the best. No one would dispute that a great deal of good was ment in overseas mission had been marked by an emphasis on done by the assiduous labors of thousands of missionaries who education. Dougall is a prime exemplar. His first assignment administered the great educational, industrial, and medical insti- after ordination was to serve as secretary of the Phelps-Stokes tutions that the missionary movement had created. The difficulty that registered itself with Dougall through many reports from the field was that missionaries were so exhausted by the demands of In this polarized context, administrative work that they were scarcely able to attend at all to the primary task of evangelism. He was ever eager to break Dougall’s zeal for the new ground and was thrilled, for example, when the Church of priority of personal, one- Scotland was able to take a lead in the development of pioneering evangelistic work in the north of Ghana in the 1950s. The eye for on-one evangelism could the frontier, for the new departure, for the opportunity to take the not be questioned. Gospel of Christ where it had not been heard before—this was at the heart of the strategic thinking developed by James Dougall. Even as he was about to retire, in his final circular letter to the Commission, which inquired into the development of educa- missionaries in India and Pakistan he made the point that “the tion in Africa. In the Duff Lectures given after his retirement, it more we try to do in and through institutions and inter-church was clear that his passion for education as a central plank in the aid . . . the more necessary it is to concentrate on the unfinished missionary enterprise was as strong as ever. Arthur Wilkie, the evangelistic task of the Churches.”8 influential Scottish educational missionary who served at Calabar, the Gold Coast, and Lovedale in South Africa, was acknowledged Education at the Heart of Mission by Dougall as an inspiration and mentor in this area. In the Duff Lectures he recalled the strong claims that Wilkie had made for By midcentury a clear division was already appearing within the educational dimension of Christian mission: “Education is Protestant Christianity between those whose understanding of not outside the primary plan of Christian missions, but lies at mission centered on evangelism and personal conversion and the very heart of it. It is the finest God-given instrument for the those who stressed the transformation of the whole community. evangelisation and upbuilding of a new Africa.”14 While education Whereas at the start of the century many would have understood in Scotland was to become increasingly secularized, Presbyterian themselves as both “evangelical” and “ecumenical,” these terms churches in Africa took this vision to heart and, often against steadily became the watchwords of two separate camps. In this great odds, sustained and developed the educational programs increasingly polarized context, Dougall’s zeal for the priority of begun by the missionaries. personal, one-to-one evangelism could not be questioned. Yet combined with it was a broad vision of the renewal of society Indigenization and Contextualization under the influence of the Gospel. In one of his earliest writings he had already made this clear: “For the Christian missionary, Dougall’s African experience left him impressed with the need as for his Lord, there can be no conflict between individual for the indigenization of the faith. Like many sensitive European conversion and social regeneration, between God’s grace in the missionaries, he was struck by the deep religious awareness of human heart and Christian discipleship, between continuous African communities and by the strength of African traditional evangelism on the one hand and education with a dominating religion. His early writings anticipate themes that occupied the first Christian motive on the other.”9 It was characteristic of Dougall’s generation of academic African theology when it emerged in the perspective when the Foreign Mission Committee Report to the second half of the century: sensitivity to spiritual reality, the value 1957 General Assembly stated that “mission in the Biblical sense of African Traditional Religion as preparation for Christianity, is the task of the whole Church to the whole life of the world. . . . and the potential for Christian worship to incorporate traditional Many have conceived it as reaching with the Christian message customs. In expressing a longing for a truly African Christianity, every human being on the surface of the globe. That is part of it. as well as for a Christian Africa, Dougall was representative of But human life has depth as well as extension.”10 the best of the Scottish missionary tradition. He was prepared to This perspective was one that he sustained through all his articulate its theological implications. Far from a tabula rasa ap- years in office. He shared with Max Warren, his counterpart proach to the missionary task, Dougall argued that “we will find at the Anglican Church Missionary Society, a suspicion of any that their worship becomes most truly spiritual and moral when tendency to separate sacred history—Heilsgeschichte—from the we do not deny or condemn but expand the meaning of what outworking of history as a whole.11 The conviction that the whole they already accept, reveal the best which is already implied and of history belongs to God and is the stage on which the drama carry them further by means of the momentum of their Native of God’s purpose is unfolded united these two notable postwar aspirations and needs. Our worship will employ elements of the British general secretaries. In his theology of mission, Dougall traditional practice of western denominations, but its character

October 2008 207 should be recognisably African.”15 In forming such an approach will be a severe handicap for you in getting to real grips with the in the 1920s, Dougall anticipated the theological direction that people’s most intimate needs, and now’s the time to determine African churches would take when they gained responsibility that it shall be tackled.”20 Counseling another, Dougall empha- for their own affairs later in the century. sized the value of long experience in missionary work: “All of Though the term “contextualization” had not yet been in- us make a succession of mistakes in Africa during our first years troduced into theological discussion, Dougall anticipated this of missionary service, and no ability can take the place of the approach, He was constantly struggling to understand the de- cumulative understanding of the African himself, which grows velopments unfolding around him and to discern their meaning with the years.”21 in relation to the missionary purposes of God. His strong sense The relation of church and mission was a vital area of discus- of all history being God’s history meant that the contemporary sion in these years. The Willingen Conference of the International context must always be taken with the utmost seriousness: “To Missionary Council in 1952 caught the spirit of the time when proclaim Christ as Lord is to say that He is Lord of the revolutions it pronounced that “we should cease to speak of missions and in Africa and that He is at the centre of African history now.”16 churches and avoid this dichotomy not only in our thinking but Such an understanding led Dougall to the radical realization also in our actions. We should now speak about the mission of the Church.”22 This answered a question that had been ripen- ing as the twentieth century advanced: what is the relationship between the Western missions and the indigenous churches to Dougall knew well how which their witness gave rise? Dougall saw the changes of the easily the church could mid-twentieth century as an opportunity to build a new kind of become preoccupied with relationship between “older” and “younger” churches, one that would be both necessary and enriching: “We Christians of the its internal affairs and push Older Churches can no more stand alone in this post-Christian its missionary obligations era without the fellowship of the Indian, Chinese, and African Churches than they, without us, can be perfected in their mission. to the margins. We need each other as we need Him who is able to make both Home and Overseas one. . . . Is this not God’s call to His people to close their ranks and to rejoice in their conversion from individualism that the Christian message requires to be constantly rethought and isolationism into the world-wide fellowship of giving and and restated as it is introduced to a new situation. As he wrote to receiving, which is both the mirror and the means of His healing, Ronald Orchard in 1958, “Absurd as it may seem at this hour of forgiving, and transforming love for all the nations?”23 Already the day, I think we need to look again at the question, What is the in 1947 the Foreign Mission Committee’s Report to the General Gospel? . . . isn’t it true that many questions of missionary policy Assembly was anticipating the new emphasis on partnership in vex us because we are not quite clear what the Gospel is?”17 This mission when it spoke of the “worldwide fellowship of giving is the question prompted by contextualization. When the specific and receiving” to which we belong as “both the mirror and the challenges of a changing context are taken to heart, then the ques- means of [God’s] healing, forgiving, and transforming love.”24 tion of “what the Gospel is” becomes the burning one. While Dougall played a leading role in promoting the hand- over of responsibility from the mission to the church, he was Changed Relations of Missionary and Church equally concerned that mission should be found at the heart of the church’s concerns. He was fond of quoting the Foreign A major development that occupied much of Dougall’s atten- Mission Committee Minute of 1947 that stated, “The Church of tion was the changing role of the missionary. Whereas his own Scotland has from the beginning regarded its foreign missionary missionary formation had taken place at a time when it was as- enterprise as an integral part of the life of the Church, springing sumed that Western missionaries would direct the work of the of necessity from the nature of the Church itself. It has in the same missions for many years to come, from the late 1940s high on the way placed at the centre of its concern the bringing into being of agenda was the need to hand over authority to the indigenous living branches of the Church in other lands which should accept church. It was time to rethink the missionary vocation. Dougall for themselves the same missionary obligation, the discharge of liked to quote the new definition offered by Lesslie Newbigin, which is one of the essential marks of a living Church.”25 This who described the missionary as “the agent of the help which confidence in the church as the proper agent of mission was not one part of the Church sends to another for the discharge of the naive. Dougall knew well how easily the church could become common missionary task.”18 preoccupied with its internal affairs and push its missionary While recognizing that, in the future, missionaries would obligations to the margins. He struggled long and hard against go not to establish their own missions but rather to serve the apathy and indifference, sometimes casting an envious glance indigenous church, Dougall was very anxious to sustain the in the direction of the missionary societies that had a dedicated traditional understanding of the missionary vocation. Against a corps of enthusiastic supporters. Yet for him it was a theological trend suggesting that missionaries might serve for shorter periods imperative that missionary concern is the concern of the whole of time, Dougall included the following protest in the report to church, no less integral to its being than the maintenance of its the General Assembly of 1948: “In spite of the attraction which ministers or the upkeep of its buildings. Much of his work was short service offers, it cannot be regarded as satisfactory for the devoted to reminding the church of its missionary character and Younger Churches to have people who do not stay long enough challenging it to give proper priority to worldwide missionary to speak the vernacular and who may not be fully committed work in its planning and organizing. to missionary service, though willing for a time to go abroad.”19 Counseling one young missionary, he stressed the importance James Dougall could be regarded as a conservative, even Canute- of learning the local language: “Inability to speak the vernacular like, figure. His work could be understood as an effort to fight

208 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 a rearguard action to maintain the foreign mission enterprise of burgh or in Geneva or in Rome, but in the eternal will of God the Church of Scotland when trends both at home and abroad the Father and in the historic mission of the Son into the world demonstrated that its time had passed. However, amid an ap- and in the dispersion of the primitive Church in the power of proach that greatly valued the tradition of missionary work built the Holy Spirit. There is but one mission in all six continents, up over the years, strands emerged that proved to be forward which means that all Christ’s people in every land are, or ought looking and prophetic—the indigenization of the faith, the con- to be, involved in a fellowship of faith for the advancement of textualization of the Gospel, the church as the agent of mission, his kingdom at home and in all the world.”26 This perspective the partnership of churches in mission, and new models of mis- enabled him to call the church, as one episode in mission drew sionary service. Above all, at a time when the church’s foreign towards a close, to look to “the next missionary impulse.”27 In mission enterprise was apparently going into decline, Dougall this way he served as a bridging figure, connecting the church’s was able to set it in a theological context that opened up new missionary tradition to new frontiers and new ways of working horizons: “The mission of the Church does not originate in Edin- that now appeared on the horizon.

Notes 1. I mention here my sincere thanks to James Dougall’s children—Rev. 11. See Timothy Yates, Christian Mission in the Twentieth Century Ian Dougall, Dr. Angus Dougall, and Mrs. Lizmay Fleming—and (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994), pp. 139–40. to his daughter-in-law Rev. Elspeth Dougall for their willingness to 12. R. H. Tawney, quoted in Dougall, Christians in the African Revolution, share their memories of his life and service. I am also grateful to the p. 27. Scottish Church History Society for permission to include material 13. Church of Scotland General Assembly 1968, Verbatim Record, that was published in my article “James Dougall, 1896–1980: Architect p. 477. of Post-war Scottish Foreign Mission Policy,” Scottish Church History 14. Dougall, Christians in the African Revolution, p. 20. Society Records 37 (2007): 183–206. 15. Ibid., pp. 25–26. 2. See three titles by James S. Stewart, all published in London by 16. Ibid., p. 87. Hodder & Stoughton: A Man in Christ (1935), Heralds of God (1946), 17. James W. C. Dougall to Ronald K. Orchard, International Missionary and A Faith to Proclaim (1953). Council, March 17, 1958. 3. See Keith Clements, Faith on the Frontier: A Life of J. H. Oldham 18. Lesslie Newbigin, One Body, One Gospel, One World (London: (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999), pp. 267–359. International Missionary Council, 1958), p. 47, quoted in Dougall, 4. Reports to the 1960 General Assembly (Edinburgh: Church of Scotland, Christians in the African Revolution, p. 93. 1960), pp. 474–75. 19. Reports to the 1948 General Assembly (Edinburgh: Church of Scotland, 5. Reports to the 1952 General Assembly (Edinburgh: Church of Scotland, 1948), p. 371. 1952), p. 352. 20. J. W. C. Dougall to G. Lowson Watt, January 3, 1946. 6. James W. C. Dougall, Christians in the African Revolution (Edinburgh: 21. J. W. C. Dougall to Norman C. Macrae, Calabar, February 5, 1946. Saint Andrew Press, 1963), p. 92. 22. The Missionary Obligation of the Church, Willingen, Germany (London: 7. James W. C. Dougall, “Education and Evangelism,” International Edinburgh House Press, 1952), p. 40. Review of Missions 36 (1947): 313. 23. Reports to the 1947 General Assembly (Edinburgh: Church of Scotland, 8. James W. C. Dougall, farewell circular letter to missionaries in India 1947), p. 345. and Pakistan, March 14, 1960. This and other unpublished papers 24. Ibid. cited in the notes can be found in James Dougall Papers, archives 25. Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee, Minute 8799, April of the Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee, National 15, 1947; quoted, for example, in Reports to the 1957 General Assembly, Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. p. 453. 9. James W. C. Dougall, Religious Education in Africa (London: Inter- 26. Church of Scotland General Assembly 1969, Verbatim Record, national Missionary Council, n.d. [1929]), p. 10. p. 505. 10. Reports to the 1957 General Assembly (Edinburgh: Church of Scotland, 27. Church of Scotland General Assembly 1968, Verbatim Record, 1957), p. 426. p. 477.

Selected Bibliography Works by James W. C. Dougall Works About James W. C. Dougall James Dougall’s official papers are found within the archives of the Hewat, Elizabeth G. K. Vision and Achievement, 1796–1956: A History of Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee at the National Library the Foreign Missions of the Churches United in the Church of Scotland. of Scotland, Edinburgh. His private papers, including his diary, are in London: Thomas Nelson, 1960. the care of his son Angus Dougall. Lyon, David H. S. In Pursuit of a Vision. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1998. 1929 Religious Education in Africa. London: International Missionary Ross, Kenneth R. “James Dougall, 1896–1980: Architect of Post-war Council. Scottish Foreign Mission Policy.” Scottish Church History Society 1947 “Education and Evangelism.” International Review of Missions Records 37 (2007): 183–206. 36:313–23. 1963 Christians in the African Revolution. Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press.

October 2008 209 Book Reviews

How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind: Rediscovering the African Seedbed of Western Christianity.

By Thomas C. Oden. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2007. Pp. 204. $19.

The Blessing of Africa: The Bible and African Christianity.

By Keith Augustus Burton. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2007. Pp. 294. Paperback $20.

