A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION IN ANTIQUITY
Edited by Mary Harlow
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic BLOOMSBURY
• • LONDON OXFORD NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1 Mary Harlow
1 Textiles 13 Eva Andersson Strand and Ulla Mannering
2 Production and Distribution 37 Kerstin Drofl-Kriipe
3 The Body 49 Glenys Davies and Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones
4 Belief 71 Carly Daniel-Hughes
5 Gender and Sexuality 87 Glenys Davies and Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones
6 Status 105 Kelly Olson
7 Ethnicity 119 Ursula Rothe
8 Visual Representations 135 Lena Larsson Loven
9 Literary Representations 155 Mary Harlow
Notes 167
Bibliography 203
Notes on Contributors 227
Index 229 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 Red-figure cup, Briseis Painter, c. 480-70 BC. 2
0.2 Black-figure lekythos (oil flask) attributed to Amasis Painter, showing warp-weighted loom, c. 550-530 BC. 4
0.3 Coptic tunic c. fifth century AD Egypt, undyed linen with wool decoration. 5
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Flax. 14
1.2 Wooden club used to break the flax stems. 15
1.3 Wooden blade used to scutch flax. 16
1.4 Brush used for brushing linen fibers. 16
1.5 Nettle, Urtica dioica, is growing wild all over Europe. The plant may be up to two meters high and contains fine white fibers. 17
1.6 Sheep from Crete. 18
1.7 Wool combing. 19
1.8 Yarn twist (z-spin and s-spin) and ply (Zs-ply and Sz-ply) directions. 21
1.9 Twist angle measurements can be performed with an angle meter. Most ancient yarns are twisted 25° to 45°. 22
1.10 Different types of spindles and spinning techniques. (A) Low-whorl spindle/suspended spinning; (B) high-whorl spindle/supported spinning; (C) hooked spindle/thigh spinning. 23
1.11 Spindle whorl from Klovtofte, Denmark. It is made of shale and
dated c. 600 BC. 23
1.12 Different types of spindle whorls. 24
1.13 Spinning with a distaff. 25
1.14 Warp-weighted loom with a tabby setup (with all details): (A) tying the starting border; (B) heddling; (C) fasten the loom weights; (D) changing shed. 26
1.15 Loom with two beams. 27 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS X
and weft the 1.16 (A) Tabby weave with the direction of warp given by arrows; 2.8 (B) basket weave.
B. twill. 28 1.17 Different types of twill weaves: A. 2/2 twill; 2/1
29 1.18 Successive stages of sprang.
1.19 Tablet weaving with spools. 30
1.20 Wooden tablets from Dejbjerg, Denmark, dated to AD 100-300. 30
1.21 Monochrome spin-patterned textile from Hjorring PrsestegSrds Mark, Denmark. The textile measures 8x8 centimeters. It is made in 2/2 twill
and has 4 s- and 4 z-twisted threads in each direction. The find is dated 31 to the third century AD.
Found at the 1.22 Taquete textile in white, green, and red wool yarn. is dated to Roman fort and quarry Mons Claudianus, Egypt. The textile the second century AD. 32
1.23 Block damask in green wool yarn. Found at the Roman fort and second quarry Mons Claudianus, Egypt. The textile is dated to the century AD. 33
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Plan of House A viii 7-9 at Olynthos, showing placement of loom weights. 39
2.2 Reproduction of the Igel monument. 41
2.3 Plan of a fullery in Ostia V vii, 3. 43
2.4 Plan of a fullery in Pompeii VII 2, 41. 44
2.5 Chart depicting the potential range of relationships in production of garments in the Roman period. 46
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Attic calyx-krater, showing Pandora in center of the upper register. 50
3.2 Artistic vision of figure-hugging garments. 51
3.3 Drawing of a transparent chiton from a red-figure vase by Makron. 52
3.4 Black-figure lekythos attributed to the Amasis Painter, showing women wearing the peplos c. 550-530 BC. 53
3.5 Arringatore showing the early version of the toga. 54
3.6 Early imperial toga, Drusus Minor from Velleia. 55
3.7 Small Herculaneum woman wearing palla as a veil. 56
3.8 Apollo and Artemis from Block VI of the east frieze of the Parthenon. 57
3.9 Warrior leaving home, showing veil gesture. Side A of an Attic red-figure stamnos by Kleophon Painter, 440-430 BC. From Vulci. 58 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.10 Amazons dressed as Persians preparing a warrior Attic red-figure amphora by Euthymides. 60
3.11 Bronze statuette of agricultural worker (a ploughman) wearing a hooded cap, probably of leather. 62
3.12 Heroic nudity on the north frieze of the Parthenon (part of the Panathenaic procession, see also Fig. 4.2). 64
3.13 So-called "Bikini girls" mosaic, Villa del Casale, Piazza Armerina, Sicily, Italy. Early fourth century AD. 65
3.14 Children on the Ara Pacis in togas, the boys wearing the bulla. 66
3.15 Detail from a red-figure loutrophoros depicting a bridal procession,
c. 450-425 BC. 67
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Procession of the imperial court and family on North Side of the Ara Pacis. 73
4.2 East frieze of the Parthenon. 74
4.3 Ara Pacis relief of Augustus in procession with priests (flamines) in their special headgear and laena (mantle). 76
4.4 Roman statue of the High Priestess of Vesta. 77
4.5 Marble relief of a Priest of Cybele second century AD. 78
4.6 Second-century funeral portrait of Isiac initiate. Roman, from Attica, AD 160-170. The Greek inscription reads "Sosibia [daughter of] Euboios of Kephissia." 79
4.7 Consecration of the tabernacle and its priests (WB2 Plate LX) Dura Europos. 80
4.8 Orans figure from the Catacomb of Priscilla Rome, showing praying
woman in dalmatic with head covered. 83
4.9 Mosaic of Ambrose of Milan, Sant' Ambrogio, Milan. 84
4.10 Mosaic of Justinian and his entourage, including Bishop Maximianus, from San Vitale, Ravenna. 84
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Demosthenes draped in himation. 89
Line 5.2 Young woman raises her pharos in a veiling gesture. drawing 89 from a stone votive relief from Sparta c. 520.
5.3 Red-figure amphora. Side A: Komast holding a skyphos and playing Athens. 91 a barbiton. First quarter of fifth century BC,
94 5.4 Red-figure kylix by Makron.
95 5.5 Nereid in "wet-look" drapery c. 400 BC. xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
5.6 Portrait statue of a woman (sometimes identified as Marcia Furnilla) as Venus. 96
5.7 Statue of a woman (sometimes identified as the Empress Vibia Sabina) as Venus Genetrix. Early second century AD. 97
5.8 Wounded Amazon. First to second century AD copy of Greek bronze (c. 450-425 BC). 98
5.9 Draped female figure in Large Herculaneum Woman style. 100
5.10 Fragment of a loutrophoros depicting preparations for a bride, by the Phiale Painter, c. 430-425 BC. 101
5.11 Veiled hetaira spinning. Attic red-figure alabastron c. 470 BC by Pan Painter. 102
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Red-figure column krater with veiled dancers, c. 450^445 BC. Attributed to the Eupolis Painter. 106
6.2 Man in a himation buying an amphora. Red-figure amphora, 480 BC. Boreas Painter. 108
6.3 Grave stele of Myttion showing a kandys, c. 400 BC. 109
6.4 Terracotta oinochoe: chous (jug), attributed to the Meidias Painter, c. 420^410 BC. Woman wearing patterned ependytes perfuming garments. 110
6.5 Procession of dancers from a copy after the fresco at the Tomb of the Triclinium, Tarquinia. \\2
6.6 Pallium-drape toga: grave relief of a married couple from the Via Statilia, 75-60 BC. Detail of man's toga. 113
6.7 Faustina the Elder, AD 140-160. 115
6.8 Head of a woman from Velia family, fresco, Tomb of the Ogre, 340-280 BC, Etruscan. 115
6.9 of Mummy portrait a woman attributed to Isidora master, AD c. 100-110, proudly displaying jewelry. 115
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Attic red-figure plate signed by Epiktetos showing a Scythian archer in and trousers, jacket, cap. 122
7.2 Attic alabastron an Amazon showing wearing trousers and holding a bow and arrow. ^22
7.3 Grave stele from Walbersdorf showing a retired cavalryman in a toga and his in Roman daughter dress. 125
7.4 from the Sarcophagus Palmyra showing deceased reclining on the lid and in a sacrificial scene on the base. Palmyra Museum. 127 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
7.5 Overtunics in Noricum and Pannonia: types and distribution map. 129
7.6 Headdresses in northern Pannonia: types and distribution map. 130
7.7 Gravestone for a Gallic couple, Arlon, second century AD. 131
7.8 Loculus plate depicting a bust of a woman in Palmyrene dress with a full-figure image of a woman in the background. 133
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Strangfbrd Apollo. 136
