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Push-Pull Hezbollah: the New York Times and the Washington Post News Coverage of Three Israel-Lebanon Conflicts

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Push-Pull Hezbollah: the New York Times and the Washington Post News Coverage of Three Israel-Lebanon Conflicts Push-Pull Hezbollah: The New York Times and the Washington Post News Coverage of Three Israel-Lebanon Conflicts (1996, 2000, 2006) A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Abhinav K. Aima August 2019 © 2019 Abhinav K. Aima. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Push-Pull Hezbollah: The New York Times and the Washington Post News Coverage of Three Israel-Lebanon Conflicts (1996, 2000, 2006) by ABHINAV K. AIMA has been approved for the E.W. Scripps School of Journalism and the Scripps College of Communication by Robert Stewart Professor of Journalism Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii Abstract AIMA, ABHINAV K., Ph.D., August 2019, Journalism Push-Pull Hezbollah: The New York Times and the Washington Post News Coverage of Three Israel-Lebanon Conflicts (1996, 2000, 2006) Director of Dissertation: Robert Stewart This content analysis of attributed sources in the 1996, 2000, and 2006 news coverage of Israel’s military actions in Lebanon shows a “Late Breaking Foreign Policy” effect Warren P. Strobel cites in his work, wherein media “Push” forward with reliance on government sources and allies in conflicts, but “Pull” back after setbacks. Israel dominated news sources in The New York Times and Washington Post, but there was significant increase in attributions to Lebanese sources due to rising civilian casualties in each conflict. iii Dedication This work is dedicated to Terry Anderson, my teacher, and Sourabh Narang, my friend. iv Acknowledgments I’m thankful for the effort, attention, and guidance provided to me by my Dissertation Committee Chair Dr. Robert Stewart, and the members of my committee, Dr. Ziad Abu-Rish, Dr. Karen Riggs, and Dr. Michael Sweeney. Their invaluable perspectives and timely feedback improved my work in this dissertation. I’m also grateful for the many years of instruction and advice provided by Terry Anderson, who organized the Middle East Studies Program at the Institute for International Journalism in the E. W. Scripps School of Journalism, which enabled my first research visit to Lebanon in 1999, with follow up visits in 2000 and 2001. During this period, the faculty and staff of the American University of Beirut, as well as the journalists at The Daily Star and Future TV provided invaluable insights that aided my education and research in Lebanon. Nicholas Blanford, in particular, provided me with the opportunity to travel with him through South Lebanon and navigate the reality of the process of news reporting in the region. The officers and staff at the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) HQ in Tyre, and the international military officers at various UNIFIL peacekeeping observation posts across South Lebanon also shared their experiences and perspectives. I’m grateful for all their support, as well as the generosity of many people in Lebanon who welcomed me into their offices and homes and shared their experiences. This work would also not have been possible without the years of encouragement and support of my colleagues, my family, and my friends. Thank you! v Table of Contents Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ................................................................................................................... ix Foreword ............................................................................................................................. x Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 19 The History of Press Censorship and Self-Censorship …………………………………….19 The Defining of Propaganda in a Free Society ........................................................... 34 The Theories of Foreign News Selection.................................................................... 50 Foreign Police Influence on Press Coverage .............................................................. 51 Propaganda from the Cold War to the War on Terror ................................................ 54 News Coverage of U.S. Policies and Middle East ...................................................... 59 Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 71 Coder Reliability ......................................................................................................... 82 Research Questions for Quantitative Content Analysis .............................................. 84 Research Questions for Qualitative Content Analysis ................................................ 85 Chapter 4: Coverage of Lebanon and Hezbollah during the period of the Israeli Operation “Grapes of Wrath” (April 1996) .................................................................... 87 The Birth of Hezbollah in Lebanon ............................................................................ 87 The Rise of the Shia in Lebanon ................................................................................. 89 The Rise of Fundamentalism Within the Lebanese Shia .......................................... 101 The Israeli Invasion of Lebanon, 1982 ..................................................................... 103 The Effect of the Syrian-Iranian Relations on Hezbollah ......................................... 113 Hezbollah After Khomeini - The Rolling Back of Iranian Extremism ..................... 119 Israel's Politics in the 1990s ...................................................................................... 125 Findings..................................................................................................................... 133 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 170 vi Chapter 5: Coverage of Lebanon and Hezbollah during the period of the Israeli Forces’ Withdrawal from South Lebanon in Operation “Dawn” (May 2000) ........................... 174 The Growth of Hezbollah in Lebanon After 1996 .................................................... 174 Israel, Syria and the Collapse of the Peace Process .................................................. 186 Findings..................................................................................................................... 216 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 230 Chapter 6: Coverage of Lebanon and Hezbollah during the period of Israel’s “Second Lebanon War” (July-August 2006) ................................................................................. 239 The Growth of Hezbollah in Lebanon After 2000 .................................................... 239 Israel's Prisoner Exchanges ....................................................................................... 250 The Al-Aqsa Intifada, 9/11, and the Iraq War .......................................................... 260 'Mowing the Lawn' in Lebanon ............................................................................... 269 Findings..................................................................................................................... 290 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 314 Chapter 7: Discussion of Findings .................................................................................. 317 Research Questions for Quantitative Content Analysis ............................................ 316 Research Questions for Qualitative Content Analysis .............................................. 329 Chapter 8: Conclusions ................................................................................................... 366 Three Questions Foreign Correspondents (and Editors) Should Ask Their Sources 381 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 383 Appendix: Coding Sheet ................................................................................................. 397 vii List of Tables Page Table 4.1 Sources by Nationality (1996) ........................................................................ 134 Table 4.2 Sources by Nationality in Each Newspaper (1996) ....................................... 135 Table 4.3 Means of Source Paragraphs in Each Newspaper (1996) .............................. 136 Table 4.4 Sources by Nationality, Profession and Disposition (1996) .......................... 137 Table 4.5 Datelines of News Reports (1996) ................................................................. 146 Table 4.6 Datelines and Means of Length, Page and Attributed Sources (1996) .......... 147 Table 4.7 Total Datelines and
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