By the end of the twentieth century, as of Christianity—including spiritual assumptions about geographic Africa and all now recognize, dramatic shifts within formation through monastic discipline, about African ethnicity and racial identity. global Christianity saw Africa emerge as the European university, Christian dogma, As is to be expected, Eurocentric reading a major heartland of the faith and African and exegetical rules and methods—were of the Bible, the Crusades, and colonial Christianity as a prominent representation therefore formed and fomented in the Christianity receive withering criticism. of Christianity’s nature and prospects. crucible of ancient African Christian life. But readers expecting a robust or novel Among African scholars, however, efforts Oden attributes long-standing neglect treatment of the Bible and modern African to define the African Christian identity, and ignorance of this historic African Christianity will be disappointed—in this mainly to uncouple it from the imprint heritage to deep-seated prejudice within regard, Philip Jenkins’s The New Faces of of European missionary domination and Western scholarship. But he reserves his Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global defend the African pre-Christian religious strongest admonitions for contemporary South (2006) has much more to offer. tradition, long remained the dominant African scholars and church leaders. He Perhaps because of its historical links preoccupation. In the immediate aftermath charges that their strenuous efforts to to biblical Israel, Ethiopian Christianity of colonial rule this approach enjoyed fashion a new African Christian identity is covered in interesting detail, and the considerable appeal, but widespread are bedeviled as much by inattentiveness interface between the Bible, the Qur’an, acknowledgment of African Christianity’s to this rich African heritage as by mis- and Islam is thoroughly explored. The global significance has rendered such a conceptions of the African tradition in- book’s revisionist approach will attract defensive posture passé. herited from modern scholarship. This scholarly censure, but the case for a fresh In recent years, more self-confident charge is not without foundation. Then look at the significance of Africans in the explorations of African Christianity in a again, no mention is made of major biblical record and the impact of the Bible global context have emerged, as prominent works like Ghanaian theologian Kwame on the African story is convincingly made. African scholars engage in critical ex- Bediako’s Theology and Identity: The Impact of In important ways these two books confirm ploration of its place and relevance within Culture upon Christian Thought in the Second the monumental tasks that confront a new global Christianity. In Whose Religion Is Century and in Modern Africa (1999), which generation of African Christian scholars. Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the West scrutinizes early African Christianity in —Jehu J. Hanciles (2003), for instance, Lamin Sanneh makes a way that informs the modern African the case that the expansion of Christianity Christian experience. Still, Oden makes a Jehu J. Hanciles, a Sierra Leonean, is Associate in the non-Western world—“the indigen- compelling case that a reappropriation of Professor of Mission History and Globalization in ous discovery of Christianity”—provides Africa’s ancient apostolic tradition not only the School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological important lessons for the modern secular affirms the indigenous nature of African Seminary, Pasadena, California. post-Christendom West. The recently Christianity but also recovers its historic published Africa Bible Commentary (2006) relevance within world Christianity. also reflects this growing consciousness Burton’s The Blessing of Africa also that African Christianity has much to attempts to place African Christianity offer the world of Christian scholarship. in its wider global context, but there Quite clearly, there is still much work to the similarity ends. The book focuses God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult be done, which is why Thomas Oden’s on “biblical Africa” and the historical and the Hidden Roots of Modern How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind and significance of African peoples and events Jihad. Keith Burton’s The Blessing of Africa are as depicted throughout Scripture. Its basic timely and noteworthy monographs. premise is that biblical Africa—which By Charles Allen. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Commissioned by the Center for Early the author equates with the “land of Press, 2006. Pp. xiv, 349. $26.95. African Christianity (an international Ham”—had geographic boundaries that consortium of schools and scholars), extended far beyond the modern African Here is a very readable account of the Oden’s work is a clarion call for a robust continent, encompassing “Saudi Arabia succession of movements that led directly historical and theological reassessment and the countries that share its peninsula, from eighteenth-century Arabia to the of early African Christianity. The book’s the western regions of the Middle East, bin Ladens of today. By tracing these central argument is that intellectual including Israel, , and Lebanon, links, Charles Allen, a British writer developments within early African and possibly the southernmost parts of who is an authority on British India and Christianity shaped world Christianity modern Turkey” (p. 19). This conception, South Asian history, has provided an in decisive ways. Contrary to entrenched which speculatively associates biblical Put indispensable tool for understanding views among Western scholars, Oden with sub-Saharan Africa, will be strongly “Islamic fundamentalism” and “Islam- argues, the flow of intellectual leadership contested. It also renders the book’s title ism” today. in the first five centuries of Christian somewhat misleading. Wahhabism begins as a very conser- history moved largely from Africa to Yet this comprehensive study offers vative and puritanical movement under Europe—south to north. Basic strands some compelling arguments and useful the leadership of Muhammad ibn Abd of both Eastern and Western traditions insights that challenge conventional Al-Wahhab and, after entering into an

210 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 alliance with the ibn Saud family, conquers one’s intellectual tongue salivate. Finally, Sciences), which is located in Leiden. It the whole of Arabia. It is then taken to each volume is replete with statistics and is also an example of the kind of church the Indian subcontinent by Syed Ahmad, contains lists of ecclesiastical authorities, history we need to help understand in where it mutates into a much more hard- the names and biographical details of depth the factors that lead to success in line and aggressive form of Islam, creating priests, brothers, and sisters, as well as nurturing self-ministering, self-supporting “a highly effective organisation for Islamic short descriptions of the major orders that churches. The author’s background in the revival and revolution” (p. 111) with “a provided missionaries. study of Islam and the social sciences well-thought-out plan to overthrow the Karel Steenbrink’s work is an makes this a deeply textured, satisfying British” (p. 125). example of the high-quality publications work. It should be in every library that has Wahhabism also inspires the Ahl-i- and research carried on by the Royal a serious collection of mission history. Hadith and Deobandi movements, which Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian Chapter 12 of volume 1, “The Con- have had a profound influence on Sunni and Caribbean Studies (part of the Royal struction of Complex Religious Identities,” Islam in South Asia, inspiring resistance to Netherlands Academy of Arts and is a good example of the rich texture of all forms of Western imperialism. The line then continues through the pan-Islamism of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani to the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt in the 1920s and Jamaat-i-Islami in Pakistan in the 1940s, and then finally to Sheikh Abdallah Azzam, the most influential mentor of Osama bin Laden. Allen says in his preface: “This history offers no solutions but does illustrate patterns of behaviour, successes and failures from which lessons might be drawn” (p. xi). In his very last sentence, however, he points to one highly significant lesson: “remove the grievances and mainstream, moderate Islam stands a better chance of reasserting itself” (p. 297). If this book needs to be read in mission colleges, it is even more important that it be read in the White House, the Pentagon, and other government offices around the world! Theology Brewed in an African Pot —Colin Chapman Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator While introducing Christian doctrine from an African Colin Chapman, an ordained Anglican, now – New Mission Studies – retired, worked for seventeen years in the Middle perspective, “Orobator offers us not a recipe but a feast.... East (mostly in Egypt and Lebanon) and taught at a work of great wisdom.” —WILLIAM O’NEILL Trinity College, Bristol, and Crowther Hall, Selly Jesuit School of Theology, Berkeley Oak, Birmingham. 978-1-57075-795-2 paper $20.00 American Indian Liberation A Theology of Sovereignty George E. “Tink” Tinker Catholics in Indonesia: A Documented History. Vol. 1: How different conceptual frameworks and different A Modest Recovery, 1808–1903; understandings of terms have made Christian doctrine vol. 2: The Spectacular Growth unappealing and at times incomprehensible to Indians. of a Self-Confident Minority, 1903–1942. 978-1-57075-805-8 paper $22.00

By Karel Steenbrink. Leiden: KITLV, 2003–7. What Is the Mission of the Church? Vol. 1, pp. xviii, 528; vol. 2, pp. xiii, 634. A Guide for Catholics Paperback €47.50 / $57 each vol. Roger P. Schroeder These two volumes on the modern Catho- A basic guide to the “who, what, where, and why” lic history of Indonesia are a stupendous of mission and its meaning for the local and universal achievement. Each volume comprises, first, a substantive narrative history of church. 978-1-57075-810-2 paper $16.00 missionary work and church development and, second, a large number of primary documents (ninety-eight in vol. 1; forty in vol. 2). Most of the documents are in At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS Dutch, but each is preceded by an English Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 précis. For those not proficient in Dutch, A World of Books that Matter 1-800-258-5838 the English précis are so rich as to make

October 2008 211 Steenbrink’s sociohistorical analysis. Not “asymmetric competition,” negotiating a the missionaries succeeded in nurturing interested simply in institutional mis- fundamental shift from local, tribal iden- a local clergy, congregations of religious sion history, the author relates Catholic tities to universal identities mediated by orders, and a laity that was strong in and Protestant church growth to anthro- these great traditions. Catholic identity. The rapid growth of pological research into the cultural back- Of special interest is the subtext of these orders since 1960 has astounded the ground of converts and larger dimensions volume 2, as conveyed in its title, The Catholic world. of religious change underway. He identi- Spectacular Growth of a Self-Confident —William R. Burrows fies what Indonesians were seeking, and Minority. Nineteenth-century Dutch he is fully aware both here and in earlier represented a recovery William R. Burrows, Managing Editor of Orbis chapters that Indonesians overall were from the collapse of Portuguese efforts Books since 1989, worked as a missionary in Papua moving from local religions toward Asian begun in 1534, the success of which was New from 1972 to 1977. He is beginning religions, Islam, and Christianity, which stymied by the Dutch in the seventeenth work on a history of Melanesians and Divine Word were engaged in what Steenbrink calls century. Overall, Steenbrink shows that missionaries from 1896 to 1996.

THE SOUTH INDIAN PENTECOSTAL MOVEMENT IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY StudieS in the hiStory of ChriStian MiSSionS series Michael Bergunder The Lamb Enters the Dreaming: “Clearly, this book will find its way into the center of Nathanael Pepper and the future discussions on the origins, form, and contributions Ruptured World. of Pentecostalism to contemporary understandings of By Robert Kenny. Carlton North, Victoria, Indian Christianity.” — Cecil M. Robeck Jr. Australia: Scribe Publications, 2007. Pp. 400. ISBN 978-0-8028-2734-0 · 392 pages · paperback · $40.00 Paperback AU$39.95.

CONVERTING COLONIALISM This well-written book describes early Visions and Realities in Mission History, 1706–1914 Christian missionary activity among the Aboriginal people of Australia in a new StudieS in the hiStory of ChriStian MiSSionS series and refreshing way. The author, not a Dana L. Robert, editor EERDMANS Christian believer, nonetheless provides “Dana Robert has mobilized an array of mission historians a sympathetic view of what transpired to recapture the passion, vision, and dreams behind the between missionaries and Aboriginal missionary enterprise whose force reshaped the twentieth people 150 years ago. century.” — Ogbu Kalu The book is based on the conversion of Nathanael Pepper, a Wotjobaluk man ISBN 978-0-8028-1763-1 · 314 pages · paperback · $40.00 of the Wimmera region of Northeast Victoria, and his encounter with Moravian ECUMENICAL RECEPTION Christian missionaries in the very early days of the Australian colony. This FROM Its Challenge and Opportunity William G. Rusch was a time of social Darwinism, when indigenous people were often considered “Rusch gives us the most complete study we have of to be inferior and destined for extinction. the historical, theological, juridical, and — not least In this case, as Kenny examines in much — spiritual dimensions of the ecumenical process of detail, it was not science that worked to reception.” — Norman A. Hjelm promote humane treatment of Australia’s ISBN 978-0-8028-4723-2 · 152 pages · paperback · $20.00 Aboriginal people but the “faith in our commonality” (p. 341), which came from Christian missionaries. THE MISSIONAL CHURCH IN CONTEXT The Wotjobaluk world the mission- Helping Congregations Develop Contextual Ministry aries entered in 1858 had already shown MiSSional ChurCh series signs of a deep rupturing, particularly Craig Van Gelder, editor through contact with settlers, loss of

BOOKS “Here is a mother lode of theology, biblical insight, and traditional lands, and newly introduced practical application for pastors and congregations who diseases. In those early years of contact, want ‘missional’ to be more than cliché. . . .Van Gelder the decimation of the local population was and company point the way to a life-giving and hopeful extreme: numbers dropped from many future for the church in North America.” thousands to several hundred. Pepper himself died at the age of thirty-six. — J. Nelson Kraybill The metaphor of the lamb lies at ISBN 978-0-8028-4567-2 · 253 pages · paperback · $20.00 the heart of this book. As the colonizers’ sheep represent the victims of the violence imposed upon the land and spiritual At your bookstore, or call 800-253-7521 world of the Wotjobaluk people, the www.eerdmans.com missionaries offered another lamb to heal that wound. “What they brought was a means to understand the suffering 7519 that this rupture had caused” (p. 334). As

RECENT Pepper comes to grapple with the meaning

212 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 of Christianity for him and his people, Chinese dress (a hotly debated issue in death in 1905. While the book has its fair his journey begins to imitate that of the Protestant missionary circles), and the share of inaccuracies, its fascinating subject One whose Gethsemane experience first peculiar behavior of the famous upper- matter and entertaining narrative make it catalyzed his conversion. Not only does class . Admirers of a highly readable text and very profitable Pepper suffer from chronic illness, but and Pastor Hsi may for reflection. his conversion also impacts his arranged find some of Austin’s characterizations —R. G. Tiedemann Christian marriage and relationship with disturbing. Indeed, if dissension within his own family and people. the CIM ranks was as widespread as the R. G. Tiedemann, a Senior Research Fellow at In dismantling an ideology that author has indicated, it is a miracle that the Centre for the Study of suggests that indigenous people cannot this vast organization, with personnel (Oxford), is a contributor to the Ricci 21st Century make informed decisions about Christian from a variety of social, national, and Roundtable database project on the history of conversion, Kenny has done us—and denominational backgrounds, not only Christianity in China at the Ricci Institute, indigenous people—a service. At the same survived but prospered after the founder’s University of San Francisco. time, he reminds us how interpretations of the past can reveal contradictions in our present. We would do well to be more attentive to the meanings and experiences Now Complete in Five Volumes! that indigenous people bring to being Christian. —Brian F. McCoy THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHRISTIANITY

Brian F. McCoy, S.J., a Postdoctoral Fellow in ritten by leading scholars from many countries and cul- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health at La W tural backgrounds, the more than 1,700 articles depict Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia, has spent Christianity in its global context. Separate articles for every most of his adult life in Aboriginal and Torres Strait continent and for over 170 countries examine both the history Islander communities in northern Australia. and the current situation of the Christian faith worldwide.

“A major resource. . . . Necessary for libraries, China’s Millions: The China students, and teachers.” Inland Mission and Late Qing — Henry Chadwick Society, 1832–1905. “Broad, comprehensive, By Alvyn Austin. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, scholarly, and generally up 2007. Pp. xxxi, 506. Paperback $45. to date. . . . When complete, Alvyn Austin, born in Calcutta to China this should be the standard Inland Mission (CIM) missionaries, is a reference on Christianity for veteran historian and adjunct professor at academic and public libraries.” Brock University (St. Catharines, ). He presents a comprehensive overview SERIES EDITORS — Choice of the origins and evolution of the non- “Essential; this is possibly the denominational CIM, which by the end Erwin Fahlbusch (editor) of the nineteenth century had become the best encyclopedic reference largest Christian missionary organization Jan Milič Lochman (editor) on Christianity.” in China. Although he covers the same John Mbiti (editor) — William P. Collins period as Alfred (not Anthony, as the index Library of Congress, has it) James Broomhall’s seven-volume Jaroslav Pelikan (editor) study Hudson Taylor and China’s Open in Library Journal Century (London, 1981–89), Austin takes LukasVischer (editor) a rather different approach. He does not GeoffreyW. Bromiley Hardcover • $100.00 each volume want to produce another hagiography of Volume 1 (A-D) ISBN 978-0-8028-2413-4 • 932 pages Taylor but focuses instead on the Chinese (English-language editor) adherents, the “foot soldiers” of the CIM. David B. Barrett Volume 2 (E-I) ISBN 978-0-8028-2414-1 • 819 pages Austin singles out Xi Shengmo, also known (statistical editor) Volume 3 (J-O) ISBN 978-0-8028-2415-8 • 916 pages as Pastor Hsi, who had been a member Volume 4 (P-Sh) ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 • 984 pages of a heterodox sect. After his conversion Xi organized autonomous indigenous Volume 5 (Si-Z) ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2 • 896 pages churches and, more controversially (given Five Volume set • Hardcover • $500.00 the misuse of morphine pills in his refuges for opium addicts), became in fact a ISBN 978-0-8028-6350-8 purveyor of “Jesus opium.” Austin considers several aspects of the highly complex missionary enterprise, At your bookstore, including the innovative use of Dwight or call 800-253-7521 8054 L. Moody’s four-color “wordless book” www.eerdmans.com as a cultural bridge, the wearing of

October 2008 213 A History of Global Anglicanism. to students, members, and—it is hoped— leaders of the at this By Kevin Ward. New York: Cambridge Univ. crucial point in its history. Press, 2006. Pp. xii, 362. $85; paperback —Christopher A. Beeley $35.99. Christopher A. Beeley is the Walter H. Gray Assistant Kevin Ward, senior lecturer in African appear until the end of formal colonialism Professor of Anglican Studies and Patristics, Yale religious studies at the University of in the twentieth century (which is itself a Divinity School, New Haven, Connecticut. Leeds and an Anglican priest, has written colonialist fantasy) but were present from a remarkably balanced history of the the beginning—a fact that paradoxically Anglican Church, the world’s third-largest demonstrates the success of the initial Christian body. Unlike most studies of missions. global Anglicanism, which stress the Ward allows the complexities of centrality of its English heritage, this Anglican development to shed light on : An Americanized book gives unprecedented attention to the crisis facing the Anglican Communion Christianity. the local construction of Anglicanism in today. We should no more expect Anglican Asia, Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, churches of the global South to possess By Richard Kyle. New Brunswick, N.J.: as well as to the roles of minorities in Great a fabled purity of faith (in contrast to a Transaction Publishers, 2006. Pp. xiv, 337. Britain, the United States, Australia, and purely secularized North) than we should $34.95. . expect the North to ignore the vibrancy of Moving beyond colonial and churches in the South—in other words, a Richard Kyle is professor of history and postcolonial agendas, Ward brings out the reverse or a renewed colonialism. There religion at Tabor College, Hillsboro, complex interaction between missionary is indeed a missionary task at hand, but Kansas. He received theological training influences and the indigenous forces of a book such as this reminds us that the at both Baptist and Presbyterian divinity local culture. Many will be surprised to Gospel inevitably brings God’s judgment schools, and his church membership has learn, for example, that most Anglican and mercy to human society in all times been with the Mennonite Brethren. missionary activity was conducted by and places. Kyle writes a brief history of popular indigenous, not colonial, missionaries. This book is well researched, clearly evangelicalism in the United States, Ward adeptly shows that local expressions written, and full of interesting anecdotes, giving two chapters to eighteenth- and of Anglicanism did not politely wait to maps, and bibliography. It will be useful nineteenth-century evangelicalism. mission insurance Customized! Since 1980, & Associates International has been providing mission-specific policies to mission groups of all sizes, as well as to individuals. We can provide options and solutions from our extensive portfolio of missionary specific coverages— in many cases even customizing to meet your particular needs. When insurance companies sell you “off the shelf“ policies, you often pay for extra coverage that you don’t need. Or even worse, you may not get the coverage you do need.