8.2 Peplos Kore. 137
8.3 Mourning Athene. 138
8.4 The Dove Stele, c. 450-440 BC. 139
8.5 Erechtheion Caryatid. 140
8.6 Nike. 141
8.7 The Vaison Diadoumenos (Roman copy of Greek original). 143
8.8 Bronze figure of running girl. 143
8.9 Tanagra statuettes. 145
8.10 Togatus figure. 146
8.11 Mummy portrait of a priest of Serapis showing clavi. 148
8.12 Cameo of Livia with stola. 149
8.13 Mother and daughter group. 150
8.14 Funerary relief of a freedman and his wife. 151
8.15 Procession on south side of the Ara Pacis showing Augustus, with head covered, and to his right, small boy with long curly hair wearing a torque. 153
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Mosaic personification of Ktisis (Foundation), early sixth century AD. Note the use of jewelry and decorated textiles are now more common. The male figure wears late Roman long-sleeved tunic with typical decoration. 160
List of Tables
CHAPTER 2
Table 2.1 Annual costs for a single weaver with apprentice in drachmai based on papyrological record. 45
Table 2.2 Annual costs for a team of a male and a female weaver in drachmai
based on the papyrological record. 45 A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE
Edited by Sarah-Grace Heller
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic
BLOOMSBURY
LONDON • OXFORD • NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1 Sarah-Grace Heller
1 Textiles 11 Elizabeth Coatsworth and Gale R. Owen-Crocker
2 Production and Distribution 29 Eva Andersson Strand and Sarah-Grace Heller
3 The Body 53 Guillemette Bolens and Sarah Brazil
4 Belief 71 Andrea Denny-Brown
5 Gender and Sexuality 87 E. Jane Burns
6 Status 107 Laurel Ann Wilson
7 Ethnicity 125 Michele Hayeur Smith
8 Visual Representations 141 Desiree Koslin
9 Literary Representations 159 Monica L. Wright
Notes 173
Bibliography 201
Notes on Contributors 225
Index 227 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 A fashionable knight in the new style for shorter robes, a "wasp" waist, and pointed shoes debates with a cleric in long robes as the king, also in long stately robes, adjudicates, from Le Songe du Vergier, Paris c. 1378. 2
0.2 A fashionable variety of cuts, exaggeration of styles, and sumptuous fabrics are clearly visible on the courtiers depicted in this Flemish tapestry c. 1440-50. 3
0.3 Early medieval belt buckle, identified only as Frankish c. 675-725, typical of collections in many museums from nineteenth-century excavations before
there was concern for burial context. 4
0.4 A pauper, a pious patron, and a pilgrim dine together at the Pia Almoina (Pious Almshouse) of the Seu Vella (Old Cathedral) in Lleida, Catalonia, Spain. 7
0.5 A Langobardic/Byzantine gold earring, sixth to seventh century. 8
0.6 Ivory plaque showing Christ receiving the Magdeburg Cathedral from the Ottonian Emperor, possibly made in Milan c. 962-8. 9
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Chasuble showing the famed English embroidery style called opus anglicanum, embroidery and pearls on velvet, c. 1330-50, British. 12
1.2 Sheep and goats depicted in the Old English Hexateuch, compiled at St. Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury, second half of the eleventh century. 13
1.3 Tittleshall woman from grave 13 (Walton Rogers, 2013, figure 7.2) with "cashmere'Mike cloak. She also wears a linen veil and linen under-gown. 15
1.4 Spinning in the Old English Hexateuch, second half of the eleventh century. 18
1.5 Detail of a bas-de-page scene of Margaret spinning, with sheep feeding beside her, and the prefect Olybrius approaching on horseback, between 1310 and 1320. 19
1.6 Detail of a bas-de-page scene of a man and a woman at a spinning wheel, last quarter of the thirteenth century or first quarter of the fourteenth century. 19
1.7 Man weaving on a horizontal treadle loom. MS Cambridge, Trinity College, thirteenth century. 21 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.8 Detail of a miniature, showing different stages of the production of woolen cloth. 24
1.9 Detail of a miniature of Pamphila collecting cocoons of silk worms from mulberry trees and weaving the silk, c. 1440. 25
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Model of different levels of production. 30
2.2 Map of Western Europe from Berg Encyclopedia of World Dress and Fashion Vol. 8: West Europe, 2011. 32
2.3 Frankish garnet bird brooch, sixth century. 33
2.4 Spinning with a drop spindle and a short distaff. Drawing by Christina Borstam. 35
2.5 A warp-weighted loom with a 2/2 twill set-up with four rows of loom weights; close-up of loom weights. 36
2.6 Tools and textiles reconstructed after Viking Age originals, ordinary Viking Age quality textiles. 38
2.7 An example of tiraz weaving given as an ambassadorial gift, Fatimid Egypt, 11th century. Woven silk on linen. 41
2.8 An example of Iberian silk weaving, thirteenth century. 42
2.9 An example of a rich silk lampas woven and finished in Lucca, fourteenth century. 43
2.10 A representation of the fair at Lendit, showing the temporary stalls, conversations between a variety of merchants, and how the wholesale woolens (draps) appeared, as well as the centrality of ecclesiastical sponsorship. 44
2.11 Table: Parisian textile and garment products in the Livre des Metiers, 1268. 46
2.12 A tailor's shop, fourteenth century. 51
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Physician examining a patient's abdomen, from Liber notabilium Philippi septimi francorum regis, a libris Galieni extractus, by Guy of Pavia, 1345. Vellum. 55
3.2 Pol, Jean, and Hermann Limbourg, The Calendar, the month of August, from the Tres Riches Heures du due de Berry, 1411-16. Vellum. 57
3.3 David Aubert, View of a garden, from the Renaut de Montauban Cycle, 1462-70. Vellum. 58
3.4 Painted glass depicting chess players, from the Hotel de la Bessee in Villefranche-sur-Saone, c. 1450. 58 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.5 Mirror case depicting a game of chess, c. 1300. Ivory. 59
3.6 The Virgin and Child, Lorenzo Veneziano, between 1357 and 1379. Tempera on panel. 65
3.7 The Visitation, stained glass, church of St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich, c. 1450-5. 68
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Adam and Eve are clothed by God, with Adam wearing blue and Eve green. Leaf by William de Brailes, England, 1230. 76
4.2 Left: Adam and Eve are expelled from Paradise, wearing fig leaves. Right: Adam and Eve are clothed by an angel in light brown tunics, as they delve and spin. England, 1305-10. 77
4.3 Left: God clothes Adam and Eve in coarse animal skins, heads and tails intact. Right: expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, wearing skins. France, 1372. 77
4.4 Adam and Eve are expelled by an angel from Paradise, carrying white garments. The Netherlands, 1479-80. 78
4.5 Adam and Eve wear hairy gray garments of skin as they delve and spin, with children in the background. England 1485-1509. 79
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Late medieval "male" silhouette: gippon (pourpoint) and chausses, Eugene- Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier franqais de I'epoque carlovingienne a la renaissance. 89
5.2 Late medieval "female" silhouette: floor-length fitted gown, Eugene- Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier franqais de I'epoque carlovingienne a la renaissance. 89
5.3 "'Ganbizon de soie," as worn by Silence, Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 90
5.4 "Chausses de maillemail hose as worn by Silence, Viollet-le-Duc. Dictionnaire raisonne. 90
5.5 Chemise, Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 92
5.6 Gauntlet, Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 92
5.1 Aumosniere, Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnee. 96
5.8 Twelfth-century Minnesanger poet, Dietmar von Aist, pictured as a pedlar in the Manesse Codex, University of Heidelberg Library, early fourteenth century. 97
5.9 A "'ceinture'" or belt, as used by Lienor, Violet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 97 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
5.10 "BraiesViollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 100
5.11 The courtly "robe," Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne, "cotte," fig. 7, after an image of king Philip III the Bold in a manuscript, Histoire de la vie et des miracles de Saint Louis, end of the thirteenth century. 101
5.12 Silence learning to become a jongleur, from a collection of romances and fabliaux, c. 1200-50. 101
5.13 Helmet, Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne. 104
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Kings, princes, and merchants lamenting the fall of Babylon, Beatus of St. Sever, late eleventh century. 109
6.2 Hawking (calendar page, May). English, first quarter of the twelfth century (detail). Shaftesbury Psalter. 109
6.3 King Edmund distributing coins to beggars, Miscellany on the life of St. Edmund. Bury St. Edmunds, c. 1130. Ill
6.4 The thirteenth-century "robe" ensemble. Detail from scenes from the Life of David, Absolom with the royal concubines, c. 1250. 112
6.5 Men fleeing the gates of Babylon (detail), Queen Mary Apocalypse. English, early fourteenth century. 113
6.6 Carole, Roman de la Rose, French, mid-fourteenth century. 113
6.7 King being led away by two men. Decretals of Gregory IX, the "Smithfield Decretals." 114
6.8 The of Jew Bourges, "Miracles of the Virgin," English, c. 1330, the Neville of Hornby Hours. 121
6.9 Knights receiving livery from the king, "Secretum Secretorum," English, c. 1326. 122
CHAPTER 7
7.1 of Scandinavian settlement Map from the eighth to eleventh century, by Max Naylor. 125
7.2 Reconstructed Viking female dress and oval brooches from the Viking festival at HafnafjorSur, Iceland. 127
7.3 Oval brooch from Skogar 1 Flokadal, dated to the ninth century but recovered in a tenth-century context. 130
7.4 Trefoil brooch from HafurbjarnarstaSir, the shape of the brooch emerged in the Frankish world generally decorated with acanthus leaves. 131
7.5 Burial finds from This Kroppur. strap end is similar to one from Kneep, Scotland. 132 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
7.6 Tongue-shaped brooch from Kornsa. 133
7.7 Changing proportions of spin combinations in textiles from the Viking Age to the fifteenth century, Iceland. 134
7.8 Fragment of pile-weaving from Heynes, Iceland. 137
7.9 Weft dominant weaves from Herjolfnes, and 0172 compared to Medieval Icelandic cloth. 139
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Plaque with the Journey to Emmaus and Noli Me Tangere (detail), Ivory, traces of gilding, Spanish, c. 1115-20. 144
8.2 Dedication page, Hitda Codex, c. 1025, Scriptorium of Cologne. 145
8.3 Idealized representation of the Liberal Arts: Geometry, c. 1200, ink drawing, detail. 146
8.4 The miraculous revelation of the relics of St. Mark, c.1260, gold-ground mosaic decoration, central vault of the Basilica of San Marco, Venice. 147
8.5 The Book of Chess, Dice and Tables, c. 1283, Court of Alfonso El Sabio, Cordoba, Spain. 149
8.6 Comtesse de la Table, dame de Coeuvres, in the Psalter-Hours of Yolande de Soissons, c. 1280-90. Amiens, France. 150
8.7 Courtly games before a castle, c. 1385-1400. Tapestry, made in Alsace. 151
8.8 The Kaufmann Crucifixion, c. 1350. Tempera and gold on panel. 152
8.9 Lady Joan Beaufort and her daughters, Neville Hours, c. 1430-5. French, possibly Rouen. 153
8.10 The lovers meet, Roman de la Rose, c. 1490-1500, Bruges. 155
8.11 Double tomb effigy of Piers Butler and Margaret Fitzgerald, c. 1515-27. Stone sculpture St. Canice's Cathedral, Kilkenny, Ireland. 156
8.12 St. Catherine stripped naked and tortured in the Belles Heures of Jean de France, due de Berry, by the Limbourg brothers. 157
CHAPTER 9
9.1 The Wife of Bath, drawing of a depiction in the Ellesmere Manuscript of the Canterbury Tales, early fifteenth century. 161
9.2 Knights' identities were often declared by their arms, but obscured by their helmets. Illustration of a tournament in the time of Charles V in the Grandes Chroniques de France, fourteenth century. 163
9.3 Nudity in Dante's Divine Comedy. "Dante's notion of nakedness in the Comedy as not only the absence of clothing, but the vulnerability of humankind after the Fall." 165 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
9.4 Griselda removing her clothing, in Laurent de Premierfait's translation of Boccacio's Decameron, second quarter of the fifteenth century. 166
9.5 An example of an inscribed gold ring, English, c. 1300. 169
9.6 The death of Siegfried in the Nibelungen (Nibelung), fifteenth century, illustration from manuscript K 1480/1490, National Library Vienna. 170 A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION IN THE RENAISSANCE
Edited by Elizabeth Currie
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing BLOOMS B URY
• LONDON • • OXFORD NEW YORK NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1 Elizabeth Currie
1 Textiles 19 Maria Hayward
2 Production and Distribution 37 Susan Vincent
3 The Body 57 Isabelle Paresys
4 Belief 75 Cordelia Warr
5 Gender and Sexuality 95 Ann Rosalind Jones
6 Status 117 Catherine Richardson
7 Ethnicity 135 Eminegill Karababa
8 Visual Representations 153 Anna Reynolds
9 Literary Representations 175 Gerry Milligan
Notes 193 Bibliography 223
Notes on Contributors 245 Index 247 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 Usher to the Grand Selim with Parrots, Jacopo Ligozzi, brush and gouache on vellum, c. 1580-5. 2
0.2 John Bulwer, Anthropometamorphosis: Man Transformed (London: William Hunt, 1653), title page. 3
0.3 Detail from the Portinari Altarpiece, Hugo van der Goes, 1480-3, oil
on canvas. 4
0.4 To Each His Own Pastime, "Elck Sijn Tijt-Verdrijff" Adriaen van de Venne, seventeenth century, drawing in red chalk and wash. 6
0.5 Jean Bourdichon, illumination showing the poet Jean Marot handing over his work Le Voyage de Genes to Anne of Brittany, Tours, c. 1508. 8
0.6 Giacomo Franco, Habiti d'huomeni et donne Venetiane (Venice, 1609). 10
0.7 Wenceslaus Hollar, Ornatus muliebris Anglicanus, or, The Severall Habits of English Women (London, 1640). 12
0.8 William Drury of Hawstead, Suffolk, unknown artist, 1587, oil on canvas. 14
0.9 Signboard of the Venetian Silk Guild, sixteenth century, oil on canvas. 16
0.10 Cesare Vecellio, Ornamento nobile, per ogni gentil matrona (Venice, 1620). 17
0.11 Needlework long cushion, The Judgement of Solomon, c. 1575-1600,
linen canvas worked with wool and silk in tent stitch. 18
CHAPTER 1
1.1 A woman's linen jacket embroidered with silk and metal thread and spangles, c. 1600-25. 20
1.2 A piece of velvet cloth of gold with loops of silver-gilt thread, Italy,
c. 1475. 21
1.3 A hand-knitted woman's jacket made from silk and metal thread (silver), Italian, c. 1600-20. 23
1.4 A woman's linen smock embroidered with silk, 1575-85. 25
1.5 A man's doublet made from watered wool, silk taffeta, linen, and whalebone, sewn with silk and linen threads, decorated with a silver-gilt and a silver-gilt and silk braid, 1615-20. 27 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.6 A man's collar made from linen and edged with bobbin lace, with tassels of knotted linen thread, probably English, c. 1630-40. 28
1.7 Chinese silk made into a coverlet, sixteenth to eighteenth century. 30
1.8 A linen and cotton towel, dyed with either indigo or woad, Italian, 1400-1500. 32
1.9 A piece of silk damask, Italian, second half of the fifteenth century. 34
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Two sewing women, by Geertruydt Roghman and Claes Jansz Visscher, Amsterdam, 1648-50. 38
2.2 Miniature from Splendor Solis, by Salomon Trismosin, fol. 32v, Germany, 1582. 39
2.3 Woodcut from Spanish tailoring book Geometria y traca by Diego de Freyle, Seville, 1588. 40
2.4 The Shoemaker, woodcut by Jost Amman illustrating Hartmann Schopper's Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum (Book of Trades), Frankfurt, 1568. 41
2.5 Der Tuchhandler (The Draper), miniature from Schachzabelbuch des Konrad von Ammenhausen, by Hans Schilling, 1467. 42
2.6 The Tailor, woodcut by Jost Amman illustrating Hartmann Schopper's Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum (Book of Trades), Frankfurt, 1568. 43
2.7 Fashion doll, "Pandora," 1590s. 44
2.8 The Hatmaker, woodcut by Jost Amman illustrating Hartmann Schopper's Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum (Book of Trades), Frankfurt, 1568. 46
2.9 Early seventeenth-century doublet. 49
2.10 Suit made from quilted ivory satin from another source, with applied silk braid, England, 1635^0. 50
2.11 An elaborately slashed, sixteenth-century leather doublet, British. 51
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Charles Vand Emperor dog, Jacob Seisenegger, 1532. 59
3.2 French lady wearing a Renaissance farthingale with hoops, in the front of a map of Bourges. Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg, Civitates orbis Coloniae terrarum, Agrippinae, typis T. Graminaei, 1572. 60