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214 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 His main focus is twentieth-century aries who happened to be doctors and saw medicine as an auxiliary subordinate evangelicalism, with two chapters on the medical missions as an accepted mission to the primary evangelistic task. first half of the century and three on the strategy with a comprehensive theolog- Sent to Heal! contains many useful second half. ical rationale. Medical missions proper insights. First, the chronological devel- Kyle’s evaluation of popular American emerged in the nineteenth century, when opment of theological, institutional, and evangelicalism is, with rare exception, Western scientific advances united with social aspects of medical missions is very entirely negative. “There is only a fine line mission outreach to dramatically improve valuable for providing depth perspective. between being relevant to its surrounding people’s physical well-being. It soon be- Second, Grundmann works across Ger- culture and being absorbed by that culture. came apparent that Western medicine man, English, and American sources to American evangelicalism has stepped opened doors otherwise closed to the illuminate a movement that was both over this line” (p. 2). Much of Kyle’s Gospel. Tension remained, however, be- international and interdenominational critique regards the accommodation of tween medical missions for the sake of in scope. Third, because individuals led evangelical faith to popular culture. He healing the body and mission boards that advances in medical missions, the book laments the loss of expository sermons, four-part harmony choirs, the organ, and the pastor as shepherd. He decries the use of guitars and drums, personal stories on relevant topics, and big-screen monitors in worship. He praises high culture, with its focus on objectivity, the timeless, and the transcendent, and he decries popular culture as trivial, new, and spectacular. Any missiologist will benefit from Kyle’s close look at the relation between church and culture in America. However, Kyle sees the relation of church and culture Prepare for the unexpected. as a zero-sum game—more of one equals less of another; that is, they are always at odds. From Andrew Walls, however, we learn that one cannot have too much Being called is different than being prepared. of either Gospel or culture, just too little. The apostle Paul was both. So when he Rather than abandon popular culture and unexpectedly found himself in chains, he was embrace high culture, as Kyle prefers, prepared to show love and compassion for his what American evangelicalism needs, in prison guards.And they listened to him. my opinion, is more Gospel. How about you? Chances are you’re called, —Ryan K. Bolger but are you prepared to take the Good News into places where you feel “uncomfortable”? At Bethel Seminary, we are committed Ryan K. Bolger is Assistant Professor of Church in to knowing and teaching as much as we can Contemporary Culture in the School of Intercultural about cultures near and far.Because if you are Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, called to a culture different from your own, it is California. important to understand that culture and love its people. Bethel has two programs specifically crafted for cross-cultural ministry. Doctor of Ministry in Global and Contextual Leadership through our distance learning program, and the M.A. in Global and Contextual Studies, available through either Sent to Heal! Emergence and our traditional classroom setting or distance Development of Medical Missions. learning program. The unexpected is going to happen. By Christoffer H. Grundmann. Lanham, Md.: Preparing you to handle it is what we do best. Univ. Press of America, 2005. Pp. xvi, 375. Learn more by calling 800-255-8706, ext. 6288. $73.95; paperback $43.95.

This survey history of medical missions is the long-awaited English translation Take the Next Step. Change Your World. of Christoffer Grundmann’s dissertation from the University of Hamburg. Now professor in religion and the healing arts at Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana, Grundmann is prominent in ecumenical circles for his incisive biblical, theological, and historical studies of healing. Sent to Heal! already holds a place among standard works in the history of Christian missions, St.Paul • San Diego •New York not only because of his fine scholarship, Philadelphia •Washington D.C. •New England but also because of the comprehensive bibliography he provides. seminary.bethel.edu Grundmann’s study makes the important distinction between mission-

October 2008 215 2009 Student Seminars recovers the contributions of important medical missionaries focus on the nature on World Mission innovators like Karl Gützlaff, Peter Parker, of their relationships with non-Westerners, Clara Swain, Cardinal Lavigerie, and another subject outside the scope of this George Dowkontt. study. Regardless of these unavoidable “Your Next Grundmann makes a valiant effort limitations, this fine book should be owned to analyze the significance of female by all scholars of mission history. Step iN and indigenous medical workers, but —Dana L. Robert his basic research was done in the early MiSSioN” 1990s and thus did not benefit from the Dana L. Robert is the Truman Collins Professor of proliferation of relevant studies over World Christianity and the History of Mission at A monthlong survey of the past decade. Some recent studies of the Boston University School of Theology. the Christian world mission, cosponsored by 30 seminaries.

January 5–9 and 12–16, 2009 Pilgrims of Christ on the Muslim Held at Mercy Center, Madi- Road: Exploring a New Path Between Two Faiths. son, Connecticut. The sessions of weeks one and two survey By Paul-Gordon Chandler. Lanham, Md.: the Christian world mission. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. Pp. 240. $19.95 Multiple presenters. Seven ses- / £12.99 / €20.46. sions each week. $145 per week. This book pays tribute to Mazhar Mallouhi, Muslim backgrounds not to leave their who describes himself as a “Muslim families, people, or culture” (p. 108). His January 19–23 follower of Christ.” Born in Syria in approach may be liberating to Muslims Held at OMSC 1935 to a Sunni Muslim family, Mallouhi who have no legal means of registering Culture, Values, and World- became drawn to Christ as a young man Christian identities and who fear losing view: Anthropology for after reading works by and about Gandhi. their places in Muslim communities. Paul-Gordon Chandler has called this In Chandler’s presentation, Mallouhi Mission Practice. volume Pilgrims of Christ on the Muslim emerges as an inspiring, open-hearted, Dr. Darrell L. Whiteman, The Road, in an evocation of The Christ of the and pragmatic figure who illustrates what Mission Society, shows how Indian Road (1925). The latter book, written it can mean to be a Muslim who follows one’s worldview and theology by American Methodist missionary to Christ. of culture affect cross-cultural India (and friend of Gandhi) E. Stanley —Heather J. Sharkey Jones, maintained that “one can fully mission. Co- follow Christ without being a ‘Christian’” Heather J. Sharkey is Assistant Professor of Middle sponsored by (p. 2). Eastern and Islamic Studies in the Department Areopagos and This message resonates with Mallouhi, of Near Eastern Studies and Civilizations at the The Mission whose journey has been difficult. In the past University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Society. Eight and still today, Islamic authorities in many countries have regarded renunciation of sessions. $145 Islam as a crime and breach of public order. Mallouhi’s embrace of Christ—and his January 26–30 insistence on talking about it to Muslim Held at OMSC friends—helps explain why he has often For a Church Beyond Its Walls. The City in Mission. moved to a different country, sometimes harassed, arrested, and jailed by secret By Aram I, Catholicos of Cilicia. Antelias, Dr. Dale Irvin, New York Theo- police (as in Egypt and Syria). Lebanon: Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia, logical Seminary, considers Mallouhi’s twofold mission is to 2007. Pp. 342. $20. the city in the mission of God. promote knowledge of Christ among Cosponsored by Muslims and to encourage Christians The Armenians claim to be the first nation United Meth- to build friendships with Muslims. This to embrace Christianity, and now the has been difficult work, hampered by leader of the Armenian church describes odist General curtailments of religious freedom on what it means to be a church in today’s Board of Global one side and, on the other, by mistrust world. Aram I was moderator of the Ministries. Eight and Islamophobia emanating from World Council of Churches from 1991 to sessions. $145 -speaking and Western Christians. 2006. This book contains the reports of Mallouhi, who reportedly told Chandler WCC gatherings and talks given at WCC- that going to church often feels to him like sponsored conferences. Even so, it is only a For a schedule and “going to the dentist” (p. 177) and who small portion of Aram’s literary production has described feeling excluded by Arab during the period of his leadership at WCC. registration form for the and Western Christians, prefers to pray or It does, however, provide a window into January seminars, visit discuss the Bible with friends at home, in his thinking during a transitional period www.OMSC.org/ cafés, and sometimes even in mosques. of the WCC. The changing geopolitical Chandler argues that Mallouhi “has world and the resurgence not just of january.html. been able to embody a new approach non-Christian religions but the close ties that encourages followers of Christ from of these religions to the political arena

216 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 meant that the WCC needed to refocus iary discipline to defend the doctrines of “clothing of hair and coarse material, its programmatic emphasis. These essays the Trinity and the incarnation. “He was traveling on foot, obscurity, attendance document that process. convinced that in the end reason could at churches and mosques and so forth, Several bold statements merit serve the interests of revelation, and and abhorrence for luxurious living.” The consideration. For example, in the essay devotion to philosophy could preserve the task of the spiritually serious, Yahya said, on ecclesiocentric (1999), a call decencies of life in common.” He argued: is to “give people an interest in eternal to reassert the Gospel is given. “People are “Men are a single tribe [qabil], related to life” (p. 125). not interested with what the church is or one another; humanity unites them. The Griffith is realistic about the limited says; people are concerned with what the adornment of the divine power is in all of impact these five centuries of Arabophone church does” (p. 31). Very few charismatics them and in each one of them, and it is the theological effort had on Islam. One Is- would disagree with that statement. rational soul.” Yahya moved in aristocratic lamic thinker who responded to what he Or again: “Most of our ecclesiological circles close to the caliph, but he preferred perceived to be Christian error was Ibn teachings still pertain to specific periods of scholars, monks, and ascetics, who chose Taymiyyah (1263–1328), who remains au- history and have no relevance today. The church cannot be reduced to an institution concerned with keeping its past intact” (p. 77). This statement is all the more radi- cal when one considers that the author is head of an ancient church that guards its REDEFININGTHEOLOGY tradition. FORAWORLDWIDE CHURCH All the essays in this volume are worth reading. The lecture “Genocides in the Twentieth Century” contains much of value, including recognition of the need of perpetrators to acknowledge their atrocities. Referring to the denial of the Armenian genocide, Aram points out that the danger of denying our history is greater than that of acknowledging it. This volume deserves a careful reading by a wide audience. —James J. Stamoolis

James J. Stamoolis, an educational and missiological consultant, has written extensively on the Eastern churches.

The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims global dictionary in the World of Islam. of theology By Sidney H. Griffith. Princeton: Princeton A Resource for the Worldwide Church Univ. Press, 2007. Pp. xiii, 220. $35. William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan Francisco Martinez This book tells “the story of the religious, and Simon Chan, editors cultural, and intellectual achievements of the Arabophone Christians, distilling forty years of scholarly labor into a Inspired by the shift of the center of graceful overview of the ancient but still- Christianity from the West to the Global living churches of the East. The author, South, this dictionary, with over 100 Sidney Griffith, admires the theological international contributers—including inventiveness, rationality, and linguistic skill of Arabic-speaking Christians. He Jürgen Moltmann, Ellen Charry and invites today’s diminished Christian Alister McGrath—spans the global spec- communities of the Middle East and also trum of theological perspectives. the churches planted in or by the West to hear these voices of Christians who articulated their faith in concepts and language shaped by the Qur’an. One Arabic-speaking Christian intellectual portrayed by Griffith is Yahya ibn ‘Adi, born in 893 in the city of Tikrit 630.734.4000 . ivpacademic.com (modern-day Iraq). Yahya became head of the Aristotelians, using Greek logic in the Arabic language as an auxil-

October 2008 217

IBMR Fall 08 Ad #4524 1 8/1/08 10:02:10 AM thoritative among self-conscious Muslims Christians seeking to honor non-European today. In the wake of the Mongol conquest expressions of Christian faith and by of once-tolerant Abbasid Baghdad, Ibn Muslims interested in reconciling Islamic GloboChrist Taymiyyah turned his intellect against ways of knowing with the Western the internal Christian threat. The primary commitment to empirical knowledge and readers of Arabophone theologians, ideas of cause and effect. however, were their fellow Christians in —Richard J. Jones Baghdad, Jerusalem, Egypt, and Spain. In today’s English-speaking world, Richard J. Jones is Professor of Mission and World Griffith’s lucid reintroduction of these Religions at Virginia Theological Seminary, thinkers should be welcomed both by Alexandria, Virginia.

Muslims, Christians, and the Challenge of Interfaith Dialogue.

By Jane Idleman Smith. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007. Pp. xiii, 186. $25.

Jane Idleman Smith is codirector of the describing a wide diversity of Muslim and Duncan Black Macdonald Center for the Christian approaches to pluralist realities. Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Smith identifies the challenges that a Relations at Hartford Seminary, Hartford, commitment to Islam as the “truth” or Carl Raschke Connecticut. She also serves as professor Jesus as the “truth” presents in dialogical of Islamic studies. encounter. 9780801032615 • 176 pp. • $17.99p Readers will be captivated by the This excellent book concludes with opening chapter, “Encountering One imaginative and realistic suggestions on new directions, with a wrap-up of six “GloboChrist is the unconventional Another.” Smith narrates three episodes of dialogue, two of which are hypothetical, reasons for dialogue. In this section and title of an intriguing inquiry into but all provide insight into the real-life in the book as a whole, I would welcome a postmodern patterns and ideas and challenges and obstacles of dialogue. This more explicit commitment to commending the challenge to mission. The book book is scholarly; nevertheless its great Christ, as well as more reflection on the is a confident statement for these strength is real-life practicality. Smith’s theological convergences and divergences we encounter in dialogue. uncertain times, a troubling of the second chapter is an insightful survey of fourteen centuries of Christian-Muslim —David W. Shenk waters that will stir complacent relations. Contentious issues such as the Christians in their assumptions.” status of Jerusalem are presented, as well David W. Shenk, a writer and teacher, has served —Lamin Sanneh, as the legacy of the Western colonial era. within Muslim societies in for many Surprisingly, the early experience of the years. He is a consultant with Eastern Mennonite “This is the best book on globalization church in dialogue with Muslims is noted, Missions, with special interest in Islam. I have read by an overtly Christian but not explored. thinker.”—Max L. Stackhouse, Chapters 3–5 are pertinent for those interested in getting started in dialogue. Princeton Theological Seminary For example, chapter 3 helps the reader “Raschke not only helps us see Christ get in touch with how it feels to be a Muslim in North America. Chapter 5, : A Scholar- and mission afresh in our hi-tech, “When Dialogue Goes Wrong,” is practical. Missionary in Colonial South pluralistic, postmodern, and global Those who have been engaged in dialogue India. context but also equips us with will identify with the anecdotes. “The engagement strategies.”—Dwight J. Pluralist Imperative” occupies chapters Y. Vincent Kumaradoss. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007. Friesen, Mars Hill Graduate School, 6–7, one on Muslim and the other on Pp. xx, 301. Paperback Rs 180 / £9 / $11. Christian commitments. These are rich in Seattle A statue of Robert Caldwell erected by the local government adorns the marina esplanade of (Madras). It stands Please beware of bogus renewal as a tribute to Caldwell’s contributions to notices. A genuine IBMR renewal the Tamil culture and peoples. Portraits notice will have a return address of him, with flowing white beard, adorn I of Denville, NJ 07834 on the outer many a book and wall. envelope, and the address on the As missionary of Idayangudi and A v a i l a b l e a t y o u r l o c a l b o o k s t o r e , reply envelope will go to PO Box bishop of Tirunelveli, Caldwell became w w w. b a k e r a c a d e m i c . c o m , o r b y 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. a renowned ethnographer, historian, c a l l i n g 1-800-877-2665 Please e-mail [email protected] linguist, philologist, and sociologist. Born S u b s c r i b e t o B a k e r A c a d e m i c ’s or call (203) 624-6672, ext. 309, with near Belfast in 1814 and reared in Glasgow, e l e c t r o n i c n e w s l e t t e r (E-N o t e s ) a t any questions. Thank you. where he also received university training, w w w. b a k e r a c a d e m i c . c o m he reached Madras in 1838. In 1841 he

218 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 and other missionaries of the London Scripture into indigenous languages key theme, and in the conclusion Hartch Missionary Society took the “Canterbury dovetailed with the government’s view provides an interesting reading of the trail” into Anglican (Oxford/Puseyite) that using “vernacular literacy as a bridge role of vernacular literacy in contributing conformity. Prone to walking across to Spanish” (p. 132) would facilitate the to pluralist indigenous identities among country rather than riding in a palanquin, assimilation of indigenous peoples into the Maya, particularly in the case of the he stayed in native rest houses (choultries) the Mexican nation. Tzotzil community of San Juan Chamula each night so that he could meet and While prominent Mexican anthro- in Chiapas. Discussion of the place of converse with people along the way. His pologists initially saw the descriptive the Bible among liberationist Catholics celebrated Grammar of the Dravidian or linguistics of SIL as a support for state and of evangelical involvement in the South Indian Family of Languages (1856) policy, by the 1970s the winds had shifted contemporary Zapatista movement would sought to demonstrate that Tamil (as well against indigenismo among younger further nuance this argument. as , Kannada, and Telugu) had anthropologists. When the government From the standpoint of state an antiquity as great as Sanskrit and other terminated a long-standing contract ne- relationships with SIL, one of Hartch’s classical languages. At least twenty other gotiated with SIL in late 1979, Townsend primary contentions will prove surprising major works, such as his monumental again fruitfully used his contacts, this time to those concerned about the encroachment Political and General History of the Tinnevelly with Mexican president Miguel León de of “fundamentalist” religion in Latin District (1881) and his Records of the Early Portillo, so that “by the 1990s [SIL] seemed America: “Although many have charged History of the Tinnevelly Mission (1881), to be operating at levels similar to those that the SIL was a tool of the U.S. attest his enormous erudition and industry. of 1979” (p. 162). government that was supported by Adopted as “Apostle to the Nadars,” he Missionaries of the State adds American industrialists, in fact it was made India his lifelong home, ending his considerable complexity to the SIL story, a tool of the Mexican government that days at Kodaikanal in 1891. highlighting how translation activities was supported by the American middle To his great credit, Kumaradoss’s have often strengthened indigenous class” (p. 93). self-conscious effort to transcend the identity by providing a means for protest —C. Mathews Samson many hagiographic images of Caldwell and resistance in native communities. left by previous writers over the past Chapter 8, “Indians into Protestants,” C. Mathews Samson, Visiting Assistant Professor of century is successful. This is no mean integrates substantial interview data in Anthropology at Davidson College, Davidson, North accomplishment. Such an extensive and a case study of the local response to SIL Carolina, has recently published Re-enchanting the scholarly study of Caldwell, drawing in an Otomi village over a forty-year World: Maya in the Guatemalan upon all available sources, has long been period. Cultural translation emerges as a Highlands (Univ. of Alabama Press, 2007). overdue. That this, at long last, has now been accomplished deserves our full praise and thanks. —Robert Eric Frykenberg

Robert Eric Frykenberg, professor emeritus of History of Christianity history and South Asian studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, has edited Christians Duke University Divinity School seeks to and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural make one or two faculty appointments, Communication Since 1500 (Eerdmans, 2003) and written Oxford History of Christianity in effective for September 2009, in the area India (Oxford, 2008). of History of Christianity. Nominations and applications are sought for or from persons who exhibit strength in scholarship and teaching in either the history of World Christianity or the history of Christianity in Missionaries of the State: The Summer Institute of Linguistics, the United States. State Formation, and Indigenous Mexico, 1935–1985. The rank is open for both positions. Faculty rank and salary will be set accord- By Todd Hartch. Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2006. Pp. xxi, 245. $39.95. ing to qualifications and experience. A Ph.D. and experience in ministry, lay or ordained, are requisite. An This study is a narrative account of the M.Div. is strongly desirable. United Methodists, women, and eth- relationship between the Mexican state and the Summer Institute of Linguistics nic minorities are especially encouraged to apply. Nominations and (SIL), beginning in the turbulent period of applications should be sent to Ms. Jacquelyn Norris, The Divinity the consolidation of Mexico’s “institutional School, Box 90968, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0968. Re- revolution” during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40). Todd Hartch, view of applications and nominations will begin October 1, 2008. assistant professor of history at Eastern Kentucky University, demonstrates the Persons who recently received a doctorate should include an official mutual benefit for both Cárdenas and Cameron Townsend, SIL’s founder, of transcript for the highest degree held and three letters of reference. Cárdenas’s rapprochement with SIL in Duke University is an affirmative action equal opportunity employer. support of the government’s policy of indigenismo. SIL’s work of translating

October 2008 219 Dissertation Notices Only a small sampling of recent dissertations can be listed in the IBMR. For OMSC’s online database (in cooperation with Yale Divinity School Library) listing nearly 6,000 dissertations, go to www.omsc.org/dissertationscollection.html.

Bothur, Eric C. Johnson, Sarah E. Ratnasekera, Joseph Leopold. “Common Stressors and Coping “Almost Certainly Called: Images of “The Theravāda Buddhist Resources for Single Missionaries of Protestant Missionaries in American Understanding of Ethics: A Critical the International Mission Board.” Culture, 1945–2000.” Appraisal of the Eight-Fold Path of D.Min. Columbia, S.C.: Columbia Ph.D. Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ., 2007. Moral Perfection; A Study in Contrast International Univ., Seminary, and School with Thomistic Moral Perspectives.” of Missions, 2007. Jørgensen, Jonas P. A. D.Phil. Rome: Pontifical Urban Univ., “Jesus Imanders and Christ Bhaktas: 2006. Cabrita, M. A Qualitative and Theological Study “A Theological Biography of Isaiah of Syncretism and Identity in Global Rivera, Ruben. Shembe, c. 1870–1935.” Christianity.” “Alberto Rembao (1895–1962): Ph.D. Cambridge: Univ. of Cambridge, Ph.D. Copenhagen: Univ. of Copenhagen, Mexican American Protestant for 2008. 2006. Internationalism and Christian Holism.” Choi, Dongkyu. Kwon, Ohoon. Ph.D. Boston: Boston Univ. Graduate “Toward a Basic Theory for Missional “Toward a Contextualized Church School of Arts and Sciences, 2007. Church Planting in Postmodern in a United Korea/Corea: Exploring Korea.” Resources in Wesleyan Theology and Seitz, Jonathan A. Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Eastern Philosophies.” “The Comparative Merits of Christian Seminary, 2006. Ph.D. Wilmore, Ky.: Asbury Theological Conversion: Early Diasporic Chinese Seminary, 2006. Protestantism (1803–1832) in Davies, Wilhelmina Wells. Formation.” “The Embattled but Empowered Manabat, Cristina N. Ph.D. Princeton: Princeton Theological Community: Comparing “Theological Field Education: Seminary, 2007. Understandings of Spiritual Power Toward a Holistic and Transformative in Argentine Popular and Pentecostal Ministerial Formation and Ministry in Shaw, Martin Coyne, Jr. Cosmologies.” the Philippines.” “The Globalization of Christian Ph.D. Birmingham, Eng.: Univ. of Ph.D. Evanston, Ill.: Garrett-Evangelical Missions: A Historical Study of Birmingham, 2007. Theological Seminary, 2007. CBInternational’s Response During the Period of 1989–2004.” Doss, Gorden R. Newman, Lascellas George. D.Miss. Portland, Ore.: Western Seminary, “A Malawian Seventh-Day Adventist “Mission from the Margin: A Critical 2007. Theology of Wealth and Poverty and Analysis of the Participation of West Missiological Implications.” Indians as Agents of Christian Mission Strengholt, Jozef M. Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical in the Western Missionary Enterprise “Gospel in the Air: Fifty Years of Divinity School, 2006. in Africa in the Nineteenth Century, Christian Witness Through Radio in with Special Reference to Their the Arab World.” Harries, James Osmar. Conception of Christian Mission.” Ph.D. Utrecht: Utrecht Univ., 2008. “Pragmatic Theory Applied to Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission Christian Mission in Africa, with Studies (Univ. of Wales), 2007. Uayan, Jean Uy. Special Reference to Luo Responses to “A Study on the Emergence and Early ‘bad’ in Gem, Kenya.” Nikolaev, Sergei V. Development of Selected Protestant Ph.D. Birmingham, Eng.: Univ. of “Church and Reunion in the Theology Chinese Churches in the Philippines.” Birmingham, 2007. of Sergii Bulgakov and Georges Ph.D. Manila: Asia Graduate School of Florovsky, 1925–1940.” Theology, 2007. Hooper, John Nelson. Ph.D. Dallas: Southern Methodist Univ., “Calling or Career?” 2007. Wheeler-Waddell, Anne E. D.Min.Studs. Melbourne: Melbourne “Cultivating Theological and Spiritual College of Divinity, 2008. Olaniyi, Michaiah Akinyele. Reflection: Principles for Sustaining “The Meaning of Religious Conversion a Long-Term Ministry Among Cross- Ho Peng Khoo. in the Christ Apostolic Church of Cultural Mission Workers.” “Making Meaning, Empowering Life: Nigeria: Towards the Incarnation of D.Min. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Pastoral Guidance as the Practice Christianity in .” Seminary, 2006. of Pastoral Counseling in Sarawak Ph.D. Birmingham, Eng.: Univ. of Chinese Annual Conference.” Birmingham, 2007. Wong, Lai Fan. Ph.D. Evanston, Ill.: Garrett-Evangelical “From Atheists to Evangelicals: The Theological Seminary, 2007. Quarterman, Clay. Christian Conversion Experiences of “The Application of Presbyterian Mainland Chinese Intellectuals in the Ikundu, John. Polity and Transfer of Leadership in U.S.A.” “The Healing of the Leper in Mt 8:1–4: Cross-Cultural Situations: A Study in Th.D. Boston: Boston Univ. School of A Search for a Missionary Awareness.” Presbyterian Missiology.” Theology, 2006. D.Theol. Rome: Pontifical Urban Univ., Ph.D. Lampeter: Univ. of Wales, Lampeter, 2006. 2005.

220 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Cumulative Index, Volumes 29–32 January 2005 through October 2008

Vol. 29 is 2005; 30 is 2006; 31 is 2007; 32 is 2008 (pp. 1–56 are in the January issue; pp. 57–112 are in the April issue; pp. 113–168 are in the July issue; pp. 169–224 are in the October issue, 2005-7; and pp. 169–232 are in the October 2008 issue)

Articles Aagaard, Johannes [obituary], 31:141 “Contextualizing Universal Values: A Method for Christian Mission,” “African Initiated Christianity in Eastern Europe: Church of the ‘Embassy by Frances S. Adeney, 31:33–37 of God’ in Ukraine,” by J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, 30:73–75 Cook, Clyde [obituary], 32:145 “Andrew F. Walls Centre for the Study of African and Asian Christian- “Czarist Missionary Contact with Central Asia: Models of Contextualiza- ity,” 32:99 tion?” by David M. Johnstone, 31:66–72 “The Archives on the History of Christianity in China at “Defining the Boundaries of Christendom: The Two Worlds of the World Baptist University Library: Its Development, Significance, and Future,” Missionary Conference, 1910,” by Brian Stanley, 30:171–76 by Kylie Chan, 29:32–34 “Describing the Worldwide Christian Phenomenon,” by Todd M. Johnson “Asian Light, Asian Fruit” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 32:57–58 and Sandra S. Kim, 29:80–84 “Asian Society of Missiology: Bangkok 2007 Declaration,” 32:26 “Developments in Theological Education in South East Asia,” by Gerald “At the Turn of the Century: A Study of the China Centenary Missionary H. Anderson, 30:96 Conference of 1907,” by Kevin Xiyi Yao, 32:65–70 Dickson, Kwesi A. [obituary], 30:35 “Āvarna and Adivāsi Christians and Missions: A Paradigm for Under- Dodge, Ralph Edward [obituary], 32:197 standing Christian Movements in India,” by Robert Eric Frykenberg, Dupuis, Jacques, S.J. [obituary], 29:77 32:14–20 “The Economies of Temple Chanting and Conversion in China,” by Eric “The Azusa Street Mission and Latin American Pentecostalism,” by Reinders, 31:188–92 Douglas Petersen, 30:66–67 “Ecumenical Theological Education in Latin America, 1916–2005,” by Bettscheider, Heribert, S.V.D. [obituary], 32:73 Sherron Kay George, 31:15–21 “Beyond Babel: Pentecost and Mission” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, “Edinburgh 1910: Friendship and the Boundaries of Christendom” 30:57–58 [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 30:169–70 “Beyond Bosch: The Early Church and the Christendom Shift,” by Alan “Edinburgh 2010—Mission in Humility and Hope,” 29:182 Kreider, 29:59–68 “Edinburgh II—A New Springtime for Ecumenical Mission?” by James Bronkema, Frederick Hollander [obituary], 29:130–31 A. Scherer, 31:195–98 Bühlmann, Walter, O.F.M. [obituary], 31:207 “Enabling Encounters: The Case of Nilakanth-Nehemiah Goreh, Brahmin Camps, Arnulf, O.F.M. [obituary], 30:151 Convert,” by Richard Fox Young, 29:14–20 “Can Europe Be Saved? A Review Essay,” by Lamin Sanneh, 31:121–25 “Europe: Christendom Graveyard or Christian Laboratory?” [editorial], “Can There Be Christianity Without Church?” [editorial], 29:169–70 by Jonathan J. Bonk, 31:113–14 “Catholic Church Growing Everywhere—Except in Europe,” by Roger “Finding Our Own Voice: The Quest for Authentic Conversion” [edito- Schroeder, S.V.D., 30:142–43 rial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 29:113–14 “Catholic Sources of Global Documentation,” by James H. Kroeger, “Finding Our Own Voice: The Reinterpreting of Christianity by Oceanian M.M., 29:149 Theologians,” by Charles W. Forman, 29:115–22 “The Centenary of Edinburgh 1910: Its Possibilities,” by Kenneth R. “Foreign Money for India: Antidependency and Anticonversion Perspec- Ross, 30:177–79 tives,” by Frampton F. Fox, 30:137–42 “The Centenary of Edinburgh 1910 and the Direction of Christian Mis- “The Gift of Being Number Two: A ‘Buzz Aldrin’ Perspective on Pioneer sion in the Twenty-first Century,” 29:20 Missions,” by Notto R. Thelle, 32:81–86 “Centers for the Study of Christianity in China,” by Jean-Paul Wiest, 29:22–23 “Godless Europe?” by Philip Jenkins, 31:115–20 “The Challenge of Churchless Christianity: An Evangelical Assessment,” “The Gospel of Reconciliation Within the Wrath of Nations,” by David by Timothy C. Tennent, 29:171–77 W. Shenk, 32:3–9 “Changed by the East: Notes on Missionary Communication and Trans- Gray, John Richard [obituary], 30:35 formation,” by Notto R. Thelle, 30:115–21 “The Greening of Mission,” by Allan Effa, 32:171–76 “Christian Literature in Nineteenth-Century China Missions—a Priority? “Guidelines for Doing Theologies in Asia,” by Association for Theologi- or an Optional Extra?” by John Tsz-pang Lai, 32:71–76 cal Education in South East Asia, 32:77–80 “Christian Mission: Lengthened Shadow of a Great Man” [editorial], by Han, Wenzao [obituary], 30:151 Jonathan J. Bonk, 29:57–58 Hassing, Per S. [obituary], 29:207 “Christian Missions and Islamic Da‘wah: A Preliminary Quantitative Hiebert, Paul G., 1932–2007 [obituary], by Robert Eric Frykenberg, 31:128–29 Assessment,” by Todd M. Johnson and David R. Scoggins, 29:8–11 “History of Missiology Web Site,” by Dana L. Robert and Jack W. “‘Come Holy Spirit, Heal and Reconcile’: An Evangelical Evaluation Ammerman, 32:134 of the CWME Mission Conference in Athens, May 9–16, 2005,” by Hogg, William Richey [obituary], 29:131 Tormod Engelsviken, 29:190–92 “How to Speak of the Spirit Among Religions: Trinitarian ‘Rules’ for a “commentary: Tainted Mammon and Righteous Cause,” by Paul Jenkins, Pneumatological Theology of Religions,” by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, 31:194–95 30:121–27 “The Congregational Leadership Crisis Facing the Japanese Church,” “Human Stories and the Mission of God” [editorial], by Jonathan J. by Thomas J. Hastings and Mark R. Mullins, 30:18–23 Bonk, 31:57–58