3.3 The French Queen Anne ofAustria with the Dauphin (future King Louis French XTV), school, before 1643. 60 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.4 Portrait of a Lady, Rogier Van der Weyden, c. 1460. 62
3.5 Cortigiana Veneta, in Pietro Bertelli, Diversarum nationum habitus, Patavii, apud Alciatum Alcia et Petrum Bertellium, 1594-96. 62
3.6 A Ball at the Valois Court (detail), French school, c. 1580. 63
3.7 Richard Sackville, 3rd Earl of Dorset, Isaac Oliver, 1616, portrait miniature. 64
3.8 Painter's Family, Jacob Jordaens, c. 1621-2. 65
3.9 Woman's smock, probably made in England from Dutch linen and Flemish lace, 1620-40. 68
3.10 A six section silver pomander engraved with flowers, made in Western Europe, 1600-50. 72
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Fifteenth-century dalmatic, silk with metal embroidery, Italian. 76
4.2 Bishop's gloves, first quarter of the seventeenth century, Spanish. 77
4.3 The Circumcision ofJohn the Baptist, designed by Antonio del Pollaiuolo, probably from the Baptistery cope, 1460s. 78
4.4 The Baptism of Saint Augustine, Benozzo Gozzoli, 1464-5, fresco from the choir chapel, Sant'Agostino, San Gimignano. 81
4.5 Saint Francis in Meditation, Francisco de Zurbaran, 1635-9. 82
4.6 Mary Queen of Scots in white mourning, after Frangois Clouet, nineteenth century after an image of 1561. 84
4.7 De gli habit antichi e moderni di diverse parti del mondo, Cesare Vecellio, Damiano Zenaro, Venice (1590). 84
4.8 Philip II of Spain holding a rosary, Alonso Sanchez Coello, 1573. 85
4.9 Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione, Raphael, 1514-15. 86
4.10 Engraving from Jost Amman, Gynaeceum, siue, Theatrum mulierum, S. Feyrabend, Frankfurt (1586). 87
4.11 John Bulwer, Anthropometamorphosis: man transformed: or, the artificial changeling, William Hunt: London (1653, 2nd edition). 89
4.12 Chasuble of Robert Thornton, early sixteenth century with later alterations. 92
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Self-Portrait, Albrecht Diirer, 1498, oil on panel. 96
5.2 Flora, Rembrandt van Rijn, probably early 1650s, oil on canvas. 97
5.3 Portrait of a Lady in a Black Dress with Pearls, English School, c. 1590. 97
5.4 Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh, unknown English artist, oil on panel, 1588. 98 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
5.5 Title page engraving, Artus Thomas, Les Hermaphrodites (Paris, 1605). 100
5.6 Cesare Vecellio, Nobile Francese, Degli Habiti antichi e moderni di diverse parti del mondo (Venice, 1590), 275. 102
5.7 Cesare Vecellio, Meretrici publiche, Degli Habiti antichi e moderni di diverse parti del mondo (Venice, 1590), 145 verso. 103
5.8 Portrait of Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke ofUrbino, Bronzino (1531-2). 104
5.9 Venetian Courtesan, Le vere imagini et descritioni delle piv nobilli citta del mondo, Donato Bertelli (Venice, 1578), plate 28. 107
5.10 Frances Howard, Countess of Somerset, Simon van de Passe, engraving (Hollstein, vol XVI, no. 115), state I and state II. 108
5.11 Title page, "Hie Mulier: or, The man-woman," (London, 1620). 110
5.12 Title page, "Haec Vir: or, the Womanish-Man," (London, 1620). Ill
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, Anglo-Netherlandish School, c. 1564, oil on panel, Waddesdon. 120
6.2 Lead alloy livery badge, chained bear and ragged staff of Earls of Warwick. 121
6.3 Scarlet doublet belonging to Gustav Adolphus of Sweden, Livrustkammaren, Stockholm, 1620s. 124
6.4 Christopher Wise (c.1566-1628), Mayor of Totnes (1605 and 1621), Nicholas Hilliard, oil on canvas. 130
6.5 Pair of leather gloves, British, 1600-25. 133
6.6 Sir Henry Unton by unknown artist, oil on panel, c. 1596. 134
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Bulgarian village women, Codex Vindobonensis 8626. 137
7.2 Jost Amman, a picture of a wealthy Turkish woman appearing in public with her children, German woodcut, 1577. 139
7.3 A Greek Girl Living in Pera, Constantinople. 141
7.4 Greek women, Codex Vindobonensis 8626. 142
7.5 Two Jewish physicians from the album of Lambert de Vos (1574). 144
7.6 Jewish woman from Adrianople (current day Edirne). 146
7.7 Portrait of an Armenian Woman, 1618. 147
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Elisabeth or Cornelia Vekemans, Cornelis de Vos, c. 1625. 154 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
8.2 Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, Robert Peake, c. 1597. 156
8.3 Man in Pink (Gian Gerolamo Grumelli), Giovanni Battista Moroni, c. 1560. 159
8.4 Moreel Triptych, Hans Memling, 1484. 160
8.5 The Peasant Wedding, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1567. 161
8.6 The Birth of the Virgin Mary, Domenico Ghirlandaio, 1486-90. 163
8.7 Portrait of the St. Adrian Civic Guard, Hendrick Gerritsz Pot, c. 1630. 165
8.8 Philosophy Presenting the Seven Liberal Arts to Boethius, Coetivy Master (Henri de Vulcop?), c. 1460-70. 166
8.9 A Woman of Nuremberg Dressed for the Home, Albrecht Diirer, c. 1500. 168
8.10 The Gallery of the Palace ofJustice (La Galerie du Palais), Abraham Bosse, c. 1638. 169
8.11 The Unicorn is Found (from The Unicorn Tapestries), 1495-1505. 171
8.12 Piero de Medici, Mino da Fiesole, 1452-3, marble. 172
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Portrait of Laura Battiferri, Agnolo Bronzino, c. 1555, oil on canvas. 177
9.2 Diana and Actaeon, Titian, 1556-9, oil on canvas. 178
9.3 Aminta, 1573, Satyr trying to rape Silvia, act III, engraving, Torquato Tasso, Aldine edition, 1583. 180
9.4 Habiti antichi: overo raccolta di figure delineate dal gran Titiano, e da Cesare Vecellio suo fratello, diligentemente intagliate, conforme alle nationi del mondo. Cesare Vecellio (Venice, Combi and la Nou, appresso capo Francesco Bodio, 1664). 182
9.5 Theatre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois (manuscript), Lucas d'Heere (1534-84). 183
9.6 Esther before King Ahasuerus, Caspar van den Hoecke, seventeenth century, oil on canvas. 184
9.7 Judith with the Head of Holofernes, Lucas Cranach, c. 1530, oil on wood. 185
9.8 Portrait of a Woman, possibly Ginevra d'Antonio Lupari Gozzadini, attributed to the Maestro delle Storie del Pane, c. 1485-90. 186
9.9 Finely dressed young men in a detail from Miracles of St Bernardino, 1473, by Pietro Vannucci, known as il Perugino (c. 1450-1523), 189 tempera on panel. A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION
IN THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Edited by Peter McNeil
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic
BLOOMS B URY
LONDON • OXFORD • NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1 Peter McNeil
1 Textiles 23 Tove Engelhardt Mathiassen
2 Production and Distribution 45 Beverly Lemire
3 The Body 63 Isabelle Paresys
4 Belief 87 Dagmar Freist
5 Gender and Sexuality 105 Dominic Janes
6 Status I23 Mikkel Venborg Pedersen
1 Ethnicity 139 Barbara Lasic
8 Visual Representations 161 Christian Huck
9 Literary Representations 185 Alicia Kerfoot
Notes 205
Bibliography 237 26i Notes on Contributors
Index 263 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 A Girl Buying a Ballad, Henry Walton (1746-1813), exhibited 1778,
oil on canvas. 6
0.2 Pierre-Thomas LeClerc; engraved by Nicolas Dupin. Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Franqais, published by Esnauts et Rapilly. 38e Cahier des Costumes Frangais, 9e Suite des Cieffures a la mode en 1781. oo.222 "Coiffure d'une dame de qualite coeffee par M. Leonard Coeffeur de le Reine," 1781. 8
0.3 Pierre-Thomas LeClerc; engraved by Nicolas Dupin. Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, published by Esnauts et Rapilly. 36e Cahier des Costumes Frangais, 28e Suite d'Habillemens a la mode en 1781. ler Cahier
pour le 3e Volume "Les Enfans de Mgr. Le Comte d'Artois . . .," 1781. 9
0.4 Pierre-Thomas LeClerc; engraved by Nicolas Dupin. Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, published by Esnauts et Rapilly. 32e. Cahier de Costumes Frangais, 25e Suite d'Habillemens a la mode en 1780. hh.190 "La petit Fille vue de face est vetue d'un foureau de tafetas garni 10 de gaze . . 1780.
0.5 Pierre-Thomas LeClerc; engraved by Nicolas Dupin. Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, published by Esnauts et Rapilly. 27e Cahier de Costumes Frangais, 21e Suite d'Habillemens a la mode en 1779. cc.161 12 "Vetement dit a la Creole . . .," 1779.
0.6 Pierre-Thomas LeClerc; engraved by Nicolas Dupin. Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, published by Esnauts et Rapilly. 21e Cahier des Costumes Frangais, 15e Suite d'Habillemens a la mode en 1779. V.124 13 "Robe a la Levite, a deux plis par derriere . . 1779.