October 2008 221 “IFMA and EFMA Announce Name Changes,” by Daniel J. Nicholas, 32:43 “Mission and Healing in Historical Perspective,” by Christoffer H. “International Association for Mission Studies,” 32:204 Grundmann, 32:185–88 “An Interview with Jessie Gregory Lutz: Historian of Chinese Christian- “Mission and Mammon” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 31:169–70 ity,” by Timothy Man-kong Wong, 30:38–41 “Mission and Missiology in the Pontificate of John Paul II,” by William “In the Shadow of the Missionary Captain: Captain and R. Burrows, 30:3–8 the LMS Mission to the Pacific,” by Kirsteen Murray, 31:73–77 “Mission and the Go-Between God” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, “‘It Is Our Bounden Duty’: Theological Contours of New Zealand’s Mis- 30:113–14 sionary Movement, 1890–1930,” by Hugh Morrison, 29:123–28 “Mission and the Groaning of Creation” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, “John Howard Yoder as a Mission Theologian,” by Joon-Sik Park, 30:14–17 32:169–70 “John Paul II, 1920–2005; Benedict XVI,” by Stephen Bevans, S.V.D., “Mission and the Peaceable Kingdom” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 29:140–41 32:1–2 “Just What Is the Gospel?” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 30:1–2 “Missionaries and the Indigenous Resurgence in Latin America,” by Kerr, David A., 1945–2008 [obituary], 32:126–27 Edward L. Cleary, O.P., 29:177–82 Keyes, Larry [obituary], 32:197 “Missionaries as Heroes and Villains” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, Kraakevik, James H. [obituary], 32:41 32:113–14 “Kwame Bediako and Christian Scholarship in Africa,” by Andrew F. “Missionaries with Attitude: A Women’s Mission in Northwestern China,” Walls, 32:188–93 by Linda Benson, 29:183–88 “The Legacy of Pierre Claverie,” by Jean-Jacques Pérennès, O.P., “Missions and Film,” by Jamie S. Scott, 32:115–20 31:136–42 “Missions and Money: Affluence as a Western Missionary Problem . . . “The Legacy of Elizabeth Fairburn Colenso,” by Catherine R. Ross, Revisited,” by Jonathan J. Bonk, 31:171–74 30:148–52 “Missions in Fiction,” by Jamie S. Scott, 32:121–28 “The Legacy of John Comenius,” by Mike W. Stroope, 29:204–8 “The Mission to North Korea,” by Ben Torrey, 32:20–22 “The Legacy of François Elbertus Daubanton,” by Jan A. B. Jongeneel, “Movements, Missiometrics, and World Christianity” [editorial], by 29:93–97 Jonathan J. Bonk, 31:1–2 “The Legacy of James Dougall,” by Kenneth R. Ross, 32:206–9 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Michael Amaladoss, S.J., 31:21–24 “The Legacy of John Duncan,” by John S. Ross, 29:150–53 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Gerald H. Anderson, 29:139–43 “The Legacy of Samuel Bacon Fairbank,” by Jennifer M. Trafton, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by John B. Carman, 32:136–40 29:144–49 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by John Driver, 32:201–4 “The Legacy of Paul and Clara Gebauer,” by Allan Effa, 30:92–96 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Michael Louis Fitzgerald, M.Afr., “The Legacy of Yohanna Gowon,” by Musa A. B. Gaiya, 31:95–98 30:88–91 “The Legacy of ,” by Robert Bernard Dann, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Herb Friesen, 31:134–36 29:198–202 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Roger S. Greenway, 30:144–47 “The Legacy of Melvill Horne,” by Suzanne Schwarz, 31:88–94 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Thomas Hale, Jr., 29:35–37 “The Legacy of Ion Keith-Falconer,” by David D. Grafton, 31:148–52 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Willi Henkel, O.M.I., 31:84–86 “The Legacy of Hilda Lazarus,” by Ruth Compton Brouwer, 30:202–6 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Walter J. Hollenweger, 29:85–88 “The Legacy of Rudolf Christian Friedrich Lechler,” by Jessie G. Lutz, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by James M. Phillips, 32:88–92 31:38–43 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Theo Sundermeier, 31:200–204 “The Legacy of Jacob A. Loewen,” by Harvey G. Neufeldt, 32:141–48 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Charles R. Taber, 29:89–93 “The Legacy of Francis Thomas McDougall,” by David A. Edwards, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Charles C. West, 29:194–98 31:204–8 “New Priority for Churches and Missions: Combating Corruption,” by “The Legacy of Olav Guttorm Myklebust,” by Aasulv Lande, 31:142–46 Edward L. Cleary, O.P., 31:182–86 “The Legacy of Ernest Oliver,” by Richard Tiplady, 29:38–41 “New Wineskins for New Wine: Toward a Post-Christendom Ecclesiol- “The Legacy of Elizabeth Russell,” by Karen K. Seat, 32:93–99 ogy,” by Wilbert R. Shenk, 29:73–79 “The Legacy of Marcello Zago, O.M.I.,” by Willi Henkel, O.M.I., Noteworthy, 29:16–17, 76–77, 130–31, 206–7; 30:34–35, 84–85, 150–51, 32:39–43 182–83; 31:40–41, 90–91, 140–41, 206–7; 32:40–41, 72–73, 144–45, 196–97 “A Letter from Athens to the Christian Churches, Networks, and Com- “Oral Theology in Lomwe Songs,” by Stuart J. Foster, 32:130–34 munities,” by the Conference on World Mission and Evangelism, Orme, John [obituary], 32:145 Athens, 29:192–93 “Our Pilgrimage in Mission,” by William R. O’Brien and Dellanna West “The Literary Legacy of Stephen Neill,” by Dyron B. Daughrity, O’Brien, 30:23–26 32:150–54 “Our Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Paul A. Rader and Kay F. Rader, Luzbetak, Louis J., S.V.D. [obituary], 29:131 32:31–34 MacInnis, Donald E. [obituary], 30:85 “Possessions, Wealth, and the Cultural Identities of Persons: Anthropo- “Major Consolidation of Digital Missionary Photo Archives,” by Jon logical Reflections,” by Sherwood G. Lingenfelter, 31:176–82 Miller, 31:190–91 “The Protestant Missionary Movement in Korea: Current Growth and “Maori and Mission Sisters in New Zealand Since 1865: Changing Development,” by Steve Sang-Cheol Moon, 32:59–64 Approaches,” by Susan Smith, 31:77–82 “Radical Mission in a Post-9/11 World: Creative Dissonances,” by Nor- McAlister, A. Jack [obituary], 30:85 man E. Thomas, 29:2–8 “‘Me and God, We’d Be Mates’: Toward an Aussie Contextualized Gos- “Reading John V. Taylor,” by Timothy Yates, 30:153–56 pel,” by Robert L. Gallagher, 30:127–32 “Reading the Bible in the Global South,” by Philip Jenkins, 30:67–73 “Missiology After Bosch: Reverencing a Classic by Moving Beyond,” by “Reflections on North Korea: The Psychological Foundation of the North Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D., and Roger P. Schroeder, S.V.D., 29:69–72 Korean Regime and Its Governing Philosophy,” by Hyun-Sik Kim, “Missiology in Environmental Context: Tasks for an Ecology of Mission,” translated by George Kap-Hun Kim, edited by Ben Torrey, 32:22–26 by Willis Jenkins, 32:176–84 “Religious Studies and Research in Chinese Academia: Prospects, Chal- “Missiometrics 2005: A Global Survey of World Mission,” by David B. lenges, and Hindrances,” by Jean-Paul Wiest, 29:21–26 Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, 29:27–30 “The Religious Worldview of the Indigenous Population of the North- “Missiometrics 2006: Goals, Resources, Doctrines of the 350 Christian ern Ob’ as Understood by Christian Missionaries,” by Anatoliy M. World Communions,” by David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Ablazhei, translated by David N. Collins, 29:134–39 Peter F. Crossing, 30:27–30 “Researching World Christianity: Doctoral Dissertations on Mission Since “Missiometrics 2007: Creating Your Own Analysis of Global Data,” by 1900,” by Eric Friede and Paul F. Stuehrenberg, 29:188–89 David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, 31:25–32 “Revisiting Azusa Street: A Centennial Retrospect,” by Edith L. Blum- “Missiometrics 2008: Reality Checks for Christian World Commu- hofer, 30:59–64 nions,” by David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, “The Role of Women in the Formation of the World Student Christian 32:27–30 Federation,” by Johanna M. Selles, 30:189–94

222 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 “Samuel Zwemer’s Theological Judgments,” by Gordon Nickel, “The Vernacular Treasure: A Century of Mother-Tongue Bible Transla- 29:178–79 tion,” by Harriet Hill, 30:82–88 Seamands, J. T. [obituary], 29:77 “Violence and Mission in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: Lessons for “Sherwood Eddy Pays a Visit to Adolf von Harnack Before Returning to Today,” by Alan Kreider, 31:125–33 the United States, December 1918” [poem], by Mark A. Noll, 30:192 “‘Waiting on the Gift’: An Insider Looks Back on One Hundred Years of “Shifts in the North American Protestant Full-time Missionary Com- Pentecostal Witness,” by Grant McClung, 30:64–65 munity,” by Robert T. Coote, 29:12–13 “What I Have Learned About Missions from Writing The British Mission- “The Society for Irish Church Missions to the Roman Catholics: Philan- ary Enterprise Since 1700,” by Jeffrey Cox, 32:86–87 thropy or Bribery?” by Miriam Moffitt, 30:32–38 Wiltgen, Ralph, S.V.D. [obituary], 32:73 Spicer, Charles W., Jr. [obituary], 30:85 “The Witness of the Student Christian Movement,” by Robin Boyd, “Spreading Fires: The Globalization of Pentecostalism in the Twentieth 31:3–8 Century,” by Allan Anderson, 31:8–14 Witts, Diana [obituary], 30:151 “The Statistical State of the North American Protestant Missions Move- “Women, Mission, and Medicine: Clara Swain, Anna Kugler, and Early ment, from the Mission Handbook, 20th Edition,” by Michael Jaffarian, Medical Endeavors in Colonial India,” by Maina Chawla Singh, 32:35–38 29:128–33 Taber, Charles R. [obituary], 32:41 “World Christianity and Christian Mission: Are They Compatible? In- “Thinking Missiologically About the History of Mission,” by Stanley sights from the Asian Churches,” by Peter C. Phan, 32:193–200 H. Skreslet, 31:59–65 “World Christianity and ‘Protestant America’: Historical Narratives and “Three Waves of Christian Renewal: A 100-Year Snapshot,” by Todd M. the Limits of Christian Pluralism,” by Chandra Mallampalli, 30:8–13 Johnson, 30:75–76 “World Christianity as a Women’s Movement,” by Dana L. Robert, “Timothy I of Baghdad, Catholicos of the East Syrian Church, 780–823: 30:180–88 Still a Valuable Model,” by Frederick W. Norris, 30:133–36 “The World Is Our Parish: Remembering the 1919 Protestant Missionary “Tracking World Christianity” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, 29:1–2 Fair,” by Christopher J. Anderson, 30:196–200 “2004 Forum for World Evangelization: A Report,” by Wilbert R. Shenk, “World’s Religions After September 11: A Global Congress. Montreal, 29:31 Quebec, September 11–15, 2006,” by Frances S. Adeney, 31:82–83 “The United Bible Societies and World Mission,” by Samuel Escobar, “Writing a Social History of Christianity in India,” by John C. B. Web- 30:77–81 ster, 32:10–12

Contributors of Articles Ablazhei, Anatoliy M., translated by David N. Collins, “The Religious ———, “Edinburgh 1910: Friendship and the Boundaries of Christen- Worldview of the Indigenous Population of the Northern Ob’ as dom” [editorial], 30:169–70 Understood by Christian Missionaries,” 29:134–39 ———, “Europe: Christendom Graveyard or Christian Laboratory?” Adeney, Frances S., “Contextualizing Universal Values: A Method for [editorial], 31:113–14 Christian Mission,” 31:33–37 ———, “Finding Our Own Voice: The Quest for Authentic Conversion” ———, “World’s Religions After September 11: A Global Congress. [editorial], 29:113–14 Montreal, Quebec, September 11–15, 2006,” 31:82–83 ———, “Human Stories and the Mission of God” [editorial], 31:57–58 Amaladoss, Michael, S.J., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 31:21–24 ———, “Just What Is the Gospel?” [editorial], 30:1–2 Ammerman, Jack W. See Robert, Dana L., and Jack W. Ammerman ———, “Mission and Mammon” [editorial], 31:169–70 Anderson, Allan, “Spreading Fires: The Globalization of Pentecostalism ———, “Mission and the Go-Between God” [editorial], 30:113–14 in the Twentieth Century,” 31:8–14 ———, “Mission and the Groaning of Creation” [editorial], 32:169–70 Anderson, Christopher J., “The World Is Our Parish: Remembering the ———, “Mission and the Peaceable Kingdom” [editorial], 32:1–2 1919 Protestant Missionary Fair,” 30:196–200 ———, “Missionaries as Heroes and Villains” [editorial], 32:113–14 Anderson, Gerald H., “Developments in Theological Education in South ———, “Missions and Money: Affluence as a Western Missionary Prob- East Asia,” 30:96 lem . . . Revisited,” 31:171–74 ———, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 29:139–43 ———, “Movements, Missiometrics, and World Christianity” [edito- Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, “African Initiated Christianity in Eastern rial], 31:1–2 Europe: Church of the ‘Embassy of God’ in Ukraine,” 30:73–75 ———, “Tracking World Christianity” [editorial], 29:1 Association for Theological Education in South East Asia, “Guidelines Boyd, Robin, “The Witness of the Student Christian Movement,” for Doing Theologies in Asia,” 32:77–80 31:3–8 Barrett, David B., Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, “Missiometrics Brouwer, Ruth Compton, “The Legacy of Hilda Lazarus,” 30:202–6 2005: A Global Survey of World Mission,” 29:27–30 Burrows, William R., “Mission and Missiology in the Pontificate of John ———, “Missiometrics 2006: Goals, Resources, Doctrines of the 350 Paul II,” 30:3–8 Christian World Communions,” 30:27–30 Carman, John B., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 32:136–40 ———, “Missiometrics 2007: Creating Your Own Analysis of Global Chan, Kylie, “The Archives on the History of Christianity in China at Data,” 31:25–32 Hong Kong Baptist University Library: Its Development, Significance, ———, “Missiometrics 2008: Reality Checks for Christian World Com- and Future,” 29:32–34 munions,” 32:27–30 Cleary, Edward L., O.P., “Missionaries and the Indigenous Resurgence Benson, Linda, “Missionaries with Attitude: A Women’s Mission in in Latin America,” 29:177–82 Northwestern China,” 29:183–88 ———, “New Priority for Churches and Missions: Combating Corrup- Bevans, Stephen, S.V.D., “John Paul II, 1920–2005; Benedict XVI,” tion,” 31:182–86 29:140–41 Collins, David N. See Ablazhei, Anatoliy M. Bevans, Stephen B., S.V.D., and Roger P. Schroeder, S.V.D., “Missiology Conference on World Mission and Evangelism, Athens, “A Letter from After Bosch: Reverencing a Classic by Moving Beyond,” 29:69–72 Athens to the Christian Churches, Networks, and Communities,” Blumhofer, Edith L., “Revisiting Azusa Street: A Centennial Retrospect,” 29:192–93 30:59–64 Coote, Robert T., “Shifts in the North American Protestant Full-time Bonk, Jonathan J., “Asian Light, Asian Fruit” [editorial], 32:57–58 Missionary Community,” 29:12–13 ———, “Beyond Babel: Pentecost and Mission” [editorial], 30:57–58 Cox, Jeffrey, “What I Have Learned About Missions from Writing The ———, “Can There Be Christianity Without Church?” [editorial], British Missionary Enterprise Since 1700,” 32:86–87 29:169–70 Crossing, Peter F. See Barrett, David B. ———, “Christian Mission: Lengthened Shadow of a Great Man” [edi- Dann, Robert Bernard, “The Legacy of Anthony Norris Groves,” torial], 29:57–58 29:198–202

October 2008 223 Daughrity, Dyron B., “The Literary Legacy of Stephen Neill,” 32:150–54 Kroeger, James H., M.M., “Catholic Sources of Global Documentation,” Driver, John, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 32:201–4 29:149 Edwards, David A., “The Legacy of Francis Thomas McDougall,” Lai, John Tsz-pang, “Christian Literature in Nineteenth Century China 31:204–8 Missions—a Priority? or an Optional Extra?” 32:71–76 Effa, Allan, “The Greening of Mission,” 32:171–76 Lande, Aasulv, “The Legacy of Olav Guttorm Myklebust,” 31:142–46 ———, “The Legacy of Paul and Clara Gebauer,” 30:92–96 Lingenfelter, Sherwood G., “Possessions, Wealth, and the Cultural Identi- Engelsviken, Tormod, “‘Come Holy Spirit, Heal and Reconcile’: An ties of Persons: Anthropological Reflections,” 31:176–82 Evangelical Evaluation of the CWME Mission Conference in Athens, Lutz, Jessie G., “The Legacy of Rudolf Christian Friedrich Lechler,” May 9–16, 2005,” 29:190–92 31:38–43 Escobar, Samuel, “The United Bible Societies and World Mission,” Mallampalli, Chandra, “World Christianity and ‘Protestant America’: His- 30:77–81 torical Narratives and the Limits of Christian Pluralism,” 30:8–13 Fitzgerald, Michael Louis, M.Afr., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 30:88–91 McClung, Grant, “‘Waiting on the Gift’: An Insider Looks Back on One Forman, Charles W., “Finding Our Own Voice: The Reinterpreting of Hundred Years of Pentecostal Witness,” 30:64–65 Christianity by Oceanian Theologians,” 29:115–22 Miller, Jon, “Major Consolidation of Digital Missionary Photo Archives,” Foster, Stuart J., “Oral Theology in Lomwe Songs,” 32:130–34 31:190–91 Fox, Frampton F., “Foreign Money for India: Antidependency and Anti- Moffitt, Miriam, “The Society for Irish Church Missions to the Roman conversion Perspectives,” 30:137–42 Catholics: Philanthropy or Bribery?” 30:32–38 Friede, Eric, and Paul F. Stuehrenberg, “Researching World Christianity: Moon, Steve Sang-Cheol, “The Protestant Missionary Movement in Doctoral Dissertations on Mission Since 1900,” 29:188–89 Korea: Current Growth and Development,” 32:59–64 Friesen, Herb, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 31:134–36 Morrison, Hugh, “‘It Is Our Bounden Duty’: Theological Contours of Frykenberg, Robert Eric, “Āvarna and Adivāsi Christians and Missions: New Zealand’s Missionary Movement, 1890–1930,” 29:123–28 A Paradigm for Understanding Christian Movements in India,” Mullins, Mark R. See Hastings, Thomas J. 32:14–20 Murray, Kirsteen, “In the Shadow of the Missionary Captain: Captain ———, “Paul G. Hiebert, 1932–2007,” 31:128–29 James Wilson and the LMS Mission to the Pacific,” 31:73–77 Gaiya, Musa A. B., “The Legacy of Yohanna Gowon,” 31:95–98 Neufeldt, Harvey G., “The Legacy of Jacob A. Loewen,” 32:141–48 Gallagher, Robert L., “‘Me and God, We’d Be Mates’: Toward an Aussie Nicholas, Daniel J., “IFMA and EFMA Announce Name Changes,” 32:43 Contextualized Gospel,” 30:127–32 Nickel, Gordon, “Samuel Zwemer’s Theological Judgments,” 29:178–79 George, Sherron Kay, “Ecumenical Theological Education in Latin Noll, Mark A., “Sherwood Eddy Pays a Visit to Adolf von Harnack Before America, 1916–2005,” 31:15–21 Returning to the United States, December 1918” [poem], 30:192 Grafton, David D., “The Legacy of Ion Keith-Falconer,” 31:148–52 Norris, Frederick W., “Timothy I of Baghdad, Catholicos of the East Syr- Greenway, Roger S., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 30:144–47 ian Church, 780–823: Still a Valuable Model,” 30:133–36 Grundmann, Christoffer H., “Mission and Healing in Historical Perspec- O’Brien, Delanna West. See O’Brien, William R. tive,” 32:185–88 O’Brien, William R., and Dellanna West O’Brien, “Our Pilgrimage in Hale, Thomas, Jr., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 29:35–37 Mission,” 30:23–26 Hastings, Thomas J., and Mark R. Mullins, “The Congregational Leader- Park, Joon-Sik, “John Howard Yoder as a Mission Theologian,” 30:14–17 ship Crisis Facing the Japanese Church,” 30:18–23 Pérennès, Jean-Jacques, O.P., “The Legacy of Pierre Claverie,” 31:136–42 Henkel, Willi, O.M.I., “The Legacy of Marcello Zago, O.M.I.,” 32:39–43 Petersen, Douglas, “The Azusa Street Mission and Latin American ———, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 31:84–86 Pentecostalism,” 30:66–67 Hill, Harriet, “The Vernacular Treasure: A Century of Mother-Tongue Phan, Peter C., “World Christianity and Christian Mission: Are They Bible Translation,” 30:82–88 Compatible? Insights from the Asian Churches,” 32:193–200 Hollenweger, Walter J., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 29:85–88 Phillips, James M., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 32:88–92 Jaffarian, Michael, “The Statistical State of the North American Protes- Rader, Kay F. See Rader, Paul A. tant Missions Movement, from the Mission Handbook, 20th Edition,” Rader, Paul A., and Kay F. Rader, “Our Pilgrimage in Mission,” 32:31–34 32:35–38 Reinders, Eric, “The Economies of Temple Chanting and Conversion in Jenkins, Paul, “commentary: Tainted Mammon and Righteous Cause,” China,” 31:188–92 31:194–95 Robert, Dana L., “World Christianity as a Women’s Movement,” 30:180–88 Jenkins, Philip, “Godless Europe?” 31:115–20 ———, and Jack W. Ammerman, “History of Missiology Web Site,” ———, “Reading the Bible in the Global South,” 30:67–73 32:134 Jenkins, Willis, “Missiology in Environmental Context: Tasks for an Ross, Catherine R., “The Legacy of Elizabeth Fairburn Colenso,” Ecology of Mission,” 32:176–84 30:148–52 Johnson, Todd M., “Three Waves of Christian Renewal: A 100-Year Ross, John S., “The Legacy of John Duncan,” 29:150–53 Snapshot,” 30:75–76 Ross, Kenneth R., “The Centenary of Edinburgh 1910: Its Possibilities,” ———. See Barrett, David B. 30:177–79 ———, and Sandra S. Kim, “Describing the Worldwide Christian Phe- ———, “The Legacy of James Dougall,” 32:206–9 nomenon,” 29:80–84 Sanneh, Lamin, “Can Europe Be Saved? A Review Essay,” 31:121–25 ———, and David R. Scoggins, “Christian Missions and Islamic Da‘wah: Scherer, James A., “Edinburgh II—A New Springtime for Ecumenical A Preliminary Quantitative Assessment,” 29:8–11 Mission?” 31:195–98 Johnstone, David M., “Czarist Missionary Contact with Central Asia: Schroeder, Roger, S.V.D., “Catholic Church Growing Everywhere— Models of Contextualization?” 31:66–72 Except in Europe,” 30:142–43 Jongeneel, Jan A. B., “The Legacy of François Elbertus Daubanton,” ———. See Bevans, Stephen B., and Roger P. Schroeder 29:93–97 Schwarz, Suzanne, “The Legacy of Melvill Horne,” 31:88–94 Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, “How to Speak of the Spirit Among Religions: Scoggins, David R. See Johnson, Todd M., and David R. Scoggins Trinitarian ‘Rules’ for a Pneumatological Theology of Religions,” Scott, Jamie S., “Missions and Film,” 32:115–20 30:121–27 ———, “Missions in Fiction,” 32:121–28 Kim, George Kap-Hun. See Kim, Hyun-Sik Seat, Karen K., “The Legacy of Elizabeth Russell,” 32:93–99 Kim, Hyun-Sik, translated by George Kap-Hun Kim, edited by Ben Torrey, Selles, Johanna M., “The Role of Women in the Formation of the World “Reflections on North Korea: The Psychological Foundation of the Student Christian Federation,” 30:189–94 North Korean Regime and Its Governing Philosophy,” 32:22–26 Shenk, David W., “The Gospel of Reconciliation Within the Wrath of Kim, Sandra S. See Johnson, Todd M., and Sandra S. Kim Nations,” 32:3–9 Kreider, Alan, “Beyond Bosch: The Early Church and the Christendom Shenk, Wilbert R., “New Wineskins for New Wine: Toward a Post-Chris- Shift,” 29:59–68 tendom Ecclesiology,” 29:73–79 ———, “Violence and Mission in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: Les- ———, “2004 Forum for World Evangelization: A Report,” 29:31 sons for Today,” 31:125–33 Singh, Maina Chawla, “Women, Mission, and Medicine: Clara Swain,

224 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Anna Kugler, and Early Medical Endeavors in Colonial India,” Tiplady, Richard, “The Legacy of Ernest Oliver,” 29:38–41 29:128–33 Torrey, Ben, “The Mission to North Korea,” 32:20–22 Skreslet, Stanley H., “Thinking Missiologically About the History of ———. See Kim, Hyun-Sik Mission,” 31:59–65 Trafton, Jennifer M., “The Legacy of Samuel Bacon Fairbank,” 29:144–49 Smith, Susan, “Maori and Mission Sisters in New Zealand Since 1865: Walls, Andrew F., “Kwame Bediako and Christian Scholarship in Af- Changing Approaches,” 31:77–82 rica,” 32:188–93 Stanley, Brian, “Defining the Boundaries of Christendom: The Two Worlds Webster, John C. B., “Writing a Social History of Christianity in India,” of the World Missionary Conference, 1910,” 30:171–76 32:10–12 Stroope, Mike W., “The Legacy of John Amos Comenius,” 29:204–8 West, Charles C., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 29:194–98 Stuehrenberg, Paul F. See Friede, Eric Wiest, Jean-Paul, “Centers for the Study of Christianity in China,” Sundermeier, Theo, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 31:200–204 29:22–23 Taber, Charles R., “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 29:89–93 ———, “Religious Studies and Research in Chinese Academia: Prospects, Tennent, Timothy C., “The Challenge of Churchless Christianity: An Challenges, and Hindrances,” 29:21–26 Evangelical Assessment,” 29:171–77 Wong, Timothy Man-kong, “An Interview with Jessie Gregory Lutz: Thelle, Notto R., “Changed by the East: Notes on Missionary Commu- Historian of Chinese Christianity,” 30:38–41 nication and Transformation,” 30:115–21 Yao, Kevin Xiyi, “At the Turn of the Century: A Study of the China ———, “The Gift of Being Number Two: A ‘Buzz Aldrin’ Perspective Centenary Missionary Conference of 1907,” 32:65–70 on Pioneer Missions,” 32:81–86 Yates, Timothy, “Reading John V. Taylor,” 30:153–56 Thomas, Norman E., “Radical Mission in a Post-9/11 World: Creative Young, Richard Fox, “Enabling Encounters: The Case of Nilakanth- Dissonances,” 29:2–8 Nehemiah Goreh, Brahmin Convert,” 29:14–20

Books Reviewed Abley, Mark, Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages, 29:46 Boadi-Siaw, Samuel. See Barker, Peter Adogame, Afe. See Ludwig, Frieder Bonk, Jonathan J., Missions and Money: Affluence as a Missionary Problem Aikman, David, Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming China . . . Revisited, 31:211 and Changing the Global Balance of Power, 29:47–48 ———, ed., Encyclopedia of Mission and Missionaries, 32:156 Aitken, Tom, Blood and Fire, Tsar and Commissar: The Salvation Army in Borelli, John. See Fitzgerald, Michael L. Russia, 1907–1923, 32:161–62 Boyd, Robin, The Witness of the Student Christian Movement: Church Ahead Alberigo, Giuseppe, A Brief History of Vatican II, 31:161–62 of the Church, 31:153 ———, and Joseph A. Komonchak, eds., History of Vatican II. Vol. 4: Church Brady, Anne-Marie, Making the Foreign Serve China: Managing Foreigners as Communion: Third Period and Intersession, September 1964–September in the People’s Republic of China, 29:49–50 1965, 29:215–16 Briggs, John, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, and Georges Tsetsis, eds., A History ———, ed., with Joseph A. Komonchak, History of Vatican II. Vol. 5: The of the Ecumenical Movement. Vol. 3: 1968–2000, 30:210 Council and the Transition; The Fourth Session and the End of the Council; Brock, Peggy, ed., Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change, 30:101–2 September 1965–December 1965, 31:161–62 Brockey, Liam Matthew, Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, Albrecht, Michael, Veit Arlt, Barbara Müller, and Jürg Schneider, eds., 1579–1724, 32:48–49 Getting Pictures Right: Context and Interpretation, 30:104–5 Brown, Yoland, Zanzibar, May Allen, and the East Africa Slave Trade, Allen, Charles, God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Hidden Roots of 31:155–56 Modern Jihad, 32:210–11 Bruce, James, Prophecy, Miracles, Angels, and Heavenly Light? The Eschatol- Anderson, Allan, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic ogy, Pneumatology, and Missiology of Adomnán’s Life of St Columba, Christianity, 29:46–47 30:107–8 ———, Spreading Fires: The Missionary Nature of Early Pentecostalism, Buckser, Andrew, and Stephen D. Glazier, eds., The Anthropology of 32:102 Religious Conversion, 30:103–4 Anderson, David, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the Burman, Stephen, The State of the American Empire: How the USA Shapes End of Empire, 29:160 the World, 32:166 Anderson, Justice C., An Evangelical Saga: and Their Precursors in Burrus, Virginia, ed., A People’s History of Christianity. Vol. 2: Late Ancient Latin America, 30:164–65 Christianity, 30:157 Angold, Michael, ed., The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5: Eastern Burton, Keith Augustus, The Blessing of Africa: The Bible and African Christianity, 32:51–52 Christianity, 32:210 Aram I, Catholicos of Cilicia, For a Church Beyond Its Walls, 32:216–17 Buruma, Ian, and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes Arlt, Veit. See Albrecht, Michael of Its Enemies, 29:109 Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, African Charismatics: Current Devel- Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Timothy S. Lee, eds., Christianity in Korea, opments Within Independent Indigenous Pentecostalism in Ghana, 30:218 30:108–9 Butselaar, Jan van, edited by Jerald D. Gort and Alle Gabe Hoekema, Austin, Alvyn, China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Mission: The Soul of Ecumenism, 30:50 Society, 1832–1905, 32:213 Buys, Gerhard L., and S. V. V. Nambala, History of the Church in Namibia, Barazangi, Nimat Hafez, Woman’s Identity and the Qur’an: A New Read- 29:161–62 ing, 31:216–17 Cahn, Peter S., All Religions Are Good in Tzintzuntzan: Evangelicals in Barker, Peter, and Samuel Boadi-Siaw, Changed by the Word: The Story of Catholic Mexico, 29:165 Scripture Union Ghana, 30:53–54 Callens, Paul. See Eggermont-Molenaar, Mary Beale, Gregory K., The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology Camps, Arnulf, O.F.M., Vefie Poels, and Jan Willemsen, eds.,Dutch Mis- of the Dwelling Place of God, 30:46 sionary Activities: An Oral History Project, 1976–1988, 30:208–9 Bebbington, David W., The Dominance of Evangelicalism: The Age of Spurgeon Chandler, Paul-Gordon, Pilgrims of Christ on the Muslim Road: Exploring and Moody. Vol. 3 of A History of Evangelicalism: People, Movements, a New Path Between Two Faiths, 32:216 and Ideas in the English-Speaking World, 30:207–8 Cheung, David (Chen Yiqiang), Christianity in Modern China: The Making Bediako, Kwame, Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience, of the First Native Protestant Church, 29:103–4 29:48–49 Christensen, Erleen J., In War and Famine: Missionaries in China’s Honan Benewick, Robert. See Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk Province in the 1940s, 30:216–17 Bevans, Stephen B., and Roger P. Schroeder, Constants in Context: A Chung, Mary Keng Mun, Chinese Women in Christian Ministry: An Inter- Theology of Mission for Today, 29:98–100 cultural Study, 30:48–49 Birmingham, David, Empire in Africa: Angola and Its Neighbors, 32:47 Claydon, David, ed., A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call: Laus-