0.7 In Gosnell Street, James Peller Malcolm, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1808. 19
0.8 Cup and saucer, painted with an Incroyable (on the saucer) and a Merveilleuse (on the cup). Chretien Kuhne Etterbeck factory, Brussels,
c. 1795. Inv. Ar 02222. Collection Musee Ariana, Ville de Geneve. 21
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Duchess Louise Augusta in her "robe en chemiseJens Juel, 1787. 24
1.2 The second sample at top right is "chelloes." Letters and documents from Guinea. 27 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.3 Waistcoat dated 1750s. 28
1.4 Detail of man's suit dated c. 1770. Golden details and colored spangles. The
last owners were actors. 29
1.5 Detail of silk dress dated 1770-5. 30
1.6 Male shoe buckles of silver with iron catches, dated late eighteenth century. 31
1.7 Sample of chintz. East India Cloth Sample 4064A. Rigsarkivet Library, Copenhagen. 33
1.8 Elizabeth Vernon, Countess of Southampton, c. 1600. 37
1.9 Handmade paper used inside a cover for a rococo fan. 39
1.10 Detail of skirt dated to the second half of the eighteenth century. 41
1.11 Detail of a quilted and embroidered silk skirt dated between 1760 and 1780. 42
1.12 Japanese surcoat (Jinbaori), late eighteenth to nineteenth century. Made from wool, silk, metallic yarns. 44
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Italian silk velvet suit, with gold braid, c. 1740-60. 48
2.2 Woven silk and metal thread purse with silk ribbon trimmings. French c. 1650-1700. 50
2.3 Silk mills, Derby, Matilda Heming, 1809. 52
2.4 Cottage interior, deathbed scene, William Johnstone White, c. 1804-10, pen and ink and watercolor. 56
2.5 George Miller, upholsterer, appraiser, and auctioneer, engraved by Morrison and Clark, Moorfields, London. 57
2.6 Mrs. Grosvenor, Laundry Woman to the Queen, anonymous three quarter portrait, c. 1750-1800. 59
2.7 Jigsaw puzzle, "Die Wasch und Buglstube" (The washing and ironing room), anonymous, early nineteenth century. 60
2.8 Molly Milton, the Pretty Oyster Woman, published by Carington Bowles, 1788, after Robert Dighton. 61
CHAPTER 3
3.1 A Modern Venus, or a Lady of the Present Fashion, unknown artist, after Miss Hoare of Bath (possibly Mary Hoare, 1744-1820), engraving, 1786. 64
3.2 Seconde chambre des Appartements, 1694, Antoine Trouvain. 66
3.3 Left: Linen shirt, French, c. 1780. Right: Chemise (linen and cotton), American, c. 1780. 68 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.4 Red stays, side hoop, and linen shift, English. Hoop, 1778; shift, 1730-60; stays 1770-90. 70
3.5 Stay busk made from wood, eighteenth century. 71
3.6 Court dress, c. 1750, British. 72
3.7 Panniers/hinged hoops (silk, cane, and metal), French, late eighteenth century. 72
3.8 Pair of pockets, England, 1700-25. 73
3.9 Reticule (silk, cotton, and metal), British, first quarter of the nineteenth century. 74
3.10 Detail of coat, showing pleated skirts stiffened with an interlining of woven horsehair and buckram, and a layer of unspun wool, probably French, 1740-49. 75
3.11 Woman's shoes, 1760-75, probably French, silk, metallic. 77
3.12 Susannah, Philip Lake, and Maria Godsal: The Godsal Children, John Hoppner, 1789. 79
3.13 Mere allaitant son enfant, Jean-Laurent Mosnier. Macon, Musee des Beaux-Arts. 81
3.14 Portrait of an Unknown Man, Carle Van Loo, c. 1730-40, oil on canvas. Chateau de Versailles. 82
3.15 Sir Brooke Boothby, Joseph Wright of Derby, 1781, oil paint on canvas. 83
3.16 Marie-Antoinette, Elisabeth-Louise Vigee Le Brun, after 1783, oil on
canvas, Timken Collection. 84
85 3.17 Muslin gown, made in England from Indian fabric, c. 1800.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 "Welladay! Is This my Son Tom!", A Collection of Drolleries, 1770-97, fol. 75 C697 770. 90
4.2 A man dressed in rhingrave or beribboned petticoat breeches, with a short unbuttoned doublet. 93
4.3 Letter sent by the wife of a plantation owner (name not legible) in Paramaribo to her brother in Amsterdam, asking for fashion journals and a variety of fashion articles, including a "Bonnet Cornette," decorated with lace and a ribbon just like the included; dated March 13, 1795. 98
4.4 The Mennonite Preacher Anslo and his Wife, signed by Rembrandt, 1641. Gemaldegalerie der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin. 100
4.5 Portrait of Dr. Simon Stinstra (1735-82), deacon of the United Mennonite Congregation of Harlingen, signed by Tibout Regters, 1763, oil on canvas. 101 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
4.6 Portrait of Anna Braam (1738-77), deaconess of the United Mennonite Congregation of Harlingen, signed by Tibout Regters, 1763, oil on canvas. 102
4.7 Portrait of Madame Kaulla, court Jew and wealthy trader; original by Johann Baptist Seele, copy C. Berger, c. 1805. 103
4.8 Portrait of Henriette Herz (1762-1847) as the Greek goddess Hebe, signed Anna Dorothea Therbusch, dated 1778. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Nationalgalerie. 104
CHAPTER 5
5.1 The Swing, Jean-Honore Fragonard, 1767. 107
5.2 Philippe de France with His Daughter Marie Louise, School of Pierre Mignard, c. 1670, oil paint, Chateau de Versailles, MV 2161. 109
5.3 Clotworthy Skeffington, 2nd Earl ofMassereene, Horace Walpole, c. 1765-6, drawing. 114
5.4 Lord [George Villiers] or the Nosegay Macaroni, published in The Macaroni and Theatrical Magazine, February 1773, p. 193, etching. 115
5.5 How d'Ye Like Me, published by Carington Bowles, 1772, hand- colored mezzotint. 115
5.6 Mademoiselle de Beaumont, or the Chevalier d'Eon, published in The London Magazine 46 (1777), p. 443, engraving. 119
5.7 The Bum-Bailiff Outwitted; or the Convenience of Fashion, S.W Fores, at the 1786, Caracature Warehouse, Piccadilly, hand-colored etching. 121
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Duke Friedrich Carl I of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderborg-Plon (1706-1761) with his family on the terrace ofPlon Castle in Tischbein Holstein, J.H. ' 1759- 126
6.2 Det fengerske Familiebillede (The Fenger Family). 127
6.3 "Silhouette," showing the shoemaker Franz Carl Heckel and family taking tea in Sonderborg Town, Duchy of Schleswig c. 1770. 129
6.4 Praestefamilien Schmedes (The pastor Schmedes family), Danish, mid-eighteenth century. 23q
6.5 Snuff box with the four painted "estates" of society, c. 1760. 134 6.6 Peasants at the Meadows on the Estate ofLovenborg in Zealand, Elias c. 1800. Meyer, U5
6.7 of a woman Figurine beggar removed from Burso Almshouse on the Danish island of Lolland, c. 1703, sandstone. 137 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Plaited straw hat, English or Dutch, c. 1700. 140
7.2 Madame de Pompadour at her Tambour Frame, Frangois-Hubert Drouais, 1763-4. 142
7.3 Bouquet of Chamomile, Roses, Orange Blossom and Carnations Tied with a Blue Ribbon, Jean-Baptiste Monnoyer, 1690s. 143
7.4 Nicolas Arnoult, "Femme de qualite, en habit d'este, detoffe Siamoise" from the Recueil des modes de la cour de France, 1687. 144
7.5 Banyan, Indian for the Western market, 1700-50. 145
7.6 Nicolas Bonnart, "Homme en Robe de Chambre" from the Recueil des modes de la cour de France, 1676. 147
7.7 Le Turc Amoureux, Meissen porcelain factory, 1744. 149
7.8 Lady in Turkish Costume, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, 1790. 153
7.9 Madame D'Aguesseau de Fresnes, Louise-Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun, 1789. 154
7.10 Woman wearing a Levite, from the Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, Charles Emmanuel Patas, Esnauts and Rapilly, 1780. 155
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Engraving by Louis Truchy after Hubert Frangois Gravelot, printed by John Bowles (1744). 162
8.2 "The Imports of Great Britain from France, Plate 1"—"A chest well cramm'd with Tippets, Muffs, Ribands, Flowers for the Hair; & other such Material Bagatelles, underneath, conceal'd Cambricks & Gloves"—"Publish'd according to Act of Parliament, March 7th, 1757, by John Bowles and Son, at the Black Horse in Cornhill, London—Price, Six-pence." Louis Philip Boitard.
8.3 The Macaroni Print Shop, Edward Topham (1772), published by Matthew and Mary Darly. 165
8.4 From The Towns and Costumes of the Inhabited World (c. 1695), 167 Carolus Allard, p. 11.
8.5 "A Description of the Habits of most Countries in the World" (1739-40) 168
London: 8.6 "Old Cloaks Suits or Coats," from The cryes of the city of drawne after life in seventy-four copper plates, engraving by John 169 Savage after a drawing by Marcellus Laroon, c. 1687.