October 2008 225 anne Occasional Papers from the 2004 Forum for World Evangelization, ———, ed., translated by Kshitija Gomes, translation editor Philip C. 30:211–12 Engblom, ’s America: Conditions of Life in the United Cleary, Edward L., and Timothy J. Steigenga, eds., Resurgent Voices in States, 29:155–56 Latin America: Indigenous Peoples, Political Mobilization, and Religious Gálik, Marián, Influence, Translation, and Parallels: Selected Studies on the Change, 30:50 Bible in China, 29:163–64 Clendenin, Daniel B., Eastern Orthodox Christianity: A Western Perspec- Gemignani, Regina. See Olupona, Jacob K. tive, 29:52–53 Geraci, Robert P., and Michael Khodarkovsky, eds., Of Religion and Empire: ———, ed., Eastern Orthodox Theology: A Contemporary Reader, 29:52–53 Missions, Conversion, and Tolerance in Tsarist Russia, 29:218 Coleman, Heather J., Russian Baptists and Spiritual Revolution, 1905–1929, Gibbs, Philip, ed., Alive in Christ: The Synod for Oceania and the Catholic 30:97–98 Church in Papua New Guinea, 1998–2005, 31:156–57 Cooper, Barbara M., Evangelical Christians in the Muslim Sahel, 31:165 Gifford, Paul, Ghana’s New Christianity: Pentecostalism in a Globalising Cornelius, Wayne A., Takeyuki Tsuda, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hol- African Economy, 29:160–61 lifield, eds.,Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, 29:156–57 Gilley, Sheridan, and Brian Stanley, eds., The Cambridge History of Chris- Corrie, John, ed., Dictionary of Mission Theology: Evangelical Foundations, tianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities, c. 1815–c. 1914, 31:210–11 32:158 Glazier, Stephen D. See Buckser, Andrew Costello, Damian, Black Elk: Colonialism and Lakota Catholicism, 30:51–53 Golvers, Noël. See Vande Walle, W. F. Couzens, Tim, Murder at Morija: Faith, Mystery, and Tragedy on an African Gomes, Kshitija. See Frykenberg, Robert Eric Mission, 30:100 González, Justo L., ed., The Westminster Dictionary of Theologians, Cragg, Kenneth, Am I Not Your Lord? Human Meaning in Divine Ques- 32:47–48 tion, 29:44–45 Gorringe, T. J., Furthering Humanity: A Theology of Culture, 29:209 ———, The Order of the Wounded Hands: Schooled in the East, 32:50 Gort, Jerald D. See Butselaar, Jan van ———, The Qur’an and the West, 31:44 Greenlee, David H., ed., From the Straight Path to the Narrow Way: Journeys Cushner, Nicholas P., Why Have You Come Here? The Jesuits and the First of Faith, 31:48–50 Evangelization of Native America, 32:52–53 Griffith, Sidney H.,The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Daily, David W., Battle for the BIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs]: G. E. E. Muslims in the World of Islam, 32:217–18 Lindquist and the Missionary Crusade Against John Collier, 30:51–53 Griffiths, Gareth. See Scott, Jamie S. Daniëls, Hyacint, C.I.C.M. See Verhelst, Daniël, C.I.C.M. Gross, Andreas, Y. Vincent Kumaradoss, and Heike Liebau, eds., Halle Dann, Robert Bernard, Father of Faith Missions: The Life and Times of and the Beginning of Protestant Christianity in India. Vol. 1: The Danish- Anthony Norris Groves (1795–1853), 29:162 Halle and the English-Halle Mission; vol. 2: Christian Mission in the Indian ———, The Primitivist Missiology of Anthony Norris Groves: A Radical Context; vol. 3: Communication Between India and Europe, 31:163 Influence on Nineteenth-Century Protestant Mission, 32:156–57 Grundmann, Christoffer H., Sent to Heal! Emergence and Development of De Chirico, Leonardo, Evangelical Theological Perspectives on Post–Vatican Medical Missions, 32:215–16 II Roman Catholicism, 31:50–51 Guest, Kenneth J., God in Chinatown: Religion and Survival in New York’s DeJong, James A., As the Waters Cover the Sea: Millennial Expectations in Evolving Immigrant Community, 29:43–44 the Rise of Anglo-American Missions, 1640–1810, 31:157 Gushee, David P. See Stassen, Glen H. Dhavamony, Mariasusai, S.J., Jesus Christ in the Understanding of World Hall, Richard L., On Afric’s Shore: A History of Maryland in Liberia, Religions, 30:48 1834–1857, 31:158–59 Díaz Balsera, Viviana, The Pyramid Under the Cross: Franciscan Discourses Hamilton, Alastair, The and the West, 1439–1822: The European of Evangelization and the Nahua Christian Subject in Sixteenth-Century Discovery of the Egyptian Church, 31:153 Mexico, 30:214 Harrak, Amir, trans., The Acts of Mār Mārī the Apostle, 30:209–10 Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk, and Robert Benewick, The State of China Hartch, Todd, Missionaries of the State: The Summer Institute of Linguistics, Atlas: Mapping the World’s Fastest Growing Economy, 30:158–59 State Formation, and Indigenous Mexico, 1935–1985, 32:219 Dong, Linfu, Cross Culture and Faith: The Life and Work of James Mellon Hayes, Michael A., ed., New Religious Movements in the Catholic Church, Menzies, 30:166 31:102 Dudink, Ad. See Standaert, Nicolas Hays, J. 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See Frykenberg, Robert Eric im Wandel politischer Orientierungen: Europäische Missionsgesellschaften England, John C., et al., eds., Asian Christian Theologies: A Research Guide in politischen Spannungsfeldern in Afrika und Asien zwischen 1800 und to Authors, Movements, and Sources. Vol. 1: Overview from the Seventh to 1945, 30:45–46 the Twentieth Centuries; South Asia, Austral Asia; vol. 2: Southeast Asia; Heylen, Ann, Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: Looking Through the Lens of Joseph vol. 3: Northeast Asia, 29:158–59 Van Oost, Missionary in Inner Mongolia (1915–1921), 30:46 Ernst, Manfred, ed., Globalization and the Re-shaping of Christianity in the Hinton, Jeanne. See Healy, Joseph G. 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226 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Jacobs, Donald R. See MacMaster, Richard K. MacMaster, Richard K., with Donald R. Jacobs, A Gentle Wind of God: The Jenkins, Philip, The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Influence of the East Africa Revival, 32:106–7 Global South, 31:51–52 MacMullen, Ramsay, Voting About God in Early Church Councils, 31:100 Jennings, J. Nelson, Theology in Japan: Takakura Tokutaro (1885–1934), Madges, William, ed., Vatican II Forty Years Later, 31:161–62 30:107 Mæland, Bård, Rewarding Encounters: Islam and the Comparative Theologies Jeyaraj, Daniel, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, the Father of Modern Protestant of Kenneth Cragg and Wilfred Cantwell Smith, 29:44–45 Mission: An Indian Assessment, 31:217–19 Malek, Roman, S.V.D., ed., The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ. Vol. 2: Faces ———, A German Exploration of Indian Society: Ziegenbalg’s “Malabarian and Images of Jesus Christ from Ming to Qing, 29:107–8 Heathenism”; An Annotated English Translation, with an Introduction ———, ed., The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ. Vol. 3a, 30:109 and a Glossary, 31:217–19 ———, ed., with Peter Hofrichter, Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China Joseph, Suad, ed., Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Vol. 1: and Central Asia, 31:106–7 Methodologies, Paradigms, and Sources, 29:154 Mallampalli, Chandra, Christians and Public Life in Colonial South India, ———, ed., Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. 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October 2008 227 O’Sullivan, Michael. See Síocháin, Séamas Ó Smith, Susan E., Women in Mission: From the New Testament to Today, Ott, Craig, and Harold A. Netland, eds., Globalizing Theology: Belief and 32:104 Practice in an Era of World Christianity, 31:154 Smythe, Patrick A., “The Heaviest Blow”—The Catholic Church and the East Pantoja, Luis, Jr., Sadiri Joy Tira, and Enoch Wan, eds., Scattered: The Timor Issue, 29:162–63 Filipino Global Presence, 30:100 Sommer, Carl, We Look for a Kingdom: The Everyday Lives of the Early Parsons, Martin, Unveiling God: Contextualizing Christology for Islamic Christians, 32:105–6 Culture, 31:48–50 Sørensen, Jørgen Skov, Missiological Mutilations—Prospective Paralogies: Parsons, Michael, ed., Text and Task: Scripture and Mission, 31:102 Language and Power in Contemporary Mission Theory, 32:108 Pedersen, Else Marie Wiberg, Holger Lam, and Peter Lodberg, eds., Standaert, Nicolas, and Ad Dudink, eds., Forgive Us Our Sins: Confession For All People: Global Theologies in Contexts; Essays in Honor of Viggo in Late Ming and Early Qing China, 32:53 Mortensen, 31:99 Stanley, Brian. See Gilley, Sheridan Penyak, Lee M., and Walter J. Petry, eds., Religion in Latin America: A Stassen, Glen H., and David P. Gushee, Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus Documentary History, 31:153–54 in Contemporary Context, 29:211–12 Pérennès, Jean-Jacques, Pierre Claverie: Un Algérien par alliance, 29:212–13 Steenbrink, Karel, Catholics in Indonesia: A Documented History. Vol. 1: A Peterson, Derek R., Creative Writing: Translation, Bookkeeping, and the Work Modest Recovery, 1808–1903; vol. 2: The Spectacular Growth of a Self- of Imagination in Colonial Kenya, 29:212 Confident Minority, 1903–1942, 32:211–12 Petry, Walter J. See Penyak, Lee M. Steigenga, Timothy J. See Cleary, Edward L. Poels, Vefie. See Camps, Arnulf Stevens, Laura M., The Poor Indians: British Missionaries, Native Americans, Poole, Stafford. See Schroeder, Susan and Colonial Sensibility, 30:210 Priest, Robert J., and Alvaro L. Nieves, eds., This Side of Heaven: Race, Stockel, H. 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Race: Roger Casement’s Congo Report and 1903 Diary, 29:216–17 Vroom Skreslet, Paula Youngman, and Rebecca Skreslet, The Literature of Islam. Wall, Robert W. See Robinson, Anthony B. A Guide to the Primary Sources in English Translation, 31:164–65 Wan, Enoch. See Pantoja, Luis, Jr. Skreslet, Rebecca. See Skreslet, Paula Youngman Ward, Kevin, A History of Global Anglicanism, 32:214 Smith, David, Mission After Christendom, 29:100–101 Weber, Julie Tomberlin. See Wellenreuther, Hermann Smith, Jane Idleman, Muslims, Christians, and the Challenge of Interfaith Webster, John C. B., A Social History of Christianity: North-West India Since Dialogue, 32:218 1800, 32:165–66

228 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Weigold, Isabel B., Hannah Moore: A Biography of a Nineteenth-Century Willis, Alan Scot, All According to God’s Plan: Southern Baptist Missions Missionary and Teacher, 32:165 and Race, 1945–1970, 29:214 Weiner, Justus Reid, Human Rights of Christians in Palestinian Society, Wissing, Douglas A., Pioneer in Tibet: The Life and Perils of Dr. Albert 30:161–62 Shelton, 30:42–43 Wellenreuther, Hermann, and Carola Wessel, eds., translated by Julie Woodhead, Linda, An Introduction to Christianity, 29:159–60 Tomberlin Weber, The Moravian Mission Diaries of David Zeisberger, Wright, Christopher J. H., The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand 1772–1781, 30:215–16 Narrative, 31:154–55 Welliver, Dotsey, and Minnette Northcutt, eds., Mission Handbook 2004– Wright, Jonathan, The Jesuits: Missions, Myths, and Histories, 30:105–6 2006: U.S. and Canadian Protestant Missionaries Overseas, 29:42 Wu, Xiaoxin, ed., Encounters and Dialogues: Changing Perspectives on Wendt, Reinhard, ed., An Indian to the Indians? On the Initial Failure and Chinese-Western Exchanges from the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries, the Posthumous Success of the Missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903), 30:165 31:108–9 Xie, Zhibin, Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China, 32:103 Wessel, Carola. See Wellenreuther, Hermann Yamamori, Tetsunao. See Miller, Donald E. Westerlund, David, African Indigenous Religions and Disease Causation: Yao, Kevin Xiyi, The Fundamentalist Movement Among Protestant Mis- From Spiritual Beings to Living Humans, 31:109 sionaries in China, 1920–1937, 29:155 Wetzel, Klaus, Bevölkerungsentwicklung und Mission, 31:107–8 Yates, Timothy, ed., Mission and the Next Christendom, 31:106 Whiteley, Marilyn Färdig, Canadian Methodist Women, 1766–1925: Marys, Yong, Amos, The Spirit Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and the Marthas, Mothers in Israel, 30:212–13 Possibility of Global Theology, 30:160–61 Wickeri, Philip L., Reconstructing Christianity in China: K. H. Ting and the Zell, Hans M., ed., The African Studies Companion: A Guide to Information Chinese Church, 32:164–65 Sources, 4th ed., 32:49 Willemsen, Jan. See Camps, Arnulf Zocca, Franco, Melanesia and Its Churches: Past and Present, 32:103–4 Williams, Paul, The Unexpected Way: On Converting from Buddhism to Županov, Ines G., Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th Catholicism, 29:51 Centuries), 30:213–14

Reviewers of Books Aagaard, Anna Marie, 29:52–53 Frost, Molly Spitzer, 30:48–49 Lai, John T. P., 31:44–45 Akinade, Akintunde E., 30:159–60 Frykenberg, Robert Eric, 30:213–14; 31:52, Lazich, Michael C., 29:210 Amar, Joseph P., 30:209–10 108–9, 163; 32:218–19 Lewis, Bonnie Sue, 29:209, 30:158 Anderson, Allan, 30:160–61, 31:158 Gaiya, Musa A. B., 31:165 Li, Li, 30:166 Anderson, Christopher J., 31:214–15 George, Sherron, 32:157 Linden, Ian, 31:161–62 Anderson, Gerald H., 29:51–52, 158–59; Gewurtz, Margo S., 30:216–17, 31:212, Lingenfelter, Sherwood G., 31:160–61, 32:158 32:156 30:160 Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, 31:211, 32:49 Gittins, Anthony J., C.S.Sp., 29:209 Lodwick, Kathleen L., 30:46 Austin, Alvyn, 29:155 Gorski, John F., M.M., 30:209, 31:214 Lovejoy, Doug, 29:49–50, 107–8 Balisky, Lila W., 30:165–66 Grayson, James Huntley, 29:161 MacLeod, A. Donald, 31:153 Ballhatchet, Helen, 30:162–63 Grundmann, Christoffer H., 31:109 Mallampalli, Chandra, 30:102–3 Bays, Daniel H., 30:158–59 Guder, Darrell L., 29:53–54, 98; 31:99; Marshall, Paul, 30:161–62 Beeley, Christopher A., 32:214 32:101–2 McCoy, Brian F., 32:212–13 Bevans, Stephen B., S.V.D., 31:154–55 Hackett, Rosalind I. J., 30:108–9 McGee, Gary B., 29:99–100, 32:102 Block, Daniel I., 31:102 Hanciles, Jehu J., 29:44, 156–57; 32:163, 210 McLaughlin, Gregory, 29:43–44 Bohr, P. Richard, 29:50 Hayes, Stephen, 29:99 Mellis, John C., 32:104–5 Bolger, Ryan K., 32:214–15 Hedlund, Roger E., 30:97 Meynard, Thierry, 29:163–64, 30:42–43 Bonk, Jonathan J., 30:100 Hiebert, Paul G., 30:103–4 Miyamoto, Ken Christoph, 30:107 Brett, Edward T., 31:103–4 Holst, Wayne A., 30:51–53 Mogensen, Mogens S., 31:164–65 Britton, Joseph, 30:210 Hoover, Jon, 32:50 Moreau, A. Scott, 29:98–99 Brown, Brian Edward, 29:51 Hubers, John, 31:157 Murdoch, Norman H., 32:161–62 Burrows, William R., 32:211–12 Hunter, Malcolm, 30:46–47 Murray, Kirsteen, 29:210–11 Cahill, Michael, 29:46 Hyland, Sabine, 30:105–6, 214 Mwaura, N., 30:106–7 Carman, John B., 32:44–46 Irvin, Dale T., 29:159–60, 30:207–8 Noll, Mark A., 31:212–13 Carroll, Janet, M.M., 29:47–48 Ivanov, Andrey V., 29:218 Nyquist, John W., 29:215–16 Carter, Craig A., 31:212 Jenkins, Paul, 31:217–19 Oborji, Francis Anekwe, 31:106 Case, Jay R., 30:212–13 Jeyaraj, Daniel, 29:45, 108–9; 31:100–101 Ott, Craig, 31:107–8 Chapman, Colin, 32:210–11 Johnston, Geoffrey, 30:162 Pankratz, James N., 29:100 Cleary, Edward L., O.P., 31:153–54 Jones, Arun W., 31:52–53, 32:165–66 Paredes, Tito, 32:159–60 Coote, Robert T., 29:42 Jones, Preston, 30:100–101 Park, Joon-Sik, 29:105–6, 211–12; 30:218 Cox, Harvey, 32:108–9 Jones, Richard J., 29:44–45, 32:217–18 Phan, Peter C., 32:100 Dale, Melissa, 32:48–49 Jongeneel, Jan A. B., 29:164; 30:48; 31:99–100; Pierard, Richard V., 29:107, 30:45–46 Davis, Stephen J., 31:153 32:108, 158–59 Plueddemann, James E., 32:161 Dawe, Donald G., 30:207 Joshi, Shashi, 29:164–65 Poon, Michael Nai-Chiu, 32:164–65 Doss, Gorden R., 32:160 Kalu, Ogbu U., 29:48–49, 160–61; 31:158–59 Porter, Andrew, 29:106 Duffey, Michael K., 32:109 Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, 29:101–2, 30:46 Prior, Randall, 30:214–15, 31:104–5, 32:103–4 Dunch, Ryan, 30:99–100 Kim, Kirsteen, 31:154 Rader, Paul A., 32:162 Elliott, Mark R., 30:97–98 Kim, Sebastian, 32:47–48 Reilly, Thomas H., 30:165 Entenmann, Robert, 31:215–16, 32:53 Kings, Graham, 29:102–3 Reisacher, Evelyne, 31:216–17 Escobar, Samuel, 29:165; 30:50, 164–65; Kirk, J. Andrew, 29:100–101 Richard, H. L., 29:157–58, 31:213–14 32:46 Kollman, Paul V., 29:104; 30:163–64, 217; Robeck, Cecil M., Jr., 31:50–51 Essamuah, Casely B., 31:46–47, 32:106–7 31:155–56 Robert, Dana L., 30:47–48, 32:215–16 Fargher, Brian, 30:44–45 Kreider, Alan, 30:107–8; 31:100; 32:50–51, Rohrer, James R., 29:103–4 Fiedler, Klaus, 32:163–64 105–6 Rollmann, Hans, 30:215–16 Forman, Camille, 32:165 Kroeger, James H., M.M., 32:100–101 Ross, Catherine R., 32:104 Foster, Stuart J., 32:47 Kuhn, Wagner, 31:101 Saayman, Willem, 29:161–62

October 2008 229 Think on These Things: Harmony and Diversity Samson, C. Mathews, 32:219 By Wisnu Sasongko Sandos, James A., 30:210 Sanneh, Lamin, 31:210–11 “I paint what I can see, what I can touch, what I Schreiter, Robert, C.PP.S., 29:100, 165–66; can feel—a utopia of love expressed in the 30:50–51; 31:102–3 reality of life. All of that inspires me in my ar- Seton, Rosemary, 30:104–5 tistic way,” says Wisnu Sasongko, a graduate of Sharkey, Heather J., 29:154; 30:98; 31:44, the Faculty of Fine Art, Institut Seni Indonesia, 159–60; 32:216 Yogyakarta. This book includes “All Dreams Con- Shenk, David W., 31:48–50, 32:107, 218 nected,” a 28-minute DVD about Sasongko and Shenk, Wilbert R., 29:98, 105; 30:50, 157–58; 31:105; 32:166 his art. Shorter, Aylward, M.Afr., 29:160, 212–13 96 pages and a DVD, $29.95 Skreslet, Stanley H., 31:47 Smalley, Martha Lund, 30:208–9 Christ on the Bangkok Road: The Art of Sawai Chinnawong Smith, A. Christopher, 30:49 Sawai Chinnawong of Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, is known for por- Smith, Clyde Curry, 30:157 traying Christianity through a Thai graphic idiom. Spijker, Gerard van ’t, 31:162–63 Sawai is an ethnic Mon whose Buddhist ancestors Spittler, Russell P., 29:46–47 migrated to Thailand from Myanmar. His drawings Stamoolis, James J., 32:51–52, 216–17 Stanley, Brian, 32:156–57 and paintings, inspired by traditional art from central Staples, Russell L., 32:162–63 Thailand, reflect a deep Christian faith. Stuehrenberg, Paul F., 32:105 80 pages, $19.95 Stunt, Timothy C. F., 29:162 Sumner, George, 31:51–52 Look Toward the Heavens: Sunquist, Scott W., 29:215 The Art of He Qi Svelmoe, William, 29:213–14, 32:52–53 Swartley, Willard M., 31:219–20 Tennent, Timothy C., 30:211–12, 31:45–46 He Qi, a noted con- Thompson, T. Jack, 29:216–17, 30:103 temporary Chinese Christian artist, is a professor Tiedemann, R. G., 29:108, 32:213 at Nanjing Union Theological Seminary. He hopes Tiénou, Tite, 30:53–54, 98–99 to help change the “foreign image” of Christian- Tizon, F. Albert, 30:100 ity in China through his art and, at the same time, to Tong, James, 32:103 supplement Chinese art the way Buddhist art did in Wang, Dong, 29:217 ancient times. Weber, Charles W., 29:154–55, 212 Webster, John C. B., 30:43–44 128 pages, $19.95 Whiteman, Darrell L., 30:101–2, 31:156–57 Wiest, Jean-Paul, 30:109, 31:106–7, 32:46 A Time for My Singing: Wijsen, Frans, 31:102 Witness of a Life Wills, David W., 29:214 by Nalini Marcia Jayasuriya Wilson, Alistair I., 30:42 “I come from a land of rich, ancient, and Woodberry, J. Dudley, 29:42–43, 109 diverse cultures and traditions. While I carry Yates, Timothy, 31:53 the enriching influences of both West and East, Yoder, Laura S. Meitzner, 29:162–63 Young, Richard Fox, 29:155–56 I express myself through an Asian and Christian consciousness with respect for all confessions of religious faith,” says Nalini Jayasuriya of Sri Other Lanka. Her book offers richly diverse and evoca- Book Notes, 29:56, 112, 168, 224; 30:56, 112, tive expressions of faith from an Asian perspec- 168, 224; 31:56, 112, 168, 224; 32:56, 112, tive. Her reminiscences are included. 168, 232 128 pages, $19.95 Dissertation Notices, 29:54, 110, 166, 218; 30:54, 110, 166, 219; 31:54, 110, 166; 32:54, 110, 220 Errata, 30:65; 31:133, 208 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2004 for Mis- For Sale: Sacred Art by Asian Christians sion Studies, 29:43 More than 150 pieces of sacred art by Asian Christians, Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2005 for Mis- including some of the works reproduced in these art books, sion Studies, 30:43 are now available for sale. For more information and to Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2006 for Mis- sion Studies, 31:45 view the online gallery, visit www.OMSC.org/art.html. Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2007 for Mis- sion Studies, 32:101

Gifts from OMSC Publications Overseas Ministries Study Center 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 Visit www.OMSC.org/books.htm or call (203) 624-6672, ext. 315

230 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 32, No. 4 Following Jesus as Mission Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders

2009 Student Seminars on World Mission March 9–13 A monthlong survey of the Christian world mission, cospon- Following Jesus in Hindu Settings. sored by 30 seminaries. For a schedule and registration form for Dr.Herbert Hoefer,Concordia University,Portland, , pre- the January seminars, visit www.OMSC.org/january.html. sents the history of Christianity in India, focusing on the response of the Dalits and on followers of Jesus outside the church among January 5–9 and 12–16, 2009 caste Hindus. Cosponsored by Park Street Church (Boston). Eight Held at Mercy Center,Madison, Connecticut.The sessions of sessions. $145 weeks one and two survey the Christian world mission.Mul- tiple presenters. Seven sessions each week. $145 per week. March 23–27 The East African Revival: Its History,Theology, and Spirituality January 19–23 in Times of Conflict and Genocide, Hope and Transformation. Held at OMSC Dr.Kevin Ward, University of Leeds, in Leeds, England, a senior Culture, Values, and Worldview: Anthropology for Mission mission scholar in residence at OMSC, examines the immensely Practice. influential East African Revival, considering its historical roots, its Dr.Darrell L. Whiteman, The Mission Society, shows how theological accompaniments, and its fruit in a variety of contexts. one’s worldview and theology of culture affect cross-cultural Cosponsored by Episcopal Church /Africa Partnership. Eight ses- mission. Cosponsored by Areopagos and The Mission Society. sions. $145 Eight sessions. $145 March 30–April 3 January 26–30 “Onward, Christian Soldiers”: Missions and Muscular Chris- Held at OMSC tianity, 1900–1914. The City in Mission. Dr.Edith L. Blumhofer,Wheaton College, a senior mission scholar Dr.Dale Irvin, New York Theological Seminary, considers the in residence at OMSC, looks at convergences and disjunctions in city in the mission of God. Cosponsored by United Methodist the era of high Western imperialism, immensely popular mission- General Board of Global Ministries. Eight sessions. $145 ary exhibitions, and robust missionary confidence. Eight sessions. $145 February 23–27 Leadership, Fund-raising, and Donor Development for Missions. April 20–23 Mr.Rob Martin, director,First Fruit, Inc., Newport Beach, Cali- Models of Leadership in Mission. fornia, outlines steps for building the support base, including Rev.George Kovoor,Trinity College,Bristol, United Kingdom, foundation funding, for mission. Cosponsored by Evangelical brings wide ecclesiastical and international experience to evalu- Covenant Church (Lafayette, Indiana). Eight sessions. $145 ation of differing models of leadership for mission. Cosponsored by Areopagos and InterVarsity Missions. Seven sessions in four March 2–6 days. $145 Missiological Field Research for Ordinary Practitioners. Dr.Stan Nussbaum, Global Mapping International, Colorado Springs, April 27–30 Colorado, guides participants in designing a small-scale field research Isaiah 40–55: God’s Mission, God’s Servant. project around a problem or opportunity that has arisen in their current Dr.Christopher J. H. Wright, Langham Partnership International, ministry situation. Eight sessions. $145 London, unfolds the relevance of Isaiah for contemporary Christian missions and ethics. Cosponsored by Bay Area Community Church (Annapolis, Maryland) and Wycliffe International. Seven sessions in OVERSEAS four days. $145

MINISTRIES STUDY May 4–8 Personal Renewal in the Missionary Community. CENTER Rev.Stanley W.Green, Mennonite Mission Network, and Dr. Christine Sine, Mustard Seed Associates, blend classroom instruc- 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 tion and one-on-one sessions to offer counsel and spiritual direc- (203) 624-6672, ext. 315 [email protected] tion for Christian workers. Cosponsored by Mennonite Mission For details, visit www.OMSC.org/study.html Network. Eight sessions. $145 Book Notes In Coming Benson, Linda K. Across China’s Gobi: The Lives of Evangeline French, , and Issues of the China Inland Mission. Norwalk, Conn.: EastBridge, 2008. Pp. xiv, 261. Paperback $29.95. Ivan Illich and the American Bock, Darrell L., and Mitchell Glaser, eds. Catholic Missionary Initiative in To the Jew First: The Case for Jewish Evangelism in Scripture and History. Latin America Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2008. Pp. 347. Paperback $16.99. Todd Hartch Crofts, Daniel W. Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short- Upstream Odyssey: An American in China (1895–1944). Term Missions into Context Norwalk, Conn.: EastBridge, 2008. Pp. ix, 253. Paperback $29.95. Brian M. Howell Religious Conversion in the Cruchley-Jones, Peter, ed. Americas: Meanings, Measures, God at Ground Level: Reappraising Church Decline in the UK Through the and Methods Experience of Grass Roots Communities and Situations. Timothy J. Steigenga Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2008. Pp. 132. Paperback €27.70 / SFr 43 / £20.80 / $42.95. Theological Education in a World Eitel, Keith E., ed. Christian Context Missions in Contexts of Violence. Dale T. Irvin Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2008. Pp. 444. Paperback $14.99. U.S. Megachurches and New Engelsviken, Tormod, Ernst Harbakk, Rolv Olsen, and Thor Strandenæs, eds. Patterns of Global Ministry : Communicating the Gospel in the Twenty-first Century: Robert J. Priest Essays in Honour of Knud Jørgensen. Oxford: Regnum Books, 2008. Pp. 472. $40 / NKr 250. Christian Mission and the Sexuality Struggle: The Case of the Episcopal Fargher, Brian. Church in the Anglican Communion Evangelizing Individuals Who Plant Churches: The Biography of an Ethiopian Titus Presler Itinerant Preacher. Edmonton, Alta.: Urban Missionaries Association of Canada, 2007. Pp. vii, 193. Lesslie Newbigin’s Missionary Paperback. Paperback $9.50. Encounter with the Enlightenment, 1975–98 Kombo, James Henry Owino. Timothy Yates The Doctrine of God in African Christian Thought: The Holy Trinity, Remembering Evangelization: Theological Hermeneutics, and the African Intellectual Culture. The Option for the Poor and Leiden: Brill, 2007. Pp. xiv, 298. €93 / $139. Mission History Lounela, Jaakko. Paul V. Kollman Mission and Development: Finnish Pentecostal, Lutheran, and Orthodox In our Series on the Legacy of Mission Agencies in Development Work in Kenya, 1948–1989. € Outstanding Missionary Figures Åbo, Finland: Åbo Akademi Univ. Press, 2007. Pp. 296. Paperback 25. of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Notehelfer, F. G. Centuries, articles about Remarkable Journey: Rose Notehelfer and the Missionary Experience in Japan. Thomas Barclay Norwalk, Conn.: EastBridge, 2008. Pp. x, 206. Paperback $29.95. George Bowen Ramsay, Jacob. Hélène de Chappotin Mandarins and Martyrs: The Church and the Nguyen Dynasty in Early Carl Fredrik Hallencreutz Nineteenth-Century Vietnam. Thomas Patrick Hughes Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 2008. Pp. xii, 212. $50. Hannah Kilham George Leslie Mackay Singh, David Emmanuel, ed. Franz Mayr Jesus and the Cross: Reflections of Christians from Islamic Contexts. Lesslie Newbigin Oxford: Regnum Books, 2008. Pp. ix, 226. Paperback £19.99 / $27. Constance Padwick Steffen, Tom, and Lois McKinney Douglas. Peter Parker Encountering Missionary Life and Work: Preparing for Intercultural Ministry. James Howell Pyke Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008. Pp. xxi, 390. Paperback $24.99. Pandita Ramabai Sunquist, Scott W., and Caroline N. Becker, eds. James Stephen A History of Presbyterian Missions, 1944–2007: A Project of the World Mission Philip B. Sullivan Initiative of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. James M. Thoburn Louisville, Ky.: Geneva Press, 2008. Pp. xvii, 390. Paperback $34.95. M. M. Thomas Weston, Paul, comp. Harold W. Turner Lesslie Newbigin: Missionary Theologian; A Reader. Johannes Verkuyl Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. Pp. 287. Paperback $18. William Vories