8.7. Left: "Lady with muff standing on two steps," from Wenceslaus Hollar, Ornatus Muliebris Anglicanus (1639-1640), plate 7. Right: "Lady with fan and mirror," from Wenceslaus Hollar, Ornatus Muliebris Anglicanus (1639-1640), plate 10. 170 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
8.8 "Mr. B. expostulating with Pamela in the Summer house after some liberties taken. Mrs. Jervis (who is seen through the Window) having just before left her," print made by Louis Truchy after a painting by Joseph Highmore (1745). 172
8.9 "A Harlot's Progress," plate 1, Hogarth (1732). 174
8.10 "A Harlot's Progress," plate 2, Hogarth, (1732). 175
8.11 "The Review," print made by John June (c. 1750), later re-published by Carington Bowles: "The Round Hoops condemn'd: The wide Machine, aloft in Nikey's Court/Displays its Orb, to public jeer and Sport." 177
8.12 "The Miniature Macaroni", published September 24, 1772. 178
8.13 "Characters in High Life," James Gillray (1795), published by Hannah Humphrey. 179
8.14 "Engraved for the Lady's Magazine. Two Ladies in the newest Dress. From Drawings taken at Ranelagh, May 1775. Published by G. Robinson June 1, 1775," from The Lady's Magazine, May 1775, facing p. 233. 181
8.15 From Gallery of Fashion, April 1794. 182
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Wooden fashion doll with costume and accessories, England, 1755-60. 187
9.2 "Parisian Evening Dress," Belle Assemblee No. 81, March, 1816. 188
9.3 "London Curtezan," from Marcellus Laroon's Cryes of the City of London, printed by Tempest Pierce in 1733. 189
9.4 Winter, Wenceslaus Hollar, full-length from 1643-44, etching. 190
9.5 A Morning Ramble; or, The Milliner's Shop, Robert Dighton, 1782. 192
9.6 Pair of pattens with wooden soles and iron rings, Great Britain, 1720s-30s. 194
9.7 "Hott Bak'd Wardens Hott," from Marcellus Laroon's Cryes of the City of London, printed by Tempest Pierce in 1733. 195
9.8 Women's figured Lyons silk brocade mule, 1650-1700. 198
9.9 Illustrations to Samuel Richardson's "The Life of Pamela," Guillaume Philippe Benoist, after Joseph Highmore, 1762. 200 A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION IN THE AGE OF EMPIRE
Edited by Denise Amy Baxter
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic BLOOMSBURY
• LONDON OXFORD • NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illlustrations ix
Introduction 1 Denise Amy Baxter
1 Textiles 9 Philip Sykas
2 Production and Distribution 35 Susan Hiner
3 The Body 59 Annette Becker
4 Belief 81 Denise Amy Baxter
5 Gender and Sexuality 99 Ariel Beaujot
6 Status 121 Vivienne Richmond
7 Ethnicity 141 Sarah Cheang
8 Visual Representations 165 Justine de Young
9 Literary Representations 189 Heidi Brevik-Zender
Notes 213
Bibliography 241
Notes on Contributors 259
Index 261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 Promenade dresses from Ackermann's Repository of Arts, vol. 5, no. 30, June 1, 1811, pi. 36. 2
0.2 Achille Deveria, Four o'clock in the evening from the Hours of the Day series, lithograph, c. 1829. 3
0.3 American cage crinoline, 1862, steel and cotton; British cage crinoline, c. 1862, metal and cotton. 5
0.4 Des dames d'un demi-monde, mais n'ayant pas de demi-jupes, from Actualites, Honore Daumier, published in Le Charivari, May 11, 1855. Lithograph. 6
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Photomicrograph (65x magnification) of the reverse of a block-printed calico gown, 1780s. 11
1.2 Detail of a page from a warehouseman's counterpart book showing samples of lappet muslins exported to Bombay in May 1822. 13
1.3 Detail of a printed Valencia from Henry Cooke's order book of 1821 showing cotton warp and worsted weft. 14
1.4 Gambroon registered by Ibotson & Walker in 1840, showing variegated color produced by plying together cotton and worsted yarns in alternate wefts. 16
1.5a Page from a pattern book showing machine-printed delaines, 1846, possibly from Broad Oak print works. 17
1.5b Fashion plate reflecting French styles for large-scale block printed delaines. La Belle Assemblee, July 1845. 18
1.6a Queen Victoria and Prince Albert wearing Lancashire silks. Carte-de-visite photograph by John J.E. Mayall, February 1861. 20
1.6b Detail of a painted flounce design and corresponding woven silk of autumn 1860. Charles Hilton pattern books. 21
1.7 Purple print by Thomas Hoyle & Sons, from the Journal of Design and Manufactures, 2 (Nov.), 1849, p. 108. 23 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.8 Page from a colorist's notebook showing printed shirtings with sporting motifs. Charles Swaisland, Crayfnrrl, 18^0s_ 24
1.9 Lining print featuring the actress Lillie Langtry, by James Hardcastle &c Co. From Antonio Sansone, The Printing of Cotton Fabrics (Manchester: Abel Heywood & Son, 1887), pi. 1. 25
1.10 Mary Constance Wyndham (Lady Elcho) wearing a dress probably of silk crepe and satin, in a setting of Japanese objects. Watercolor by Edward John Poynter, exhibited 1886. 27
1.11 Burberry's advertised gabardine for the widest range of women's sporting activity, depicting women in an active role. 29
1.12 Dacca Mills flannelette, from Rylands & Sons Ltd. Manchester price list 1923, p. 40. 32
CHAPTER 2
2.1 La rue de la Paix, Jean Beraud, 1907. 36
2.2 Atelier de Couture (Gown maker's Work-room), Henry Monnier, 1826. 39
2.3 "Le Tailleur," Types Frangais, Honore Daumier, 1835. 41
2.4 La Marchande de Modes, J.J. Chalon, 1822. 43
2.5 La Marchande de Modes, Frederic Bouchot, 1815-50. 45
2.6 de M. Calicot I'exercice . . Exploit faisant . de ses fonctions, 1826-30. 46
2.7 Fashion plate: ''''Suzanne, Gonzalve, Marguarita, Fonti, Zilda," Journal des Demoiselles, May 1859. 48
2.8 Illustration after The Empress Eugenie Surrounded by Her Ladies in Waiting, Franz-Xaver Winterhalter, 1855. 49
2.9 Paris Grotesque, 1859. 50
2.10 Harper's Bazaar, A. Sandoz, 1892, vol. 25, no. 15. 51
2.11 Temple Market, n.d. 53
2.12 Grands Magasins de la Paix, Jules Cheret, 1875. 54
2.13 La Mode illustree, 1865, Sunday, August 13, 1865, issue number 33, on an unnumbered page between 260 and 261. 56
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Costume Parisien, 1806, France. 62
3.2 "Habit a Taille etroite. Culotte et Guetres de Nankin," Journal des Dames et des Modes (May 30, 1803). 63 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.3 L'Eco 45 (October 1832). 65
3.4 Leg o' mutton sleeve. Day dress, 1830-4, Great Britain. 66
3.5 "Dressing for the Ball," Harper's New Monthly Magazine (December 1857): 282. 68
3.6 "The Safest Way of Taking a Lady Down to Dinner," Harper's Weekly (December 24, 1864): 832. 69
3.7 "The American and French Fashions Contrasted," The Water-Cure Journal (October 1851): 96. 72
3.8 Day dress of silk satin and cut velvet, c. 1878, American. 74
3.9 Portrait ofJane Morris, John Robert Parsons (British), negative, July 1865, printed c. 1900. 76
3.10 The Coming Game: Yale vs. Vassar, 1895, Charles Dana Gibson. 78
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Paul Gavarni, cover of Louis Huart, Physiologie de la grisette (Paris: Aubert, 1841). 84
4.2 Puerperal mania in four stages, The Medical Times and Gazette, 1858. 85
4.3 Engraving depicting the wedding of Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Prince Albert Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, St. James's Palace, London, February 10, 1840. 88
4.4 1840s American wedding dress. From the collection of Steven Porterfield. 89
4.5 Mourning dresses. Ackermann's Repository ofArts, Literature, Commerce, Manufactures, Fashion and Politics, series 1, vol. 2, September 1809. 90
4.6 Illustrated advertisement for London General Mourning Warehouse, WC. Jay, 247-51 Regent Street, London. The Illustrated Historic Times; or, The London Press, 1850. 91
4.7 British fashion plate, 1864. 92
4.8 French fashion plate dating from c. 1855-6. 93
4.9 "The Haymarket, Midnight," from Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, vol. 4: "Those Who Will Not Work" (London: Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1862). 95
4.10 Printemps department store, Paris, 1885, engraving. 97
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Note the similar silhouette for men's and women's clothes during the Renaissance. Anonymous seventeenth-century Dutch engraving. 100 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
5.2 Top: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, 1778, P.88: Bourgeoise se Pierre Thomas Le Esnauts & promenant. . Nicolas Dupin, Clerc, Rapilly, c. 1776-c. 1786; Bottom: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Frangais, 1776,
T 113: d'ete de toile . . Fraque ., Dupin, Esnauts & Rapilly, in or after 1776. 101
5.3 Seventeenth-century men's suit as seen in Daniel Mijtens' depiction of Charles I, King of England, 1629. 106
5.4 Man's three-piece suit of gray wool, woven with a herringbone pattern,
c. 1890-1901. 108
5.5 George Bryan (Beau) Brummell, illustration from Capt. William Jesse, Life of Beau Brummell (London: The Navarre Society Limited, [1844] 1927). 109
5.6 Oscar Wilde in his "Little Lord Fauntleroy" costume, 1882, carte-de-visite. Photo: Napoleon Sarony. 110
5.7 Corset of coffee-colored cotton sateen by Y&N, c. 1885-95. 112
5.8 Caricature of dress reform where the uncorseted women's dress is similar
to men's. 113
5.9 French music-hall singer Polaire wearing the famous wasp waist corset, 1890. 115
5.10 Paul Gavarni, "Ah! par exemple! voila qui est bizarre!" 117
CHAPTER 6
6.1 A scrap of calico used for school sewing practice, 1896. 123
6.2 Working men about to board the train at Liverpool Street railway station, London, 1884. 125
6.3 The display cabinet, c. 1911 of the Hebden Bridge Fustian Society, a manufacturing co-operative established in 1870. 126
6.4 James Baylis Allen, frontispiece to The Workwoman's Guide (1838), an instruction manual for women who made clothes for the poor. 129
6.5 A Mothers' Meeting, Graphic 123, April 6, 1872. 130
6.6 Rules of the Uckfield Clothing Society, 1894, East Sussex Record Office, PAR 496/43/3/1. 131
6.7 "The Old Clothes Market, Camp Field, Manchester," Graphic 55, December 17, 1870. 133
6.8 George Cruickshank, "Going out for a holiday," in The Brothers Mayhew, The Greatest Plague of Life (1847). 135
6.9 A general servant, Marylebone, 1872, in print dress, white apron, and cap. 136 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Mid-nineteenth-century illustration of female ethnological differences in hair, showing a European, a Patagonian, an "Esquimaux," a "Bisharee" woman, a Fijian, and a woman of the Warrau tribe, South America. From A. Rowland, The Human Hair: Popularly and Physiologically Considered with Special Reference to Its Preservation, Improvement and Adornment, and the Various Modes of Its Decoration in All Countries (London: Piper, 1853), pi. I. 142
7.2 Julien Joseph Virey, Histoire Naturelle du Genre Humain, Aug. Wahlen, Bruxelles 1826, vol. 2, p. 39, pi. 8. 145
7.3 American slave market, 1852, by Taylor. Slavery, United States, nineteenth century. 147
7.4 "Dandy Jim, from Carolina," sheet music from 1843 showing a free black dressing and acting "above" his station. 149
7.5 Dutch Wax cloth introduced in Ghana, Africa in 1929, originating from a classic Indonesian design. 151
7.6 A shod European man pays bare-foot Indian tea plantation workers, West Bengal, 1880s. 153
7.7 Early-nineteenth-century Kashmir shawl. 155
7.8 Water color by Carlos Enrique Pellegrini, showing women holding court in their peinetons, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1831. 158
7.9 Empress Shoken, consort of Emperor Meiji, in European dress on the cover of the British magazine The Queen, 1889. 160
7.10 Woman wearing a qipao in 1920s China. Photograph attributed to Fu Bingchang. 161
7.11 Emperor Hirohito and his wife Nagoko, 1926, in ceremonial dress that shows the continued importance of the kimono as a symbol of Japanese womanhood. Photograph from "Die Nachkriegszeit,"
no. 108. 1^2
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Portrait ofJuliette Recamier, Frangois Gerard, 1805. Oil on canvas. 166
8.2 Portrait of Madame Marcotte de Sainte-Marie, Jean-Auguste-Dominique 167 Ingres, 1826. Oil on canvas.
from et 8.3 Incroyable no. 14, Horace Vernet, fashion plate "Incroyable Merveilleuse," engraved by George Jacques Gatine, Paris, 1814. 169
8.4 Compte Calix, Les Modes Parisiennes, no. 382 (June 23, 1850). 171
Horace 8.5 "Les Invisibles en Tete-a-Tete. Le Supreme Bon Ton No. 16," 173 Vernet. Paris: Martinet, c. 1815. Engraving, hand-colored. xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
8.6 Elvira (Countess de Castiglione), 1861-7, Pierre-Louis Pierson (printed 1940s). Photograph. 175
8.7 Luncheon on the Grass (left panel), 1865-6, Claude Monet. Oil on canvas. Luncheon on the Grass (right panel), 1865-6. Oil on canvas. 176
8.8 Sunday Afternoon on the Isle of the Grande Jatte, 1884, Georges Seurat,
1884-6. Oil on canvas. 177
8.9 Au Moine St.-Martin, R. Franck, c. 1880-5. Poster, Imprimerie Dupuis et fils, Paris. 179
8.10 La Parisienne, sculpture by Paul Moreau-Vauthier, atop the monumental Port Binet entrance to the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Llllustration 58, no. 2981 (April 14, 1900). 180
8.11 Daily Mirror (May 23, 1908) p. 9. 183
8.12 Llllustration 66, no. 3403 (May 16, 1908). Retouched photograph. 184
8.13 Edward Steichen. Color photograph. Art et decoration (April 1911). 185
8.14 The Perils of Pauline, dir: Louis J. Gasnier and Donald MacKenzie. 187
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Werthertracht. Modes et costumes historiques, 1864. 190
9.2 Turban, c. 1820. 192
9.3 Jane Eyre's reserved style. 194
9.4 Robe of State. Qing dynasty, 19th century China. 197
9.5 Belt hook in the form of a dragon, China, middle Qing dynasty. 197
9.6 Portrait of a known elegant French composer and dandy Albert Cahen d'Anvers, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1881. Oil on canvas. 198
9.7 Paris Street; Rainy Day, Gustave Caillebotte, 1877. 200
9.8 Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) in New York in January 1882. 203
9.9 Women shopping at a Parisian grand magasin or department store. Lithograph, c. 1890. 205
9.10 Portrait ofManuelita Rosas, Prilidiano Pueyrredon, 1851. 208
9.11 dress. Evening Mariano Fortuny (1871-1949). 1920s. 210 A CULTURAL HISTORY OF DRESS
AND FASHION IN THE MODERN AGE
Edited by Alexandra Palmer
Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic BLOOMSBURY
LONDON • OXFORD • NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ix
Introduction 1 Alexandra Palmer
1 Textiles 21 Susan Ward
2 Production and Distribution 43 Veronique Pouillard
3 The Body 63 Adam Geczy and Vicki Karaminas
4 Belief 85 Susan J. Palmer and Paul Gareau
5 Gender and Sexuality 107 Annamari Vanska
6 Status 131 Jane Tynan
7 Ethnicity 151 Simona Segre Reinach
8 Visual Representations 171 Rachael Barron-Duncan
9 Literary Representations 191 Irene Gammel and Karen Mulhallen
Notes 211
Bibliography 235
Notes on Contributors 255
Index 259 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
0.1 Two-piece woman's day suit (wool crepe tabby, 1 percent nylon), designed by Azzedine Alaia, France (Paris), F/W 2003-4. 3
0.2 Cotton knit T- shirt as high fashion by Maison Margiela, sold with how to wear instructions, c. 2000. 4
0.3 Robe de minute, Paul Poiret, 1911. 6
0.4 1972 fashion illustration by Antonio Lopez, of Charles James' spiral wrap around "taxi" dress that was sold at Best & Co. 1933-4. 7
0.5 In 1964 the monokini, a topless bathing suit, was designed by American, Rudi Gernreich. 8
0.6 Jean Paul Gaultier's T-shirt and dress screened on nylon net with Jean Fouquet's Virgin and Child Surrounded by Angels, produced by Fuzzi Spa, Italy, 1994. 10
0.7 Model Iman, designer Calvin Klein, and socialite Nan Kempner, both in trousers, attending Fete de Famille II AIDS Benefit, on October 1, 1987, New York City. 12
0.8 Lowri-Ann Richards pregnant in the summer of 1995 wearing Vivienne Westwood toga dress (F/W 1982-3) at her farm in Wales. 13
0.9 Woman's jacket and asymmetrical over-vest worn by poet Karen Mulhallen, of wool twill, cotton tabby and twill, horsehair interlinings and linings, Comme des Gargons, 1999. 16
0.10 Digitally printed Imperial Watersleeve gown by Vivienne Tam, Fall 2011 collection. The design references Qing court costume. 17
0.11 IZ Adaptive leather jacket designed for ease of dressing when using a wheelchair (2014). 20
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Loose-fitting suits of wool or silk jersey were a trademark of Paris couturier Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel, seen here wearing a geometrically patterned example from the mid-1920s. 25
1.2 The introduction of Lastex inspired the development of glamorous novelty fabrics for swimwear, such as the glossy stretch satin worn by Hollywood film star Esther Williams in a publicity photograph, 1944. 26 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.3 This 1954 dinner ensemble by Paris couturier Christian Dior, made of crush-resistant nylon and rayon velvet, exemplifies the highly structured silhouette of the 1950s. 29
1.4 This 1966 mini-dress and jacket by couturier Andre Courreges shows his innovative use of dense, heavy fabrics and topstitching to emphasize the structure and clean lines of his garments. 32
1.5 Numerous designers experimented with vinyl (PVC) and other "space age" materials during the 1960s. This 1969 ensemble of wool and quilted PVC was designed by couturier Pierre Cardin. 33
1.6 Flowing jersey knit was a staple fabric of the 1970s for both day and evening wear. The fabric for this 1974 gown by American designer Chester Weinberg was made of DuPont's Qiana nylon. 35
1.7 The unstructured wool and linen suits popularized by Italian design Giorgio Armani in the 1970s and 1980s played an important role in the revival of natural fibers in fashion. 38
1.8 The permanently pleated, heat-set polyester garments created by Japanese designer Issey Miyake, such as this "flying saucer" dress from 1994, challenged traditional distinctions between textile and garment. 40
CHAPTER 2
2.1 French stylist Paul Poiret's models at the seaside, in the fashion magazine La Gazette du bon ton, 1920. 44
2.2 At the Milliner's, painting by Edgar Degas (1882-before 1905). 46
2.3 Edward Steichen photograph of evening dresses by Madeleine Vionnet for Vogue, 1930. 48
2.4 Lace dress with large shoulder bow by Hattie Carnegie, January 1934. 50
2.5 1959-60 toile (muslin) coat by Castillo for Jeanne Lanvin, Paris sold to an American manufacturer for copying. 53
2.6 Four of fashion pairs and work wear jeans for men and women, made by Canadian manufacturer's J.P. Hammill & Son, and Wrangler, c. 1960-75. 57
2.7 Paul Shakespeare in 1972 wearing a suit by John Warden, for manufacturer Bagatelle purchased in the Canadian boutique, Le Chateau. 58
2.8 A model presents a creation by Japanese designer Rei Kawakubo for Comme des Gargons during the Spring/Summer 2012 ready-to-wear collection show, October 1, 2011, Paris. 60
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Gabrielle Chanel. Evening dress. Black silk satin and ecru alengon lace, c. 1926. 55 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
3.2 Leni Riefenstahl. Naked discus thrower in Classical pose, scene from Leni Riefenstahl's film Olympia, part 1: "Festival of the Peoples," 1936. 68
3.3 Olympische Spiele 1936 in Berlin-Turnerin, Bild aus Riefenstahls Olympia-Film. 69
3.4 Christian Dior evening dress of machine lace, chiffon tape, tulle, 1957. Anne Fogarty silk jacquard taffeta evening dress, c. 1954. 71
3.5 Cary Grant—Schauspieler, GB/USA in "Nur meiner Frau zuliebe." 73
3.6 Cary Grant (born Alexander Archibald Leach), with Randolph Scott (front) in their house in Santa Monica. 74
3.7 Andre Courreges. Mini-dress. Light gray wool, c. 1968. 76
3.8 Trimfit pantyhose. Blue nylon pantyhose in cardboard packaging. 1967-8. 77
3.9 Diane Von Furstenberg. Wrap dress. Multicolour printed acrylic knit. 1973. 79
3.10 Jean Paul Gaultier. Dress. Orange shirred velvet, 1984. 82
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Noble Drew Ali's Moorish Science Temple Conclave, Chicago, 1928. 87
4.2 African Rastafarian, c. 1990. 88
4.3 Crowning of his holiness the Messiah Hamsah Manarah in Castellane, France, on March 1, 1991. 90
4.4 The King Messiah in the Mandarom Shambhasalem Monastery, Castellane, France on March 1, 1991. 90
4.5 Portrait of Yahweh leader Yahweh ben Yahweh, December 1986. 92
4.6 Uriel, cosmic visionary and co-founder of the Unarius Educational Foundation, in the Flame Room, 1980s. 94
4.7 Doukhobor nude protest, January 1, 1930. 100
4.8 Rael, the leader of Raelian sect ready to perform human cloning experiment at a press conference in Tokyo, Japan, April 4, 2002. 103
4.9 GoTopless, a group associated with Raeians help a protest against not getting a permit to be topless on Ashbridges Beach, Toronto, 2011. 104
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Actress Ina Claire wearing a herringbone tweed skirt and jumper by Chanel, Vogue, 1924. 109
5.2 Man's two-piece wool leisure suit with knickerbockers, c. 1920, as worn by the Prince of Wales (left) and the Duke of York (right). 110
5.3 Young woman on a bicycle, wearing a three-piece Aquascutum trouser suit, October 1939. 112 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
5.4 French fashion designer Christian Dior arranging one of his evening dresses. Paris, mid 1950s. 114
5.5 A man wearing a smoking jacket from Christian Dior's collection at the Dior Men's Boutique in Paris, 1955. 116
5.6 Models wearing clothes by Mary Quant at the Carlton Hotel, August 15, 1967. 118
5.7 Transvestite superstar Jackie Curtis photographed in 1970, the 120 year Curtis began filming Women in Revolt.
5.8 Sid Vicious, Vivienne Westwood, and punks in audience at a Sex Pistols gig, November 15, 1976. 121
5.9 Jean Paul Gaultier. Man skirt, Paris, c. 1987. 123
5.10 A New York billboard displaying Kate Moss for Calvin Klein, shot by photographer Steven Meisel. 125
5.11 The new millennium has seen the rise of children's high fashion. All the major brands have their children's lines, New York, 2010. 127
5.12 Clothing does not only make gender, it makes the human. In 2010s, fashion's search for ever-new markets is going to our pets. Fashionable clothing for lap-dogs sold in a specialized boutique, Tokyo, 2014. 128
CHAPTER 6
6.1 The Royal Family watch the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony at Horse Guards Parade, London, June 13, 2015. 132
6.2 A fashion show at Centrum Warenhaus department store at Alexanderplatz in East Berlin, April 1974. 133
6.3 American feminist, journalist, and political activist, Gloria Steinem (left) with art collector Ethel Scull and feminist writer Betty Friedan (lower right) at a Women's Liberation meeting at the home of Ethel and Robert Scull, Easthampton, Long Island, New York, August 8, 1970. 135
6.4 The pinstripe suit is emblematic of upper class power. 136
6.5 Fashion clearly identifies age and gender, 1940s. 138
6.6 A white-collar worker stands with a blue-collar worker at an office, c. 1940. 139
6.7 School uniforms worn by students at the Liceo Diurno Avenida Independencia (Chile) March 2008. 140
6.8 A foreign detainee is walked by two US Army MPs at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in March 2002. 141
6.9 Past and present members of the Irish Guard on parade in Whitehall, London, March 15, 1965. 142
6.10 Shop display window, East Berlin, Germany, c. 1960. 147
6.11 A group of punks in London, late 1970s. 149 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll
CHAPTER 7
7.1 A model presents a hanbok, traditional Korean dress, during a fashion show in Hanoi, September 8, 2013. 152
7.2 A model walks the runway during the Stella Jean show as a part of Milan Fashion Week Womenswear Spring/Summer 2014. 155
7.3 High Heels Dutch Wax style printed cotton factory cloth for East African fashion market, 2005. CHA Textiles (Hong Kong) founded United Nigerian Textiles Ltd. (UNTL) in 1964 in Nigeria and has factories in Ghana. 157
7.4 A model presents a creation by Pakistani designer Sarah Gandapur during Bridal Couture Fashion Week in Karachi, June 2015. 159
7.5 A pair of young women in a crowd of hippies dance at an outdoor event, late 1960s or early 1970s. 162
7.6 An Indonesian Muslim woman fits a headscarf or hijab at Indonesia Moslem Fashion Expo, 2013. 164
7.7 Deese "goddess" sandal by John Galliano for Christian Dior Spring/Summer 2009, pret-a-porter collection. 167
7.8 Model wearing a Krel Wear hijab during Miami Fashion Week Funkshion Fusion 2005, Florida. 169
7.9 An Indian woman combines her sari with a sweater in February 2015. 170
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Baron Adolph De Meyer. Elsie Ferguson in a Callot gown. Vogue [New York], February 1, 1921 p. 40. 173
8.2 Edward Steichen. Marion Morehouse wearing a dress by Cheruit and jewelry by Black, Starr and Frost. Vogue [New York], May 1, 175 1928, p. 64.
8.3 George Hoyningen-Huene. Models wearing dresses by Germaine Lecomte and Callot Soeurs. Vogue [New York], May 15, 1932, p. 48. 177
8.4 Horst. Mrs. Leo (Edwina) d'Erlanger wearing a dress by Alix. Vogue [New York], February 15, 1936, p. 43. 178
8.5 Martin Munkacsi. Lucile Brokaw. Harper's Bazaar, December 1933, 180 pp. 46-7.
8.6 Jean Shrimpton in dress by Pierre Cardin, Paris, January 1970. Photograph by Richard Avedon © The Richard Avedon Foundation. 182
8.7 Helmet Newton. Verushka, Nice, 1975. 184
8.8 Bruce Weber. Tom Hintinhous for Calvin Klein, on a billboard in Times Square, New York City, October 1982. 185
8.9 Mario Sorrenti. Kate Moss for Calvin Klein on a bus panel, defaced, 1994. 187 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
8.10 Audience members use smartphones and cameras to photograph the Herve Leger by Max Azria fashion show during Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week Spring 2015, New York. September 6, 2014. 188
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Design for a Poiret-style empire waist evening gown by Paris couturier Jeanne Paquin, 1911. 194
9.2 Claude McKay in Paris c. 1930, dapper and formal in a suit and dress coat, a testament to his sartorial versatility. 196
9.3 Recruitment poster for female land-workers during the First World War, showing the functional, masculine uniforms worn by the "land girls." 198
9.4 F. Scott Fitzgerald, an icon of jazz-age style, 1925. 199
9.5 Romaine Brooks's self-portrait, showing her signature top hat, 1923. 200
9.6 Dancer and choreographer Desiree Lubovska wearing a dress of georgette crepe decorated with bands of cock feathers in front, designed by Jean Patou, 1923. 202
9.7 Audrey Hepburn as Holly Golightly, in a promotional photograph for Breakfast at Tiffany's, 1960. 203
9.8 Sean Connery as James Bond in Goldfinger, 1964. 205
9.9 Dishevelled and rumpled, the notorious silver-screen movie star Frances Farmer smokes a cigarette, 1943. 208
9.10 Robert Mapplethorpe photograph of Patti Smith, 1975. 209